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href="#Radioactive_decay"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Radioactive decay</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Radioactive_decay-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Defection" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Defection"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Defection</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Defection-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Move_to_America" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Move_to_America"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Move to America</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Move_to_America-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Big Bang nucleosynthesis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-DNA_and_RNA" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#DNA_and_RNA"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>DNA and RNA</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-DNA_and_RNA-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Late_career_and_life" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Late_career_and_life"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Late career and life</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Late_career_and_life-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Personal_life" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Personal_life"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Personal life</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Personal_life-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Writings" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Writings"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Writings</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Writings-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Books" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Books"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Books</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Books-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Books subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Books-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Popular" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Popular"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.1</span> <span>Popular</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Popular-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Mr_Tompkins_series" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mr_Tompkins_series"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.1.1</span> <span><i>Mr Tompkins</i> series</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mr_Tompkins_series-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Science_textbooks" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Science_textbooks"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.2</span> <span>Science textbooks</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Science_textbooks-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">George Gamow</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" 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Available in 56 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-56" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">56 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%AC_%D8%AC%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%88%D9%81" title="جورج جاموف – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="جورج جاموف" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D8%B1%D8%AC_%D9%82%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%88%D9%81" title="جرج قاموف – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="جرج قاموف" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%9C%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9C_%E0%A6%97%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%8B" title="জর্জ গ্যামো – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="জর্জ গ্যামো" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B6%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B4%D0%B6_%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%9E" title="Джордж Гамаў – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Джордж Гамаў" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B2" title="Георгий Гамов – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Георгий Гамов" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Gamow" title="George Gamow – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="George Gamow" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Gamow" title="George Gamow – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="George Gamow" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B2_%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%90%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%87" title="Гамов Георгий Антонович – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Гамов Георгий Антонович" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Gamow" title="George Gamow – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="George Gamow" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Gamow" title="George Gamow – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="George Gamow" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Gamow" title="George Gamow – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="George Gamow" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgi_Gamov" title="Georgi Gamov – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Georgi Gamov" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A4%CE%B6%CE%BF%CF%81%CF%84%CE%B6_%CE%93%CE%BA%CE%AC%CE%BC%CE%BF%CF%86" title="Τζορτζ Γκάμοφ – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Τζορτζ Γκάμοφ" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gueorgui_G%C3%A1mov" title="Gueorgui Gámov – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Gueorgui Gámov" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Gamov" title="George Gamov – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="George Gamov" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Gamow" title="George Gamow – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="George Gamow" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D8%B1%D8%AC_%DA%AF%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%88%D9%81" title="جرج گاموف – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="جرج گاموف" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Gamow" title="George Gamow – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="George Gamow" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Gamow" title="George Gamow – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="George Gamow" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%A1%B0%EC%A7%80_%EA%B0%80%EB%AA%A8%ED%94%84" title="조지 가모프 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="조지 가모프" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Gamow" title="George Gamow – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="George Gamow" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Gamow" title="George Gamow – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="George Gamow" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Gamow" title="George Gamow – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="George Gamow" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Gamow" title="George Gamow – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="George Gamow" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%92%27%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%92%27_%D7%92%D7%90%D7%9E%D7%95%D7%91" title="ג'ורג' גאמוב – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="ג'ורג' גאמוב" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%9C%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%B0%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%9C%E0%B3%8D_%E0%B2%97%E0%B3%87%E0%B2%AE%E0%B3%8B%E0%B2%B5%E0%B3%8D" title="ಜಾರ್ಜ್ ಗೇಮೋವ್ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಜಾರ್ಜ್ ಗೇಮೋವ್" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%90%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%87_%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B2" title="Георгий Антонович Гамов – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Георгий Антонович Гамов" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Gamow" title="George Gamow – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="George Gamow" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgius_Gamov" title="Georgius Gamov – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Georgius Gamov" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgijs_Gamovs" title="Georgijs Gamovs – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Georgijs Gamovs" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgijus_Gamovas" title="Georgijus Gamovas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Georgijus Gamovas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Gamow" title="George Gamow – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="George Gamow" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Gamow" title="George Gamow – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="George Gamow" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%9C%E0%B5%8B%E0%B5%BC%E0%B4%9C%E0%B5%8D_%E0%B4%97%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%AE%E0%B5%8B" title="ജോർജ് ഗാമോ – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ജോർജ് ഗാമോ" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%AC_%D8%AC%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%88%D9%81" title="جورج جاموف – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="جورج جاموف" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Gamow" title="George Gamow – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="George Gamow" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%B8%E3%83%A7%E3%83%BC%E3%82%B8%E3%83%BB%E3%82%AC%E3%83%A2%E3%83%95" title="ジョージ・ガモフ – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ジョージ・ガモフ" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Gamow" title="George Gamow – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="George Gamow" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Gamow" title="George Gamow – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="George Gamow" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nov mw-list-item"><a href="https://nov.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Gamow" title="George Gamow – Novial" lang="nov" hreflang="nov" data-title="George Gamow" data-language-autonym="Novial" data-language-local-name="Novial" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Novial</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jorj_Gamov" title="Jorj Gamov – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Jorj Gamov" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Gamow" title="George Gamow – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="George Gamow" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Gamow" title="George Gamow – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="George Gamow" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Gamow" title="George Gamow – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="George Gamow" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B2,_%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%90%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%87" title="Гамов, Георгий Антонович – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Гамов, Георгий Антонович" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Gamow" title="George Gamow – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="George Gamow" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Gamow" title="George Gamow – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="George Gamow" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Gamow" title="George Gamow – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="George Gamow" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Gamov" title="George Gamov – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="George Gamov" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Gamow" title="George Gamow – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="George Gamow" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%9C%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9C%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B5%E0%AF%8D" title="ஜார்ஜ் காமாவ் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="ஜார்ஜ் காமாவ்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D2%B6%D0%BE%D1%80%D2%B7_%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B2" title="Ҷорҷ Гамов – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Ҷорҷ Гамов" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Gamow" title="George Gamow – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="George Gamow" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B2_%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B3%D1%96%D0%B9_%D0%90%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%87" title="Гамов Георгій Антонович – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Гамов Георгій Антонович" data-language-autonym="Українська" 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dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Ukrainian-American theoretical physicist and cosmologist (1904–1968)</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox biography vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:125%;"><div class="fn">George Gamow</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:George_Gamow.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/2/2e/George_Gamow.jpg/250px-George_Gamow.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="294" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/2/2e/George_Gamow.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="273" data-file-height="365" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Born</th><td class="infobox-data"><div style="display:inline" class="nickname">Georgiy Antonovich Gamov</div><br /><span style="display:none">(<span class="bday">1904-03-04</span>)</span>March 4, 1904 (<a href="/wiki/Old_Style" class="mw-redirect" title="Old Style">O.S.</a> February 20, 1904)<br /><div style="display:inline" class="birthplace"><a href="/wiki/Odessa" class="mw-redirect" title="Odessa">Odessa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kherson_Governorate" title="Kherson Governorate">Kherson Governorate</a>, <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a> (now <a href="/wiki/Ukraine" title="Ukraine">Ukraine</a>)</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Died</th><td class="infobox-data">August 19, 1968<span style="display:none">(1968-08-19)</span> (aged 64)<br /><div style="display:inline" class="deathplace"><a href="/wiki/Boulder,_Colorado" title="Boulder, Colorado">Boulder, Colorado</a>, U.S.</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Citizenship</th><td class="infobox-data category"><a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> <br /> United States</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Alma mater</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Leningrad_State_University" class="mw-redirect" title="Leningrad State University">Leningrad State University</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Known for</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gamow_factor" title="Gamow factor">Gamow factor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gamow%E2%80%93Teller_transition" class="mw-redirect" title="Gamow–Teller transition">Gamow–Teller transition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alpher%E2%80%93Bethe%E2%80%93Gamow_paper" title="Alpher–Bethe–Gamow paper">Alpher–Bethe–Gamow paper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alpha_decay" title="Alpha decay">Alpha decay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Big_Bang" title="Big Bang">Big Bang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CGh_physics" title="CGh physics">cGh physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liquid_drop_model" class="mw-redirect" title="Liquid drop model">Liquid drop model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_tunnelling" title="Quantum tunnelling">Quantum tunnelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urca_process" title="Urca process">Urca process</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/One_Two_Three_..._Infinity" class="mw-redirect" title="One Two Three ... Infinity">One Two Three ... Infinity</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Spouse(s)</th><td class="infobox-data">Rho (m. 1931, div. 1956)<br /><a href="/wiki/Barbara_Perkins_Gamow" title="Barbara Perkins Gamow">Barbara</a> (m. 1958)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Children</th><td class="infobox-data">1 (<a href="/wiki/Igor_Gamow" title="Igor Gamow">Igor Gamow</a>)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Awards</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Kalinga_Prize" title="Kalinga Prize">Kalinga Prize</a> (1956)<sup id="cite_ref-Kalinga_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kalinga-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546" /><b>Scientific career</b></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Fields</th><td class="infobox-data category"><a href="/wiki/Physicist" title="Physicist">Physicist</a>, <a href="/wiki/Science_writer" class="mw-redirect" title="Science writer">science writer</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Institutions</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409" /><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/University_of_G%C3%B6ttingen" title="University of Göttingen">University of Göttingen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niels_Bohr_Institute" title="Niels Bohr Institute">Niels Bohr Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cavendish_Laboratory" title="Cavendish Laboratory">Cavendish Laboratory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Washington_University" title="George Washington University">George Washington University</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_California,_Berkeley" title="University of California, Berkeley">University of California, Berkeley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Colorado_Boulder" title="University of Colorado Boulder">University of Colorado Boulder</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Doctoral_advisor" title="Doctoral advisor">Doctoral advisor</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Alexandrovich_Friedman" class="mw-redirect" title="Alexander Alexandrovich Friedman">Alexander Friedmann</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Doctoral students</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409" /><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Asher_Alpher" class="mw-redirect" title="Ralph Asher Alpher">Ralph Asher Alpher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vera_Rubin" title="Vera Rubin">Vera Rubin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header">Signature</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><span class="infobox-signature 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plainlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of a series on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Physical_cosmology" title="Physical cosmology">Physical cosmology</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:WMAP_2012.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Full-sky image derived from nine years' WMAP data" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/WMAP_2012.png/220px-WMAP_2012.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="110" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/WMAP_2012.png/330px-WMAP_2012.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/WMAP_2012.png/440px-WMAP_2012.png 2x" data-file-width="4096" data-file-height="2048" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above" style="border:0;font-weight:normal; display:block;margin-bottom:0.4em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Big_Bang" title="Big Bang">Big Bang</a> <b>·</b> <a href="/wiki/Universe" title="Universe">Universe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_the_universe" title="Age of the universe">Age of the universe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chronology_of_the_universe" title="Chronology of the universe">Chronology of the universe</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content-with-subgroup"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddd8e7;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Early universe</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar-subgroup"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cosmic_inflation" title="Cosmic inflation">Inflation</a> <b>·</b> <a href="/wiki/Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis" title="Big Bang nucleosynthesis">Nucleosynthesis</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="font-weight:normal;font-style:italic;"> Backgrounds</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gravitational_wave_background" title="Gravitational wave background">Gravitational wave (GWB)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmic_microwave_background" title="Cosmic microwave background">Microwave (CMB)</a> <b>·</b> <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_neutrino_background" title="Cosmic neutrino background">Neutrino (CNB)</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddd8e7;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Expansion <b>·</b> Future</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hubble%27s_law" title="Hubble's law">Hubble's law</a> <b>·</b> <a href="/wiki/Redshift" title="Redshift">Redshift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expansion_of_the_universe" title="Expansion of the universe">Expansion of the universe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedmann%E2%80%93Lema%C3%AEtre%E2%80%93Robertson%E2%80%93Walker_metric" title="Friedmann–Lemaître–Robertson–Walker metric">FLRW metric</a> <b>·</b> <a href="/wiki/Friedmann_equations" title="Friedmann equations">Friedmann equations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lambda-CDM_model" title="Lambda-CDM model">Lambda-CDM model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Future_of_an_expanding_universe" title="Future of an expanding universe">Future of an expanding universe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ultimate_fate_of_the_universe" title="Ultimate fate of the universe">Ultimate fate of the universe</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content-with-subgroup"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddd8e7;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Components <b>·</b> Structure</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar-subgroup"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="font-weight:normal;font-style:italic;"> Components</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dark_energy" title="Dark energy">Dark energy</a> <b>·</b> <a href="/wiki/Dark_matter" title="Dark matter">Dark matter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photon" title="Photon">Photons</a> <b>·</b> <a href="/wiki/Baryon" title="Baryon">Baryons</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="font-weight:normal;font-style:italic;"> Structure</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shape_of_the_universe" title="Shape of the universe">Shape of the universe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galaxy_filament" title="Galaxy filament">Galaxy filament</a> <b>·</b> <a href="/wiki/Galaxy_formation_and_evolution" title="Galaxy formation and evolution">Galaxy formation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Large_quasar_group" title="Large quasar group">Large quasar group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Observable_universe#Large-scale_structure" title="Observable universe">Large-scale structure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reionization" title="Reionization">Reionization</a> <b>·</b> <a href="/wiki/Structure_formation" title="Structure formation">Structure formation</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddd8e7;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Observational_cosmology" title="Observational cosmology">Experiments</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_Hole_Initiative" title="Black Hole Initiative">Black Hole Initiative (BHI)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/BOOMERanG_experiment" title="BOOMERanG experiment">BOOMERanG</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmic_Background_Explorer" title="Cosmic Background Explorer">Cosmic Background Explorer (COBE)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dark_Energy_Survey" title="Dark Energy Survey">Dark Energy Survey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planck_(spacecraft)" title="Planck (spacecraft)">Planck space observatory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sloan_Digital_Sky_Survey" title="Sloan Digital Sky Survey">Sloan Digital Sky Survey (SDSS)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2dF_Galaxy_Redshift_Survey" title="2dF Galaxy Redshift Survey">2dF Galaxy Redshift Survey ("2dF")</a></li> <li><div style="display:inline-block; padding:0.2em 0.4em; line-height:1.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Wilkinson_Microwave_Anisotropy_Probe" title="Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe">Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy<br />Probe (WMAP)</a></div></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddd8e7;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Scientists</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist" style="padding:0 0.9em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marc_Aaronson" title="Marc Aaronson">Aaronson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hannes_Alfv%C3%A9n" title="Hannes Alfvén">Alfvén</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Alpher" title="Ralph Alpher">Alpher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicolaus_Copernicus" title="Nicolaus Copernicus">Copernicus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willem_de_Sitter" title="Willem de Sitter">de Sitter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_H._Dicke" title="Robert H. Dicke">Dicke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Ehlers" title="Jürgen Ehlers">Ehlers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Einstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_F._R._Ellis" title="George F. R. Ellis">Ellis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Friedmann" title="Alexander Friedmann">Friedmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei">Galileo</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Gamow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alan_Guth" title="Alan Guth">Guth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Hawking" title="Stephen Hawking">Hawking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edwin_Hubble" title="Edwin Hubble">Hubble</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christiaan_Huygens" title="Christiaan Huygens">Huygens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johannes_Kepler" title="Johannes Kepler">Kepler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georges_Lema%C3%AEtre" title="Georges Lemaître">Lemaître</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_C._Mather" title="John C. Mather">Mather</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Newton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Penrose" title="Roger Penrose">Penrose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arno_Allan_Penzias" title="Arno Allan Penzias">Penzias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vera_Rubin" title="Vera Rubin">Rubin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brian_Schmidt" title="Brian Schmidt">Schmidt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Smoot" title="George Smoot">Smoot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_B._Suntzeff" title="Nicholas B. Suntzeff">Suntzeff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rashid_Sunyaev" title="Rashid Sunyaev">Sunyaev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_C._Tolman" title="Richard C. 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He was an early advocate and developer of <a href="/wiki/Georges_Lema%C3%AEtre" title="Georges Lemaître">Georges Lemaître</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Big_Bang_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Big Bang theory">Big Bang theory</a>. Gamow discovered a theoretical explanation of <a href="/wiki/Alpha_decay" title="Alpha decay">alpha decay</a> by <a href="/wiki/Quantum_tunneling" class="mw-redirect" title="Quantum tunneling">quantum tunneling</a>, invented the <a href="/wiki/Liquid_drop_model" class="mw-redirect" title="Liquid drop model">liquid drop model</a> (the first mathematical model of the <a href="/wiki/Atomic_nucleus" title="Atomic nucleus">atomic nucleus</a>), worked on <a href="/wiki/Radioactive_decay" title="Radioactive decay">radioactive decay</a>, <a href="/wiki/Stellar_evolution" title="Stellar evolution">star formation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Stellar_nucleosynthesis" title="Stellar nucleosynthesis">stellar nucleosynthesis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis" title="Big Bang nucleosynthesis">Big Bang nucleosynthesis</a> (which he collectively called <a href="/wiki/Nucleocosmogenesis" class="mw-redirect" title="Nucleocosmogenesis">nucleocosmogenesis</a>), and predicted the existence of the <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_microwave_background_radiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Cosmic microwave background radiation">cosmic microwave background radiation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Molecular_genetics" title="Molecular genetics">molecular genetics</a>. Gamow was a key figure in the development and understanding of <a href="/wiki/Quantum_tunnelling" title="Quantum tunnelling">quantum tunneling</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In his middle and late career, Gamow directed much of his attention to teaching and wrote popular books on science, including <i><a href="/wiki/One_Two_Three..._Infinity" title="One Two Three... Infinity">One Two Three... Infinity</a></i> and the <i><a href="/wiki/Mr_Tompkins" title="Mr Tompkins">Mr Tompkins</a></i> series of books (1939–1967). Some of his books remain in print more than a half-century after their original publication. The <a href="/wiki/George_Gamow_Memorial_Lectures" title="George Gamow Memorial Lectures">George Gamow Memorial Lectures</a> at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Colorado_at_Boulder" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Colorado at Boulder">University of Colorado at Boulder</a> are given in his honor. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_biography_and_career">Early biography and career</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=George_Gamow&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Early biography and career"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Gamow was born in <a href="/wiki/Odessa" class="mw-redirect" title="Odessa">Odessa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a> (now <a href="/wiki/Odesa" title="Odesa">Odesa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ukraine" title="Ukraine">Ukraine</a>). His father taught Russian language and literature in <a href="/wiki/Secondary_school" title="Secondary school">secondary schools</a>, and his mother taught geography and history at a school for girls. In addition to Russian, Gamow learned to speak some French from his mother and German from a tutor. Gamow learned English in his college years and became fluent. Most of his early publications were in German or Russian, but he later used English both for technical papers and for the lay audience. </p><p>He was educated at the <a href="/wiki/Odessa_University" class="mw-redirect" title="Odessa University">Institute of Physics and Mathematics in Odessa</a><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (1922–23) and at the <a href="/wiki/Saint_Petersburg_State_University" title="Saint Petersburg State University">University of Leningrad</a> (1923–1929). Gamow studied under <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Alexandrovich_Friedman" class="mw-redirect" title="Alexander Alexandrovich Friedman">Alexander Friedmann</a> in <a href="/wiki/Saint_Petersburg" title="Saint Petersburg">Leningrad</a>, until Friedmann's early death in 1925, which required him to change dissertation advisors. At the university, Gamow made friends with three other students of theoretical physics, <a href="/wiki/Lev_Landau" title="Lev Landau">Lev Landau</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dmitri_Ivanenko" title="Dmitri Ivanenko">Dmitri Ivanenko</a> and <a href="/wiki/Matvei_Petrovich_Bronstein" class="mw-redirect" title="Matvei Petrovich Bronstein">Matvey Bronshtein</a>. The four formed a group they called the <a href="/wiki/Three_Musketeers" class="mw-redirect" title="Three Musketeers">Three Musketeers</a>, which met to discuss and analyze the ground-breaking papers on <a href="/wiki/Quantum_mechanics" title="Quantum mechanics">quantum mechanics</a> published during those years. He later used the same phrase to describe the <a href="/wiki/Ralph_Alpher" title="Ralph Alpher"> Alpher</a>, <a href="/wiki/Robert_Herman" title="Robert Herman"> Herman</a> and Gamow group. </p><p>Upon graduation, he worked on <a href="/wiki/Quantum_mechanics" title="Quantum mechanics">quantum theory</a> in <a href="/wiki/G%C3%B6ttingen" title="Göttingen">Göttingen</a>, where his research into the atomic nucleus provided the basis for his doctorate. He then worked at the <a href="/wiki/Niels_Bohr_Institute" title="Niels Bohr Institute">Theoretical Physics Institute</a> of the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Copenhagen" title="University of Copenhagen">University of Copenhagen</a> from 1928 to 1931, with a break to work with <a href="/wiki/Ernest_Rutherford" title="Ernest Rutherford">Ernest Rutherford</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Cavendish_Laboratory" title="Cavendish Laboratory">Cavendish Laboratory</a> in <a href="/wiki/Cambridge" title="Cambridge">Cambridge</a>. He continued to study the atomic nucleus (proposing the <a href="/wiki/Liquid_drop_model" class="mw-redirect" title="Liquid drop model">"liquid drop" model</a>), but also worked on stellar physics with <a href="/wiki/Robert_d%27Escourt_Atkinson" title="Robert d'Escourt Atkinson">Robert Atkinson</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fritz_Houtermans" title="Fritz Houtermans">Fritz Houtermans</a>. </p><p>In 1931, Gamow was elected a corresponding member of the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Academy_of_Sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet Academy of Sciences">Academy of Sciences of the USSR</a> at age 28 – one of the youngest in its history.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>b<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the period 1931–1933, Gamow worked in the Physical Department of the <a href="/wiki/V.G._Khlopin_Radium_Institute" class="mw-redirect" title="V.G. Khlopin Radium Institute">Radium Institute (Leningrad)</a> headed by <a href="/wiki/Vitaly_Khlopin" title="Vitaly Khlopin">Vitaly Khlopin</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%B8%D0%BD,_%D0%92%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%93%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B3%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%8C%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%87" class="extiw" title="ru:Хлопин, Виталий Григорьевич">ru</a>]</span>. Europe's first <a href="/wiki/Cyclotron" title="Cyclotron">cyclotron</a> was designed under the guidance and direct participation of <a href="/wiki/Igor_Kurchatov" title="Igor Kurchatov">Igor Kurchatov</a>, Lev Mysovskii and Gamow. In 1932, Gamow and Mysovskii submitted a draft design for consideration by the Academic Council of the Radium Institute, which approved it. The cyclotron was not completed until 1937.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bragg_lab1_1930.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Bragg_lab1_1930.jpg/220px-Bragg_lab1_1930.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="152" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Bragg_lab1_1930.jpg/330px-Bragg_lab1_1930.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Bragg_lab1_1930.jpg/440px-Bragg_lab1_1930.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3038" data-file-height="2095" /></a><figcaption>Staff of William Bragg's laboratory in 1931: <a href="/wiki/William_Henry_Bragg" title="William Henry Bragg">W. H. Bragg</a> (sitting, center): physicist A. Lebedev (leftmost), G. Gamow (rightmost)</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Radioactive_decay">Radioactive decay</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=George_Gamow&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Radioactive decay"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the early 20th century, radioactive materials were known to have characteristic exponential decay rates, or half-lives. At the same time, radiation emissions were known to have certain characteristic energies. By 1928, Gamow in Göttingen had solved the theory of the <a href="/wiki/Alpha_decay" title="Alpha decay">alpha decay</a> of a nucleus via <a href="/wiki/Quantum_tunnelling" title="Quantum tunnelling">tunnelling</a>, with mathematical help from <a href="/wiki/Nikolai_Kochin" title="Nikolai Kochin">Nikolai Kochin</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The problem was also solved independently by <a href="/wiki/Ronald_Wilfred_Gurney" title="Ronald Wilfred Gurney">Ronald W. Gurney</a> and <a href="/wiki/Edward_Condon" title="Edward Condon">Edward U. Condon</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Nuc&RadChem_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nuc&RadChem-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Gurney and Condon did not, however, achieve the quantitative results achieved by Gamow. </p><p>Classically, the particle is confined to the nucleus because of the high energy requirement to escape the very strong nuclear <a href="/wiki/Potential_well" title="Potential well">potential well</a>. Also classically, it takes an enormous amount of energy to pull apart the nucleus, an event that would not occur spontaneously. In <a href="/wiki/Quantum_mechanics" title="Quantum mechanics">quantum mechanics</a>, however, there is a probability the particle can "tunnel through" the wall of the potential well and escape. Gamow solved a model potential for the nucleus and derived from first principles a relationship between the <a href="/wiki/Half-life" title="Half-life">half-life</a> of the alpha-decay event process and the energy of the emission, which had been previously discovered empirically and was known as the <a href="/wiki/Geiger%E2%80%93Nuttall_law" title="Geiger–Nuttall law">Geiger–Nuttall law</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some years later, the name <a href="/wiki/Gamow_factor" title="Gamow factor">Gamow factor</a> or Gamow–Sommerfeld factor was applied to the probability of incoming nuclear particles tunnelling through the electrostatic <a href="/wiki/Coulomb_barrier" title="Coulomb barrier">Coulomb barrier</a> and undergoing nuclear reactions. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Defection">Defection</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=George_Gamow&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Defection"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Gamow worked at a number of Soviet establishments before deciding to flee the Soviet Union because of increased oppression. In 1931, he was officially denied permission to attend a scientific conference in Italy. Also in 1931, he married Lyubov Vokhmintseva (<a href="/wiki/Russian_language" title="Russian language">Russian</a>: <span lang="ru">Любовь Вохминцева</span>), another physicist in the Soviet Union, whom he nicknamed "Rho" after <a href="/wiki/Rho" title="Rho">the Greek letter</a>. Gamow and his new wife spent much of the next two years trying to leave the Soviet Union, with or without official permission. <a href="/wiki/Niels_Bohr" title="Niels Bohr">Niels Bohr</a> and other friends invited Gamow to visit during this period, but Gamow could not get permission to leave. </p><p>Gamow later said that his first two attempts to defect with his wife were in 1932 and involved trying to <a href="/wiki/Kayak" title="Kayak">kayak</a>: first a planned 250-kilometer paddle over the <a href="/wiki/Black_Sea" title="Black Sea">Black Sea</a> to <a href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey">Turkey</a>, and another attempt from <a href="/wiki/Murmansk" title="Murmansk">Murmansk</a> to <a href="/wiki/Norway" title="Norway">Norway</a>. Poor weather foiled both attempts, but they had not been noticed by the authorities.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1933, Gamow was suddenly granted permission to attend the 7th <a href="/wiki/Solvay_Conference" title="Solvay Conference">Solvay Conference</a> on physics, in <a href="/wiki/Brussels" title="Brussels">Brussels</a>. He insisted on having his wife accompany him, even saying that he would not go alone. Eventually the Soviet authorities relented and issued passports for the couple. The two attended and arranged to extend their stay, with the help of <a href="/wiki/Marie_Curie" title="Marie Curie">Marie Curie</a> and other physicists. Over the next year, Gamow obtained temporary work at the <a href="/wiki/Curie_Institute_(Paris)" title="Curie Institute (Paris)">Curie Institute</a>, <a href="/wiki/University_of_London" title="University of London">University of London</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Michigan" title="University of Michigan">University of Michigan</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Move_to_America">Move to America</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=George_Gamow&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Move to America"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1934, Gamow and his wife moved to the United States. He became a professor at <a href="/wiki/George_Washington_University" title="George Washington University">George Washington University</a> (GWU) in 1934 and recruited physicist <a href="/wiki/Edward_Teller" title="Edward Teller">Edward Teller</a> from London to join him at GWU.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1936, Gamow and Teller published what became known as the "<a href="/wiki/Gamow%E2%80%93Teller_transition" class="mw-redirect" title="Gamow–Teller transition">Gamow–Teller selection rule</a>" for <a href="/wiki/Beta_decay" title="Beta decay">beta decay</a>. During his time in Washington, Gamow would also publish major scientific papers with <a href="/wiki/M%C3%A1rio_Schenberg" title="Mário Schenberg">Mário Schenberg</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ralph_Alpher" title="Ralph Alpher">Ralph Alpher</a>. By the late 1930s, Gamow's interests had turned towards <a href="/wiki/Astrophysics" title="Astrophysics">astrophysics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cosmology" title="Cosmology">cosmology</a>. </p><p>When recruited in GWU, Gamow started the <a href="/wiki/Washington_Conference_on_Theoretical_Physics" title="Washington Conference on Theoretical Physics">Washington Conference on Theoretical Physics</a>. A series of small conferences from 1935–1947, that brought up experts in theoretical physics to discuss different subjects.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the 1939 conference, Bohr announced publicly the discovery of <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fission" title="Nuclear fission">nuclear fission</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1935, Gamow's son, <a href="/wiki/Igor_Gamow" title="Igor Gamow">Igor Gamow</a> was born (in a 1947 book, Gamow's dedication was "To my son IGOR, Who Would Rather Be a Cowboy"). George Gamow became a <a href="/wiki/Naturalized_citizen" class="mw-redirect" title="Naturalized citizen">naturalized American</a> in 1940. He retained his formal association with GWU until 1956. </p><p>During World War II, Gamow continued to teach physics at <a href="/wiki/George_Washington_University" title="George Washington University">George Washington University</a> and consulted for the US Navy. </p><p>Gamow was interested in the processes of <a href="/wiki/Stellar_evolution" title="Stellar evolution">stellar evolution</a> and the early history of the <a href="/wiki/Solar_System" title="Solar System">Solar System</a>. In 1945, he co-authored a paper supporting work by German theoretical physicist <a href="/wiki/Carl_Friedrich_von_Weizs%C3%A4cker" title="Carl Friedrich von Weizsäcker">Carl Friedrich von Weizsäcker</a> on planetary formation in the early Solar System.<sup id="cite_ref-Gamow_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gamow-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Gamow published another paper in the British journal <i><a href="/wiki/Nature_(journal)" title="Nature (journal)">Nature</a></i> in 1948, in which he developed equations for the mass and radius of a primordial galaxy (which typically contains about one hundred billion stars, each with a mass comparable with that of the Sun).<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis">Big Bang nucleosynthesis</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=George_Gamow&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Big Bang nucleosynthesis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Gamow's work led the development of the hot "big bang" theory of the expanding universe. He was the earliest to employ <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Friedmann" title="Alexander Friedmann">Alexander Friedmann</a>'s and <a href="/wiki/Georges_Lema%C3%AEtre" title="Georges Lemaître">Georges Lemaître</a>'s non-static solutions of Einstein's gravitational equations describing a universe of uniform matter density and constant spatial curvature. Gamow's crucial advance would provide a physical reification of Lemaître's idea of a unique primordial quantum. Gamow did this by assuming that the early universe was dominated by radiation rather than by matter.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most of the later work in cosmology is founded in Gamow's theory. He applied his model to the question of the creation of the chemical elements <sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and to the subsequent condensation of matter into galaxies,<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> whose mass and diameter he was able to calculate in terms of the fundamental physical parameters, such as the speed of light <i>c</i>, the Newtonian constant of gravitation <i>G</i>, the fine-structure constant <i>α</i>, and the Planck constant <i>h</i>. </p><p>Gamow's interest in cosmology arose from his earlier interest in energy generation and element production and transformation in stars.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This work, in turn, evolved from his fundamental discovery of <a href="/wiki/Quantum_tunneling" class="mw-redirect" title="Quantum tunneling">quantum tunneling</a> as the mechanism of nuclear <a href="/wiki/Alpha_decay" title="Alpha decay">alpha decay</a>, and his application of this theory to the inverse process to calculate rates of thermonuclear reaction. </p><p>At first, Gamow believed that all the elements might be produced in the very high temperature and density early stage of the universe. Later, he revised this opinion on the strength of compelling evidence advanced by <a href="/wiki/Fred_Hoyle" title="Fred Hoyle">Fred Hoyle</a> and others, that elements heavier than lithium are largely produced in <a href="/wiki/Stellar_nucleosynthesis" title="Stellar nucleosynthesis">thermonuclear reactions in stars</a> and in supernovae. Gamow formulated a set of coupled differential equations describing his proposed process and assigned, as a PhD dissertation topic, his graduate student <a href="/wiki/Ralph_Alpher" title="Ralph Alpher">Ralph Alpher</a> the task of solving the equations numerically. These results of Gamow and Alpher appeared in 1948 as the <a href="/wiki/Alpher%E2%80%93Bethe%E2%80%93Gamow_paper" title="Alpher–Bethe–Gamow paper">Alpher–Bethe–Gamow paper</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Before his interest turned to the question of the genetic code, Gamow published about twenty papers on cosmology. The earliest was in 1939 with Edward Teller on galaxy formation,<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> followed in 1946 by the first description of cosmic nucleosynthesis. He also wrote many popular articles as well as academic textbooks on this and other subjects.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1948, he published a paper dealing with an attenuated version of the coupled set of equations describing the production of the proton and the deuteron from thermal neutrons. By means of a simplification and using the observed ratio of hydrogen to heavier elements, he was able to obtain the density of matter at the onset of nucleosynthesis and from this the mass and diameter of the early galaxies.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1953 he produced similar results, but this time based on another determination of the density of matter and radiation, at the time at which they became equal.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In this paper, Gamow determined the density of the relict background radiation, from which a present temperature of 7 K was predicted – a value which was slightly more than twice the presently-accepted value. </p><p>In 1967, he published reminiscences and recapitulation of his own work as well as the work of Alpher and Robert Herman (both with Gamow and also independently of him).<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This was prompted by the discovery of the <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_microwave_background_radiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Cosmic microwave background radiation">cosmic microwave background radiation</a> by Penzias and Wilson in 1965; Gamow, Alpher, and Herman felt that they did not receive the credit they deserved for their theoretical predictions of its existence and source.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Gamow was disconcerted by the fact that the authors of a communication<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> explaining the significance of the Penzias/Wilson observations failed to recognize and cite the previous work of Gamow and his collaborators.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="DNA_and_RNA">DNA and RNA</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=George_Gamow&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: DNA and RNA"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1953, <a href="/wiki/Francis_Crick" title="Francis Crick">Francis Crick</a>, <a href="/wiki/James_Watson" title="James Watson">James Watson</a>, <a href="/wiki/Maurice_Wilkins" title="Maurice Wilkins">Maurice Wilkins</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rosalind_Franklin" title="Rosalind Franklin">Rosalind Franklin</a> discovered the <a href="/wiki/Nucleic_acid_double_helix" title="Nucleic acid double helix">double helix</a> structure of the <a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a> macromolecule. Gamow attempted to solve the problem of how the ordering of four different bases (<a href="/wiki/Adenine" title="Adenine">adenine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cytosine" title="Cytosine">cytosine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thymine" title="Thymine">thymine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Guanine" title="Guanine">guanine</a>) in DNA chains might control the synthesis of proteins from their constituent amino acids.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Crick has said that Gamow's suggestions helped him in his own thinking about the problem.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As related by Crick,<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Gamow observed that the 4<sup>3</sup> = 64 possible <a href="/wiki/Permutation" title="Permutation">permutations</a> of the four DNA bases, taken three at a time, would be reduced to 20 distinct <a href="/wiki/Combination" title="Combination">combinations</a> if the order was irrelevant.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Gamow proposed that these 20 combinations might code for the twenty amino acids which, he suggested, might well be the sole constituents of all proteins. Gamow's contribution to solving the problem of genetic coding gave rise to important models of <a href="/wiki/Degeneracy_(biology)" title="Degeneracy (biology)">biological degeneracy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><span class="anchor" id="Diamond_code"></span>The specific system that Gamow was proposing (called "Gamow's diamonds") proved to be incorrect. The triplets were supposed to be overlapping, so that in the sequence GGAC (for example), GGA could produce one amino acid and GAC another, and also <a href="/wiki/Degeneracy_of_the_genetic_code" class="mw-redirect" title="Degeneracy of the genetic code">non-degenerate</a> (meaning that each amino acid would correspond to one combination of three bases – in any order). Later protein sequencing work proved that this could not be the case; the true <a href="/wiki/Genetic_code" title="Genetic code">genetic code</a> is non-overlapping and degenerate, and changing the order of a combination of bases does change the amino acid. </p><p>In 1954, Gamow and Watson co-founded the <a href="/wiki/RNA_Tie_Club" title="RNA Tie Club">RNA Tie Club</a>. This was a discussion group of leading scientists concerned with the problem of the genetic code, which counted among its members the physicists <a href="/wiki/Edward_Teller" title="Edward Teller">Edward Teller</a> and <a href="/wiki/Richard_Feynman" title="Richard Feynman">Richard Feynman</a>. In his autobiographical writings, Watson later acknowledged the great importance of Gamow's insightful initiative. However, this did not prevent him from describing this colorful personality as a "zany", card-trick playing, limerick-singing, booze-swilling, practical–joking "giant imp".<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Late_career_and_life">Late career and life</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=George_Gamow&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Late career and life"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gamow_George_grave.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Gamow_George_grave.jpg/250px-Gamow_George_grave.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Gamow_George_grave.jpg/330px-Gamow_George_grave.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Gamow_George_grave.jpg/500px-Gamow_George_grave.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="750" /></a><figcaption>Gamow's grave in Green Mountain Cemetery, Boulder, Colorado, US</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:George_Gamow_tower.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/George_Gamow_tower.jpg/250px-George_Gamow_tower.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/George_Gamow_tower.jpg/330px-George_Gamow_tower.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/George_Gamow_tower.jpg/500px-George_Gamow_tower.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption>The George Gamow Tower at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Colorado_Boulder" title="University of Colorado Boulder">University of Colorado Boulder</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Gamow worked at George Washington University from 1934 until 1954, when he became a visiting professor at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_California,_Berkeley" title="University of California, Berkeley">University of California, Berkeley</a>. In 1956, he moved to the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Colorado_Boulder" title="University of Colorado Boulder">University of Colorado Boulder</a>, where he remained for the rest of his career. In 1956, Gamow became one of the founding members of the <a href="/wiki/Physical_Science_Study_Committee" title="Physical Science Study Committee">Physical Science Study Committee</a> (PSSC), which later reformed teaching of high-school physics in the post-<a href="/wiki/Sputnik" class="mw-redirect" title="Sputnik">Sputnik</a> years. </p><p>In 1959, Gamow, <a href="/wiki/Hans_Bethe" title="Hans Bethe">Hans Bethe</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Victor_Weisskopf" title="Victor Weisskopf">Victor Weisskopf</a> publicly supported the re-entry of <a href="/wiki/Frank_Oppenheimer" title="Frank Oppenheimer">Frank Oppenheimer</a> into teaching college physics at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Colorado" title="University of Colorado">University of Colorado</a>, as the <a href="/wiki/Red_Scare" title="Red Scare">Red Scare</a> began to fade (<a href="/wiki/J._Robert_Oppenheimer" title="J. Robert Oppenheimer">J. Robert Oppenheimer</a> was the older brother of Frank Oppenheimer, and both of them had worked on the <a href="/wiki/Manhattan_Project" title="Manhattan Project">Manhattan Project</a> before their careers in physics were derailed by <a href="/wiki/McCarthyism" title="McCarthyism">McCarthyism</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-Cole_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cole-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 130">: 130 </span></sup> While in Colorado, Frank Oppenheimer became increasingly interested in teaching science through simple hands-on experiments, and he eventually moved to <a href="/wiki/San_Francisco" title="San Francisco">San Francisco</a> to found the <a href="/wiki/Exploratorium" title="Exploratorium">Exploratorium</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Cole_39-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cole-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 130–152">: 130–152 </span></sup> Gamow would not live to see his colleague's opening of this innovative new science museum, in late August 1969.<sup id="cite_ref-Cole_39-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cole-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 152">: 152 </span></sup> </p><p>In his 1961 book <i>The Atom and its Nucleus</i>, Gamow proposed representing the <a href="/wiki/Periodic_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Periodic system">periodic system</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Chemical_elements" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemical elements">chemical elements</a> as a continuous tape, with the elements in order of <a href="/wiki/Atomic_number" title="Atomic number">atomic number</a> wound round in a three-dimensional helix whose diameter increased stepwise (corresponding to the longer rows of the conventional periodic table). </p><p>Gamow continued his teaching at the University of Colorado Boulder and focused increasingly on writing textbooks and books on science for the general public. After several months of ill health, surgeries on his circulatory system, diabetes, and liver problems, Gamow was dying from <a href="/wiki/Liver_failure" title="Liver failure">liver failure</a>, which he had called the "weak link" that could not withstand the other stresses. </p><p>In a letter written to Ralph Alpher on August 18, he had written, "The pain in the abdomen is unbearable and does not stop". Prior to this, there had been a long exchange of letters with his former student, in which he was seeking a fresh understanding of some concepts used in his earlier work, with Paul Dirac. Gamow relied on Alpher for deeper understanding of mathematics. </p><p>On August 19, 1968, Gamow died at age 64 in <a href="/wiki/Boulder,_Colorado" title="Boulder, Colorado">Boulder, Colorado</a>, and was buried there in Green Mountain Cemetery. The physics department tower at the University of Colorado at Boulder is named after him. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Personal_life">Personal life</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=George_Gamow&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Personal life"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Gamow had a son, <a href="/wiki/Igor_Gamow" title="Igor Gamow">Igor Gamow</a>, with his first wife Rho in 1935. Their son later became a professor of <a href="/wiki/Microbiology" title="Microbiology">microbiology</a> at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Colorado" title="University of Colorado">University of Colorado</a>, as well as an inventor. </p><p>In 1956, Gamow divorced his wife Rho. In 1958 he married <a href="/wiki/Barbara_Perkins_Gamow" title="Barbara Perkins Gamow">Barbara Perkins</a>, an editor for one of his publishers. </p><p>Gamow was a well-known prankster, who delighted in practical jokes and humorous twists embedded in serious scientific publications.<sup id="cite_ref-Antunes_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Antunes-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Segre_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Segre-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His most famous prank was the pioneering <a href="/wiki/Alpher%E2%80%93Bethe%E2%80%93Gamow_paper" title="Alpher–Bethe–Gamow paper">Alpher–Bethe–Gamow paper</a> (1948), which was serious in its style and content. However, Gamow could not resist adding his colleague <a href="/wiki/Hans_Bethe" title="Hans Bethe">Hans Bethe</a> to the list of authors, as a <a href="/wiki/Pun" title="Pun">pun</a> on the first three letters of the <a href="/wiki/Greek_alphabet" title="Greek alphabet">Greek alphabet</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Antunes_40-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Antunes-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Falk_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Falk-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Segre_41-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Segre-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Gamow was an atheist.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Writings">Writings</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=George_Gamow&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Writings"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Gamow was a highly successful science writer, with several of his books still in print more than a half-century after their initial publication. As an educator, Gamow recognized and emphasized fundamental principles that were unlikely to become obsolete, even as the pace of science and technology accelerated. He also conveyed a sense of excitement with the revolution in physics and other scientific topics of interest to the common reader. Gamow himself sketched the many illustrations for his books, which added a new dimension to and complemented what he intended to convey in the text. He was unafraid to introduce mathematics wherever it was essential, but he tried to avoid deterring potential readers by including large numbers of equations that did not illustrate essential points. </p><p>In 1946 Gamow was a proponent of <a href="/wiki/Human_spaceflight" title="Human spaceflight">human spaceflight</a> propelled by atomic energy.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "We may prepare ourselves for a trip to the moon and to various planets of our solar system in a comfortable rocketship driven by atomic power." He also wrote "the ordinary chemical fuels which could be used in the motor of such a rocketship could not possibly give it the necessary velocity...".<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By 1965 he moderated his expectations though he re-stated his atomic-power prognostication: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Whereas we may be able to study the forms of life that may have developed on Mars and Venus (the best "inhabitable" planets of the solar system) in the not too distant future by means of an adventuresome trip to these planets on a "nuclear power propelled space ship," the question about the possible existence and the forms of life in other stellar worlds hundreds and thousands of light-years away, will probably remain forever an unsolvable problem of science.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>By that time the <a href="/wiki/Space_race" class="mw-redirect" title="Space race">space race</a> was underway with conventional chemical rockets. </p><p>His book, <i>The Creation of the Universe</i>, was first published in 1952, concluding: "It took less than an hour to make all the atoms in the universe, a few hundred million years to make the stars and planets but three billion years to make man."<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1956, he was awarded the <a href="/wiki/Kalinga_Prize" title="Kalinga Prize">Kalinga Prize</a> by <a href="/wiki/UNESCO" title="UNESCO">UNESCO</a> for his work in popularizing science with his <i><a href="/wiki/Mr_Tompkins" title="Mr Tompkins">Mr. Tompkins...</a></i> series of books (1939–1967), his book <i><a href="/wiki/One_Two_Three_..._Infinity" class="mw-redirect" title="One Two Three ... Infinity">One, Two, Three...Infinity</a></i>, and other works.<sup id="cite_ref-Kalinga_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kalinga-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Before his death, Gamow was working with Richard Blade on a textbook <i>Basic Theories in Modern Physics</i>, but the work was never completed or published under that title. Gamow was also writing <i>My World Line: An Informal Autobiography</i>, which was published posthumously in 1970. </p><p>A collection of Gamow's writings was donated to The <a href="/wiki/George_Washington_University" title="George Washington University">George Washington University</a> in 1996. The materials include correspondence, articles, manuscripts and printed materials both by and about George Gamow. The collection is currently under the care of GWU's Special Collections Research Center, located in the Estelle and Melvin <a href="/wiki/Gelman_Library" title="Gelman Library">Gelman Library</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Books">Books</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=George_Gamow&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Books"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Popular">Popular</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=George_Gamow&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Popular"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Birth_and_Death_of_the_Sun" title="The Birth and Death of the Sun">The Birth and Death of the Sun</a></i> (1940, revised 1952)</li> <li><i>The Biography of the Earth</i> (1941)</li> <li><i>Atomic Energy in Cosmic and Human Life</i> (1946)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/One_Two_Three_..._Infinity" class="mw-redirect" title="One Two Three ... Infinity">One Two Three ... Infinity</a></i> (1947, revised 1961), Viking Press (copyright renewed by Barbara Gamow, 1974), Dover Publications, <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-486-25664-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-486-25664-2">0-486-25664-2</a>, illustrated by the author. Dedicated to his son, <a href="/wiki/Igor_Gamow" title="Igor Gamow">Igor Gamow</a>, it remains one of the most well received ever in the popular science genre. The book winds from <a href="/wiki/Mathematics" title="Mathematics">mathematics</a> to <a href="/wiki/Biology" title="Biology">biology</a>, to <a href="/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">physics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Crystallography" title="Crystallography">crystallography</a>, and more.</li> <li><i>The Moon</i> (1953)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGamowStern1958" class="citation book cs1">Gamow, George; Stern, Marvin (1958). <i>Puzzle-Math</i>. Viking Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-333-08637-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-333-08637-7"><bdi>978-0-333-08637-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Puzzle-Math&rft.pub=Viking+Press&rft.date=1958&rft.isbn=978-0-333-08637-7&rft.aulast=Gamow&rft.aufirst=George&rft.au=Stern%2C+Marvin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorge+Gamow" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><i>Biography of Physics</i> <a href="/wiki/Harper_%26_Brothers" class="mw-redirect" title="Harper & Brothers">Harper & Brothers</a> (1961) <a href="/wiki/Amazon_Standard_Identification_Number" title="Amazon Standard Identification Number">ASIN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/B000UULZIG">B000UULZIG</a></li> <li><i>Gravity</i> (1962) Dover Publications, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-486-42563-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-486-42563-0">0-486-42563-0</a>. Profiles of <a href="/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei">Galileo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Newton</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Einstein</a></li> <li><i>A Planet Called Earth</i> (1963)</li> <li><i>A Star Called the Sun</i> (1964)</li> <li><i>Thirty Years That Shook Physics: The Story of Quantum Theory</i>, 1966, Dover Publications, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-486-24895-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-486-24895-X">0-486-24895-X</a>.</li> <li><i>My World Line: An Informal Autobiography</i> (1970) Viking Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-670-50376-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-670-50376-2">0-670-50376-2</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Mr_Tompkins_series"><i>Mr Tompkins</i> series</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=George_Gamow&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Mr Tompkins series"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Throughout these books, <a href="/wiki/Mr_Tompkins" title="Mr Tompkins">Mr Tompkins</a> is introduced as "C. G. H. Tompkins" to emphasize the notion of <a href="/wiki/CGh_physics" title="CGh physics">cGh physics</a>. </p> <ul><li><i>Mr Tompkins in Wonderland</i> (1940) originally published 1938 in serial form in <i>Discovery</i> magazine (UK)</li> <li><i>Mr Tompkins Explores the Atom</i> (1945) <ul><li><i>Mr Tompkins in Paperback</i> (1965), combines <i>Mr Tompkins in Wonderland</i> with <i>Mr Tompkins Explores the Atom</i>, Cambridge University Press; 1993 Canto edition, foreword by <a href="/wiki/Roger_Penrose" title="Roger Penrose">Roger Penrose</a></li> <li><i>The New World of Mr Tompkins</i> (1999), coauthor <a href="/wiki/Russell_Stannard" title="Russell Stannard">Russell Stannard</a> updated <i>Mr Tompkins in Paperback</i> (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521630092" title="Special:BookSources/9780521630092">9780521630092</a> hardcover)</li></ul></li> <li><i>Mr Tompkins Learns the Facts of Life</i> (1953), about biology <ul><li><i>Mr. Tompkins Inside Himself</i> (1967), coauthor <a href="/wiki/Martynas_Y%C4%8Das" title="Martynas Yčas">Martynas Yčas</a> revised <i>Mr Tompkins Learns the Facts of Life</i> giving a broader view of biology, including recent developments in molecular biology</li></ul></li></ul> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Theory_of_Atomic_Nucleus-2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Title page of a 1949 copy of "Theory of Atomic Nucleus and Nuclear Energy-Sources"" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Theory_of_Atomic_Nucleus-2.jpg/180px-Theory_of_Atomic_Nucleus-2.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="282" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Theory_of_Atomic_Nucleus-2.jpg/270px-Theory_of_Atomic_Nucleus-2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Theory_of_Atomic_Nucleus-2.jpg/360px-Theory_of_Atomic_Nucleus-2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2888" data-file-height="4522" /></a><figcaption>Title page of a 1949 copy of "Theory of Atomic Nucleus and Nuclear Energy-Sources"</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Science_textbooks">Science textbooks</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=George_Gamow&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Science textbooks"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><i>The Constitution of Atomic Nuclei and Radioactivity</i> (1931)</li> <li><i>Structure of Atomic Nuclei and Nuclear Transformations</i> (1937)</li> <li><i>Atomic Energy in Cosmic and Human Life</i> (1947)</li> <li><i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://libserv.aip.org/ipac20/ipac.jsp?session=16J66V3G13383.481233&profile=rev-all&source=~!horizon&view=subscriptionsummary&uri=full=3100006~!44519~!4&ri=5&aspect=power&menu=search&ipp=20&spp=20&staffonly=&term=Theory+of+Atomic+Nucleus+and+Nuclear+Energy-Sources&index=.GW&uindex=&aspect=power&menu=search&ri=5">Theory of Atomic Nucleus and Nuclear Energy Sources</a></i> (1949) coauthor <a href="/wiki/Charles_Critchfield" title="Charles Critchfield">C. L. Critchfield</a></li> <li><i>The Creation of the Universe</i> (1952)</li> <li><i>Matter, Earth and Sky</i> (1958)</li> <li><i>Physics: Foundations & Frontiers</i> (1960) coauthor John M. Cleveland</li> <li><i>The Atom and its Nucleus</i> (1961)</li> <li><i>Mr. Tompkins Gets Serious: The Essential George Gamow</i> (2005). edited by Robert Oerter, Pi Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-13-187291-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-13-187291-5">0-13-187291-5</a>. Incorporates material from <i>Matter, Earth, and Sky</i> and <i>The Atom and Its Nucleus</i>. Notwithstanding the title, this book is <i>not</i> part of the <a href="/wiki/Mr._Tompkins" class="mw-redirect" title="Mr. Tompkins">Mr. Tompkins</a> series.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=George_Gamow&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/George_Gamow_Memorial_Lectures" title="George Gamow Memorial Lectures">George Gamow Memorial Lectures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urca_process" title="Urca process">Urca process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ylem" title="Ylem">Ylem</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=George_Gamow&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> He was expelled from the Academy in 1938, but his membership was restored posthumously in 1990.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> The youngest corresponding member elected to the Academy of Sciences of the USSR was the Armenian mathematician <a href="/wiki/Sergey_Mergelyan" title="Sergey Mergelyan">Sergey Mergelyan</a> (1928-2008), elected at age 24.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626" /><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Kalinga-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kalinga_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kalinga_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.unesco.org/new/en/natural-sciences/science-technology/sti-policy/global-focus/science-popularization/prizes/kalinga-prize/kalinga-winners/kalinga-1956/">"Kalinga 1956"</a>. <i>www.unesco.org</i>. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-05-16</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.unesco.org&rft.atitle=Kalinga+1956&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.unesco.org%2Fnew%2Fen%2Fnatural-sciences%2Fscience-technology%2Fsti-policy%2Fglobal-focus%2Fscience-popularization%2Fprizes%2Fkalinga-prize%2Fkalinga-winners%2Fkalinga-1956%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorge+Gamow" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMerzbacher2002" class="citation journal cs1">Merzbacher, Eugen (2002-08-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubs.aip.org/physicstoday/article/55/8/44/412308/The-Early-History-of-Quantum-Tunneling-Molecular">"The Early History of Quantum Tunneling"</a>. <i>Physics Today</i>. <b>55</b> (8): <span class="nowrap">44–</span>49. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1063%2F1.1510281">10.1063/1.1510281</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0031-9228">0031-9228</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physics+Today&rft.atitle=The+Early+History+of+Quantum+Tunneling&rft.volume=55&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E44-%3C%2Fspan%3E49&rft.date=2002-08-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1063%2F1.1510281&rft.issn=0031-9228&rft.aulast=Merzbacher&rft.aufirst=Eugen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpubs.aip.org%2Fphysicstoday%2Farticle%2F55%2F8%2F44%2F412308%2FThe-Early-History-of-Quantum-Tunneling-Molecular&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorge+Gamow" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFAbu-ShawarebAcreeAdamsAdams2024" class="citation journal cs1">Abu-Shawareb, H.; Acree, R.; Adams, P.; Adams, J.; Addis, B.; Aden, R.; Adrian, P.; Afeyan, B. B.; Aggleton, M.; Aghaian, L.; Aguirre, A.; Aikens, D.; Akre, J.; Albert, F.; Albrecht, M. (2024-02-05). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://link.aps.org/doi/10.1103/PhysRevLett.132.065102">"Achievement of Target Gain Larger than Unity in an Inertial Fusion Experiment"</a>. <i>Physical Review Letters</i>. <b>132</b> (6). <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevLett.132.065102">10.1103/PhysRevLett.132.065102</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0031-9007">0031-9007</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physical+Review+Letters&rft.atitle=Achievement+of+Target+Gain+Larger+than+Unity+in+an+Inertial+Fusion+Experiment&rft.volume=132&rft.issue=6&rft.date=2024-02-05&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1103%2FPhysRevLett.132.065102&rft.issn=0031-9007&rft.aulast=Abu-Shawareb&rft.aufirst=H.&rft.au=Acree%2C+R.&rft.au=Adams%2C+P.&rft.au=Adams%2C+J.&rft.au=Addis%2C+B.&rft.au=Aden%2C+R.&rft.au=Adrian%2C+P.&rft.au=Afeyan%2C+B.%E2%80%89B.&rft.au=Aggleton%2C+M.&rft.au=Aghaian%2C+L.&rft.au=Aguirre%2C+A.&rft.au=Aikens%2C+D.&rft.au=Akre%2C+J.&rft.au=Albert%2C+F.&rft.au=Albrecht%2C+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flink.aps.org%2Fdoi%2F10.1103%2FPhysRevLett.132.065102&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorge+Gamow" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://onu.edu.ua/uk/geninfo/history">"History of the University of Odessa (in Ukrainian)"</a>. <i>History of the University of Odessa (in Ukrainian)</i>. University of Odessa<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 December</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=History+of+the+University+of+Odessa+%28in+Ukrainian%29&rft.atitle=History+of+the+University+of+Odessa+%28in+Ukrainian%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fonu.edu.ua%2Fuk%2Fgeninfo%2Fhistory&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorge+Gamow" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.khlopin.ru/youth.php">Радиевый институт имени В. Г. Хлопина. Для молодёжи (Radium Institute named after V. G. Khlopin. For the young).</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100323163823/http://www.khlopin.ru/youth.php">Archived</a> 2010-03-23 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">V. G. Khlopin Radium Institute. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.khlopin.ru/english/memorial.php">History / Memorial</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110426000000/http://www.khlopin.ru/english/memorial.php">Archived</a> April 26, 2011, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> and <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.khlopin.ru/english/hronology.php">History / Chronology</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110426000000/http://www.khlopin.ru/english/hronology.php">Archived</a> April 26, 2011, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Retrieved 25 February 2012.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20091124151512/http://www.aip.org/history/ohilist/4325.html">"Interview with George Gamow by Charles Weiner at Gamow's home in Boulder, Colorado, April 25, 1968. (In the transcript Kochin is spelled Kotshchin.)"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aip.org/history/ohilist/4325.html">the original</a> on November 24, 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 11,</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Interview+with+George+Gamow+by+Charles+Weiner+at+Gamow%27s+home+in+Boulder%2C+Colorado%2C+April+25%2C+1968.+%28In+the+transcript+Kochin+is+spelled+Kotshchin.%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.aip.org%2Fhistory%2Fohilist%2F4325.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorge+Gamow" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Z. Physik</i> <b>5</b>1, 204 (1928) G. Gamow, "Zur Quantentheorie des Atomkernes".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">R. W. Gurney and E. U. Condon, "Quantum Mechanics and Radioactive Disintegration" <i>Nature</i> <b>122</b>, 439 (1928); <i>Phys. Rev.</i> 33, 127 (1929).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Nuc&RadChem-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Nuc&RadChem_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFFriedlander,_GerhartKennedy,_Joseph_EMiller,_Julian_Malcolm1964" class="citation book cs1">Friedlander, Gerhart; Kennedy, Joseph E; Miller, Julian Malcolm (1964). <i>Nuclear and Radiochemistry</i> (2nd ed.). New York, London, Sydney: John Wiley & Sons. pp. <span class="nowrap">225–</span>7. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-471-86255-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-471-86255-0"><bdi>978-0-471-86255-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nuclear+and+Radiochemistry&rft.place=New+York%2C+London%2C+Sydney&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E225-%3C%2Fspan%3E7&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=1964&rft.isbn=978-0-471-86255-0&rft.au=Friedlander%2C+Gerhart&rft.au=Kennedy%2C+Joseph+E&rft.au=Miller%2C+Julian+Malcolm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorge+Gamow" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.phy.uct.ac.za/courses/phy300w/np/ch1/node38.html">Gamow's derivation of this law</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090224200050/http://www.phy.uct.ac.za/courses/phy300w/np/ch1/node38.html">Archived</a> February 24, 2009, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>My World Line</i> G. Gamow, Viking Press, 1970, chap. 5 <i>The Crimean campaign</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://physics.columbian.gwu.edu/history-astrophysics-gw">"History of Astrophysics at GW | Department of Physics | Columbian College of Arts & Sciences | The George Washington University"</a>. <i>Department of Physics | Columbian College of Arts & Sciences</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2025-01-30</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Department+of+Physics+%7C+Columbian+College+of+Arts+%26+Sciences&rft.atitle=History+of+Astrophysics+at+GW+%7C+Department+of+Physics+%7C+Columbian+College+of+Arts+%26+Sciences+%7C+The+George+Washington+University&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fphysics.columbian.gwu.edu%2Fhistory-astrophysics-gw&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorge+Gamow" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_16-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_16-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://physics.columbian.gwu.edu/history-astrophysics-gw">"History of Astrophysics at GW | Department of Physics | Columbian College of Arts & Sciences | The George Washington University"</a>. <i>Department of Physics | Columbian College of Arts & Sciences</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2025-01-30</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Department+of+Physics+%7C+Columbian+College+of+Arts+%26+Sciences&rft.atitle=History+of+Astrophysics+at+GW+%7C+Department+of+Physics+%7C+Columbian+College+of+Arts+%26+Sciences+%7C+The+George+Washington+University&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fphysics.columbian.gwu.edu%2Fhistory-astrophysics-gw&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorge+Gamow" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gamow-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Gamow_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGamowHynek,_J._A.1945" class="citation journal cs1">Gamow, G.; Hynek, J. A. (1 March 1945). "A New Theory by C. F. Von Weizsacker of the Origin of the Planetary System". <i>The Astrophysical Journal</i>. <b>101</b>: 249. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1945ApJ...101..249G">1945ApJ...101..249G</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F144711">10.1086/144711</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Astrophysical+Journal&rft.atitle=A+New+Theory+by+C.+F.+Von+Weizsacker+of+the+Origin+of+the+Planetary+System&rft.volume=101&rft.pages=249&rft.date=1945-03-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F144711&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1945ApJ...101..249G&rft.aulast=Gamow&rft.aufirst=G.&rft.au=Hynek%2C+J.+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorge+Gamow" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180129140434/http://ircamera.as.arizona.edu/NatSci102/NatSci102_2009/images/extgamow.htm">"George Gamow"</a>. <i>ircamera.as.arizona.edu</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ircamera.as.arizona.edu/NatSci102/NatSci102_2009/images/extgamow.htm">the original</a> on 2018-01-29<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2018-01-28</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=ircamera.as.arizona.edu&rft.atitle=George+Gamow&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fircamera.as.arizona.edu%2FNatSci102%2FNatSci102_2009%2Fimages%2Fextgamow.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorge+Gamow" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gamow, G. (1946, October 1 & 15), Physical Review.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">for example, Gamow, G. (1942), Jour. Washington Academy of Sciences, Vol. 32</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gamow, G. (1968) 'On the Origin of Galaxies', Properties of Matter under Unusual Conditions (Edward Teller 60th Birthday Volume). New York; John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Interscience Publishers.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gamow, G. (1935), Ohio Journal of Science, 35, 5.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Chandrasekhar, S., Gamow, G. and Tuve, M., (1938), Nature, May 28.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gamow, G., Schoenberg, M., (1940), Physical Review, December 15.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Alpher, R. A., Bethe, H., Gamow, G., (1948), Phys. Rev., April 1. The inclusion of Bethe's name is explained at <a href="/wiki/%CE%91%CE%B2%CE%B3_paper" class="mw-redirect" title="Αβγ paper">αβγ paper</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gamow, G., Teller, E., (1939), Nature, January 21 and March 4.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gamow and Critchfield (1949), "Theory of Atomic Nucleus and Energy Sources", Clarendon Press, Oxford</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gamow, G., (1948), Nature, 162, October 30.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gamow, G., (1953), Kongelige Danske Videnskabernes Selskab, 39</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFAlpherGamowHerman1967" class="citation journal cs1">Alpher, Ralph A.; Gamow, George; Herman, Robert (1967). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC223817">"Thermal Cosmic Radiation and the Formation of Protogalaxies"</a>. <i>Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America</i>. <b>58</b> (6). 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H., Peebles, P. J. E., Roll, P. G., and Wilkinson, T. D. (1965), <i>Astrophysical Journal</i>, 142, 414</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSegrè2000" class="citation journal cs1">Segrè, Gino (2000-03-30). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F35006517">"The Big Bang and the genetic code"</a>. <i>Nature</i>. <b>404</b> (6777): 437. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F35006517">10.1038/35006517</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10761891">10761891</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:205005362">205005362</a>. <q>the first serious theories of both these key ideas were formulated by the same man, a colourful, irresistibly playful physicist named George Gamow.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=The+Big+Bang+and+the+genetic+code&rft.volume=404&rft.issue=6777&rft.pages=437&rft.date=2000-03-30&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A205005362%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F10761891&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F35006517&rft.aulast=Segr%C3%A8&rft.aufirst=Gino&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1038%252F35006517&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorge+Gamow" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loc.gov/exhibits/treasures/trr115.html">"DNA: An "Amateur" Makes a Real Contribution"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress" title="Library of Congress">Library of Congress</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2007-07-11</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Library+of+Congress&rft.atitle=DNA%3A+An+%22Amateur%22+Makes+a+Real+Contribution&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.loc.gov%2Fexhibits%2Ftreasures%2Ftrr115.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorge+Gamow" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Crick, Francis "What Mad Pursuit" (Basic Books 1998), Chap.8 The Genetic Code</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The twenty distinct combinations are:(3A)(3C)(3G)(3T),(ACG)(ACT)(AGT)(CGT),(2A,C)(2A,G)(2A,T)(2C,A)(2C,G)(2C,T)(2G,A)(2G,C)(2G,T)(2T,A)(2T,C)(2T,G).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMason2010" class="citation journal cs1">Mason, P. H. (2010). "Degeneracy at multiple levels of complexity". <i>Biological Theory</i>. <b>5</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">277–</span>288. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1162%2FBIOT_a_00041">10.1162/BIOT_a_00041</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:83846240">83846240</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Biological+Theory&rft.atitle=Degeneracy+at+multiple+levels+of+complexity&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E277-%3C%2Fspan%3E288&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1162%2FBIOT_a_00041&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A83846240%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Mason&rft.aufirst=P.+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorge+Gamow" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMason2014" class="citation journal cs1">Mason, P. H. (2014). "Degeneracy: Demystifying and destigmatizing a core concept in systems biology". <i>Complexity</i>. <b>20</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">12–</span>21. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fcplx.21534">10.1002/cplx.21534</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Complexity&rft.atitle=Degeneracy%3A+Demystifying+and+destigmatizing+a+core+concept+in+systems+biology&rft.volume=20&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E12-%3C%2Fspan%3E21&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fcplx.21534&rft.aulast=Mason&rft.aufirst=P.+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorge+Gamow" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWatson2002" class="citation book cs1">Watson, J. D. (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/genesgirlsgamowa00wats"><i>Genes, Girls, and Gamow: After the Double Helix</i></a>. New York: Random House. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-375-41283-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-375-41283-7"><bdi>978-0-375-41283-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/47716375">47716375</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Genes%2C+Girls%2C+and+Gamow%3A+After+the+Double+Helix&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Random+House&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F47716375&rft.isbn=978-0-375-41283-7&rft.aulast=Watson&rft.aufirst=J.+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fgenesgirlsgamowa00wats&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorge+Gamow" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Cole-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Cole_39-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cole_39-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cole_39-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCole2009" class="citation book cs1">Cole, K.C. (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/somethingincredi00cole"><i>Something Incredibly Wonderful Happens: Frank Oppenheimer and the World He Made Up</i></a>. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-15-100822-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-15-100822-3"><bdi>978-0-15-100822-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Something+Incredibly+Wonderful+Happens%3A+Frank+Oppenheimer+and+the+World+He+Made+Up&rft.pub=Houghton+Mifflin+Harcourt&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-15-100822-3&rft.aulast=Cole&rft.aufirst=K.C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsomethingincredi00cole&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorge+Gamow" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Antunes-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Antunes_40-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Antunes_40-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFAntunes2014" class="citation web cs1">Antunes, Alex "Sandy" (27 August 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.science20.com/daytime_astronomer/8_great_scientist_pranksters-77733">"8 Great Scientist Pranksters"</a>. <i>Science 2.0</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-04-04</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Science+2.0&rft.atitle=8+Great+Scientist+Pranksters&rft.date=2014-08-27&rft.aulast=Antunes&rft.aufirst=Alex+%22Sandy%22&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.science20.com%2Fdaytime_astronomer%2F8_great_scientist_pranksters-77733&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorge+Gamow" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Segre-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Segre_41-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Segre_41-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSegrè2000" class="citation journal cs1">Segrè, Gino (March 2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F35006517">"The Big Bang and the genetic code"</a>. <i>Nature</i>. <b>404</b> (6777): 437. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F35006517">10.1038/35006517</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10761891">10761891</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:205005362">205005362</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=The+Big+Bang+and+the+genetic+code&rft.volume=404&rft.issue=6777&rft.pages=437&rft.date=2000-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A205005362%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F10761891&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F35006517&rft.aulast=Segr%C3%A8&rft.aufirst=Gino&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1038%252F35006517&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorge+Gamow" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Falk-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Falk_42-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFFalk2016" class="citation web cs1">Falk, Dan (19 May 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://slate.com/technology/2016/05/the-best-jokes-scientists-sneak-into-the-research-papers-to-make-them-slightly-less-boring.html">"The Secret Jokes Scientists Slip Into Research Papers Are Delightfully Nerdy—Here's Proof"</a>. <i>Slate Magazine</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-04-04</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Slate+Magazine&rft.atitle=The+Secret+Jokes+Scientists+Slip+Into+Research+Papers+Are+Delightfully+Nerdy%E2%80%94Here%27s+Proof&rft.date=2016-05-19&rft.aulast=Falk&rft.aufirst=Dan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fslate.com%2Ftechnology%2F2016%2F05%2Fthe-best-jokes-scientists-sneak-into-the-research-papers-to-make-them-slightly-less-boring.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorge+Gamow" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">ANDERSON: "What, uh, one thing I'm fascinated with is, of course, George Gamow left the university in '59 [1956], and Edward Teller had left in 1946 [1945] and went to the University of Chicago. But do you have any recollections of maybe some of the, anything between Dr. Marvin and Dr. Gamow, as far as, just before he left and went to Colorado?" NAESER: "Ah, no, I don't know of any. I know Gamow made no, never did hide the fact that he was an atheist, but whether that came into the picture, I don't know. But the story around the university was that Gamow and Mrs. Gamow were divorced, but they were in the same social circles some of the time, he thought it was better to get out of Washington. That's why he went to Ohio State." <i>The George Washington University and Foggy Bottom Historical Encyclopedia</i>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://encyclopedia.gwu.edu/gwencyclopedia/index.php?title=Gamow%2C_George_and_Edward_Teller">Gamow, George and Edward Teller</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100613094539/http://encyclopedia.gwu.edu/gwencyclopedia/index.php?title=Gamow%2C_George_and_Edward_Teller">Archived</a> 2010-06-13 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, October 23, 1996.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGrote_Reber" class="citation web cs1">Grote Reber. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.21stcenturysciencetech.com/Articles_2011/BigBang_Bunk.pdf">"The Big Bang Is Bunk"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. 21st Century Science Associates. p. 44<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 May</span> 2012</span>. <q>After the initial mathematical work on relativity theory had been done, the Big Bang theory itself was invented by a Belgian priest, Georges Lemaître, improved upon by an avowed atheist, George Gamow, and is now all but universally accepted by those who hold advanced degrees in astronomy and the physical sciences, despite its obvious absurdity.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Big+Bang+Is+Bunk&rft.pages=44&rft.pub=21st+Century+Science+Associates.&rft.au=Grote+Reber&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.21stcenturysciencetech.com%2FArticles_2011%2FBigBang_Bunk.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorge+Gamow" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSimon_Singh2010" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Simon_Singh" title="Simon Singh">Simon Singh</a> (2010). <a href="/wiki/Big_Bang_(Singh_book)" title="Big Bang (Singh book)"><i>Big Bang</i></a>. HarperCollins UK. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780007375509" title="Special:BookSources/9780007375509"><bdi>9780007375509</bdi></a>. <q>Surprisingly, the atheist George Gamow enjoyed the Papal attention given to his field of research.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Big+Bang&rft.pub=HarperCollins+UK&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=9780007375509&rft.au=Simon+Singh&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorge+Gamow" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">G. Gamow (1946) <i>Atomic Energy in Human and Cosmic Life</i>, Preface, page ix, Cambridge University Press and Macmillan Company</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Atomic Energy</i>, page 155</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">G. Gamow (1965)[1947] <a href="/wiki/One_Two_Three_..._Infinity" class="mw-redirect" title="One Two Three ... Infinity">One Two Three ... Infinity</a>, page 315</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKaempffert1952" class="citation news cs1">Kaempffert, Waldemar (July 6, 1952). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1952/07/06/93378609.html?pageNumber=64">"At First It Was Ylem"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=At+First+It+Was+Ylem&rft.date=1952-07-06&rft.aulast=Kaempffert&rft.aufirst=Waldemar&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftimesmachine.nytimes.com%2Ftimesmachine%2F1952%2F07%2F06%2F93378609.html%3FpageNumber%3D64&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorge+Gamow" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGamow1952" class="citation book cs1">Gamow, George (1952). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/creationofuniver0000gamo"><i>The Creation of the Universe</i></a>. Viking Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Creation+of+the+Universe&rft.pub=Viking+Press&rft.date=1952&rft.aulast=Gamow&rft.aufirst=George&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcreationofuniver0000gamo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorge+Gamow" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://searcharchives.library.gwu.edu/repositories/2/resources/141">"George Gamow papers"</a>. GW Libraries / Gelman Library<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 September</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=George+Gamow+papers&rft.pub=GW+Libraries+%2F+Gelman+Library&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsearcharchives.library.gwu.edu%2Frepositories%2F2%2Fresources%2F141&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorge+Gamow" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=George_Gamow&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Interviews with Ralph A. Alpher and Robert C. Herman conducted by Martin Harwit in August, 1983, for the Archives at the Niels Bohr Library, American Institute of Physics, College Park, Maryland.</li> <li>"Ralph A. Alpher, Robert C. Herman, and the Prediction of the Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation," Physics in Perspective, 14(3), 300–334, 2012, by Victor S. Alpher.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=George_Gamow&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409" /> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wikiquote-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/40px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="34" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/60px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/120px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikiquote has quotations related to <i><b><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/George_Gamow" class="extiw" title="q:Special:Search/George Gamow">George Gamow</a></b></i>.</div></div> </div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735" /><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409" /> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/40px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/60px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:George_Gamow" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:George Gamow">George Gamow</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985" /><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409" /> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:The_Wikipedia_Library" title="Wikipedia:The Wikipedia Library">Library resources</a> about <br /> <b>George Gamow</b> <hr /></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=George+Gamow">Resources in your library</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=George+Gamow&library=0CHOOSE0">Resources in other libraries</a></li> </ul></div></div> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"><b>By George Gamow</b> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409" /><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?at=wp&au=George+Gamow">Resources in your library</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?at=wp&au=George+Gamow&library=0CHOOSE0">Resources in other libraries</a></li></ul> </div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.colorado.edu/physics/events/outreach/george-gamow-memorial-lecture-series">Memorial Lecture Series (University of Colorado Boulder)</a> – includes link to documentary about Gamow, hosted by his son Igor Gamow</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070927033649/http://www.norskfysikk.no/nfs/old/epsbiografer/GAMOW.PDF">Biographic sketch</a> (in <a href="/wiki/Portable_Document_Format" class="mw-redirect" title="Portable Document Format">PDF</a>)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.kolmogorov.com/Gamow.html">Gamow Books</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060828135200/http://alsos.wlu.edu/qsearch.aspx?browse=people%2FGamow%2C+George">Annotated bibliography for George Gamow from the Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dcmemorials.com/index_indiv0001387.htm">Gamow memorial</a> at George Washington University</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aip.org/history/ohilist/4325.html">Oral History interview transcript with George Gamow</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20091124151512/http://www.aip.org/history/ohilist/4325.html">Archived</a> 2009-11-24 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> – a lengthy interview, a few months before Gamow died; includes reminiscences about his family, education, career, and writing.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://images.google.com.au/imgres?imgurl=http://www.nndb.com/people/349/000099052/george-gamow-1-sized.jpg&imgrefurl=http://www.nndb.com/people/349/000099052/&usg=__UkHGUg2JUgBaAcpy9IVOqOSyT_s=&h=323&w=241&sz=23&hl=en&start=1&um=1&tbnid=hMllLEm587Ba7M:&tbnh=">Gamow 25 April 1968, American Institute of Physics, Niels Bohr Library and Archives</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nasonline.org/publications/biographical-memoirs/memoir-pdfs/gamow-george.pdf">National Academy of Sciences Biographical Memoir</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBowleyMerrifield,_MichaelPadilla,_Antonio_(Tony)" class="citation web cs1">Bowley, Roger; Merrifield, Michael; Padilla, Antonio (Tony). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sixtysymbols.com/videos/alphabetagamma.htm">"αβγ – The Alpha Beta Gamma Paper"</a>. <i>Sixty Symbols</i>. <a href="/wiki/Brady_Haran" title="Brady Haran">Brady Haran</a> for the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Nottingham" title="University of Nottingham">University of Nottingham</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Sixty+Symbols&rft.atitle=%CE%B1%CE%B2%CE%B3+%E2%80%93+The+Alpha+Beta+Gamma+Paper&rft.aulast=Bowley&rft.aufirst=Roger&rft.au=Merrifield%2C+Michael&rft.au=Padilla%2C+Antonio+%28Tony%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sixtysymbols.com%2Fvideos%2Falphabetagamma.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorge+Gamow" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1130092004">.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-bordered{padding:0 2em;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output 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href="https://isni.org/isni/0000000121402998">ISNI</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/76443377">VIAF</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.worldcat.org/fast/51336/">FAST</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.oclc.org/worldcat/entity/E39PBJx4qc4XqPh6K4kbv7XWXd">WorldCat</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/11871628X">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/n80028430">United States</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb128465323">France</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb128465323">BnF data</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00440480">Japan</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Gamow, George"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://opac.sbn.it/nome/LO1V024409">Italy</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nla.gov.au/anbd.aut-an35111268">Australia</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=jn20000601695&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://datos.bne.es/resource/XX1053519">Spain</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.bnportugal.gov.pt/aut/catbnp/29819">Portugal</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://data.bibliotheken.nl/id/thes/p069166684">Netherlands</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://authority.bibsys.no/authority/rest/authorities/html/90060377">Norway</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kopkatalogs.lv/F?func=direct&local_base=lnc10&doc_number=000040515&P_CON_LNG=ENG">Latvia</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://katalog.nsk.hr/F/?func=direct&doc_number=000379186&local_base=nsk10">Croatia</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.nlg.gr/cgi-bin/koha/opac-authoritiesdetail.pl?authid=236931">Greece</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lod.nl.go.kr/resource/KAC199609635">Korea</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://libris.kb.se/53hkkmgp34340c6">Sweden</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dbn.bn.org.pl/descriptor-details/9810689488405606">Poland</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a class="external text" href="https://wikidata-externalid-url.toolforge.org/?p=8034&url_prefix=https://opac.vatlib.it/auth/detail/&id=495/147362">Vatican</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nli.org.il/en/authorities/987007261391405171">Israel</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cantic.bnc.cat/registre/981058517742106706">Catalonia</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://opac.kbr.be/LIBRARY/doc/AUTHORITY/14488295">Belgium</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Academics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ci.nii.ac.jp/author/DA01191651?l=en">CiNii</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://zbmath.org/authors/?q=ai:gamov.george">zbMATH</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://trove.nla.gov.au/people/829861">Trove</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.deutsche-biographie.de/11871628X.html?language=en">Deutsche Biographie</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.deutsche-digitale-bibliothek.de/person/gnd/11871628X">DDB</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.idref.fr/056746342">IdRef</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://snaccooperative.org/ark:/99166/w6154j8k">SNAC</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img 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