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class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Expedition</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Expedition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Scientific_objectives" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Scientific_objectives"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Scientific objectives</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Scientific_objectives-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Challenger_Deep" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Challenger_Deep"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Challenger Deep</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Challenger_Deep-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Legacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Legacy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Legacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span 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Available in 27 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-27" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">27 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%B9%D8%AB%D8%A9_%D8%AA%D8%B4%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%86%D8%AC%D8%B1" title="بعثة تشالنجر – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="بعثة تشالنجر" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expedici%C3%B3_Challenger" title="Expedició Challenger – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Expedició Challenger" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Challenger-ekspeditionen" title="Challenger-ekspeditionen – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Challenger-ekspeditionen" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Challenger-Expedition" title="Challenger-Expedition – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Challenger-Expedition" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expedici%C3%B3n_Challenger" title="Expedición Challenger – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Expedición Challenger" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekspedicio_Challenger" title="Ekspedicio Challenger – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Ekspedicio Challenger" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Challenger_espedizioa" title="Challenger espedizioa – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Challenger espedizioa" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exp%C3%A9dition_du_Challenger" title="Expédition du Challenger – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Expédition du Challenger" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slua%C3%ADocht_an_Challenger" title="Sluaíocht an Challenger – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Sluaíocht an Challenger" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%B1%8C%EB%A6%B0%EC%A0%80_%ED%83%90%EC%82%AC" title="챌린저 탐사 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="챌린저 탐사" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekspedisi_Challenger" title="Ekspedisi Challenger – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Ekspedisi Challenger" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spedizione_Challenger" title="Spedizione Challenger – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Spedizione Challenger" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%A9%D7%9C%D7%97%D7%AA_%D7%A6%27%D7%9C%D7%A0%D7%92%27%D7%A8" title="משלחת צ'לנג'ר – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="משלחת צ'לנג'ר" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Challenger-expeditie" title="Challenger-expeditie – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Challenger-expeditie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%81%E3%83%A3%E3%83%AC%E3%83%B3%E3%82%B8%E3%83%A3%E3%83%BC%E5%8F%B7%E6%8E%A2%E6%A4%9C%E8%88%AA%E6%B5%B7" title="チャレンジャー号探検航海 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="チャレンジャー号探検航海" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Challengerekspedisjonen" title="Challengerekspedisjonen – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Challengerekspedisjonen" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expedi%C3%A7%C3%A3o_Challenger" title="Expedição Challenger – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Expedição Challenger" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%BF%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F_%C2%AB%D0%A7%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B6%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%C2%BB" title="Экспедиция «Челленджера» – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Экспедиция «Челленджера»" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Challenger_(exped%C3%ADcia)" title="Challenger (expedícia) – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Challenger (expedícia)" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Challenger-tutkimusmatka" title="Challenger-tutkimusmatka – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Challenger-tutkimusmatka" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Challengerexpeditionen" title="Challengerexpeditionen – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Challengerexpeditionen" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekspedisyong_Challenger" title="Ekspedisyong Challenger – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Ekspedisyong Challenger" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%9E%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%86%E0%AE%AF%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%B5%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%A3%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D" title="சலஞ்சர் ஆய்வுப் பயணம் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="சலஞ்சர் ஆய்வுப் பயணம்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Challenger_seferi" title="Challenger seferi – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Challenger seferi" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%BF%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%86%D1%96%D1%8F_%C2%AB%D0%A7%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B6%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%C2%BB" title="Експедиція «Челленджера» – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Експедиція «Челленджера»" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%8C%91%E6%88%98%E8%80%85%E5%8F%B7%E8%BF%9C%E5%BE%81" title="挑战者号远征 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="挑战者号远征" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%8C%91%E6%88%B0%E8%80%85%E8%99%9F%E9%81%A0%E5%BE%81" title="挑戰者號遠征 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="挑戰者號遠征" 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data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Oceanographic research expedition (1872–1876)</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:HMS_Challenger_(1858).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/HMS_Challenger_%281858%29.jpg/290px-HMS_Challenger_%281858%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="290" height="199" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/HMS_Challenger_%281858%29.jpg/435px-HMS_Challenger_%281858%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/HMS_Challenger_%281858%29.jpg/580px-HMS_Challenger_%281858%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1371" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/HMS_Challenger_(1858)" title="HMS Challenger (1858)">HMS <i>Challenger</i></a> refitted at <a href="/wiki/Sheerness" title="Sheerness">Sheerness</a> in 1872, <a href="/wiki/Illustrated_London_News" class="mw-redirect" title="Illustrated London News">Illustrated London News</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The <b><i>Challenger</i> expedition</b> of 1872–1876 was a scientific programme that made many discoveries to lay the foundation of <a href="/wiki/Oceanography" title="Oceanography">oceanography</a>. The expedition was named after the naval vessel that undertook the trip, <a href="/wiki/HMS_Challenger_(1858)" title="HMS Challenger (1858)">HMS <i>Challenger</i></a>. </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:504px;max-width:504px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:502px;max-width:502px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Thalassa;_an_essay_on_the_depth,_temperature,_and_currents_of_the_ocean_(1877)_(14595726250).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Thalassa%3B_an_essay_on_the_depth%2C_temperature%2C_and_currents_of_the_ocean_%281877%29_%2814595726250%29.jpg/500px-Thalassa%3B_an_essay_on_the_depth%2C_temperature%2C_and_currents_of_the_ocean_%281877%29_%2814595726250%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="500" height="357" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Thalassa%3B_an_essay_on_the_depth%2C_temperature%2C_and_currents_of_the_ocean_%281877%29_%2814595726250%29.jpg/750px-Thalassa%3B_an_essay_on_the_depth%2C_temperature%2C_and_currents_of_the_ocean_%281877%29_%2814595726250%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Thalassa%3B_an_essay_on_the_depth%2C_temperature%2C_and_currents_of_the_ocean_%281877%29_%2814595726250%29.jpg/1000px-Thalassa%3B_an_essay_on_the_depth%2C_temperature%2C_and_currents_of_the_ocean_%281877%29_%2814595726250%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2736" data-file-height="1954" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:502px;max-width:502px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Thalassa;_an_essay_on_the_depth,_temperature,_and_currents_of_the_ocean_(1877)_(14595927997).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Thalassa%3B_an_essay_on_the_depth%2C_temperature%2C_and_currents_of_the_ocean_%281877%29_%2814595927997%29.jpg/500px-Thalassa%3B_an_essay_on_the_depth%2C_temperature%2C_and_currents_of_the_ocean_%281877%29_%2814595927997%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="500" height="268" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Thalassa%3B_an_essay_on_the_depth%2C_temperature%2C_and_currents_of_the_ocean_%281877%29_%2814595927997%29.jpg/750px-Thalassa%3B_an_essay_on_the_depth%2C_temperature%2C_and_currents_of_the_ocean_%281877%29_%2814595927997%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Thalassa%3B_an_essay_on_the_depth%2C_temperature%2C_and_currents_of_the_ocean_%281877%29_%2814595927997%29.jpg/1000px-Thalassa%3B_an_essay_on_the_depth%2C_temperature%2C_and_currents_of_the_ocean_%281877%29_%2814595927997%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2992" data-file-height="1606" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">Maps of the <i>Challenger</i>'s route.</div></div></div></div> <p>The expedition, initiated by <a href="/wiki/William_Benjamin_Carpenter" title="William Benjamin Carpenter">William Benjamin Carpenter</a>, was placed under the scientific supervision of Sir <a href="/wiki/Charles_Wyville_Thomson" title="Charles Wyville Thomson">Charles Wyville Thomson</a>—of the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Edinburgh" title="University of Edinburgh">University of Edinburgh</a> and <a href="/wiki/Merchiston_Castle_School" title="Merchiston Castle School">Merchiston Castle School</a>—assisted by five other scientists, including Sir <a href="/wiki/John_Murray_(oceanographer)" title="John Murray (oceanographer)">John Murray</a>, a secretary-artist and a photographer.<sup id="cite_ref-Aitken_t1_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Aitken_t1-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Royal_Society_of_London" class="mw-redirect" title="Royal Society of London">Royal Society of London</a> obtained the use of <i>Challenger</i> from the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Navy" title="Royal Navy">Royal Navy</a> and in 1872 modified the ship for scientific tasks at <a href="/wiki/Sheerness" title="Sheerness">Sheerness</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-RMG_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RMG-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> equipping it with separate laboratories for <a href="/wiki/Natural_history" title="Natural history">natural history</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chemistry" title="Chemistry">chemistry</a>. The expedition, led by Captain <a href="/wiki/George_Nares" title="George Nares">George Nares</a>, sailed from <a href="/wiki/Portsmouth,_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Portsmouth, England">Portsmouth, England</a>, on 21 December 1872.<sup id="cite_ref-Rice_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rice-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other naval officers included Commander <a href="/wiki/John_Maclear" title="John Maclear">John Maclear</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-crew_list_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-crew_list-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Aitken_t1_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Aitken_t1-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Under the scientific supervision of Thomson himself, the ship traveled approximately 68,890 nautical miles (79,280 miles; 127,580 kilometres) surveying and exploring.<sup id="cite_ref-eis_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-eis-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The result was the <i>Report of the Scientific Results of the Exploring Voyage of H.M.S. Challenger during the years 1873–76</i> which, among many other discoveries, catalogued over 4,000 previously unknown species. John Murray, who supervised the publication, described the report as "the greatest advance in the knowledge of our planet since the celebrated discoveries of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries". The report is available online as the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books/about/A%20Summary%20of%20the%20Scientific%20Results%20Obta.html?id=EA1DAQAAIAAJ">Report of the Voyage of HMS Challenger</a>. <i>Challenger</i> sailed close to <a href="/wiki/Antarctica" title="Antarctica">Antarctica</a>, but not within sight of it.<sup id="cite_ref-aga_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-aga-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Aitken_t1_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Aitken_t1-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, it was the first scientific expedition to take pictures of icebergs.<sup id="cite_ref-Aitken_t1_1-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Aitken_t1-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Preparations">Preparations</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Challenger_expedition&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Preparations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>To enable it to probe the depths, 15 of <i>Challenger</i><span class="nowrap" style="padding-left:0.1em;">'s</span> 17 guns were removed and its spars reduced to make more space available. Laboratories, extra cabins and a special <a href="/wiki/Dredging" title="Dredging">dredging</a> platform were installed.<sup id="cite_ref-NOAA_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NOAA-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>Challenger</i> used mainly sail power during the expedition; the steam engine was used only for dragging the dredge, station-keeping while taking soundings, and entering and leaving ports.<sup id="cite_ref-NOAA_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NOAA-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was loaded with specimen jars, filled with alcohol for preservation of samples, microscopes and chemical apparatus, trawls and dredges, thermometers, barometers, water sampling bottles, <a href="/wiki/Depth_sounding" title="Depth sounding">sounding leads</a>, devices to collect sediment from the sea bed and great lengths of rope with which to suspend the equipment into the ocean depths.<sup id="cite_ref-Equipment_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Equipment-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Because of the novelty of the expedition, some of the equipment was invented or specially modified for the occasion. It carried 181 miles (291 km) of Italian <a href="/wiki/Hemp" title="Hemp">hemp</a> rope for <a href="/wiki/Depth_sounding" title="Depth sounding">sounding</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Expedition">Expedition</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Challenger_expedition&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Expedition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Challenger_negatives_box_Picture_0105.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Challenger_negatives_box_Picture_0105.jpg/170px-Challenger_negatives_box_Picture_0105.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="213" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Challenger_negatives_box_Picture_0105.jpg/255px-Challenger_negatives_box_Picture_0105.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Challenger_negatives_box_Picture_0105.jpg/340px-Challenger_negatives_box_Picture_0105.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1280" /></a><figcaption>One of the original boxes containing the photographic negatives brought back from the expedition</figcaption></figure> <p>On its landmark journey circumnavigating the globe,<sup id="cite_ref-Rice_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rice-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> 492 deep sea soundings, 133 bottom dredges, 151 open water trawls and 263 serial water temperature observations were taken.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Aitken_t1_1-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Aitken_t1-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> About 4,700 new species of marine life were discovered. </p><p>The scientific work was conducted by <a href="/wiki/Wyville_Thomson" class="mw-redirect" title="Wyville Thomson">Wyville Thomson</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Murray_(oceanographer)" title="John Murray (oceanographer)">John Murray</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Young_Buchanan" title="John Young Buchanan">John Young Buchanan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Henry_Nottidge_Moseley" title="Henry Nottidge Moseley">Henry Nottidge Moseley</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Rudolf_von_Willemoes-Suhm" title="Rudolf von Willemoes-Suhm">Rudolf von Willemoes-Suhm</a>. Frank Evers Bed was appointed <a href="/wiki/Prosector" title="Prosector">prosector</a>. The official expedition artist was <a href="/wiki/John_James_Wild" title="John James Wild">John James Wild</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-crew_list_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-crew_list-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As well as Nares and Maclear, others that were part of the naval crew included <a href="/wiki/Pelham_Aldrich" title="Pelham Aldrich">Pelham Aldrich</a>, George Granville Campbell, and Andrew Francis Balfour (one of the sons of Scottish botanist <a href="/wiki/John_Hutton_Balfour" title="John Hutton Balfour">John Hutton Balfour</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-crew_list_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-crew_list-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Also among the officers was <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Henry_Tizard" title="Thomas Henry Tizard">Thomas Henry Tizard</a>, who had carried out important hydrographic observations on previous voyages. Though he was not among the civilian scientific staff, Tizard would later help write the official account of the expedition, and also become a <a href="/wiki/Fellow_of_the_Royal_Society" title="Fellow of the Royal Society">Fellow of the Royal Society</a>. </p><p>The original ship's complement included 21 officers and around 216 crew members.<sup id="cite_ref-NOAA_7-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NOAA-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the end of the voyage, this had been reduced to 144 due to deaths, desertions, personnel being left ashore due to illness, and planned departures.<sup id="cite_ref-NOAA_7-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NOAA-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><i>Challenger</i> reached <a href="/wiki/Hong_Kong" title="Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a> in December 1874, at which point Nares and Aldrich left the ship to take part in the <a href="/wiki/British_Arctic_Expedition" title="British Arctic Expedition">British Arctic Expedition</a>. The new captain was Frank Tourle Thomson.<sup id="cite_ref-crew_list_4-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-crew_list-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The second-in-command, and the most senior officer present throughout the entire expedition, was Commander <a href="/wiki/John_Maclear" title="John Maclear">John Maclear</a>. Willemoes-Suhm died and was buried at sea on the voyage to <a href="/wiki/Tahiti" title="Tahiti">Tahiti</a>. Lords Campbell and Balfour left the ship in Valparaiso, Chile, after being promoted.<sup id="cite_ref-crew_list_4-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-crew_list-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Track_of_H.M.S._Challenger_Dec.r_1872_to_May_1876_-_UvA-BC_OTM_HB-KZL_62_04_07.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Track_of_H.M.S._Challenger_Dec.r_1872_to_May_1876_-_UvA-BC_OTM_HB-KZL_62_04_07.jpg/330px-Track_of_H.M.S._Challenger_Dec.r_1872_to_May_1876_-_UvA-BC_OTM_HB-KZL_62_04_07.jpg" decoding="async" width="330" height="132" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Track_of_H.M.S._Challenger_Dec.r_1872_to_May_1876_-_UvA-BC_OTM_HB-KZL_62_04_07.jpg/495px-Track_of_H.M.S._Challenger_Dec.r_1872_to_May_1876_-_UvA-BC_OTM_HB-KZL_62_04_07.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Track_of_H.M.S._Challenger_Dec.r_1872_to_May_1876_-_UvA-BC_OTM_HB-KZL_62_04_07.jpg/660px-Track_of_H.M.S._Challenger_Dec.r_1872_to_May_1876_-_UvA-BC_OTM_HB-KZL_62_04_07.jpg 2x" data-file-width="8570" data-file-height="3426" /></a><figcaption>Track of HMS <i>Challenger</i> from December 1872 until May 1876. The colour contours represent ocean surface density.</figcaption></figure> <p>The first leg of the expedition took the ship from <a href="/wiki/Portsmouth" title="Portsmouth">Portsmouth</a> (December 1872) south to <a href="/wiki/Lisbon" title="Lisbon">Lisbon</a> (January 1873) and then on to <a href="/wiki/Gibraltar" title="Gibraltar">Gibraltar</a>. The next stops were <a href="/wiki/Madeira" title="Madeira">Madeira</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Canary_Islands" title="Canary Islands">Canary Islands</a> (both February 1873). The period from February to July 1873 was spent crossing the Atlantic westwards from the Canary Islands to the <a href="/wiki/Virgin_Islands" title="Virgin Islands">Virgin Islands</a>, then heading north to the North Atlantic archipelago and <a href="/wiki/Imperial_fortress" title="Imperial fortress">Imperial fortress</a> <a href="/wiki/British_Overseas_Territory" class="mw-redirect" title="British Overseas Territory">colony</a> of <a href="/wiki/Bermuda" title="Bermuda">Bermuda</a> (home base of the North America and West Indies Station), east to the <a href="/wiki/Azores" title="Azores">Azores</a>, back to Madeira, and then south to the <a href="/wiki/Cape_Verde_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Cape Verde Islands">Cape Verde Islands</a>. During this period, there was a detour in April and May 1873, sailing from Bermuda north to <a href="/wiki/City_of_Halifax" class="mw-redirect" title="City of Halifax">Halifax</a> and back, crossing the <a href="/wiki/Gulf_Stream" title="Gulf Stream">Gulf Stream</a> twice with the reverse journey crossing further to the east.<sup id="cite_ref-official_charts_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-official_charts-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After leaving the Cape Verde Islands in August 1873, the expedition initially sailed south-east and then headed west to reach <a href="/wiki/St_Paul%27s_Rocks" class="mw-redirect" title="St Paul's Rocks">St Paul's Rocks</a>. From here, the route went south across the equator to <a href="/wiki/Fernando_de_Noronha" title="Fernando de Noronha">Fernando de Noronha</a> during September 1873, and onwards that same month to <a href="/wiki/Salvador,_Bahia" title="Salvador, Bahia">Bahia</a> (now called Salvador) in Brazil. The period from September to October 1873 was spent crossing the Atlantic from Bahia to the <a href="/wiki/Cape_of_Good_Hope" title="Cape of Good Hope">Cape of Good Hope</a>, touching at <a href="/wiki/Tristan_da_Cunha" title="Tristan da Cunha">Tristan da Cunha</a> on the way.<sup id="cite_ref-official_charts_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-official_charts-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Challenger_H2017_82_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Challenger_H2017_82_2.jpg/330px-Challenger_H2017_82_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="330" height="158" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Challenger_H2017_82_2.jpg/495px-Challenger_H2017_82_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Challenger_H2017_82_2.jpg/660px-Challenger_H2017_82_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="765" /></a><figcaption>HMS <i>Challenger</i> in the <a href="/wiki/Southern_Ocean" title="Southern Ocean">Southern Ocean</a>, drawn by crewman Sub-lieutenant Herbert Swire</figcaption></figure> <p>December 1873 to February 1874 was spent sailing on a roughly south-eastern track from the Cape of Good Hope to the parallel of <a href="/wiki/60th_parallel_south" title="60th parallel south">60 degrees south</a>. The islands visited during this period were the <a href="/wiki/Prince_Edward_Islands" title="Prince Edward Islands">Prince Edward Islands</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Crozet_Islands" title="Crozet Islands">Crozet Islands</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Kerguelen_Islands" title="Kerguelen Islands">Kerguelen Islands</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Heard_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="Heard Island">Heard Island</a>. February 1874 was spent travelling south and then generally eastwards in the vicinity of the <a href="/wiki/Antarctic_Circle" title="Antarctic Circle">Antarctic Circle</a>, with sightings of icebergs, pack ice and whales. The route then took the ship north-eastward and away from the ice regions in March 1874, with the expedition reaching <a href="/wiki/Melbourne" title="Melbourne">Melbourne</a> in Australia later that month. The journey eastward along the coast from Melbourne to Sydney took place in April 1874, passing by <a href="/wiki/Wilsons_Promontory" title="Wilsons Promontory">Wilsons Promontory</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cape_Howe" title="Cape Howe">Cape Howe</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-official_charts_11-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-official_charts-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Challenger_expedition.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Challenger_expedition.jpg/290px-Challenger_expedition.jpg" decoding="async" width="290" height="206" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Challenger_expedition.jpg/435px-Challenger_expedition.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Challenger_expedition.jpg/580px-Challenger_expedition.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1140" data-file-height="810" /></a><figcaption>Expedition crew in 1874</figcaption></figure> <p>When the voyage resumed in June 1874, the route went east from Sydney to <a href="/wiki/Wellington" title="Wellington">Wellington</a> in New Zealand, followed by a large loop north into the Pacific calling at <a href="/wiki/Tonga" title="Tonga">Tonga</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fiji" title="Fiji">Fiji</a>, and then back westward to <a href="/wiki/Cape_York_Peninsula" title="Cape York Peninsula">Cape York</a> in Australia by the end of August. The ship arrived in New Zealand in late June and left in early July. Before reaching Wellington (on New Zealand's North Island), brief stops were made at Port Hardy (on <a href="/wiki/D%27Urville_Island,_New_Zealand" class="mw-redirect" title="D'Urville Island, New Zealand">d'Urville Island</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Queen_Charlotte_Sound_(New_Zealand)" class="mw-redirect" title="Queen Charlotte Sound (New Zealand)">Queen Charlotte Sound</a> and <i>Challenger</i> passed through the <a href="/wiki/Cook_Strait" title="Cook Strait">Cook Strait</a> to reach Wellington. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Amatabaulay,_during_the_Challenger_Expedition,_1874.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Amatabaulay%2C_during_the_Challenger_Expedition%2C_1874.jpg/220px-Amatabaulay%2C_during_the_Challenger_Expedition%2C_1874.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="279" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Amatabaulay%2C_during_the_Challenger_Expedition%2C_1874.jpg/330px-Amatabaulay%2C_during_the_Challenger_Expedition%2C_1874.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Amatabaulay%2C_during_the_Challenger_Expedition%2C_1874.jpg/440px-Amatabaulay%2C_during_the_Challenger_Expedition%2C_1874.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2668" data-file-height="3379" /></a><figcaption>Amatabaulay, a <a href="/wiki/Tongan_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Tongan people">Tongan</a> pilot taken on board by the expedition in July 1874.</figcaption></figure> <p>The route from Wellington to Tonga went along the east coast of New Zealand's North Island, and then north and east into the open Pacific, passing by the <a href="/wiki/Kermadec_Islands" title="Kermadec Islands">Kermadec Islands</a> en route to <a href="/wiki/Tongatabu" class="mw-redirect" title="Tongatabu">Tongatabu</a>, the main island of the Tonga archipelago (then known as the Friendly Islands). The waters around the Fijian islands, a short distance to the north-west of Tonga, were surveyed during late July and early August 1874. The ship's course was then set westward, reaching <a href="/wiki/Raine_Island" title="Raine Island">Raine Island</a>—on the outer edge of the <a href="/wiki/Great_Barrier_Reef" title="Great Barrier Reef">Great Barrier Reef</a>—at the end of August and thence arriving at Cape York, at the tip of Australia's <a href="/wiki/Cape_York_Peninsula" title="Cape York Peninsula">Cape York Peninsula</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-official_charts_11-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-official_charts-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Over the following three months, from September to November 1874, the expedition visited several islands and island groups while sailing from Cape York to China and <a href="/wiki/Hong_Kong" title="Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a> (then a <a href="/wiki/British_Hong_Kong" title="British Hong Kong">British colony</a>). The first part of the route passed north and west over the <a href="/wiki/Arafura_Sea" title="Arafura Sea">Arafura Sea</a>, with <a href="/wiki/New_Guinea" title="New Guinea">New Guinea</a> to the north-east and the Australian mainland to the south-west. The first islands visited were the <a href="/wiki/Aru_Islands_Regency" title="Aru Islands Regency">Aru Islands</a>, followed by the nearby <a href="/wiki/Kai_Islands" title="Kai Islands">Kai Islands</a>. The ship then crossed the <a href="/wiki/Banda_Sea" title="Banda Sea">Banda Sea</a> touching at the <a href="/wiki/Banda_Islands" title="Banda Islands">Banda Islands</a>, to reach Amboina (<a href="/wiki/Ambon_Island" title="Ambon Island">Ambon Island</a>) in October 1874, and then continuing to <a href="/wiki/Ternate_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="Ternate Island">Ternate Island</a>. At the time, all these islands were part of <a href="/wiki/Dutch_East_Indies" title="Dutch East Indies">Netherlands East-Indies</a> and are since 1949 part of <a href="/wiki/Indonesia" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a>. </p><p>From Ternate, the route went north-westward towards the Philippines, passing east of Celebes (<a href="/wiki/Sulawesi" title="Sulawesi">Sulawesi</a>) into the <a href="/wiki/Celebes_Sea" title="Celebes Sea">Celebes Sea</a>. The expedition called at Samboangan (<a href="/wiki/Zamboanga_City" title="Zamboanga City">Zamboanga</a>) on Mindanao, and then <a href="/wiki/Iloilo" title="Iloilo">Iloilo</a> on the island of Panay, before navigating within the interior of the archipelago en route to the bay and harbour of <a href="/wiki/Manila" title="Manila">Manila</a> on the island of Luzon. The crossing north-westward from Manila to Hong Kong took place in November 1874.<sup id="cite_ref-official_charts_11-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-official_charts-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After several weeks in Hong Kong, the expedition departed in early January 1875 to retrace their route south-east towards New Guinea. The first stop on this outward leg of the journey was Manila. From there, they continued on to Samboangan, but took a different route through the interior of the Philippines, this time touching at the island of <a href="/wiki/Cebu_(island)" class="mw-redirect" title="Cebu (island)">Zebu</a>. From Samboangan the ship diverged from the inward route, this time passing south of Mindanao—in early-February 1875. </p><p><i>Challenger</i> then headed east into the open sea, before turning to the south-east and making landfall at Humboldt Bay (now <a href="/wiki/Yos_Sudarso_Bay" title="Yos Sudarso Bay">Yos Sudarso Bay</a>) on the north coast of New Guinea. By March 1875, the expedition had reached the <a href="/wiki/Admiralty_Islands" title="Admiralty Islands">Admiralty Islands</a> north-east of New Guinea. The final stage of the voyage on this side of the Pacific was a long journey across the open ocean to the north, passing mostly west of the <a href="/wiki/Caroline_Islands" title="Caroline Islands">Caroline Islands</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Mariana_Islands" title="Mariana Islands">Mariana Islands</a>, reaching port in <a href="/wiki/Yokohama" title="Yokohama">Yokohama</a>, Japan, in April 1875.<sup id="cite_ref-official_charts_11-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-official_charts-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Challenger_at_Juan_Fernandez.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/The_Challenger_at_Juan_Fernandez.jpg/310px-The_Challenger_at_Juan_Fernandez.jpg" decoding="async" width="310" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/The_Challenger_at_Juan_Fernandez.jpg/465px-The_Challenger_at_Juan_Fernandez.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/The_Challenger_at_Juan_Fernandez.jpg/620px-The_Challenger_at_Juan_Fernandez.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2472" data-file-height="1812" /></a><figcaption><i>Challenger</i> at the <a href="/wiki/Juan_Fern%C3%A1ndez_Islands" title="Juan Fernández Islands">Juan Fernández Islands</a> off <a href="/wiki/Chile" title="Chile">Chile</a></figcaption></figure> <p><i>Challenger</i> departed Japan in mid-June 1875, heading east across the Pacific to a point due north of the <a href="/wiki/Hawaiian_Islands" title="Hawaiian Islands">Sandwich Islands</a> (Hawaiʻi), and then turning south, making landfall at the end of July at <a href="/wiki/Honolulu,_Hawaii" class="mw-redirect" title="Honolulu, Hawaii">Honolulu</a> on the Hawaiian island of <a href="/wiki/Oahu" title="Oahu">Oʻahu</a>. A couple of weeks later, in mid-August, the ship departed south-eastward, anchoring at <a href="/wiki/Hilo_Bay" title="Hilo Bay">Hilo Bay</a> off <a href="/wiki/Hawaii_(island)" title="Hawaii (island)">Hawaiʻi Island</a>, before continuing to the south and reaching <a href="/wiki/Tahiti" title="Tahiti">Tahiti</a> in mid-September. </p><p>The expedition left Tahiti in early October, swinging to the west and south of the <a href="/wiki/Tubuai_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Tubuai Islands">Tubuai Islands</a> and then heading to the south-east before turning east towards the South American coast. The route touched at the <a href="/wiki/Juan_Fern%C3%A1ndez_Islands" title="Juan Fernández Islands">Juan Fernández Islands</a> in mid-November 1875, with <i>Challenger</i> reaching the port of <a href="/wiki/Valparaiso" class="mw-redirect" title="Valparaiso">Valparaiso</a> in Chile a few days later. The next stage of the journey commenced the following month, with the route taking the ship south-westward back out into the Pacific, past the Juan Fernández Islands, before turning to the south-east and back towards South America, reaching Port Otway in the <a href="/wiki/Gulf_of_Penas" title="Gulf of Penas">Gulf of Penas</a> on 31 December 1875.<sup id="cite_ref-official_charts_11-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-official_charts-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Most of January 1876 was spent navigating around the southern tip of South America, surveying and touching at many of the bays and islands of the Patagonian archipelago, the <a href="/wiki/Strait_of_Magellan" title="Strait of Magellan">Strait of Magellan</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Tierra_del_Fuego" title="Tierra del Fuego">Tierra del Fuego</a>. Locations visited here include Hale Cove, Gray Harbour, Port Grappler, Tom Bay, all in the vicinity of <a href="/wiki/Wellington_Island" title="Wellington Island">Wellington Island</a>; Puerta Bueno, near <a href="/wiki/Hanover_Island" title="Hanover Island">Hanover Island</a>; Isthmus Bay, near the <a href="/wiki/Queen_Adelaide_Archipelago" title="Queen Adelaide Archipelago">Queen Adelaide Archipelago</a>; and Port Churruca, near <a href="/wiki/Santa_Ines_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="Santa Ines Island">Santa Ines Island</a>. </p><p>The final stops, before heading out into the Atlantic, were <a href="/wiki/Puerto_del_Hambre" title="Puerto del Hambre">Port Famine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sandy_Point,_Chile" class="mw-redirect" title="Sandy Point, Chile">Sandy Point</a>, and Elizabeth Island. <i>Challenger</i> reached the <a href="/wiki/Falkland_Islands" title="Falkland Islands">Falkland Islands</a> towards the end of January, calling at <a href="/wiki/Port_Stanley" class="mw-redirect" title="Port Stanley">Port Stanley</a> and then continuing northward, reaching <a href="/wiki/Montevideo" title="Montevideo">Montevideo</a> in Uruguay in mid-February 1876. The ship left Montevideo at the end of February, heading first due east and then due north, arriving at <a href="/wiki/Ascension_Island" title="Ascension Island">Ascension Island</a> at the end of March 1876. </p><p>The period from early- to mid-April was spent sailing from Ascension Island to the Cape Verde Islands. From here, the route taken in late April and early May 1876 was a westward loop to the north out into the mid-Atlantic, eventually turning due east towards Europe to touch land at <a href="/wiki/Vigo" title="Vigo">Vigo</a> in Spain towards the end of May. The final stage of the voyage took the ship and its crew north-eastward from Vigo, skirting the <a href="/wiki/Bay_of_Biscay" title="Bay of Biscay">Bay of Biscay</a> to make landfall in England.<sup id="cite_ref-official_charts_11-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-official_charts-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>Challenger</i> returned to <a href="/wiki/Spithead" title="Spithead">Spithead</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hampshire" title="Hampshire">Hampshire</a>, on 24 May 1876, having spent 713 days out of the intervening 1,250 at sea.<sup id="cite_ref-Rice_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rice-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Scientific_objectives">Scientific objectives</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Challenger_expedition&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Scientific objectives"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Royal_Society" title="Royal Society">Royal Society</a> stated the voyage's scientific goals were:<sup id="cite_ref-HMS_Challenger:_Science_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HMS_Challenger:_Science-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Aitken_t1_1-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Aitken_t1-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ol><li>To investigate the physical conditions of the deep sea in the great ocean basins—as far as the neighborhood of the Great Southern Ice Barrier—in regard to depth, temperature, circulation, <a href="/wiki/Specific_gravity" class="mw-redirect" title="Specific gravity">specific gravity</a> and penetration of light.</li> <li>To determine the <a href="/wiki/Chemical_composition" title="Chemical composition">chemical composition</a> of seawater at various depths from the surface to the bottom, the organic matter in solution and the particles in suspension.</li> <li>To ascertain the physical and chemical character of deep-sea deposits and the sources of these deposits.</li> <li>To investigate the distribution of organic life at different depths and on the deep seafloor.</li></ol> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Examining_a_haul_on_board_the_Challenger.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Examining_a_haul_on_board_the_Challenger.jpg/170px-Examining_a_haul_on_board_the_Challenger.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="250" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Examining_a_haul_on_board_the_Challenger.jpg/255px-Examining_a_haul_on_board_the_Challenger.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Examining_a_haul_on_board_the_Challenger.jpg/340px-Examining_a_haul_on_board_the_Challenger.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1709" data-file-height="2510" /></a><figcaption>Examination of caught specimen</figcaption></figure> <p>One of the goals of the physical measurements for HMS Challenger was to be able to verify the hypothesis put forward by Carpenter on the link between temperature mapping and global ocean circulation in order to provide some answers on the phenomena involved in the major oceanic mixing. This study is a continuation of the preliminary exploratory missions of <a href="/wiki/HMS_Lightning_(1823)" title="HMS Lightning (1823)">HMS Lightning (1823)</a> and <a href="/wiki/HMS_Porcupine_(1844)" title="HMS Porcupine (1844)">HMS Porcupine (1844)</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Aitken_t1_1-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Aitken_t1-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These results are important for Carpenter because his explanation differed from that of another renowned oceanographer at the time, the American <a href="/wiki/Matthew_Fontaine_Maury" title="Matthew Fontaine Maury">Matthew Fontaine Maury</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Aitken_t2_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Aitken_t2-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> All these results of physical measurements were synthesized by <a href="/wiki/John_James_Wild" title="John James Wild">John James Wild</a> (i.e. the expedition's secretary-artist) in his doctoral thesis at the University of Zurich.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A second important issue concerning the collection of different kinds of physical data on the ocean floor was the laying of submarine telegraph cables. Many transoceanic cables were being laid in the 1860s and 1870s and their efficient laying and operation were matters of great strategic and commercial importance.<sup id="cite_ref-Aitken_t1_1-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Aitken_t1-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>At each of the 360 stations the crew measured the bottom depth and temperature at different depths, observed weather and surface ocean conditions, and collected seafloor, water, and biota samples. <i>Challenger</i><span class="nowrap" style="padding-left:0.1em;">'s</span> crew used methods that were developed in prior small-scale expeditions to make observations. To measure depth, they would lower a line with a weight attached to it until it reached the sea floor. The line was marked in 25-fathom (150 ft; 46 m) intervals with flags denoting depth. Because of this, the depth measurements from <i>Challenger</i> were, at best, accurate to the nearest 25-fathom (150 ft; 46 m) demarcation. The sinker often had a small container attached to it that would allow for the collection of bottom sediment samples.<sup id="cite_ref-Aitken_t1_1-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Aitken_t1-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The crew used a variety of dredges and <a href="/wiki/Trawl" class="mw-redirect" title="Trawl">trawls</a> to collect biological samples. The dredges consisted of metal nets attached to a wooden plank and dragged across the sea floor. Mop heads attached to the wooden plank would sweep across the sea floor and release organisms from the ocean bottom to be caught in the nets. Trawls were large metal nets towed behind the ship to collect organisms at different depths of water.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Upon the retrieval of a dredge or trawl, <i>Challenger</i> crew would sort, rinse, and store the specimens for examination upon return. The specimens were often preserved in either brine or alcohol.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The primary thermometer used throughout the <i>Challenger</i> expedition was the <a href="/wiki/Miller%E2%80%93Casella_thermometer" title="Miller–Casella thermometer">Miller–Casella thermometer</a>, which contained two markers within a curved mercury tube to record the maximum and minimum temperature through which the instrument traveled.<sup id="cite_ref-Aitken_t2_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Aitken_t2-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Several of these thermometers would be lowered at various depths for recording. However, this design assumed that the water closer to the surface of the ocean was always warmer than that below. During the voyage, <i>Challenger</i><span class="nowrap" style="padding-left:0.1em;">'</span>s crew tested the <a href="/wiki/Reversing_thermometer" title="Reversing thermometer">reversing thermometer</a>, which could measure temperature at specified depths. Afterwards, this type of thermometer was used extensively until the second half of the 20th century.<sup id="cite_ref-HMS_Challenger:_Science_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HMS_Challenger:_Science-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After the return of the Challenger, C.W. Thomson asked <a href="/wiki/Peter_Tait_(physicist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Peter Tait (physicist)">Peter Tait</a> to solve a thorny and important question: to evaluate the error in the measurement of the temperature of deep waters caused by the high pressures to which the thermometers were subjected. Tait solved this question and continued his work with a more fundamental study on the compressibility of liquids leading to his famous <a href="/wiki/Tait_equation" title="Tait equation">Tait equation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Aitken_t3_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Aitken_t3-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/William_Dittmar" title="William Dittmar">William Dittmar</a> of Glasgow University established the composition of seawater. Murray and <a href="/wiki/Alphonse_Fran%C3%A7ois_Renard" title="Alphonse François Renard">Alphonse François Renard</a> mapped oceanic sediments. </p><p>Thomson believed, as did many adherents of the then-recent <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_evolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Theory of evolution">theory of evolution</a>, that the deep sea would be home to "<a href="/wiki/Living_fossils" class="mw-redirect" title="Living fossils">living fossils</a>" long <a href="/wiki/Extinct" class="mw-redirect" title="Extinct">extinct</a> in shallower waters, examples of "<a href="/wiki/Missing_link_(human_evolution)" title="Missing link (human evolution)">missing links</a>". They believed that the conditions of constant cold temperature, darkness, and lack of currents, waves, or <a href="/wiki/Seismic" class="mw-redirect" title="Seismic">seismic</a> events provided such a stable environment that evolution would slow or stop entirely. <a href="/wiki/Louis_Agassiz" title="Louis Agassiz">Louis Agassiz</a> believed that in the deeps "we should expect to find representatives of earlier <a href="/wiki/Geological" class="mw-redirect" title="Geological">geological</a> periods." <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Huxley" class="mw-redirect" title="Thomas Huxley">Thomas Huxley</a> stated that he expected to see "<a href="/wiki/Zoological" class="mw-redirect" title="Zoological">zoological</a> antiquities which in the tranquil and little changed depths of the ocean have escaped the causes of destruction at work in the shallows and represent the predominant population of a past age." Nothing of the sort came to pass, however; though a few organisms previously regarded as extinct were found and cataloged among the many new discoveries, the harvest was typical of what might be found in exploring any equivalent extent of new territory. Furthermore, in the process of preserving specimens in <a href="/wiki/Alcohol_(chemistry)" title="Alcohol (chemistry)">alcohol</a>, Thomson and chemist John Young Buchanan realized that he had inadvertently <a href="/wiki/Debunked" class="mw-redirect" title="Debunked">debunked</a> Huxley's prior report of <i><a href="/wiki/Bathybius_haeckelii" title="Bathybius haeckelii">Bathybius haeckelii</a></i>, an <a href="/wiki/Acellular" class="mw-redirect" title="Acellular">acellular</a> <a href="/wiki/Protoplasm" title="Protoplasm">protoplasm</a> covering the sea bottoms, which was purported to be the link between non-living matter and living cells. The net effect was a setback for the proponents of evolution.<sup id="cite_ref-eis_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-eis-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Challenger_Deep">Challenger Deep</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Challenger_expedition&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Challenger Deep"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>On 23 March 1875, at sample station number 225 located in the southwest Pacific Ocean between Guam and Palau, the crew recorded a sounding of 4,475 fathoms (26,850 ft; 8,184 m),<sup id="cite_ref-Aitken_t1_1-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Aitken_t1-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which was confirmed by a second sounding.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As shown by later expeditions using modern equipment, this area represents the southern end of the <a href="/wiki/Mariana_Trench" title="Mariana Trench">Mariana Trench</a> and is one of the deepest known places on the ocean floor. </p><p> Modern soundings to 6,012 fathoms (36,070 ft; 10,994 m) have since been found near the site of the <i>Challenger</i><span class="nowrap" style="padding-left:0.1em;">'</span>s original sounding.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>Challenger</i><span class="nowrap" style="padding-left:0.1em;">'</span>s discovery of this depth was a key finding of the expedition in broadening oceanographic knowledge about the ocean's depth and extent; the depression, the <a href="/wiki/Challenger_Deep" title="Challenger Deep">Challenger Deep</a>, now bears the name of the vessel and its successor, <a href="/wiki/HMS_Challenger_(1931)" title="HMS Challenger (1931)">HMS <i>Challenger</i> II</a>, which in 1951 identified a depth of 5,944 fathoms nearby.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Tom_Gaskell" title="Tom Gaskell">Thomas Gaskell</a>, the Chief Scientist on HMS <i>Challenger</i> II, observed that the later measurement</p><blockquote><p>was not more than 50 miles from the spot where the nineteenth-century <i>Challenger</i> found her deepest depth [...] and it may be thought fitting that a ship with the name <i>Challenger</i> should put the seal on the work of that great pioneering expedition of oceanography.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote><p>The expedition also verified the existence of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge extending from the southern hemisphere to the northern one.<sup id="cite_ref-Aitken_t1_1-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Aitken_t1-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Legacy">Legacy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Challenger_expedition&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Legacy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Findings from the <i>Challenger</i> expedition continued to be published until 1895, 19 years after the completion of its journey, by the Challenger Office, Edinburgh, established for that purpose. The report contained 50 volumes and was over 29,500 pages in length.<sup id="cite_ref-eis_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-eis-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Specimens brought back by <i>Challenger</i> were distributed to the world's foremost experts for examination, which greatly increased the expenses and time required to finalize the report.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The report and specimens were displayed at the <a href="/wiki/Natural_History_Museum,_London" title="Natural History Museum, London">British Natural History Museum</a> from January to July, 2023.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some specimens, many of which were the first discovered of their kind, are still examined by scientists today.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A large number of scientists worked on categorizing the material brought back from the expedition including the paleontologist <a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Warton_Lee" title="Gabriel Warton Lee">Gabriel Warton Lee</a>. <a href="/wiki/George_Albert_Boulenger" title="George Albert Boulenger">George Albert Boulenger</a>, herpetologist at the Natural History Museum, named a species of lizard, <i><a href="/wiki/Saproscincus" title="Saproscincus">Saproscincus challengeri</a></i>, after <i>Challenger</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Before the <i>Challenger</i> expedition, oceanography had been mainly speculative.<sup id="cite_ref-eis_5-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-eis-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As the first true oceanographic cruise, the <i>Challenger</i> expedition laid the groundwork for an entire academic and research discipline.<sup id="cite_ref-NOAA_7-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NOAA-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "<i>Challenger</i>" was applied to such varied phenomena as the <a href="/wiki/Challenger_Society_for_Marine_Science" title="Challenger Society for Marine Science">Challenger Society for Marine Science</a>, the oceanographic and marine geological survey ship <a href="/wiki/Glomar_Challenger" title="Glomar Challenger"><i>Glomar Challenger</i></a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle_Challenger" title="Space Shuttle Challenger">Space Shuttle <i>Challenger</i></a>.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Challenger_expedition&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Aitken_t1-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Aitken_t1_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Aitken_t1_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Aitken_t1_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Aitken_t1_1-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Aitken_t1_1-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Aitken_t1_1-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Aitken_t1_1-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Aitken_t1_1-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Aitken_t1_1-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Aitken_t1_1-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Aitken_t1_1-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFAitkenFoulc2019" class="citation book cs1">Aitken, Frédéric; Foulc, Jean-Numa (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iste.co.uk/book.php?id=1474"><i>From deep sea to laboratory. 1: the first explorations of the deep sea by H.M.S. Challenger (1872–1876)</i></a>. London, UK: Iste-Wiley. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781786303745" title="Special:BookSources/9781786303745"><bdi>9781786303745</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+deep+sea+to+laboratory.+1%3A+the+first+explorations+of+the+deep+sea+by+H.M.S.+Challenger+%281872%E2%80%931876%29&rft.place=London%2C+UK&rft.pub=Iste-Wiley&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=9781786303745&rft.aulast=Aitken&rft.aufirst=Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric&rft.au=Foulc%2C+Jean-Numa&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iste.co.uk%2Fbook.php%3Fid%3D1474&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChallenger+expedition" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-RMG-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-RMG_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChamberlain2024" class="citation web cs1">Chamberlain, Daisy (26 March 2024). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.rmg.co.uk/stories/blog/library-archive/telling-story-challenger-expedition-1872-76#:~:text=To%20prepare%20the%20ship%20for,HMS%20Challenger%2C%20by%20Alfred%20B.">"Telling the story of the Challenger Expedition, 1872–76"</a>. <i>Royal Museums Greenwich</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 August</span> 2024</span>. <q>To prepare the ship for scientific work, HMS Challenger's refit commenced at the Royal Navy's Sheerness Dockyard in June 1872. The Admiralty estimated that repairs and modifications would require six months of planning and work.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Royal+Museums+Greenwich&rft.atitle=Telling+the+story+of+the+Challenger+Expedition%2C+1872%E2%80%9376&rft.date=2024-03-26&rft.aulast=Chamberlain&rft.aufirst=Daisy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.rmg.co.uk%2Fstories%2Fblog%2Flibrary-archive%2Ftelling-story-challenger-expedition-1872-76%23%3A~%3Atext%3DTo%2520prepare%2520the%2520ship%2520for%2CHMS%2520Challenger%252C%2520by%2520Alfred%2520B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChallenger+expedition" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Rice-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Rice_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rice_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rice_3-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRice1999" class="citation book cs1">Rice, A. L. (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=F5agn3NSzEoC&pg=PA27">"The Challenger Expedition"</a>. <i>Understanding the Oceans: Marine Science in the Wake of HMS Challenger</i>. Routledge. pp. 27–48. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781857287059" title="Special:BookSources/9781857287059"><bdi>9781857287059</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Challenger+Expedition&rft.btitle=Understanding+the+Oceans%3A+Marine+Science+in+the+Wake+of+HMS+Challenger&rft.pages=27-48&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=9781857287059&rft.aulast=Rice&rft.aufirst=A.+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DF5agn3NSzEoC%26pg%3DPA27&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChallenger+expedition" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-crew_list-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-crew_list_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-crew_list_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-crew_list_4-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-crew_list_4-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-crew_list_4-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131014121006/http://archimer.ifremer.fr/doc/1885/publication-4749.pdf">"The Voyage of H.M.S. Challenger 1873–1876. Narrative Vol. I. First Part. Chapter I"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archimer.ifremer.fr/doc/1885/publication-4749.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 14 October 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Voyage+of+H.M.S.+Challenger+1873%E2%80%931876.+Narrative+Vol.+I.+First+Part.+Chapter+I&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Farchimer.ifremer.fr%2Fdoc%2F1885%2Fpublication-4749.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChallenger+expedition" class="Z3988"></span> – pages 19 and 20 list the civilian staff and naval officers and crew, along with changes that took place during the voyage.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-eis-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-eis_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-eis_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-eis_5-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-eis_5-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEiseley1946" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Loren_Eiseley" title="Loren Eiseley">Eiseley, Loren</a> (1946). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/immensejourney00eiserich">"The Great Deeps"</a></span>. <i>The Immense Journey</i> (1959 ed.). United States: Vintage Books. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/immensejourney00eiserich/page/38">38-41</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0394701577" title="Special:BookSources/0394701577"><bdi>0394701577</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Great+Deeps&rft.btitle=The+Immense+Journey&rft.place=United+States&rft.pages=38-41&rft.edition=1959&rft.pub=Vintage+Books&rft.date=1946&rft.isbn=0394701577&rft.aulast=Eiseley&rft.aufirst=Loren&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fimmensejourney00eiserich&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChallenger+expedition" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-aga-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-aga_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFScott1993" class="citation book cs1">Scott, Keith (1993). <i>The Australian Geographic book of Antarctica</i>. Terrey Hills, New South Wales: Australian Geographic. p. 115. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1862760103" title="Special:BookSources/978-1862760103"><bdi>978-1862760103</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Australian+Geographic+book+of+Antarctica&rft.place=Terrey+Hills%2C+New+South+Wales&rft.pages=115&rft.pub=Australian+Geographic&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-1862760103&rft.aulast=Scott&rft.aufirst=Keith&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChallenger+expedition" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-NOAA-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-NOAA_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-NOAA_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-NOAA_7-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-NOAA_7-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-NOAA_7-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBishop" class="citation web cs1">Bishop, Tina. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/explorations/03mountains/background/challenger/challenger.html">"Then and Now: The HMS Challenger Expedition and the "Mountains in the Sea" Expedition"</a>. <i>oceanexplorer.noaa.gov</i>. <a href="/wiki/NOAA" class="mw-redirect" title="NOAA">NOAA</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150425002856/http://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/explorations/03mountains/background/challenger/challenger.html">Archived</a> from the original on 25 April 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 January</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=oceanexplorer.noaa.gov&rft.atitle=Then+and+Now%3A+The+HMS+Challenger+Expedition+and+the+%22Mountains+in+the+Sea%22+Expedition&rft.aulast=Bishop&rft.aufirst=Tina&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Foceanexplorer.noaa.gov%2Fexplorations%2F03mountains%2Fbackground%2Fchallenger%2Fchallenger.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChallenger+expedition" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Equipment-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Equipment_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://rammhmschallenger.wordpress.com/2015/06/02/scientific-equipment-on-hms-challenger/">"Scientific Equipment on HMS Challenger"</a>. <i>HMS Challenger Project</i>. 2 June 2015. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180131200705/https://rammhmschallenger.wordpress.com/2015/06/02/scientific-equipment-on-hms-challenger/">Archived</a> from the original on 31 January 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 January</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=HMS+Challenger+Project&rft.atitle=Scientific+Equipment+on+HMS+Challenger&rft.date=2015-06-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frammhmschallenger.wordpress.com%2F2015%2F06%2F02%2Fscientific-equipment-on-hms-challenger%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChallenger+expedition" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://bernews.com/2013/03/bermuda-and-the-challenger-expedition/">"Bermuda And The "Challenger" Expedition"</a>. <i>Bernews</i>. 29 March 2013. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200224083557/http://bernews.com/2013/03/bermuda-and-the-challenger-expedition/">Archived</a> from the original on 24 February 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 February</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bernews&rft.atitle=Bermuda+And+The+%22Challenger%22+Expedition&rft.date=2013-03-29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbernews.com%2F2013%2F03%2Fbermuda-and-the-challenger-expedition%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChallenger+expedition" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPeter_K._Weyl1970" class="citation book cs1">Peter K. Weyl (1970). <i>Oceanography: an introduction to the marine environment</i>. p. 49.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Oceanography%3A+an+introduction+to+the+marine+environment&rft.pages=49&rft.date=1970&rft.au=Peter+K.+Weyl&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChallenger+expedition" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-official_charts-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-official_charts_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-official_charts_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-official_charts_11-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-official_charts_11-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-official_charts_11-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-official_charts_11-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-official_charts_11-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-official_charts_11-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">The account of the expedition route given here is based on the 40 official nautical charts produced by the expedition, available at: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20121214200054/http://hercules.kgs.ku.edu/hexacoral/expedition/challenger_1872-1876/challenger.html">"Challenger Expedition (1872–1876)"</a>. <i>University of Kansas Natural History Museum</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hercules.kgs.ku.edu/hexacoral/expedition/challenger_1872-1876/challenger.html">the original</a> on 14 December 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 February</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=University+of+Kansas+Natural+History+Museum&rft.atitle=Challenger+Expedition+%281872%E2%80%931876%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhercules.kgs.ku.edu%2Fhexacoral%2Fexpedition%2Fchallenger_1872-1876%2Fchallenger.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChallenger+expedition" class="Z3988"></span> This also includes a map of the expedition route.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-HMS_Challenger:_Science-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-HMS_Challenger:_Science_12-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-HMS_Challenger:_Science_12-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130126080934/http://aquarium.ucsd.edu/Education/Learning_Resources/Challenger/science.php">"HMS Challenger: Science"</a>. Birch Aquarium. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://aquarium.ucsd.edu/Education/Learning_Resources/Challenger/science.php">the original</a> on 26 January 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 December</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=HMS+Challenger%3A+Science&rft.pub=Birch+Aquarium&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Faquarium.ucsd.edu%2FEducation%2FLearning_Resources%2FChallenger%2Fscience.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChallenger+expedition" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Aitken_t2-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Aitken_t2_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Aitken_t2_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAitkenFoulc2019" class="citation book cs1">Aitken, Frédéric; Foulc, Jean-Numa (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iste.co.uk/book.php?id=1499"><i>From deep sea to laboratory. 2 : Discovering H.M.S. Challenger's physical measurements relating to ocean circulation</i></a>. London, UK: ISTE-WILEY. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781786303752" title="Special:BookSources/9781786303752"><bdi>9781786303752</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+deep+sea+to+laboratory.+2+%3A+Discovering+H.M.S.+Challenger%27s+physical+measurements+relating+to+ocean+circulation&rft.place=London%2C+UK&rft.pub=ISTE-WILEY&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=9781786303752&rft.aulast=Aitken&rft.aufirst=Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric&rft.au=Foulc%2C+Jean-Numa&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iste.co.uk%2Fbook.php%3Fid%3D1499&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChallenger+expedition" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWild1877" class="citation book cs1">Wild, John James (1877). <i>Thalassa: An Essay on the Depth, Temperature, and Currents of the Ocean</i>. London, UK: Marcus Ward and Co.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Thalassa%3A+An+Essay+on+the+Depth%2C+Temperature%2C+and+Currents+of+the+Ocean&rft.place=London%2C+UK&rft.pub=Marcus+Ward+and+Co.&rft.date=1877&rft.aulast=Wild&rft.aufirst=John+James&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChallenger+expedition" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150219021951/http://aquarium.ucsd.edu/Education/Learning_Resources/Challenger/science2b.php">"HMS Challenger – The science: dredging and trawling"</a>. <i>Aquarium</i>. University of California, San Diego. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aquarium.ucsd.edu/Education/Learning_Resources/Challenger/science2b.php">the original</a> on 19 February 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 October</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Aquarium&rft.atitle=HMS+Challenger+%E2%80%93+The+science%3A+dredging+and+trawling&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.aquarium.ucsd.edu%2FEducation%2FLearning_Resources%2FChallenger%2Fscience2b.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChallenger+expedition" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Aitken_t3-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Aitken_t3_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAitkenFoulc2019" class="citation book cs1">Aitken, Frédéric; Foulc, Jean-Numa (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iste.co.uk/book.php?id=1534"><i>From deep sea to laboratory. 3, From Tait's work on the compressibility of seawater to equations-of-state for liquids</i></a>. London, UK: ISTE-WILEY. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781786303769" title="Special:BookSources/9781786303769"><bdi>9781786303769</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+deep+sea+to+laboratory.+3%2C+From+Tait%27s+work+on+the+compressibility+of+seawater+to+equations-of-state+for+liquids&rft.place=London%2C+UK&rft.pub=ISTE-WILEY&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=9781786303769&rft.aulast=Aitken&rft.aufirst=Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric&rft.au=Foulc%2C+Jean-Numa&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iste.co.uk%2Fbook.php%3Fid%3D1534&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChallenger+expedition" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.19thcenturyscience.org/HMSC/HMSC-Reports/1895-Summary/htm/doc877.html">"Report on the scientific results of the voyage of H.M.S. Challenger during the years of 1872–76 (page 877)"</a>. 19thcenturyscience.org. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120417095912/http://www.19thcenturyscience.org/HMSC/HMSC-Reports/1895-Summary/htm/doc877.html">Archived</a> from the original on 17 April 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 March</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Report+on+the+scientific+results+of+the+voyage+of+H.M.S.+Challenger+during+the+years+of+1872%E2%80%9376+%28page+877%29&rft.pub=19thcenturyscience.org&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.19thcenturyscience.org%2FHMSC%2FHMSC-Reports%2F1895-Summary%2Fhtm%2Fdoc877.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChallenger+expedition" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAmos2011" class="citation news cs1">Amos, Jonathan (7 December 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-15845550">"Oceans' deepest depth re-measured"</a>. <i>BBC News</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20120525110128/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-15845550">Archived</a> from the original on 25 May 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 December</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BBC+News&rft.atitle=Oceans%27+deepest+depth+re-measured&rft.date=2011-12-07&rft.aulast=Amos&rft.aufirst=Jonathan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.co.uk%2Fnews%2Fscience-environment-15845550&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChallenger+expedition" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gebco.net/data_and_products/undersea_feature_names/#feature_links4">"IHO-IOC GEBCO Gazetteer of Undersea Feature Names"</a>. GEBCO. August 2011. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120314233143/http://www.gebco.net/data_and_products/undersea_feature_names/#feature_links4">Archived</a> from the original on 14 March 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 March</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=IHO-IOC+GEBCO+Gazetteer+of+Undersea+Feature+Names&rft.date=2011-08&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.gebco.net%2Fdata_and_products%2Fundersea_feature_names%2F%23feature_links4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChallenger+expedition" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGaskell1960" class="citation book cs1">Gaskell, Thomas (1960). <i>Under the Deep Oceans: Twentieth Century Voyages of Discovery</i>. London: Eyre & Spottiswoode. pp. 24–25.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Under+the+Deep+Oceans%3A+Twentieth+Century+Voyages+of+Discovery&rft.place=London&rft.pages=24-25&rft.pub=Eyre+%26+Spottiswoode&rft.date=1960&rft.aulast=Gaskell&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChallenger+expedition" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAdler2019" class="citation book cs1">Adler, Antony (2019). <i>Neptune's Laboratory: Fantasy, Fear, and Science at Sea</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. p. 35. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780674972018" title="Special:BookSources/9780674972018"><bdi>9780674972018</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Neptune%27s+Laboratory%3A+Fantasy%2C+Fear%2C+and+Science+at+Sea&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+MA&rft.pages=35&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=9780674972018&rft.aulast=Adler&rft.aufirst=Antony&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChallenger+expedition" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nhm.ac.uk/visit/exhibitions/the-challenger-expedition-and-its-legacy.html">"Exploring Our Oceans: The Challenger Expedition and Its Legacy | Natural History Museum"</a>. <i>www.nhm.ac.uk</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 June</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.nhm.ac.uk&rft.atitle=Exploring+Our+Oceans%3A+The+Challenger+Expedition+and+Its+Legacy+%7C+Natural+History+Museum&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nhm.ac.uk%2Fvisit%2Fexhibitions%2Fthe-challenger-expedition-and-its-legacy.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChallenger+expedition" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nhm.ac.uk/nature-online/science-of-natural-history/expeditions-collecting/hms-challenger-expedition/challenger-findings/index.html">"HMS Challenger: Findings"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Natural_History_Museum,_London" title="Natural History Museum, London">Natural History Museum, London</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130613234546/http://www.nhm.ac.uk/nature-online/science-of-natural-history/expeditions-collecting/hms-challenger-expedition/challenger-findings/index.html">Archived</a> from the original on 13 June 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 December</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=HMS+Challenger%3A+Findings&rft.pub=Natural+History+Museum%2C+London&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nhm.ac.uk%2Fnature-online%2Fscience-of-natural-history%2Fexpeditions-collecting%2Fhms-challenger-expedition%2Fchallenger-findings%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChallenger+expedition" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeolensWatkinsGrayson2011" class="citation book cs1">Beolens, Bo; Watkins, Michael; Grayson, Michael (2011). "Challenger". <i>The Eponym Dictionary of Reptiles</i>. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 51. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781421401355" title="Special:BookSources/9781421401355"><bdi>9781421401355</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Challenger&rft.btitle=The+Eponym+Dictionary+of+Reptiles&rft.place=Baltimore&rft.pages=51&rft.pub=Johns+Hopkins+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=9781421401355&rft.aulast=Beolens&rft.aufirst=Bo&rft.au=Watkins%2C+Michael&rft.au=Grayson%2C+Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChallenger+expedition" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090203035705/http://www-pao.ksc.nasa.gov/shuttle/resources/orbiters/Challenger.html">"Challenger (STA-099, OV-99): Background"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Kennedy_Space_Center" title="Kennedy Space Center">John F. Kennedy Space Center</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www-pao.ksc.nasa.gov/shuttle/resources/orbiters/Challenger.html">the original</a> on 3 February 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 December</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Challenger+%28STA-099%2C+OV-99%29%3A+Background&rft.pub=John+F.+Kennedy+Space+Center&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww-pao.ksc.nasa.gov%2Fshuttle%2Fresources%2Forbiters%2FChallenger.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChallenger+expedition" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Challenger_expedition&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><b>General</b> </p> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141102111757/http://www.nhm.ac.uk/nature-online/science-of-natural-history/expeditions-collecting/hms-challenger-expedition/">"HMS <i>Challenger</i> expedition"</a>. Natural History Museum. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nhm.ac.uk/nature-online/science-of-natural-history/expeditions-collecting/hms-challenger-expedition/">the original</a> on 2 November 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=HMS+Challenger+expedition&rft.pub=Natural+History+Museum&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nhm.ac.uk%2Fnature-online%2Fscience-of-natural-history%2Fexpeditions-collecting%2Fhms-challenger-expedition%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChallenger+expedition" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20121214200054/http://hercules.kgs.ku.edu/hexacoral/expedition/challenger_1872-1876/challenger.html">"<i>Challenger</i> Expedition (1872–1876)"</a>. University of Kansas Natural History Museum. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hercules.kgs.ku.edu/hexacoral/expedition/challenger_1872-1876/challenger.html">the original</a> on 14 December 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Challenger+Expedition+%281872%E2%80%931876%29&rft.pub=University+of+Kansas+Natural+History+Museum&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhercules.kgs.ku.edu%2Fhexacoral%2Fexpedition%2Fchallenger_1872-1876%2Fchallenger.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChallenger+expedition" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080723173206/http://aquarium.ucsd.edu/Education/Learning_Resources/Challenger/">"The letters of Joseph Matkin from HMS <i>Challenger</i>"</a>. Birch Aquarium at Scripps Institute of Oceanography. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://aquarium.ucsd.edu/Education/Learning_Resources/Challenger/">the original</a> on 23 July 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+letters+of+Joseph+Matkin+from+HMS+Challenger&rft.pub=Birch+Aquarium+at+Scripps+Institute+of+Oceanography&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Faquarium.ucsd.edu%2FEducation%2FLearning_Resources%2FChallenger%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChallenger+expedition" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120322185450/http://aquarium.ucsd.edu/Education/Learning_Resources/Challenger/introduction.php">"Map of the route taken by HMS <i>Challenger</i>"</a>. Birch Aquarium at Scripps Institute of Oceanography. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://aquarium.ucsd.edu/Education/Learning_Resources/Challenger/introduction.php">the original</a> on 22 March 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Map+of+the+route+taken+by+HMS+Challenger&rft.pub=Birch+Aquarium+at+Scripps+Institute+of+Oceanography&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Faquarium.ucsd.edu%2FEducation%2FLearning_Resources%2FChallenger%2Fintroduction.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChallenger+expedition" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090313025922/http://www.19thcenturyscience.org/HMSC/Chall-Medal/ChallengerMedal.html">"The <i>Challenger</i> Medal Roll (1895)"</a>. Library of 19th Century Science. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.19thcenturyscience.org/HMSC/Chall-Medal/ChallengerMedal.html">the original</a> on 13 March 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Challenger+Medal+Roll+%281895%29&rft.pub=Library+of+19th+Century+Science&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.19thcenturyscience.org%2FHMSC%2FChall-Medal%2FChallengerMedal.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChallenger+expedition" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <p><b>Primary reports, accounts, and letters</b> </p> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20050707081012/http://www.19thcenturyscience.org/HMSC/HMSC-INDEX/index-linked.htm">"Report Of The Scientific Results of the Exploring Voyage of H.M.S. <i>Challenger</i> during the years 1873–76"</a>. <i>Library of 19th Century Science</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.19thcenturyscience.org/HMSC/HMSC-INDEX/index-linked.htm">the original</a> on 7 July 2005.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Library+of+19th+Century+Science&rft.atitle=Report+Of+The+Scientific+Results+of+the+Exploring+Voyage+of+H.M.S.+Challenger+during+the+years+1873%E2%80%9376&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.19thcenturyscience.org%2FHMSC%2FHMSC-INDEX%2Findex-linked.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChallenger+expedition" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPhilip_F._Rehbock1992" class="citation book cs1">Philip F. Rehbock, ed. (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=mx4euRM1-3UC"><i>At Sea with the Scientifics: The Challenger Letters of Joseph Matkin</i></a>. University of Hawaii Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/082481424X" title="Special:BookSources/082481424X"><bdi>082481424X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=At+Sea+with+the+Scientifics%3A+The+Challenger+Letters+of+Joseph+Matkin&rft.pub=University+of+Hawaii+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=082481424X&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dmx4euRM1-3UC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChallenger+expedition" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobert_Wynn_Jones_and_Henry_Bowman_Brady1884" class="citation book cs1">Robert Wynn Jones and Henry Bowman Brady (1884). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rIkWAQAAIAAJ"><i>The Challenger Foraminifera</i></a> (1994 reprint ed.). Oxford University Press and Natural History Museum. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0198540965" title="Special:BookSources/0198540965"><bdi>0198540965</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Challenger+Foraminifera&rft.edition=1994+reprint&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press+and+Natural+History+Museum&rft.date=1884&rft.isbn=0198540965&rft.au=Robert+Wynn+Jones+and+Henry+Bowman+Brady&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DrIkWAQAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChallenger+expedition" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLord_George_Granville_Campbell1876" class="citation book cs1">Lord George Granville Campbell (1876). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.181610"><i>Log-letters from "The Challenger"</i></a>. Macmillan.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Log-letters+from+%22The+Challenger%22&rft.pub=Macmillan&rft.date=1876&rft.au=Lord+George+Granville+Campbell&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fin.ernet.dli.2015.181610&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChallenger+expedition" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliam_James_Joseph_Spry1877" class="citation book cs1">William James Joseph Spry (1877). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cruiseofhermaje00spry/page/n7"><i>The Cruise of Her Majesty's ship "Challenger"</i></a>. Harper & Brothers – via archive.org.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cruise+of+Her+Majesty%27s+ship+%22Challenger%22&rft.pub=Harper+%26+Brothers&rft.date=1877&rft.au=William+James+Joseph+Spry&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcruiseofhermaje00spry%2Fpage%2Fn7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChallenger+expedition" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHenry_Nottidge_Moseley1879" class="citation book cs1">Henry Nottidge Moseley (1879). <i>Notes by a Naturalist on the "Challenger"</i>. Macmillan.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Notes+by+a+Naturalist+on+the+%22Challenger%22&rft.pub=Macmillan&rft.date=1879&rft.au=Henry+Nottidge+Moseley&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChallenger+expedition" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120609100923/http://www.aim25.ac.uk/cgi-bin/vcdf/detail?coll_id=2759&inst_id=10">"Archive entry for journals of Andrew F. Balfour, including three from HMS <i>Challenger</i> voyage"</a>. AIM25 archives. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aim25.ac.uk/cgi-bin/vcdf/detail?coll_id=2759&inst_id=10">the original</a> on 9 June 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Archive+entry+for+journals+of+Andrew+F.+Balfour%2C+including+three+from+HMS+Challenger+voyage&rft.pub=AIM25+archives&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.aim25.ac.uk%2Fcgi-bin%2Fvcdf%2Fdetail%3Fcoll_id%3D2759%26inst_id%3D10&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChallenger+expedition" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <p><b>Secondary literature</b> </p> <ul><li>Jones, Erika. <i>The Challenger Expedition: Exploring the Ocean's Depths</i> (London: Royal Museums Greenwich, 2022) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=58780">online book review</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAntony_Adler2019" class="citation book cs1">Antony Adler (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hdy0DwAAQBAJ"><i>Neptune's Laboratory: Fantasy, Fear, and Science at Sea</i></a>. Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780674972018" title="Special:BookSources/9780674972018"><bdi>9780674972018</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Neptune%27s+Laboratory%3A+Fantasy%2C+Fear%2C+and+Science+at+Sea&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=9780674972018&rft.au=Antony+Adler&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dhdy0DwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChallenger+expedition" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHelen_M._Rozwadowski2005" class="citation book cs1">Helen M. Rozwadowski (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_hg8o1HpgQQC"><i>Fathoming the Ocean</i></a>. Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0674027566" title="Special:BookSources/0674027566"><bdi>0674027566</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fathoming+the+Ocean&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=0674027566&rft.au=Helen+M.+Rozwadowski&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_hg8o1HpgQQC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChallenger+expedition" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFR._M._Corfield2003" class="citation book cs1">R. M. Corfield (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=V0EbuNF12CQC"><i>The Silent Landscape: the Scientific Voyage of HMS Challenger</i></a>. Joseph Henry Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0309089042" title="Special:BookSources/0309089042"><bdi>0309089042</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Silent+Landscape%3A+the+Scientific+Voyage+of+HMS+Challenger&rft.pub=Joseph+Henry+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=0309089042&rft.au=R.+M.+Corfield&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DV0EbuNF12CQC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChallenger+expedition" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEileen_V._Brunton1994" class="citation book cs1">Eileen V. Brunton (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NM8PAQAAIAAJ"><i>The Challenger Expedition, 1872–1876: A Visual Index</i></a>. Natural History Museum. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0565011391" title="Special:BookSources/0565011391"><bdi>0565011391</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Challenger+Expedition%2C+1872%E2%80%931876%3A+A+Visual+Index&rft.pub=Natural+History+Museum&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=0565011391&rft.au=Eileen+V.+Brunton&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DNM8PAQAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChallenger+expedition" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEric_Linklater1974" class="citation book cs1">Eric Linklater (1974). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/voyageofchalleng00eric"><i>The Voyage of the 'Challenger<span class="nowrap" style="padding-left:0.1em;">'</span></i></a>. Cardinal. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0351172238" title="Special:BookSources/0351172238"><bdi>0351172238</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Voyage+of+the+%27Challenger%27&rft.pub=Cardinal&rft.date=1974&rft.isbn=0351172238&rft.au=Eric+Linklater&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fvoyageofchalleng00eric&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChallenger+expedition" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohn_B._Tait1972" class="citation journal cs1">John B. Tait (1972). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00369227208736231">"Centenary of the Challenger Expedition, 1872–1876"</a>. <i>Scottish Geographical Magazine</i>. <b>88</b> (3): 221. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00369227208736231">10.1080/00369227208736231</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Scottish+Geographical+Magazine&rft.atitle=Centenary+of+the+Challenger+Expedition%2C+1872%E2%80%931876&rft.volume=88&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=221&rft.date=1972&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F00369227208736231&rft.au=John+B.+Tait&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.tandfonline.com%2Fdoi%2Fabs%2F10.1080%2F00369227208736231&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChallenger+expedition" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGeorge_Watson_Cole1901" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/George_Watson_Cole" title="George Watson Cole">George Watson Cole</a> (1901). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QA9OewAACAAJ"><i>Bermuda and the Challenger Expedition</i></a> (2010 reprint ed.). Kessinger Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/116639994X" title="Special:BookSources/116639994X"><bdi>116639994X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Bermuda+and+the+Challenger+Expedition&rft.edition=2010+reprint&rft.pub=Kessinger+Publishing&rft.date=1901&rft.isbn=116639994X&rft.au=George+Watson+Cole&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQA9OewAACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChallenger+expedition" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavid_M._Lawrence2002" class="citation book cs1">David M. Lawrence (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Bx2B7nsdbb0C"><i>Upheaval From the Abyss: Ocean Floor Mapping and the Earth Science Revolution</i></a>. Rutgers University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780813530284" title="Special:BookSources/9780813530284"><bdi>9780813530284</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Upheaval+From+the+Abyss%3A+Ocean+Floor+Mapping+and+the+Earth+Science+Revolution&rft.pub=Rutgers+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=9780813530284&rft.au=David+M.+Lawrence&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DBx2B7nsdbb0C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChallenger+expedition" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <p><b>Collections and archives</b> </p> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141102111757/http://www.nhm.ac.uk/nature-online/science-of-natural-history/expeditions-collecting/hms-challenger-expedition/">"HMS <i>Challenger</i> collection"</a>. <i>Natural History Museum</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nhm.ac.uk/nature-online/science-of-natural-history/expeditions-collecting/hms-challenger-expedition/">the original</a> on 2 November 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Natural+History+Museum&rft.atitle=HMS+Challenger+collection&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nhm.ac.uk%2Fnature-online%2Fscience-of-natural-history%2Fexpeditions-collecting%2Fhms-challenger-expedition%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChallenger+expedition" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.foraminifera.eu/brady.php">"Foraminifera in Brady HMS <i>Challenger</i> Collection"</a>. <i>Foraminifera.eu-Project</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Foraminifera.eu-Project&rft.atitle=Foraminifera+in+Brady+HMS+Challenger+Collection&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.foraminifera.eu%2Fbrady.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChallenger+expedition" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120114203637/http://archiveshub.ac.uk/features/0210cha.html">"HMS <i>Challenger</i> Papers, 1872–1876"</a>. Edinburgh University Library (Archives Hub). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archiveshub.ac.uk/features/0210cha.html">the original</a> on 14 January 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=HMS+Challenger+Papers%2C+1872%E2%80%931876&rft.pub=Edinburgh+University+Library+%28Archives+Hub%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Farchiveshub.ac.uk%2Ffeatures%2F0210cha.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChallenger+expedition" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Challenger_expedition&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1259569809">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 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a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Polar_exploration" title="Template:Polar exploration"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Polar_exploration" title="Template talk:Polar exploration"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Polar_exploration" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Polar exploration"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Polar_exploration" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Polar_exploration" title="Polar exploration">Polar exploration</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Arctic" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Arctic_exploration" title="Arctic exploration">Arctic</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div id="*_Ocean_*_History_*_Expeditions_*_Research_stations"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arctic_Ocean" title="Arctic Ocean">Ocean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arctic_exploration" title="Arctic exploration">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Arctic_expeditions" title="List of Arctic expeditions">Expeditions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_research_stations_in_the_Arctic" title="List of research stations in the Arctic">Research stations</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Farthest_North" title="Farthest North">Farthest North</a><br /><a href="/wiki/North_Pole" title="North Pole">North Pole</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Willem_Barentsz" title="Willem Barentsz">Barentsz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacob_van_Heemskerck" title="Jacob van Heemskerck">Heemskerck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Hudson" title="Henry Hudson">Hudson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Marmaduke" title="Thomas Marmaduke">Marmaduke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joris_Carolus" title="Joris Carolus">Carolus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Edward_Parry" title="William Edward Parry">Parry</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/North_magnetic_pole" title="North magnetic pole">North magnetic pole</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Ross_(Royal_Navy_officer)" title="John Ross (Royal Navy officer)">J. Ross</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Clark_Ross" title="James Clark Ross">J. C. Ross</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Abernethy_(explorer)" title="Thomas Abernethy (explorer)">Abernethy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elisha_Kent_Kane" title="Elisha Kent Kane">Kane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Israel_Hayes" title="Isaac Israel Hayes">Hayes</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Polaris_expedition" title="Polaris expedition"><i>Polaris</i> expedition</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/USS_Polaris_(1871)" title="USS Polaris (1871)"><i>Polaris</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Francis_Hall" title="Charles Francis Hall">C. F. Hall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emil_Bessels" title="Emil Bessels">Bessels</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/British_Arctic_Expedition" title="British Arctic Expedition">British Arctic Expedition</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/HMS_Alert_(1856)" title="HMS Alert (1856)">HMS <i>Alert</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Nares" title="George Nares">Nares</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HMS_Discovery_(1874)" title="HMS Discovery (1874)">HMS <i>Discovery</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Frederick_Stephenson" title="Henry Frederick Stephenson">Stephenson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Hastings_Markham" title="Albert Hastings Markham">Markham</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Lady_Franklin_Bay_Expedition" title="Lady Franklin Bay Expedition">Lady Franklin Bay Expedition</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adolphus_Greely" title="Adolphus Greely">Greely</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_B._Lockwood" title="James B. Lockwood">Lockwood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_L._Brainard" title="David L. Brainard">Brainard</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Nansen%27s_Fram_expedition" title="Nansen's Fram expedition">Nansen's <i>Fram</i> expedition</a></b> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Fram_(ship)" title="Fram (ship)">Fram</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fridtjof_Nansen" title="Fridtjof Nansen">Nansen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hjalmar_Johansen" title="Hjalmar Johansen">Johansen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otto_Sverdrup" title="Otto Sverdrup">Sverdrup</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jason_(1881_ship)" title="Jason (1881 ship)"><i>Jason</i></a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prince_Luigi_Amedeo,_Duke_of_the_Abruzzi" title="Prince Luigi Amedeo, Duke of the Abruzzi">Amedeo</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9e%27s_Arctic_balloon_expedition" title="Andrée's Arctic balloon expedition">Andrée's balloon expedition</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Salomon_August_Andr%C3%A9e" title="Salomon August Andrée">S. A. Andrée</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Cook" title="Frederick Cook">F. Cook</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/SS_Roosevelt_(1905)" title="SS Roosevelt (1905)">SS <i>Roosevelt</i></a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Peary" title="Robert Peary">Peary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matthew_Henson" title="Matthew Henson">Henson</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgy_Sedov" title="Georgy Sedov">Sedov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_E._Byrd" title="Richard E. Byrd">Byrd</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Norge_(airship)" title="Norge (airship)"><i>Norge</i></a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roald_Amundsen" title="Roald Amundsen">Amundsen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umberto_Nobile" title="Umberto Nobile">Nobile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oscar_Wisting" title="Oscar Wisting">Wisting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hjalmar_Riiser-Larsen" title="Hjalmar Riiser-Larsen">Riiser-Larsen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lincoln_Ellsworth" title="Lincoln Ellsworth">Ellsworth</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Italia_(airship)" title="Italia (airship)"><i>Italia</i></a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/USS_O-12_(SS-73)" class="mw-redirect" title="USS O-12 (SS-73)"><i><b>Nautilus</b></i></a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hubert_Wilkins" title="Hubert Wilkins">Wilkins</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Tupolev_ANT-25" title="Tupolev ANT-25">ANT-25</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Valery_Chkalov" title="Valery Chkalov">Chkalov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgy_Baydukov" title="Georgy Baydukov">Baydukov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Vasilyevich_Belyakov" class="mw-redirect" title="Alexander Vasilyevich Belyakov">Belyakov</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Drifting_ice_station" title="Drifting ice station">Drifting ice stations</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/North_Pole-1" title="North Pole-1">NP-1</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ivan_Papanin" title="Ivan Papanin">Papanin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyotr_Shirshov" title="Pyotr Shirshov">Shirshov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yevgeny_Fyodorov_(scientist)" title="Yevgeny Fyodorov (scientist)">E. Fyodorov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Krenkel" title="Ernst Krenkel">Krenkel</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/North_Pole-36" title="North Pole-36">NP-36</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/North_Pole-37" title="North Pole-37">NP-37</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Georgiy_Sedov_(1908_icebreaker)" title="Georgiy Sedov (1908 icebreaker)"><i>Georgiy Sedov</i></a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Konstantin_Badygin" title="Konstantin Badygin">Badygin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Wiese" title="Vladimir Wiese">Wiese</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/USS_Nautilus_(SSN-571)" title="USS Nautilus (SSN-571)">USS <i>Nautilus</i></a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/USS_Skate_(SSN-578)" title="USS Skate (SSN-578)">USS <i>Skate</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Plaisted" title="Ralph Plaisted">Plaisted</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wally_Herbert" title="Wally Herbert">Herbert</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Arktika_(1972_icebreaker)" title="Arktika (1972 icebreaker)">NS <i>Arktika</i></a></b></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Barneo" title="Barneo">Barneo</a></i></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Arktika_2007" title="Arktika 2007">Arktika 2007</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mir_(submersible)" title="Mir (submersible)"><i>Mir</i> submersibles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anatoly_Sagalevich" title="Anatoly Sagalevich">Sagalevich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artur_Chilingarov" title="Artur Chilingarov">Chilingarov</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Iceland" title="Iceland">Iceland</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Greenland" title="Greenland">Greenland</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pytheas" title="Pytheas">Pytheas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brendan_the_Navigator" title="Brendan the Navigator">Brendan</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Papar" title="Papar">Papar</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Viking_expansion" title="Viking expansion">Vikings</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naddodd" title="Naddodd">Naddodd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gar%C3%B0ar_Svavarsson" title="Garðar Svavarsson">Garðar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ing%C3%B3lfr_Arnarson" title="Ingólfr Arnarson">Ingólfr</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Norse_colonization_of_North_America" title="Norse colonization of North America">Norse colonization of North America</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gunnbj%C3%B6rn_Ulfsson" title="Gunnbjörn Ulfsson">Gunnbjörn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sn%C3%A6bj%C3%B6rn_galti" title="Snæbjörn galti">Snæbjörn galti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erik_the_Red" title="Erik the Red">Erik the Red</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Christian_IV%27s_expeditions_to_Greenland" title="Christian IV's expeditions to Greenland">Christian IV's expeditions</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/James_Hall_(explorer)" title="James Hall (explorer)">J. Hall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Cunningham_(explorer)" title="John Cunningham (explorer)">Cunningham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Godske_Lindenov" title="Godske Lindenov">Lindenov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carsten_Richardson" title="Carsten Richardson">C. Richardson</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Danish_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="Danish colonization of the Americas">Danish colonization</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Egede" title="Hans Egede">Egede</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Scoresby" title="William Scoresby">Scoresby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jason_(1881_ship)" title="Jason (1881 ship)"><i>Jason</i></a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fridtjof_Nansen" title="Fridtjof Nansen">Nansen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otto_Sverdrup" title="Otto Sverdrup">Sverdrup</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Peary" title="Robert Peary">Peary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knud_Rasmussen" title="Knud Rasmussen">Rasmussen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Northwest_Passage" title="Northwest Passage">Northwest Passage</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Northern_Canada" title="Northern Canada">Northern Canada</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Cabot" title="John Cabot">Cabot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaspar_Corte-Real" title="Gaspar Corte-Real">G. Corte-Real</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miguel_Corte-Real" title="Miguel Corte-Real">M. Corte-Real</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Frobisher" title="Martin Frobisher">Frobisher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humphrey_Gilbert" title="Humphrey Gilbert">Gilbert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Davis_(explorer)" title="John Davis (explorer)">Davis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Hudson" title="Henry Hudson">Hudson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discovery_(1602_ship)" title="Discovery (1602 ship)"><i>Discovery</i></a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Bylot" title="Robert Bylot">Bylot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Baffin" title="William Baffin">Baffin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jens_Munk" title="Jens Munk">Munk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ivan_Fyodorov_(navigator)" title="Ivan Fyodorov (navigator)">I. Fyodorov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HMS_Resolution_(1771)" title="HMS Resolution (1771)">HMS <i>Resolution</i></a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/James_Cook" title="James Cook">J. Cook</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HMS_Discovery_(1774)" title="HMS Discovery (1774)">HMS <i>Discovery</i></a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Clerke" title="Charles Clerke">Clerke</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Mackenzie_(explorer)" title="Alexander Mackenzie (explorer)">Mackenzie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otto_von_Kotzebue" title="Otto von Kotzebue">Kotzebue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Ross_(Royal_Navy_officer)" title="John Ross (Royal Navy officer)">J. Ross</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HMS_Griper_(1813)" title="HMS Griper (1813)">HMS <i>Griper</i></a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_Edward_Parry" title="William Edward Parry">Parry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HMS_Hecla_(1815)" title="HMS Hecla (1815)">HMS <i>Hecla</i></a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/George_Francis_Lyon" title="George Francis Lyon">Lyon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HMS_Fury_(1814)" title="HMS Fury (1814)">HMS <i>Fury</i></a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Parkyns_Hoppner" title="Henry Parkyns Hoppner">Hoppner</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Crozier" title="Francis Crozier">Crozier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Clark_Ross" title="James Clark Ross">J. C. Ross</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Coppermine_expedition" title="Coppermine expedition">Coppermine expedition</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Franklin" title="John Franklin">Franklin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Back" title="George Back">Back</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Warren_Dease" title="Peter Warren Dease">Dease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Simpson_(explorer)" title="Thomas Simpson (explorer)">Simpson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HMS_Blossom_(1806)" title="HMS Blossom (1806)">HMS <i>Blossom</i></a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Frederick_William_Beechey" title="Frederick William Beechey">Beechey</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Franklin%27s_lost_expedition" title="Franklin's lost expedition">Franklin's lost expedition</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/HMS_Erebus_(1826)" title="HMS Erebus (1826)">HMS <i>Erebus</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HMS_Terror_(1813)" title="HMS Terror (1813)">HMS <i>Terror</i></a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Collinson" title="Richard Collinson">Collinson</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Rae%E2%80%93Richardson_Arctic_expedition" title="Rae–Richardson Arctic expedition">Rae–Richardson expedition</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Rae_(explorer)" title="John Rae (explorer)">Rae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Richardson_(naturalist)" title="John Richardson (naturalist)">J. Richardson</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horatio_Thomas_Austin" title="Horatio Thomas Austin">Austin</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/McClure_Arctic_expedition" title="McClure Arctic expedition">McClure expedition</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/HMS_Investigator_(1848)" title="HMS Investigator (1848)">HMS <i>Investigator</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_McClure" title="Robert McClure">McClure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HMS_Resolute_(1850)" title="HMS Resolute (1850)">HMS <i>Resolute</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Kellett" title="Henry Kellett">Kellett</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Belcher" title="Edward Belcher">Belcher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Kennedy_(explorer)" title="William Kennedy (explorer)">Kennedy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Ren%C3%A9_Bellot" title="Joseph René Bellot">Bellot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isabel_(1850_ship)" title="Isabel (1850 ship)"><i>Isabel</i></a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Augustus_Inglefield" title="Edward Augustus Inglefield">Inglefield</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Second_Grinnell_expedition" title="Second Grinnell expedition">2nd Grinnell expedition</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/USS_Advance_(1847)" title="USS Advance (1847)">USS <i>Advance</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elisha_Kent_Kane" title="Elisha Kent Kane">Kane</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fox_(ship)" title="Fox (ship)"><i>Fox</i></a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Leopold_McClintock" title="Leopold McClintock">McClintock</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/USS_Jeannette_(1878)" title="USS Jeannette (1878)">HMS <i>Pandora</i></a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allen_Young" title="Allen Young">Young</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Fram_(ship)" title="Fram (ship)">Fram</a></i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Otto_Sverdrup" title="Otto Sverdrup">Sverdrup</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><b><a href="/wiki/Gj%C3%B8a" title="Gjøa">Gjøa</a></b></i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roald_Amundsen" title="Roald Amundsen">Amundsen</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knud_Rasmussen" title="Knud Rasmussen">Rasmussen</a></li> <li><i><b><a href="/wiki/Last_voyage_of_the_Karluk" title="Last voyage of the Karluk">Karluk</a></b></i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vilhjalmur_Stefansson" title="Vilhjalmur Stefansson">Stefansson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Bartlett_(explorer)" title="Robert Bartlett (explorer)">Bartlett</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/St._Roch_(ship)" title="St. Roch (ship)"><i>St. Roch</i></a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Larsen_(explorer)" title="Henry Larsen (explorer)">H. Larsen</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Scott_Cowper" title="David Scott Cowper">Cowper</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Northern_Sea_Route" title="Northern Sea Route">North East Passage</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Far_North_(Russia)" title="Far North (Russia)">Russian Arctic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Pomors" title="Pomors">Pomors</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koch_(boat)" title="Koch (boat)">Koch boats</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugh_Willoughby" title="Hugh Willoughby">Willoughby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Chancellor" title="Richard Chancellor">Chancellor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willem_Barentsz" title="Willem Barentsz">Barentsz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacob_van_Heemskerck" title="Jacob van Heemskerck">Heemskerck</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Mangazeya" title="Mangazeya">Mangazeya</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Hudson" title="Henry Hudson">Hudson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jonas_Poole" title="Jonas Poole">Poole</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Siberian_Cossacks" title="Siberian Cossacks">Siberian Cossacks</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ilya_Perfilyev" title="Ilya Perfilyev">Perfilyev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Stadukhin" title="Mikhail Stadukhin">Stadukhin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semyon_Dezhnev" title="Semyon Dezhnev">Dezhnev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fedot_Alekseyevich_Popov" title="Fedot Alekseyevich Popov">Popov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurbat_Ivanov" title="Kurbat Ivanov">Ivanov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merkury_Vagin" title="Merkury Vagin">Vagin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yakov_Permyakov" title="Yakov Permyakov">Permyakov</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Great_Northern_Expedition" title="Great Northern Expedition">Great Northern Expedition</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vitus_Bering" title="Vitus Bering">Bering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aleksei_Chirikov" title="Aleksei Chirikov">Chirikov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stepan_Malygin" title="Stepan Malygin">Malygin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dmitry_Ovtsyn" title="Dmitry Ovtsyn">Ovtsyn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fyodor_Minin" title="Fyodor Minin">Minin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vasili_Pronchishchev" title="Vasili Pronchishchev">V. Pronchishchev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maria_Pronchishcheva" title="Maria Pronchishcheva">M. Pronchishcheva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semyon_Chelyuskin" title="Semyon Chelyuskin">Chelyuskin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khariton_Laptev" title="Khariton Laptev">Kh. Laptev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dmitry_Laptev" title="Dmitry Laptev">D. Laptev</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vasily_Chichagov" title="Vasily Chichagov">Chichagov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ivan_Lyakhov" title="Ivan Lyakhov">Lyakhov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Billings" title="Joseph Billings">Billings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yakov_Sannikov" title="Yakov Sannikov">Sannikov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matvei_Gedenshtrom" title="Matvei Gedenshtrom">Gedenshtrom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_von_Wrangel" title="Ferdinand von Wrangel">Wrangel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fyodor_Matyushkin" title="Fyodor Matyushkin">Matyushkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyotr_Anjou" title="Pyotr Anjou">Anjou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Benjamin_von_L%C3%BCtke" title="Friedrich Benjamin von Lütke">Litke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Lavrov" title="Mikhail Lavrov">Lavrov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyotr_Pakhtusov" title="Pyotr Pakhtusov">Pakhtusov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avgust_Tsivolko" title="Avgust Tsivolko">Tsivolko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_von_Middendorff" title="Alexander von Middendorff">Middendorff</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Austro-Hungarian_North_Pole_expedition" title="Austro-Hungarian North Pole expedition">Austro-Hungarian Expedition</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Weyprecht" title="Karl Weyprecht">Weyprecht</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_von_Payer" title="Julius von Payer">Payer</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Vega_Expedition" title="Vega Expedition"><i>Vega</i> Expedition</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adolf_Erik_Nordenski%C3%B6ld" title="Adolf Erik Nordenskiöld">A. E. Nordenskiöld</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Palander" title="Louis Palander">Palander</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Jeannette_expedition" title="Jeannette expedition"><i>Jeannette</i> expedition</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/USS_Jeannette_(1878)" title="USS Jeannette (1878)">USS <i>Jeannette</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_W._De_Long" title="George W. De Long">De Long</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_W._Melville" title="George W. Melville">Melville</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Yermak_(1898_icebreaker)" title="Yermak (1898 icebreaker)"><i>Yermak</i></a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stepan_Makarov" title="Stepan Makarov">Makarov</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Zarya_(polar_ship)" title="Zarya (polar ship)"><i>Zarya</i></a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eduard_von_Toll" title="Eduard von Toll">Toll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikolai_Kolomeitsev" title="Nikolai Kolomeitsev">Kolomeitsev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fyodor_Matisen" title="Fyodor Matisen">Matisen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Kolchak" title="Alexander Kolchak">Kolchak</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgy_Sedov" title="Georgy Sedov">Sedov</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Rusanov_expedition" title="Rusanov expedition">Rusanov expedition</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Rusanov" title="Vladimir Rusanov">Rusanov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Kuchin" title="Alexander Kuchin">Kuchin</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Brusilov_expedition" title="Brusilov expedition">Brusilov expedition</a></b> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Svyataya_Anna" title="Svyataya Anna">Sv. Anna</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgy_Brusilov" title="Georgy Brusilov">Brusilov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valerian_Albanov" title="Valerian Albanov">Albanov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Konrad" title="Alexander Konrad">Konrad</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Wiese" title="Vladimir Wiese">Wiese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jan_Nag%C3%B3rski" title="Jan Nagórski">Nagórski</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Taymyr_(1909_icebreaker)" title="Taymyr (1909 icebreaker)"><i>Taymyr</i></a></b> / <b><a href="/wiki/Vaygach_(1909_icebreaker)" title="Vaygach (1909 icebreaker)"><i>Vaygach</i></a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Boris_Vilkitsky" title="Boris Vilkitsky">Vilkitsky</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Maud_(ship)" title="Maud (ship)"><i>Maud</i></a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roald_Amundsen" title="Roald Amundsen">Amundsen</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Arctic_and_Antarctic_Research_Institute" title="Arctic and Antarctic Research Institute">AARI</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Samoylovich" title="Rudolf Samoylovich">Samoylovich</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikifor_Begichev" title="Nikifor Begichev">Begichev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikolay_Urvantsev" title="Nikolay Urvantsev">Urvantsev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sadko_(1913_icebreaker)" title="Sadko (1913 icebreaker)"><i>Sadko</i></a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Georgy_Ushakov" title="Georgy Ushakov">Ushakov</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Chief_Directorate_of_the_Northern_Sea_Route" title="Chief Directorate of the Northern Sea Route">Glavsevmorput</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Otto_Schmidt" title="Otto Schmidt">Schmidt</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Aviaarktika" title="Aviaarktika">Aviaarktika</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mark_Shevelev" title="Mark Shevelev">Shevelev</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A._Sibiryakov_(icebreaker)" title="A. Sibiryakov (icebreaker)"><i>A. Sibiryakov</i></a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Voronin_(captain)" title="Vladimir Voronin (captain)">Voronin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SS_Chelyuskin" title="SS Chelyuskin"><i>Chelyuskin</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krassin_(1916_icebreaker)" title="Krassin (1916 icebreaker)"><i>Krassin</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yakov_Gakkel" title="Yakov Gakkel">Gakkel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear-powered_icebreaker" title="Nuclear-powered icebreaker">Nuclear-powered icebreakers</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lenin_(1957_icebreaker)" title="Lenin (1957 icebreaker)"><i>Lenin</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arktika-class_icebreaker" title="Arktika-class icebreaker"><i>Arktika</i>-class</a> <a href="/wiki/Icebreaker" title="Icebreaker">icebreaker</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Antarctic" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Antarctic_exploration" class="mw-redirect" title="Antarctic exploration">Antarctic</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div id="*_Continent_*_History_*_Expeditions"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antarctica" title="Antarctica">Continent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Antarctica" title="History of Antarctica">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Antarctic_expeditions" title="List of Antarctic expeditions">Expeditions</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Southern_Ocean" title="Southern Ocean">Antarctic/Southern Ocean</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthony_de_la_Roch%C3%A9" title="Anthony de la Roché">Roché</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Charles_Bouvet_de_Lozier" title="Jean-Baptiste Charles Bouvet de Lozier">Bouvet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yves-Joseph_de_Kerguelen-Tr%C3%A9marec" title="Yves-Joseph de Kerguelen-Trémarec">Kerguelen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HMS_Resolution_(1771)" title="HMS Resolution (1771)">HMS <i>Resolution</i></a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/James_Cook" title="James Cook">J. Cook</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HMS_Adventure_(1771)" title="HMS Adventure (1771)">HMS <i>Adventure</i></a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tobias_Furneaux" title="Tobias Furneaux">Furneaux</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Smith_(mariner)" title="William Smith (mariner)">Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/San_Telmo_(Spanish_ship)" class="mw-redirect" title="San Telmo (Spanish ship)"><i>San Telmo</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vostok_(sloop-of-war)" title="Vostok (sloop-of-war)"><i>Vostok</i></a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fabian_Gottlieb_von_Bellingshausen" title="Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen">Bellingshausen</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mirny_(sloop-of-war)" title="Mirny (sloop-of-war)"><i>Mirny</i></a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Lazarev" title="Mikhail Lazarev">Lazarev</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Bransfield" title="Edward Bransfield">Bransfield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nathaniel_Palmer" title="Nathaniel Palmer">Palmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Davis_(sealer)" title="John Davis (sealer)">Davis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Weddell" title="James Weddell">Weddell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Morrell" title="Benjamin Morrell">Morrell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_ship_Astrolabe_(1811)" title="French ship Astrolabe (1811)"><i>Astrolabe</i></a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jules_Dumont_d%27Urville" title="Jules Dumont d'Urville">Dumont d'Urville</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/United_States_Exploring_Expedition" title="United States Exploring Expedition">United States Exploring Expedition</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/USS_Vincennes_(1826)" title="USS Vincennes (1826)">USS <i>Vincennes</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Wilkes" title="Charles Wilkes">Wilkes</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/USS_Porpoise_(1836)" title="USS Porpoise (1836)">USS <i>Porpoise</i></a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cadwalader_Ringgold" title="Cadwalader Ringgold">Ringgold</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Ross_expedition" title="Ross expedition">Ross expedition</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/HMS_Erebus_(1826)" title="HMS Erebus (1826)">HMS <i>Erebus</i></a> (<a href="/wiki/James_Clark_Ross" title="James Clark Ross">J. C. Ross</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Abernethy_(explorer)" title="Thomas Abernethy (explorer)">Abernethy</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/HMS_Terror_(1813)" title="HMS Terror (1813)">HMS <i>Terror</i></a> (<a href="/wiki/Francis_Crozier" title="Francis Crozier">Crozier</a>)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mercator_Cooper" title="Mercator Cooper">Cooper</a></li> <li><b><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Challenger expedition</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/HMS_Challenger_(1858)" title="HMS Challenger (1858)">HMS <i>Challenger</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Nares" title="George Nares">Nares</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Murray_(oceanographer)" title="John Murray (oceanographer)">Murray</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jason_(1881_ship)" title="Jason (1881 ship)"><i>Jason</i></a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Anton_Larsen" title="Carl Anton Larsen">C. A. Larsen</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><span class="nobold">"</span><a href="/wiki/Heroic_Age_of_Antarctic_Exploration" title="Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration">Heroic Age</a><span class="nobold">"</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Belgian_Antarctic_Expedition" title="Belgian Antarctic Expedition">Belgian Antarctic Expedition</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/RV_Belgica_(1884)" title="RV Belgica (1884)"><i>Belgica</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adrien_de_Gerlache" title="Adrien de Gerlache">de Gerlache</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georges_Lecointe_(explorer)" title="Georges Lecointe (explorer)">Lecointe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roald_Amundsen" title="Roald Amundsen">Amundsen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Cook" title="Frederick Cook">Cook</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henryk_Arctowski" title="Henryk Arctowski">Arctowski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emil_Racovi%C8%9B%C4%83" title="Emil Racoviță">Racoviță</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antoni_Boles%C5%82aw_Dobrowolski" title="Antoni Bolesław Dobrowolski">Dobrowolski</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Southern_Cross_Expedition" title="Southern Cross Expedition">Southern Cross</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/SS_Southern_Cross_(1886)" title="SS Southern Cross (1886)"><i>Southern Cross</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carsten_Borchgrevink" title="Carsten Borchgrevink">Borchgrevink</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Discovery_Expedition" title="Discovery Expedition">Discovery</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/RRS_Discovery" title="RRS Discovery"><i>Discovery</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discovery_Hut" title="Discovery Hut">Discovery Hut</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Gauss_expedition" title="Gauss expedition">Gauss</a></b> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Gauss_(ship)" title="Gauss (ship)">Gauss</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erich_von_Drygalski" title="Erich von Drygalski">Drygalski</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Swedish_Antarctic_Expedition" title="Swedish Antarctic Expedition">Swedish Antarctic Expedition</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antarctic_(ship)" title="Antarctic (ship)"><i>Antarctic</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otto_Nordenskj%C3%B6ld" title="Otto Nordenskjöld">O. Nordenskjöld</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Anton_Larsen" title="Carl Anton Larsen">C. A. Larsen</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Scottish_National_Antarctic_Expedition" title="Scottish National Antarctic Expedition">Scottish Antarctic Expedition</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_Speirs_Bruce" title="William Speirs Bruce">Bruce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scotia_(barque)" title="Scotia (barque)"><i>Scotia</i></a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Orcadas_Base" title="Orcadas Base">Orcadas Base</a></i></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Nimrod_Expedition" title="Nimrod Expedition">Nimrod Expedition</a></b> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Nimrod_(1867_ship)" title="Nimrod (1867 ship)">Nimrod</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/French_Antarctic_Expedition" title="French Antarctic Expedition">French Antarctic Expeditions</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pourquoi-Pas_(1908)" title="Pourquoi-Pas (1908)"><i>Pourquoi-Pas</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Charcot" title="Jean-Baptiste Charcot">Charcot</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Japanese_Antarctic_Expedition" title="Japanese Antarctic Expedition">Japanese Antarctic Expedition</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nobu_Shirase" title="Nobu Shirase">Shirase</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Amundsen%27s_South_Pole_expedition" title="Amundsen's South Pole expedition">Amundsen's South Pole expedition</a></b> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Fram_(ship)" title="Fram (ship)">Fram</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roald_Amundsen" title="Roald Amundsen">Amundsen</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Framheim" title="Framheim">Framheim</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Polheim" title="Polheim">Polheim</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Terra_Nova_Expedition" title="Terra Nova Expedition">Terra Nova</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Terra_Nova_(ship)" title="Terra Nova (ship)"><i>Terra Nova</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Falcon_Scott" title="Robert Falcon Scott">Scott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Wilson_(explorer)" title="Edward Wilson (explorer)">Wilson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Evans,_1st_Baron_Mountevans" title="Edward Evans, 1st Baron Mountevans">E. R. Evans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tom_Crean_(explorer)" title="Tom Crean (explorer)">Crean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Lashly" title="William Lashly">Lashly</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Filchner" title="Wilhelm Filchner">Filchner</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Australasian_Antarctic_Expedition" title="Australasian Antarctic Expedition">Australasian Antarctic Expedition</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/SY_Aurora" title="SY Aurora">SY <i>Aurora</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Douglas_Mawson" title="Douglas Mawson">Mawson</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Far_Eastern_Party" title="Far Eastern Party">Far Eastern Party</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Trans-Antarctic_Expedition" title="Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition">Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Endurance_(1912_ship)" title="Endurance (1912 ship)"><i>Endurance</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Shackleton" title="Ernest Shackleton">Shackleton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frank_Wild" title="Frank Wild">Wild</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Voyage_of_the_James_Caird" title="Voyage of the James Caird"><i>James Caird</i></a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Ross_Sea_party" title="Ross Sea party">Ross Sea party</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aeneas_Mackintosh" title="Aeneas Mackintosh">Mackintosh</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Shackleton%E2%80%93Rowett_Expedition" title="Shackleton–Rowett Expedition">Shackleton–Rowett Expedition</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quest_(ship)" title="Quest (ship)"><i>Quest</i></a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/International_Polar_Year" title="International Polar Year">IPY</a> · <a href="/wiki/International_Geophysical_Year" title="International Geophysical Year">IGY</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Research_stations_in_Antarctica" title="Research stations in Antarctica">Modern research</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lars_Christensen" title="Lars Christensen">Christensen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_E._Byrd" title="Richard E. Byrd">Byrd</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/British_Australian_and_New_Zealand_Antarctic_Research_Expedition" title="British Australian and New Zealand Antarctic Research Expedition">BANZARE</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/British_Graham_Land_expedition" title="British Graham Land expedition">BGLE</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Rymill" title="John Rymill">Rymill</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/New_Swabia" title="New Swabia">New Swabia</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Ritscher" title="Alfred Ritscher">Ritscher</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Operation_Tabarin" title="Operation Tabarin">Operation Tabarin</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/James_Marr_(biologist)" title="James Marr (biologist)">Marr</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Operation_Highjump" title="Operation Highjump">Operation Highjump</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Captain_Arturo_Prat_Base" title="Captain Arturo Prat Base">Captain Arturo Prat Base</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/British_Antarctic_Survey" title="British Antarctic Survey">British Antarctic Survey</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Operation_Windmill" title="Operation Windmill">Operation Windmill</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gerald_Ketchum" title="Gerald Ketchum">Ketchum</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Ronne_Antarctic_Research_Expedition" title="Ronne Antarctic Research Expedition">Ronne Expedition</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Finn_Ronne" title="Finn Ronne">F. Ronne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jackie_Ronne" title="Jackie Ronne">E. Ronne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Schlossbach" title="Isaac Schlossbach">Schlossbach</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Operation_Deep_Freeze" title="Operation Deep Freeze">Operation Deep Freeze</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/McMurdo_Station" title="McMurdo Station">McMurdo Station</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_Trans-Antarctic_Expedition" title="Commonwealth Trans-Antarctic Expedition">Commonwealth Trans-Antarctic Expedition</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Hillary" title="Edmund Hillary">Hillary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vivian_Fuchs" title="Vivian Fuchs">V. Fuchs</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Soviet_Antarctic_Expedition" title="Soviet Antarctic Expedition">Soviet Antarctic Expeditions</a></b> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/1st_Soviet_Antarctic_Expedition" title="1st Soviet Antarctic Expedition">1st</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Somov" title="Mikhail Somov">Somov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maria_Klenova" title="Maria Klenova">Klenova</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mirny_Station" title="Mirny Station">Mirny</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/2nd_Soviet_Antarctic_Expedition" title="2nd Soviet Antarctic Expedition">2nd</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alexey_Tryoshnikov" title="Alexey Tryoshnikov">Tryoshnikov</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/3rd_Soviet_Antarctic_Expedition" title="3rd Soviet Antarctic Expedition">3rd</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yevgeny_Tolstikov" title="Yevgeny Tolstikov">Tolstikov</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Antarctic_Treaty_System" title="Antarctic Treaty System">Antarctic Treaty System</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Transglobe_Expedition" title="Transglobe Expedition">Transglobe Expedition</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ranulph_Fiennes" title="Ranulph Fiennes">Fiennes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_R._Burton" title="Charles R. Burton">Burton</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Lake_Vostok" title="Lake Vostok">Lake Vostok</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrey_Kapitsa" title="Andrey Kapitsa">Kapitsa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Farthest_South" title="Farthest South">Farthest South</a><br /><a href="/wiki/South_Pole" title="South Pole">South Pole</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/HMS_Resolution_(1771)" title="HMS Resolution (1771)">HMS <i>Resolution</i></a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/James_Cook" title="James Cook">J. Cook</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HMS_Adventure_(1771)" title="HMS Adventure (1771)">HMS <i>Adventure</i></a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tobias_Furneaux" title="Tobias Furneaux">Furneaux</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Weddell" title="James Weddell">Weddell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HMS_Erebus_(1826)" title="HMS Erebus (1826)">HMS <i>Erebus</i></a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/James_Clark_Ross" title="James Clark Ross">J. C. Ross</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HMS_Terror_(1813)" title="HMS Terror (1813)">HMS <i>Terror</i></a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Crozier" title="Francis Crozier">Crozier</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Southern_Cross_Expedition" title="Southern Cross Expedition">Southern Cross</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carsten_Borchgrevink" title="Carsten Borchgrevink">Borchgrevink</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Discovery_Expedition" title="Discovery Expedition">Discovery</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Barne" title="Michael Barne">Barne</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Nimrod_Expedition" title="Nimrod Expedition">Nimrod</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Shackleton" title="Ernest Shackleton">Shackleton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frank_Wild" title="Frank Wild">Wild</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eric_Marshall" title="Eric Marshall">Marshall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jameson_Adams" title="Jameson Adams">Adams</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/South_magnetic_pole" title="South magnetic pole">South magnetic pole</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Douglas_Mawson" title="Douglas Mawson">Mawson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edgeworth_David" title="Edgeworth David">David</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alistair_Mackay" title="Alistair Mackay">Mackay</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Amundsen%27s_South_Pole_expedition" title="Amundsen's South Pole expedition">Amundsen's South Pole expedition</a></b> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Fram_(ship)" title="Fram (ship)">Fram</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roald_Amundsen" title="Roald Amundsen">Amundsen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olav_Bjaaland" title="Olav Bjaaland">Bjaaland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helmer_Hanssen" title="Helmer Hanssen">Helmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sverre_Hassel" title="Sverre Hassel">Hassel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oscar_Wisting" title="Oscar Wisting">Wisting</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Polheim" title="Polheim">Polheim</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Terra_Nova_Expedition" title="Terra Nova Expedition">Terra Nova</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Falcon_Scott" title="Robert Falcon Scott">Scott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edgar_Evans" title="Edgar Evans">E. Evans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Oates" title="Lawrence Oates">Oates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Wilson_(explorer)" title="Edward Wilson (explorer)">Wilson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Robertson_Bowers" title="Henry Robertson Bowers">Bowers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apsley_Cherry-Garrard" title="Apsley Cherry-Garrard">Cherry-Garrard</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_E._Byrd" title="Richard E. Byrd">Byrd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernt_Balchen" title="Bernt Balchen">Balchen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ashley_Chadbourne_McKinley" title="Ashley Chadbourne McKinley">McKinley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_J._Dufek" title="George J. Dufek">Dufek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amundsen%E2%80%93Scott_South_Pole_Station" title="Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station">Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Hillary" title="Edmund Hillary">Hillary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vivian_Fuchs" title="Vivian Fuchs">V. Fuchs</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Pole_of_Cold" title="Pole of Cold">Pole of Cold</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vostok_Station" title="Vostok Station">Vostok Station</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Pole_of_inaccessibility" title="Pole of inaccessibility">Pole of inaccessibility</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pole_of_Inaccessibility_research_station" title="Pole of Inaccessibility research station">Pole of Inaccessibility research station</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yevgeny_Tolstikov" title="Yevgeny Tolstikov">Tolstikov</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_P._Crary" title="Albert P. Crary">Crary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arved_Fuchs" title="Arved Fuchs">A. Fuchs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reinhold_Messner" title="Reinhold Messner">Messner</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q644521#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q644521#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q644521#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/457149196272474790770">VIAF</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.worldcat.org/fast/1410114/">FAST</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Challenger Expedition (1872-1876)"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/nr2003015598">United States</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987011371280905171">Israel</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://collections.tepapa.govt.nz/agent/43874">Te Papa (New Zealand)</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; 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