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class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cooperation_with_the_Nationalists" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cooperation_with_the_Nationalists"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Cooperation with the Nationalists </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Cooperation_with_the_Nationalists-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Cooperation with the Nationalists subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Cooperation_with_the_Nationalists-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Foundation_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Foundation_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Foundation of the Chinese Communist Party </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Foundation_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-First_United_Front" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#First_United_Front"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 First United Front </div> </a> <ul id="toc-First_United_Front-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Northern_Expedition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Northern_Expedition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 The Northern Expedition </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Northern_Expedition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Wuhan_Nationalist_Government" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Wuhan_Nationalist_Government"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4 Wuhan Nationalist Government </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Wuhan_Nationalist_Government-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-First_phase_of_the_Civil_War_(1927–1936)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#First_phase_of_the_Civil_War_(1927–1936)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 First phase of the Civil War (1927–1936) </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-First_phase_of_the_Civil_War_(1927–1936)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle First phase of the Civil War (1927–1936) subsection </button> <ul id="toc-First_phase_of_the_Civil_War_(1927–1936)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Shanghai_Massacre" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Shanghai_Massacre"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Shanghai Massacre </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Shanghai_Massacre-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Failed_insurrections_and_the_Chinese_Soviet" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Failed_insurrections_and_the_Chinese_Soviet"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Failed insurrections and the Chinese Soviet </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Failed_insurrections_and_the_Chinese_Soviet-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Second_Sino-Japanese_War_and_the_Second_United_Front" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Second_Sino-Japanese_War_and_the_Second_United_Front"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Second Sino-Japanese War and the Second United Front </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Second_Sino-Japanese_War_and_the_Second_United_Front-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Second_Phase_of_Civil_War_(1945–1949)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Second_Phase_of_Civil_War_(1945–1949)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Second Phase of Civil War (1945–1949) </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Second_Phase_of_Civil_War_(1945–1949)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Second Phase of Civil War (1945–1949) subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Second_Phase_of_Civil_War_(1945–1949)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Postwar_situation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Postwar_situation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Postwar situation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Postwar_situation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Japanese_surrender_and_attempted_negotiations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Japanese_surrender_and_attempted_negotiations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 Japanese surrender and attempted negotiations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Japanese_surrender_and_attempted_negotiations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Manchurian_Campaigns,_1946–1948" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Manchurian_Campaigns,_1946–1948"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3 Manchurian Campaigns, 1946–1948 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Manchurian_Campaigns,_1946–1948-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Three_Campaigns,_1948–1949" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Three_Campaigns,_1948–1949"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.4 The Three Campaigns, 1948–1949 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Three_Campaigns,_1948–1949-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Establishment_of_the_People's_Republic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Establishment_of_the_People's_Republic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Establishment of the People's Republic </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Establishment_of_the_People's_Republic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Aftermath_and_legacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aftermath_and_legacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Aftermath and legacy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Aftermath_and_legacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 References </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle References subsection </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.1 Citations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.2 Sources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Chinese Communist Revolution</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 27 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-27" aria-hidden="true" > 27 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AB%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B4%D9%8A%D9%88%D8%B9%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B5%D9%8A%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="الثورة الشيوعية الصينية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="الثورة الشيوعية الصينية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%9A%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BE_%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%80_%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B2%E0%A7%B1" title="চীনা সাম্যবাদী বিপ্লৱ – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="চীনা সাম্যবাদী বিপ্লৱ" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">অসমীয়া</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revoluci%C3%B3n_china_de_1949" title="Revolución china de 1949 – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Revolución china de 1949" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%86%DB%8C%D9%86_%DA%A9%D9%88%D9%85%D9%88%D9%86%DB%8C%D8%B3%D8%AA_%D8%A7%DB%8C%D9%86%D9%82%DB%8C%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%A8%DB%8C" title="چین کومونیست اینقیلابی – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="چین کومونیست اینقیلابی" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revoluci%C3%B3_comunista_xinesa" title="Revolució comunista xinesa – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Revolució comunista xinesa" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revoluci%C3%B3n_china_de_1949" title="Revolución china de 1949 – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Revolución china de 1949" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Txinako_Iraultza_Komunista" title="Txinako Iraultza Komunista – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Txinako Iraultza Komunista" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%82%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%A8_%DA%A9%D9%85%D9%88%D9%86%DB%8C%D8%B3%D8%AA%DB%8C_%DA%86%DB%8C%D9%86" title="انقلاب کمونیستی چین – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="انقلاب کمونیستی چین" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revoluci%C3%B3n_Chinesa_de_1949" title="Revolución Chinesa de 1949 – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Revolución Chinesa de 1949" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9A%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF" title="चीन की साम्यवादी क्रांति – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="चीन की साम्यवादी क्रांति" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revolusi_Komunis_Tiongkok" title="Revolusi Komunis Tiongkok – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Revolusi Komunis Tiongkok" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rivoluzione_comunista_cinese" title="Rivoluzione comunista cinese – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Rivoluzione comunista cinese" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%9A%E0%B5%88%E0%B4%A8%E0%B5%80%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D_%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%AE%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AE%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AF%E0%B5%82%E0%B4%A3%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%8D_%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%AA%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B2%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%82" title="ചൈനീസ് കമ്മ്യൂണിസ്റ്റ് വിപ്ലവം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ചൈനീസ് കമ്മ്യൂണിസ്റ്റ് വിപ്ലവം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%80" title="चिनी साम्यवादी क्रांती – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="चिनी साम्यवादी क्रांती" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9A%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8B_%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF" title="चीनको जनवादी क्रान्ति – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="चीनको जनवादी क्रान्ति" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Den_kinesiske_revolusjonen_i_1949" title="Den kinesiske revolusjonen i 1949 – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Den kinesiske revolusjonen i 1949" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%86%DB%8C%D9%86_%D8%AF%D8%A7_%DA%A9%D9%85%DB%8C%D9%88%D9%86%D8%B3%D9%B9_%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%82%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%A8" title="چین دا کمیونسٹ انقلاب – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="چین دا کمیونسٹ انقلاب" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-km mw-list-item"><a href="https://km.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%9E%94%E1%9E%8A%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%8F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%8F%E1%9E%93%E1%9F%8D%E1%9E%80%E1%9E%BB%E1%9E%98%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%98%E1%9E%BB%E1%9E%99%E1%9E%93%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%8F%E1%9E%85%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%93" title="បដិវត្តន៍កុម្មុយនិស្តចិន – Khmer" lang="km" hreflang="km" data-title="បដិវត្តន៍កុម្មុយនិស្តចិន" data-language-autonym="ភាសាខ្មែរ" data-language-local-name="Khmer" class="interlanguage-link-target">ភាសាខ្មែរ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revolu%C3%A7%C3%A3o_Comunista_Chinesa" title="Revolução Comunista Chinesa – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Revolução Comunista Chinesa" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%83%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0_(1949)" title="Кинеска револуција (1949) – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Кинеска револуција (1949)" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kineska_revolucija_(1949)" title="Kineska revolucija (1949) – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Kineska revolucija (1949)" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinesiska_revolutionen" title="Kinesiska revolutionen – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" 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<div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">1927–1949 social revolution in China</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the social revolution in China. Not to be confused with the contemporaneous <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Civil_War" title="Chinese Civil War">Chinese Civil War</a> or the later <a href="/wiki/Cultural_Revolution" title="Cultural Revolution">Cultural Revolution</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vevent"><caption class="infobox-title summary">Chinese Communist Revolution</caption><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader">Part of the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Civil_War" title="Chinese Civil War">Chinese Civil War</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle 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class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/1967-10_%E7%BA%A2%E5%86%9B%E6%97%B6%E6%9C%9F%E5%A4%B9%E9%87%91%E5%B1%B1.jpg/203px-1967-10_%E7%BA%A2%E5%86%9B%E6%97%B6%E6%9C%9F%E5%A4%B9%E9%87%91%E5%B1%B1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/1967-10_%E7%BA%A2%E5%86%9B%E6%97%B6%E6%9C%9F%E5%A4%B9%E9%87%91%E5%B1%B1.jpg/270px-1967-10_%E7%BA%A2%E5%86%9B%E6%97%B6%E6%9C%9F%E5%A4%B9%E9%87%91%E5%B1%B1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="479" data-file-height="615" /></a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:151px;max-width:151px"><div style="height:173px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:The_first_flag_of_China.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/The_first_flag_of_China.jpg/149px-The_first_flag_of_China.jpg" decoding="async" width="149" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/The_first_flag_of_China.jpg/224px-The_first_flag_of_China.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/The_first_flag_of_China.jpg/298px-The_first_flag_of_China.jpg 2x" data-file-width="440" data-file-height="510" /></a></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:290px;max-width:290px"><div style="height:193px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:%E4%B8%AD%E5%B1%B1%E5%A4%A7%E5%AD%A6%E5%AD%A6%E7%94%9F%E6%8A%97%E8%AE%AE%E7%BE%8E%E5%86%9B%E6%9A%B4%E8%A1%8C_02.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/%E4%B8%AD%E5%B1%B1%E5%A4%A7%E5%AD%A6%E5%AD%A6%E7%94%9F%E6%8A%97%E8%AE%AE%E7%BE%8E%E5%86%9B%E6%9A%B4%E8%A1%8C_02.jpg/288px-%E4%B8%AD%E5%B1%B1%E5%A4%A7%E5%AD%A6%E5%AD%A6%E7%94%9F%E6%8A%97%E8%AE%AE%E7%BE%8E%E5%86%9B%E6%9A%B4%E8%A1%8C_02.jpg" decoding="async" width="288" height="193" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/%E4%B8%AD%E5%B1%B1%E5%A4%A7%E5%AD%A6%E5%AD%A6%E7%94%9F%E6%8A%97%E8%AE%AE%E7%BE%8E%E5%86%9B%E6%9A%B4%E8%A1%8C_02.jpg/432px-%E4%B8%AD%E5%B1%B1%E5%A4%A7%E5%AD%A6%E5%AD%A6%E7%94%9F%E6%8A%97%E8%AE%AE%E7%BE%8E%E5%86%9B%E6%9A%B4%E8%A1%8C_02.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/%E4%B8%AD%E5%B1%B1%E5%A4%A7%E5%AD%A6%E5%AD%A6%E7%94%9F%E6%8A%97%E8%AE%AE%E7%BE%8E%E5%86%9B%E6%9A%B4%E8%A1%8C_02.jpg/576px-%E4%B8%AD%E5%B1%B1%E5%A4%A7%E5%AD%A6%E5%AD%A6%E7%94%9F%E6%8A%97%E8%AE%AE%E7%BE%8E%E5%86%9B%E6%9A%B4%E8%A1%8C_02.jpg 2x" data-file-width="580" data-file-height="389" /></a></div></div></div></div></div> Left to right, top to bottom: <div style="text-align:left"><ul><li>1935: <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Red_Army" title="Chinese Red Army">Chinese Red Army</a> soldiers in the Jiajin Mountains of <a href="/wiki/Sichuan" title="Sichuan">Sichuan</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Long_March" title="Long March">Long March</a></li><li>1949: the <a href="/wiki/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Flag of the People's Republic of China">flag of the People's Republic of China</a> is raised over <a href="/wiki/Tiananmen_Square" title="Tiananmen Square">Tiananmen Square</a> for the first time</li><li>1946: Students at <a href="/wiki/Sun_Yat-sen_University" title="Sun Yat-sen University">Sun Yat-sen University</a> protest American interference</li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Date</th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align: left;">1 August 1927 – 1 October 1949</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Location</th><td class="infobox-data location" style="text-align: left;">China</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Outcome</th><td class="infobox-data description" style="text-align: left;">Communist victory<div><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proclamation_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="Proclamation of the People's Republic of China">Proclamation of the People's Republic of China</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Retreat_of_the_government_of_the_Republic_of_China_to_Taiwan" title="Retreat of the government of the Republic of China to Taiwan">Retreat of the government of the Republic of China to Taiwan</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color:lavender;">Casualties</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="text-align: left;">1–2 million dead<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELynch201091-1">[1]</a></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output 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.navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Campaigns_of_the_Chinese_Civil_War" style="margin:0;float:right;clear:right;width:25.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;margin-left:1em;;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks navbox-vertical hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Campaignbox_Chinese_Civil_War" title="Template:Campaignbox Chinese Civil War"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:inherit">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Campaignbox_Chinese_Civil_War" title="Template talk:Campaignbox Chinese Civil War"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:inherit">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox_Chinese_Civil_War" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox Chinese Civil War"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:inherit">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Campaigns_of_the_Chinese_Civil_War" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Campaigns of the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Civil_War" title="Chinese Civil War">Chinese Civil War</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_the_Chinese_Civil_War" title="Outline of the Chinese Civil War">Outline of the Chinese Civil War</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>First Phase (1927–1937)</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Autumn_Harvest_Uprising" title="Autumn Harvest Uprising">Autumn Harvest Uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Encirclement_campaigns" class="mw-redirect" title="Encirclement campaigns">Encirclement campaigns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_invasion_of_Manchuria" title="Japanese invasion of Manchuria">Japanese invasion of Manchuria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Long_March" title="Long March">Long March</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Second_Kuomintang-Communist_Civil_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Second Kuomintang-Communist Civil War">Resumption of hostilities (1945–1949)</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Beleaguer" title="Operation Beleaguer">Operation Beleaguer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Campaign_to_Suppress_Bandits_in_Northeast_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Campaign to Suppress Bandits in Northeast China">Northeast China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liaoshen_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Liaoshen Campaign">Liaoshen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huaihai_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Huaihai Campaign">Huaihai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pingjin_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Pingjin Campaign">Pingjin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yangtze_River_Crossing_campaign" title="Yangtze River Crossing campaign">Yangtze River</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shanghai_Campaign" title="Shanghai Campaign">Shanghai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Hainan_Island" title="Battle of Hainan Island">Hainan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Guningtou" title="Battle of Guningtou">Guningtou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wanshan_Archipelago_Campaign" title="Wanshan Archipelago Campaign">Wanshan</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>Aftermath</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Incorporation_of_Xinjiang_into_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile vcard plainlist" style="width:21em;"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Chinese_Communist_Revolution" title="Category:Chinese Communist Revolution">a series</a> on the</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background: #DD0000;"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Chinese Communist Revolution</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><figure class="mw-halign-center mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Proclamation_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="Proclamation of the People's Republic of China"><img alt="Proclamation of the People's Republic of China" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Mao_Proclaiming_New_China.JPG/150px-Mao_Proclaiming_New_China.JPG" decoding="async" width="150" height="110" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Mao_Proclaiming_New_China.JPG/225px-Mao_Proclaiming_New_China.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Mao_Proclaiming_New_China.JPG/300px-Mao_Proclaiming_New_China.JPG 2x" data-file-width="771" data-file-height="566" /></a><figcaption>Proclamation of the People's Republic of China</figcaption></figure><div class="sidebar-caption"><a href="/wiki/Mao_Zedong" title="Mao Zedong">Mao Zedong</a> and leading revolutionaries proclaim the <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="People's Republic of China">People's Republic of China</a> on October 1, 1949.</div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above"> <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_the_Chinese_Civil_War" title="Outline of the Chinese Civil War">Outline of the Chinese Civil War</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Origins">Origins</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="padding-bottom:0;"> Context</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Century_of_Humiliation" class="mw-redirect" title="Century of Humiliation">Century of Humiliation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1911_Revolution" title="1911 Revolution">1911 Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warlord_Era" title="Warlord Era">Warlord Era</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="padding-bottom:0;"> Ideas</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_nationalism#Development_of_national_consciousness" title="Chinese nationalism">Nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_China" title="Anarchism in China">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Marxist_philosophy#Development_of_the_concept" title="Chinese Marxist philosophy">Marxism</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="padding-bottom:0;"> Movements</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0;"> <div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/New_Culture_Movement" title="New Culture Movement">New Culture Movement</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/May_Fourth_Movement" title="May Fourth Movement">May Fourth Movement</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Diligent_Work-Frugal_Study_Movement" title="Diligent Work-Frugal Study Movement">Diligent Work-Frugal Study Movement</a></li></ul></div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Early history</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="padding-bottom:0;"> <a href="/wiki/First_United_Front" title="First United Front">First United Front</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1st_National_Congress_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party" title="1st National Congress of the Chinese Communist Party">Founding of the Communist Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Far_Eastern_Bureau_of_the_Communist_International" title="Far Eastern Bureau of the Communist International">Far Eastern Bureau of the Communist International</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sun%E2%80%93Joffe_Manifesto" title="Sun–Joffe Manifesto">Sun–Joffe Manifesto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialist_ideology_of_the_Kuomintang" title="Socialist ideology of the Kuomintang">Left Kuomintang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peasant_Movement_Training_Institute" title="Peasant Movement Training Institute">Peasant Movement Training Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canton_Coup" title="Canton Coup">Canton Coup</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/28_Bolsheviks" title="28 Bolsheviks">28 Bolsheviks</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="padding-bottom:0;"> Labor organizing</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0;"> <div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/1922_seamen%27s_strike" title="1922 seamen's strike">1922 seamen's strike</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/May_Thirtieth_Movement" title="May Thirtieth Movement">May Thirtieth Movement</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Canton%E2%80%93Hong_Kong_strike" title="Canton–Hong Kong strike">Canton–Hong Kong strike</a></li></ul></div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="padding-bottom:0;"> <a href="/wiki/Northern_Expedition" title="Northern Expedition">Northern Expedition</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wuhan_Nationalist_government" title="Wuhan Nationalist government">Wuhan Government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Report_on_an_Investigation_of_the_Peasant_Movement_in_Hunan" title="Report on an Investigation of the Peasant Movement in Hunan">Hunan Report</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hankou_incident" class="mw-redirect" title="Hankou incident">Hankou incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanking_incident_of_1927" title="Nanking incident of 1927">Nanjing Incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shanghai_Commune_of_1927" title="Shanghai Commune of 1927">Shanghai Commune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shanghai_massacre" title="Shanghai massacre">Break with the KMT</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Civil_War" title="Chinese Civil War">Civil War</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="padding-bottom:0;"> Aftermath of purge</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nanchang_Uprising" class="mw-redirect" title="Nanchang Uprising">Nanchang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Little_Long_March" title="Little Long March">Little Long March</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autumn_Harvest_Uprising" title="Autumn Harvest Uprising">Autumn Harvest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guangzhou_Uprising" title="Guangzhou Uprising">Guangzhou</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="padding-bottom:0;"> Internal Purges</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Bolshevik_League_incident" title="Anti-Bolshevik League incident">AB League Incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Futian_incident" title="Futian incident">Futian incident</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="padding-bottom:0;"> <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Soviet_Republic" title="Chinese Soviet Republic">Chinese Soviet Republic</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jiangxi_Soviet" title="Jiangxi Soviet">Jiangxi Soviet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Red_Army" title="Chinese Red Army">Chinese Red Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Long_March" title="Long March">Long March</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zunyi_Conference" title="Zunyi Conference">Zunyi Conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northeast_Anti-Japanese_United_Army" class="mw-redirect" title="Northeast Anti-Japanese United Army">Anti-Japanese resistance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xi%27an_Incident" title="Xi'an Incident">Xi'an Incident</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Second_United_Front" title="Second United Front">Second United Front</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="padding-bottom:0;"> <a href="/wiki/Second_Sino-Japanese_War" title="Second Sino-Japanese War">Second Sino-Japanese War</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/New_Fourth_Army" title="New Fourth Army">New Fourth Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eighth_Route_Army" title="Eighth Route Army">Eighth Route Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_River_Column" title="East River Column">East River Column</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hundred_Regiments_Offensive" title="Hundred Regiments Offensive">Hundred Regiments Offensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Fourth_Army_Incident" class="mw-redirect" title="New Fourth Army Incident">New Fourth Army Incident</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="padding-bottom:0;"> Communist base areas</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shaan-Gan-Ning_Border_Region" class="mw-redirect" title="Shaan-Gan-Ning Border Region">Yan'an Soviet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jin-Cha-Ji_Border_Region" title="Jin-Cha-Ji Border Region">Jin-Cha-Ji Border Region</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yan%27an_Rectification_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Yan'an Rectification Campaign">Yan'an Rectification Campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yan%27an_Forum" title="Yan'an Forum">Yan'an Forum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/All-China_Women%27s_Federation#History" title="All-China Women's Federation">Women's movement</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Second_Kuomintang-Communist_Civil_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Second Kuomintang-Communist Civil War">Resumed Civil War</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="padding-bottom:0;"> Military conflict</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/Millet_plus_rifles" title="Millet plus rifles">Millet plus rifles</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_People%27s_Liberation_Army" title="History of the People's Liberation Army">People's Liberation Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Beleaguer" title="Operation Beleaguer">Operation Beleaguer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liaoshen_campaign" title="Liaoshen campaign">Liaoshen campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huaihai_campaign" title="Huaihai campaign">Huaihai campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pingjin_campaign" title="Pingjin campaign">Pingjin campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retreat_of_the_government_of_the_Republic_of_China_to_Taiwan" title="Retreat of the government of the Republic of China to Taiwan">Retreat of the ROC to Taiwan</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="padding-bottom:0;"> Urban support for Communists</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0;"> <div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/China_Democratic_League#History" title="China Democratic League">China Democratic League</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Shen_Chong_case" title="Shen Chong case">Shen Chong case</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Jiaochangkou_incident" title="Jiaochangkou incident">Jiaochangkou incident</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Yu_Zisan_Incident" title="Yu Zisan Incident">Yu Zisan Incident</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Revolutionary_Committee_of_the_Chinese_Kuomintang#History" title="Revolutionary Committee of the Chinese Kuomintang">Revolutionary Committee of the KMT</a></li></ul></div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Proclamation_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="Proclamation of the People's Republic of China">Forming the People's Republic</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="padding-bottom:0;"> Government</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0;"> <div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_People%27s_Government_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China_(1949%E2%80%931954)" title="Central People's Government of the People's Republic of China (1949–1954)">Central People's Government</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_People%27s_Political_Consultative_Conference#History" title="Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference">Writing the Constitution</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/1954_Constitution_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="1954 Constitution of the People's Republic of China">1954 Constitution</a></li></ul></div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="padding-bottom:0;"> Reforms</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Land_Reform_Movement_(China)" class="mw-redirect" title="Land Reform Movement (China)">Land Reform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Marriage_Law" title="New Marriage Law">New Marriage Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five-year_plans_of_China#First_Plan_(1953–1957)" title="Five-year plans of China">First five-year plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three-anti_and_Five-anti_Campaigns" title="Three-anti and Five-anti Campaigns">Three-anti and Five-anti Campaigns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Campaign_to_Suppress_Counterrevolutionaries" title="Campaign to Suppress Counterrevolutionaries">Suppression of counterrevolutionaries</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="padding-bottom:0;"> Foreign relations</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0;"> <div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Soviet_Treaty_of_Friendship,_Alliance_and_Mutual_Assistance" title="Sino-Soviet Treaty of Friendship, Alliance and Mutual Assistance">Sino-Soviet Cooperation</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Annexation_of_Tibet_by_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="Annexation of Tibet by the People's Republic of China">Annexation of Tibet</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Volunteer_Army" title="People's Volunteer Army">Intervention in Korea</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/China_in_the_Vietnam_War" title="China in the Vietnam War">Intervention in Vietnam</a></li></ul></div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Aftermath_and_legacy">Legacy</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mao_Zedong_Thought" class="mw-redirect" title="Mao Zedong Thought">Mao Zedong Thought</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Marxism%E2%80%93Leninism%E2%80%93Maoism" title="Marxism–Leninism–Maoism">Marxism–Leninism–Maoism</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/National_Day_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="National Day of the People's Republic of China">National Day</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/100th_Anniversary_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party" title="100th Anniversary of the Chinese Communist Party">100th Anniversary of the CCP</a></li></ul></div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/16px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/24px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/32px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:China" title="Portal:China">China portal</a> <img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Symbol-hammer-and-sickle.svg/16px-Symbol-hammer-and-sickle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Symbol-hammer-and-sickle.svg/24px-Symbol-hammer-and-sickle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Symbol-hammer-and-sickle.svg/32px-Symbol-hammer-and-sickle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Communism" title="Portal:Communism">Communism portal</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Chinese_Communist_Revolution_sidebar" title="Template:Chinese Communist Revolution sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Chinese_Communist_Revolution_sidebar" title="Template talk:Chinese Communist Revolution sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Chinese_Communist_Revolution_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Chinese Communist Revolution sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> The Chinese Communist Revolution was a <a href="/wiki/Social_revolution" title="Social revolution">social revolution</a> in China that began in 1927 and culminated with the <a href="/wiki/Proclamation_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="Proclamation of the People's Republic of China">proclamation of the People's Republic of China</a> (PRC) in 1949. The revolution was led by the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Communist_Party" title="Chinese Communist Party">Chinese Communist Party</a> (CCP), which afterwards became the ruling party of China. The revolution resulted in major social changes within China and has been looked at as a model by revolutionary Communist movements in other countries. During the preceding century, termed the <a href="/wiki/Century_of_humiliation" title="Century of humiliation">century of humiliation</a>, the decline of the <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing dynasty</a> and the rise of foreign imperialism caused escalating social, economic, and political problems in China. The Qing collapsed in 1912 and were replaced with the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_China_(1912%E2%80%931949)" title="Republic of China (1912–1949)">Republic of China</a>, which had itself fallen into <a href="/wiki/Warlord_Era" title="Warlord Era">warring factions</a> by 1917. A small group of urban intellectuals, inspired by the <a href="/wiki/October_Revolution" title="October Revolution">October Revolution</a> and European socialist ideas, founded the CCP in 1921. They created an alliance known as the <a href="/wiki/First_United_Front" title="First United Front">First United Front</a> with the much larger <a href="/wiki/Kuomintang" title="Kuomintang">Kuomintang</a> (KMT), having the shared goal of overthrowing the warlords governing China. During this period the CCP rapidly expanded its membership, organized a militant labor movement in several of China's major cities, and established rudimentary peasant associations in rural areas. Nonetheless, and despite the First United Front's military successes, KMT leader <a href="/wiki/Chiang_Kai-shek" title="Chiang Kai-shek">Chiang Kai-shek</a> ended the alliance in 1927 by initiating a <a href="/wiki/Shanghai_massacre" title="Shanghai massacre">purge of Communists</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Civil_War" title="Chinese Civil War">Chinese Civil War</a> between the Communists and Chiang Kai-shek's Nationalists fundamentally changed the course of the Chinese Communist Revolution. Forced to flee into the remote countryside, semi-isolated CCP cadres began to experiment with <a href="/wiki/Land_reform" title="Land reform">land reform</a> and other ways of appealing to the peasantry. One of the most successful local leaders was <a href="/wiki/Mao_Zedong" title="Mao Zedong">Mao Zedong</a>, who turned the <a href="/wiki/Jiangxi_Soviet" title="Jiangxi Soviet">Jiangxi Soviet</a> into a "state within a state".<a href="#cite_note-Cultural-2">[2]</a> In 1935, the Communists were handed a major military defeat, and the survivors made the <a href="/wiki/Long_March" title="Long March">Long March</a> to a <a href="/wiki/Yan%27an_Soviet" title="Yan'an Soviet">new base</a> in northwest China. During the Long March, Mao rose from a regional leader to undisputed leader of the entire CCP. After settling in their new base, the Communists undertook a <a href="/wiki/Yan%27an_Rectification_Movement" title="Yan'an Rectification Movement">campaign of ideological self-purification</a> to solidify their allegiance to Mao and their new peasant-based strategy.<a href="#cite_note-LIEBERTHAL-3">[3]</a> Meanwhile, Japan had taken advantage of China's disunity to <a href="/wiki/Japanese_invasion_of_Manchuria" title="Japanese invasion of Manchuria">seize Manchuria</a> and other Chinese territories. Chiang Kai-shek, prioritizing "first internal pacification, then external resistance", avoided confronting Japan. The Communists argued that the CCP and KMT should cooperate to fight the Japanese, an appeal to patriotism that won them broad sympathy. In 1936, Nationalist troops who had become sympathetic to the Communists <a href="/wiki/Xi%27an_Incident" title="Xi'an Incident">kidnapped Chiang Kai-shek</a> and forced him to begin ceasefire negotiations. The <a href="/wiki/Second_United_Front" title="Second United Front">Second United Front</a> was finalized when the Japanese launched a <a href="/wiki/Second_Sino-Japanese_War" title="Second Sino-Japanese War">full-scale invasion</a> of China the following year. The renewed alliance allowed the CCP to once again expand their areas of influence by waging a guerrilla war behind Japanese lines. Following the <a href="/wiki/Surrender_of_Japan" title="Surrender of Japan">Japanese surrender</a> in 1945, China became a battlefield in the <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a>. The Nationalists received military support from the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> and the Communists from the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a>. Although the Nationalists at first held most of the country, sympathy for the Communists grew in urban areas suffering from high unemployment, runaway inflation, and rampant government corruption. The presence of American Marines in Chinese cities further inflammed anti-imperialist sentiment, especially among students. When peace talks between the two sides floundered, the Civil War resumed. The Communists' newly-formed <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Liberation_Army" title="People's Liberation Army">People's Liberation Army</a> launched a successful series of campaigns that defeated the Nationalists and forced them to <a href="/wiki/Retreat_of_the_government_of_the_Republic_of_China_to_Taiwan" title="Retreat of the government of the Republic of China to Taiwan">retreat to Taiwan</a>. The Communist victory had a major impact on the global balance of power: China became the largest <a href="/wiki/Socialist_state" title="Socialist state">socialist state</a> by population, as well as a third force in the Cold War following the 1956 <a href="/wiki/Sino-Soviet_split" title="Sino-Soviet split">Sino-Soviet split</a>. The People's Republic offered direct and indirect support to communist movements around the world, and inspired the growth of <a href="/wiki/Maoist" class="mw-redirect" title="Maoist">Maoist</a> parties in a number of countries. Shock at the CCP's success and the emerging geopolitical <a href="/wiki/Domino_theory" title="Domino theory">domino theory</a> postulating its spread across East Asia led the United States to stage successive military interventions <a href="/wiki/Korean_War" title="Korean War">in Korea</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vietnam_War" title="Vietnam War">Southeast Asia</a>. The CCP remains in government in mainland China, and is the second-largest political party in the world.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETian2021-4">[4]</a> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Start_and_end_dates">Start and end dates</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_Communist_Revolution&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Start and end dates">edit</a>]</div> Many historians agree with the Chinese Communist Party official history that the Chinese Revolution dates to the founding of the Party in 1921. A few consider it to be the latter part of the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Civil_War" title="Chinese Civil War">Chinese Civil War</a>, since it was only after the <a href="/wiki/Second_Sino-Japanese_War" title="Second Sino-Japanese War">Second Sino-Japanese War</a> that the tide turned decisively in favour of the Communists. That said, it is not entirely clear when the second half of the civil war began. The earliest possible date would be the end of the <a href="/wiki/Second_United_Front" title="Second United Front">Second United Front</a> in January 1941, when Nationalist forces <a href="/wiki/New_Fourth_Army_Incident" class="mw-redirect" title="New Fourth Army Incident">ambushed and destroyed</a> the New Fourth Army. Another possible date is the <a href="/wiki/Surrender_of_Japan" title="Surrender of Japan">surrender of Japan</a> on August 10, 1945, which began a scramble by Communist and Nationalist forces to seize the equipment and territory left behind by the Japanese.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECohn2007121–122-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJessup1989-6">[6]</a> However, full-scale warfare between the two sides did not truly recommence until June 26, 1946, when <a href="/wiki/Chiang_Kai-shek" title="Chiang Kai-shek">Chiang Kai-shek</a> launched a major offensive against Communist bases in Manchuria.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHu2003-7">[7]</a> This article is focused on the political and social developments that contributed to the Revolution, rather than the military events of the Civil War, so it begins with the founding of the Communist party. The most common date used for the end of the Revolution is the <a href="/wiki/Proclamation_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="Proclamation of the People's Republic of China">Proclamation of the People's Republic of China</a> on 1 October 1949.<a href="#cite_note-OER-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYangSaich2016-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPerry2018-10">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-State_Dep-11">[11]</a> Nonetheless, the Nationalist Government had not evacuated to <a href="/wiki/Taiwan" title="Taiwan">Taiwan</a> until December, and significant fighting (such as <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Hainan_Island" title="Battle of Hainan Island">the conquest of Hainan</a>) continued well into 1950 and the <a href="/wiki/Annexation_of_Tibet_by_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="Annexation of Tibet by the People's Republic of China">takeover</a> of <a href="/wiki/Tibet_(1912%E2%80%931951)" title="Tibet (1912–1951)">Tibet</a> in 1951.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECookStevenson2005376-12">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoodman2004a73-13">[13]</a> While never posing a serious threat to the People's Republic, the <a href="/wiki/Kuomintang_Islamic_insurgency" title="Kuomintang Islamic insurgency">Kuomintang Islamic insurgency</a> continued until as late as 1958 in the provinces of <a href="/wiki/Gansu" title="Gansu">Gansu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Qinghai" title="Qinghai">Qinghai</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ningxia" title="Ningxia">Ningxia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Xinjiang" title="Xinjiang">Xinjiang</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Yunnan" title="Yunnan">Yunnan</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllatsonMcCormack200866-14">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoodman2004b387-15">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoodman20056-16">[16]</a> ROC soldiers who had fled into the mountains of <a href="/wiki/Burma" class="mw-redirect" title="Burma">Burma</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thailand" title="Thailand">Thailand</a> worked with the CIA and KMT to finance anti-Communist activities with drug trafficking well into the 1980s.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGibson2011-17">[17]</a> No formal peace between the ROC and the PRC has ever been negotiated.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreen199379-18">[18]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Origins">Origins</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_Communist_Revolution&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Origins">edit</a>]</div> During the final years of the <a href="/wiki/Qianlong_Emperor" title="Qianlong Emperor">Qianlong Emperor</a>'s reign, China began a long period of decline popularly known as the "<a href="/wiki/Century_of_humiliation" title="Century of humiliation">century of humiliation</a>". Successive administrations within the imperial administration of the Qing dynasty failed to address the mounting problems of economic stagnation, official corruption, and military weakness.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarris1959161–169-19">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlatt201849–70,_420–448-20">[20]</a> Massive peasant rebellions, most notably the <a href="/wiki/Taiping_Rebellion" title="Taiping Rebellion">Taiping Rebellion</a>, cost millions of lives and ravaged the countryside.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlatt2012-21">[21]</a> Japan and the Western powers forced China to accept <a href="/wiki/Unequal_treaties" title="Unequal treaties">unequal treaties</a> that gave them territorial concessions and allowed them to exploit the Chinese economy. China had been turned into a "semi-colony" by the time of the <a href="/wiki/Boxer_Rebellion" title="Boxer Rebellion">Boxer Rebellion</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZarrow20051–2,_6–11-22">[22]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_landlord_system">The landlord system</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_Communist_Revolution&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: The landlord system">edit</a>]</div> Prior to the revolution, the majority of agricultural land in rural China was owned by a class of landlords and wealthy peasants, with between 50 and 65 percent of peasants owning little or no land and thus needing to rent additional land from landlords.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBuck19802-23">[23]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChen19332–5-24">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-26">[a]</a> This disparity in land ownership differed by region, and was more extreme in southern China where the commercialization of agriculture was more developed. For example, in <a href="/wiki/Guangdong" title="Guangdong">Guangdong</a> more than half the rural population owned no land at all. Poor peasants owned an average of only 0.87 <a href="/wiki/Chinese_units_of_measurement#Area" title="Chinese units of measurement">mu</a> (about 0.14 acres) and so spent most of their time working rented land.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChen1936-27">[26]</a> Even in north China, where most peasants owned at least some land, the plots they owned were so small and <a href="/wiki/Soil_fertility" title="Soil fertility">infertile</a> that they remained on the edge of starvation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPerry198029-28">[27]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHinton196624–25-29">[28]</a> <a href="/wiki/List_of_famines_in_China" title="List of famines in China">Periodic famines</a> were common during both the Qing dynasty and the later <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_China_(1912%E2%80%931949)" title="Republic of China (1912–1949)">Republic of China</a>. Between 1900 and the end of WWII, China experienced no less than six major famines, costing tens of millions of lives.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChen2002-30">[29]</a><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELi2007303–307"In_Gansu_the_estimated_mortality_was_2.5_to_3_million_[...]_In_Shaanxi,_out_of_a_population_of_13_million,_an_estimated_3_million_died_of_hunger_or_disease."_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELi2007303–307"In_Gansu_the_estimated_mortality_was_2.5_to_3_million_[...]_In_Shaanxi,_out_of_a_population_of_13_million,_an_estimated_3_million_died_of_hunger_or_disease."-31">[30]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKelly2015-32">[31]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGarnaut20132034,_2044-33">[32]</a> Depending on the system of tenancy, peasants renting land might have been expected to pay in kind or in cash, either as a fixed amount or as a <a href="/wiki/Crop_share_rent" title="Crop share rent">proportion of the harvest</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBuck19807–8-34">[33]</a> Where a share of the harvest was paid, as in much of north China, rates of 40%, 50%, and 60% were common. A system of <a href="/wiki/Sharecropping" title="Sharecropping">sharecropping</a> prevailed in much of <a href="/wiki/Shanxi" title="Shanxi">Shanxi</a>, where landlords owned all agricultural capital and expected 80% of the harvest as rent.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBuck198010-35">[34]</a> The amount of fixed rents varied, but in most areas averaged about $4 a year per mu.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBuck19809-36">[35]</a> Proponents of peasant exploitation as a cause of the Chinese Communist Revolution argue that these rents were often exorbitant and contributed to the extreme poverty of the peasantry.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHinton196627-37">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-Mandel-38">[37]</a> Agricultural economist <a href="/wiki/John_Lossing_Buck" title="John Lossing Buck">John Lossing Buck</a> disagreed, arguing that landlords' return on investment was not especially high in comparison to the standard rates of interest in China at the time.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBuck198012–13-39">[38]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_forms_of_rural_exploitation">Other forms of rural exploitation</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_Communist_Revolution&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Other forms of rural exploitation">edit</a>]</div> According to <a href="/wiki/William_H._Hinton" title="William H. Hinton">William H. Hinton</a>, author of <a href="/wiki/Fanshen" title="Fanshen">a case study</a> on how the Revolution impacted a village in north China:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHinton196629-40">[39]</a> <blockquote>The land held by the landlords and rich peasants, while ample, was not enough in itself to make them the dominant group in the village. It served primarily as a solid foundation for other forms of open and concealed exploitation which taken together raised a handful of families far above the rest of the inhabitants economically and hence politically and socially as well.</blockquote> Landlords utilized forms of exploitation such as <a href="/wiki/Usury" title="Usury">usury</a>, <a href="/wiki/Corruption" title="Corruption">corruption</a>, and the theft of public funds to enrich themselves and their families.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHinton196630-41">[40]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChen193318-42">[41]</a> They ran side businesses with the profits from farming to shore up their finances and isolate themselves from the effects of bad harvests.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHinton196630–31-43">[42]</a> On holidays, funerals, and other important events, landlords had the right to demand their tenants act as servants, reinforcing the social divide and engendering resentment from the peasants.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBuck198015-44">[43]</a> <a href="/wiki/Agnes_Smedley" title="Agnes Smedley">Agnes Smedley</a> observed how even within a short distance from Shanghai, rural landlords operated essentially as feudal lords, paying for private armies, dominating local politics, and keeping numerous <a href="/wiki/Concubines" class="mw-redirect" title="Concubines">concubines</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Mandel-38">[37]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Radicalization_of_urban_intellectuals">Radicalization of urban intellectuals</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_Communist_Revolution&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Radicalization of urban intellectuals">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%E6%96%B0%E9%9D%92%E5%B9%B4%E5%B0%81%E9%9D%A2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/%E6%96%B0%E9%9D%92%E5%B9%B4%E5%B0%81%E9%9D%A2.jpg/220px-%E6%96%B0%E9%9D%92%E5%B9%B4%E5%B0%81%E9%9D%A2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="316" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/%E6%96%B0%E9%9D%92%E5%B9%B4%E5%B0%81%E9%9D%A2.jpg/330px-%E6%96%B0%E9%9D%92%E5%B9%B4%E5%B0%81%E9%9D%A2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/39/%E6%96%B0%E9%9D%92%E5%B9%B4%E5%B0%81%E9%9D%A2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="406" data-file-height="583" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Chen_Duxiu" title="Chen Duxiu">Chen Duxiu</a>'s journal <a href="/wiki/New_Youth" title="New Youth">New Youth</a> played a major role in publicizing Marxist ideas to a wider Chinese audience during the <a href="/wiki/New_Culture_Movement" title="New Culture Movement">New Culture Movement</a> of the 1910s and 20s.</figcaption></figure> In the first decade of the twentieth century, young Chinese intellectuals such as <a href="/wiki/Ma_Junwu" title="Ma Junwu">Ma Junwu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Liang_Qichao" title="Liang Qichao">Liang Qichao</a>, and Zhao Bizhen were the first to translate and summarize socialist and <a href="/wiki/Marxist" class="mw-redirect" title="Marxist">Marxist</a> ideas into Chinese.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEXuLiu198923–28-45">[44]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHu199441–42-46">[45]</a><a href="#cite_note-47">[46]</a> However, this happened on a very small scale, and had no immediate impacts. This would change following the <a href="/wiki/1911_Revolution" title="1911 Revolution">1911 Revolution</a>, which saw <a href="/wiki/Wuchang_Uprising" title="Wuchang Uprising">military</a> and popular revolts overthrow the <a href="/wiki/Qing_Dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Qing Dynasty">Qing Dynasty</a>.<a href="#cite_note-xb1-48">[47]</a><a href="#cite_note-reillyt-49">[48]</a> The failure of the new <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_China_(1912%E2%80%931949)" title="Republic of China (1912–1949)">Chinese Republic</a> to improve social conditions or modernize the country led scholars to take a greater interest in Western ideas such as socialism.<a href="#cite_note-50">[49]</a><a href="#cite_note-51">[50]</a><a href="#cite_note-52">[51]</a> The <a href="/wiki/New_Culture_Movement" title="New Culture Movement">New Culture Movement</a> was especially strong in cities like <a href="/wiki/Shanghai" title="Shanghai">Shanghai</a>, where <a href="/wiki/Chen_Duxiu" title="Chen Duxiu">Chen Duxiu</a> began to publish the left-leaning journal <a href="/wiki/New_Youth" title="New Youth">New Youth</a> in 1915.<a href="#cite_note-Wei-53">[52]</a> New Youth quickly became the most popular and widely distributed journal amongst the intelligentsia during this period.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence1999296–304-54">[53]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Student_Demonstrations,_June_4th_and_5th,_1919_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Student_Demonstrations%2C_June_4th_and_5th%2C_1919_1.jpg/220px-Student_Demonstrations%2C_June_4th_and_5th%2C_1919_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Student_Demonstrations%2C_June_4th_and_5th%2C_1919_1.jpg/330px-Student_Demonstrations%2C_June_4th_and_5th%2C_1919_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Student_Demonstrations%2C_June_4th_and_5th%2C_1919_1.jpg/440px-Student_Demonstrations%2C_June_4th_and_5th%2C_1919_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1110" data-file-height="873" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/May_Fourth_Movement" title="May Fourth Movement">May Fourth Movement</a> radicalized the New Culture Movement. For the first time, the general urban population became involved in political demonstrations and many future Communist leaders were converted to Marxism.</figcaption></figure> In May 1919, news reached China that the <a href="/wiki/Versailles_Peace_Conference" class="mw-redirect" title="Versailles Peace Conference">Versailles Peace Conference</a> had decided to give <a href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">German</a>-occupied province of <a href="/wiki/Shandong_Province" class="mw-redirect" title="Shandong Province">Shandong</a> to <a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Japan" title="Empire of Japan">Japan</a> rather than returning it to China.<a href="#cite_note-55">[54]</a> The Chinese public saw this not only as a betrayal by <a href="/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_I" title="Allies of World War I">the Western allies</a>, but also as a failure by the Chinese Republican government to properly defend the country against imperialism.<a href="#cite_note-56">[55]</a> In what became known as the <a href="/wiki/May_Fourth_Movement" title="May Fourth Movement">May Fourth Movement</a>, large protests erupted in major cities across China. Although led by students, these protests were significant because they included the first mass participation by those outside the traditional intellectual and cultural elites.<a href="#cite_note-zhidong-57">[56]</a><a href="#cite_note-Wasserstrom-58">[57]</a> <a href="/wiki/Mao_Zedong" title="Mao Zedong">Mao Zedong</a> later reflected that the May Fourth Movement "marked a new stage in China's bourgeois-democratic revolution against imperialism and feudalism...a powerful camp made its appearance in the bourgeois-democratic revolution, a camp consisting of the working class, the student masses and the new national bourgeoisie."<a href="#cite_note-59">[58]</a> Many political, and social leaders of the next five decades emerged at this time, including those of the Chinese Communist Party.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHayford2009569-60">[59]</a> The <a href="/wiki/October_Revolution" title="October Revolution">October Revolution</a> in <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russia</a> attracted the admiration of many of the organizers of the May Fourth Movement.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHunt2013114-61">[60]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVan_de_Ven199138-62">[61]</a> Although exposure to Marxist theory was extremely limited in China at the time, Chinese radicals found <a href="/wiki/Leninism" title="Leninism">Lenin's ideas about organizing a revolutionary movement</a> to be readily applicable to their own context.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESaich202144-63">[62]</a> Moreover, the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> (once established in 1922) offered a unique and compelling model of modernization and revolutionary social change in a semi-colonial nation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEForster2018-64">[63]</a> Historian Tony Saich wrote that the early Chinese Communists "were Bolsheviks before they were Marxists."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESaich202144-63">[62]</a> Interest in the Bolsheviks led to an interest in Marxism. Students formed study groups to discuss Marx's ideas, including one at <a href="/wiki/Peking_University" title="Peking University">Peking University</a> led by <a href="/wiki/Li_Dazhao" title="Li Dazhao">Li Dazhao</a>.<a href="#cite_note-65">[64]</a> His study group included Chen Duxiu, who was now working as a dean at the university.<a href="#cite_note-66">[b]</a><a href="#cite_note-67">[65]</a> As the editor of New Youth, Chen used his journal to publish a series of Marxist articles, including an entire issue devoted to the subject in 1919.<a href="#cite_note-UN-68">[66]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence1999296-69">[67]</a> By 1920, Li and Chen had fully converted to Marxism, and Li founded the Peking Socialist Youth Corps in Beijing.<a href="#cite_note-Dazhao-70">[68]</a> Chen moved back to Shanghai, where he also founded a small Communist group.<a href="#cite_note-Chow-71">[69]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Cooperation_with_the_Nationalists">Cooperation with the Nationalists</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_Communist_Revolution&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Cooperation with the Nationalists">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Foundation_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party">Foundation of the Chinese Communist Party</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_Communist_Revolution&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Foundation of the Chinese Communist Party">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:78_Xingye_Lu_(3919339998).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/78_Xingye_Lu_%283919339998%29.jpg/220px-78_Xingye_Lu_%283919339998%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/78_Xingye_Lu_%283919339998%29.jpg/330px-78_Xingye_Lu_%283919339998%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/78_Xingye_Lu_%283919339998%29.jpg/440px-78_Xingye_Lu_%283919339998%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="799" data-file-height="531" /></a><figcaption>Location of the <a href="/wiki/1st_National_Congress_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party" title="1st National Congress of the Chinese Communist Party">1st National Congress of the Chinese Communist Party</a> in July 1921, on <a href="/wiki/Xintiandi" title="Xintiandi">Xintiandi</a>, former <a href="/wiki/French_Concession" class="mw-redirect" title="French Concession">French Concession</a>, Shanghai.</figcaption></figure> By 1920, "skepticism about [study groups'] suitability as vehicles for reform had become widespread."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVan_de_Ven199144-72">[70]</a> Instead, most Chinese Marxists had determined to follow the <a href="/wiki/Leninist" class="mw-redirect" title="Leninist">Leninist</a> model, which they understood as organizing a <a href="/wiki/Vanguardism" title="Vanguardism">vanguard party</a> around a core group of professional revolutionaries.<a href="#cite_note-Zhao-73">[71]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEColumbia2001-74">[72]</a> The Chinese Communist Party was founded on 23 July 1921 in Shanghai, at the <a href="/wiki/1st_National_Congress_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party" title="1st National Congress of the Chinese Communist Party">1st National Congress of the CCP</a>.<a href="#cite_note-75">[73]</a><a href="#cite_note-76">[74]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGao2009119-77">[75]</a> The dozen delegates resolved to affiliate with the <a href="/wiki/Communist_International" title="Communist International">Communist International</a> (Comintern), although the CCP would only formally become a member at its <a href="/wiki/2nd_National_Congress_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party" title="2nd National Congress of the Chinese Communist Party">second congress</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGao2009119-77">[75]</a> Chen was elected in absentia to be the first <a href="/wiki/General_Secretary_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party" title="General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party">General Secretary</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Chow-71">[69]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGao2009119-77">[75]</a> The Chinese Communist Party grew slowly in its first few years.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHunt2013115-78">[76]</a> The party had 50 members at the beginning of 1921, 200 in 1922, and 2,428 in 1925.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence1999312-79">[77]</a><a href="#cite_note-80">[78]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTE奎松2010-81">[79]</a> In contrast, the Kuomintang had 50,000 members already in 1923.<a href="#cite_note-Fairbank-82">[80]</a> The CCP continued to be dominated by students and urban intellectuals living in China's large cities, where exposure to Marxist ideas was strongest: three of the first four party congresses were held in Shanghai, the other in <a href="/wiki/Guangzhou" title="Guangzhou">Guangzhou</a>. One exception was <a href="/wiki/Peng_Pai" title="Peng Pai">Peng Pai</a>, who became the first CCP leader to seriously engage with the peasants. In <a href="/wiki/Haifeng_County" title="Haifeng County">Haifeng County</a> in rural Guangdong, he organized a powerful peasant association that campaigned for lower rents, led anti-landlord boycotts, and organized welfare activities.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIp200954–66-83">[81]</a> By 1923, it claimed a membership of about 100,000, or one-quarter of the population of the entire county.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGalbiati1985129–130-84">[82]</a><a href="#cite_note-85">[83]</a> Later that year, Peng worked with the KMT to establish a joint "<a href="/wiki/Peasant_Movement_Training_Institute" title="Peasant Movement Training Institute">Peasant Movement Training Institute</a>" to train young idealists to work in rural areas, which slowly increased both parties' awareness of and engagement with the peasants and their issues.<a href="#cite_note-Berkley-86">[84]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="First_United_Front">First United Front</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_Communist_Revolution&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: First United Front">edit</a>]</div> At the same time as CCP was developing in Shanghai, in <a href="/wiki/Guangzhou" title="Guangzhou">Guangzhou</a> the seasoned revolutionary <a href="/wiki/Sun_Yat-sen" title="Sun Yat-sen">Sun Yat-sen</a> was building the Chinese Nationalist Party, or <a href="/wiki/Kuomintang" title="Kuomintang">Kuomintang</a> (KMT). Although not a communist, Sun admired the success of the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Revolution" title="Russian Revolution">Russian Revolution</a> and sought help from the Soviet Union.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVerbyla2010170-87">[85]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Sun%E2%80%93Joffe_Manifesto" title="Sun–Joffe Manifesto">Sun–Joffe Manifesto</a> issued in January 1923 formalized cooperation between the KMT and the Soviet Union.<a href="#cite_note-Tung1-88">[86]</a> The CCP's <a href="/wiki/3rd_National_Congress_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party" title="3rd National Congress of the Chinese Communist Party">Third Party Congress</a> was held in Guangzhou later that year, and the Comintern instructed the CCP to disband and join the KMT as individuals.<a href="#cite_note-Zhao-73">[71]</a> This was justified in view of the "<a href="/wiki/Two-stage_theory" title="Two-stage theory">two-stage theory</a>" of revolution, which postulated that "feudal" societies such as China's needed to undergo a period of capitalist development before they could experience a successful socialist revolution. Although the CCP did agree to allow members to join the KMT, it did not disband. Sun encouraged this decision by offering praise for <a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin" title="Vladimir Lenin">Vladimir Lenin</a> and calling his <a href="/wiki/Three_Principles_of_the_People" title="Three Principles of the People">principle of livelihood</a> "a form of communism".<a href="#cite_note-89">[87]</a> This was the basis of the <a href="/wiki/First_United_Front" title="First United Front">First United Front</a>, which in effect turned the CCP into the left-wing of the larger KMT.<a href="#cite_note-90">[88]</a> The KMT ratified this United Front at its <a href="/wiki/1st_National_Congress_of_the_Kuomintang" title="1st National Congress of the Kuomintang">First National Congress</a> in 1924. The Soviets began sending the support the KMT needed for its planned expansion out of Guangdong. Military advisers <a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Borodin" title="Mikhail Borodin">Mikhail Borodin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vasily_Blyukher" title="Vasily Blyukher">Vasily Blyukher</a> arrived in May to oversee the construction of the <a href="/wiki/Whampoa_Military_Academy" class="mw-redirect" title="Whampoa Military Academy">Whampoa Military Academy</a>, financed with Soviet funds. Chiang Kai-shek, who the year prior had spent three months in the Soviet Union, was appointed commandant of the new <a href="/wiki/National_Revolutionary_Army" title="National Revolutionary Army">National Revolutionary Army</a> (NRA).<a href="#cite_note-91">[89]</a> On 30 May 1925, Chinese students gathered at the <a href="/wiki/Shanghai_International_Settlement" title="Shanghai International Settlement">Shanghai International Settlement</a>, and held the <a href="/wiki/May_Thirtieth_Movement" title="May Thirtieth Movement">May Thirtieth Movement</a> in opposition to foreign interference in China.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilbur198322-92">[90]</a> Specifically, with the support of the KMT, they called for the boycott of foreign goods and an end to the Settlement, which was <a href="/wiki/Concessions_in_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Concessions in China">governed</a> by the British and Americans. The <a href="/wiki/Shanghai_Municipal_Police" title="Shanghai Municipal Police">Shanghai Municipal Police</a>, largely operated by the British, opened fire on the crowd of demonstrators. This incident sparked outrage throughout China, culminating in the <a href="/wiki/Canton%E2%80%93Hong_Kong_strike" title="Canton–Hong Kong strike">Canton–Hong Kong strike</a>, which began on 18 June, and proved a fertile recruiting ground for the CCP.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJordan197611,_29-93">[91]</a> Membership was catapulted to over 20,000, almost ten times what it had been earlier in the year.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECarroll2007100-94">[92]</a><a href="#cite_note-May_EB-95">[93]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENolan20021509-96">[94]</a> Concerns about the rising power of the leftist faction, and the effect of the strike on the Guangzhou government's ability to raise funds, which was largely dependent on foreign trade, led to increasing tensions within the United Front. When Sun Yat-sen had died on 12 March, his immediate successor as chairman was the moderate <a href="/wiki/Liao_Zhongkai" title="Liao Zhongkai">Liao Zhongkai</a>, who supported the United Front and the KMT's close relationship with the Soviet Union.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETamura1998174-97">[95]</a> On August 20 <a href="/wiki/Hu_Hanmin" title="Hu Hanmin">Hu Hanmin</a>'s far-right faction likely orchestrated Liao's assassination.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERadtkeLiao199023-98">[96]</a> Hu was arrested for his connections to the murderers, leaving Chiang and <a href="/wiki/Wang_Jingwei" title="Wang Jingwei">Wang Jingwei</a>—Sun's former confidant and a leftist sympathizer—as the two main contenders for control of the party. Amidst this backdrop, Chiang began to consolidate power in preparation for an expedition against the northern warlords. On 20 March 1926, he launched a bloodless purge of hardline communists who were opposed to the proposed expedition from the Guangzhou administration and its military, known as the <a href="/wiki/Canton_Coup" title="Canton Coup">Canton Coup</a>. The rapid replacement of leadership enabled Chiang to effectively end civilian oversight of the military.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEXiang19983-99">[97]</a> At the same time, Chiang made conciliatory moves toward the Soviet Union, and attempted to balance the need for Soviet and CCP assistance in the fight against the warlords with his concerns about growing communist influence within the KMT.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJordan197639–40-100">[98]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilbur198347-101">[99]</a> In the aftermath of the coup, Chiang negotiated a compromise whereby hardline members of the rightist faction, such as <a href="/wiki/Wu_Tiecheng" title="Wu Tiecheng">Wu Tiecheng</a>, were removed from their posts in compensation for the purged leftists.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchram196684,_89-102">[100]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWortzel1999"[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidrfu-hR8msh4CpgPA39_Canton_Coup]"-103">[101]</a> By doing so, Chiang was able to prove his usefulness to the CCP and their Soviet sponsor, <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stalin" title="Joseph Stalin">Joseph Stalin</a>. Soviet aid to the KMT government would continue, as would co-operation with the CCP. A fragile coalition between KMT rightists, centrists led by Chiang, KMT leftists, and the CCP managed to hold together, laying the groundwork for the Northern Expedition.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJordan197642–49-104">[102]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKotkin2014627–629-105">[103]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Northern_Expedition">The Northern Expedition</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_Communist_Revolution&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: The Northern Expedition">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Northern_Expedition" title="Northern Expedition">Northern Expedition</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Shanghai_rev_1927.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Shanghai_rev_1927.jpg/220px-Shanghai_rev_1927.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="205" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Shanghai_rev_1927.jpg/330px-Shanghai_rev_1927.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Shanghai_rev_1927.jpg/440px-Shanghai_rev_1927.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1237" data-file-height="1151" /></a><figcaption>Shanghai workers posing with weapons in 1927. After successfully ousting the <a href="/wiki/Zhili_Clique" class="mw-redirect" title="Zhili Clique">Zhili Clique</a> and handing the city over to the Kuomintang, the Communist-allied <a href="/wiki/Shanghai_massacre" title="Shanghai massacre">workers were massacred</a>.</figcaption></figure> By 1926, the Kuomintang (KMT) had solidified their control over <a href="/wiki/Guangdong" title="Guangdong">Guangdong</a> enough to rival the legitimacy of the <a href="/wiki/Beiyang_government" title="Beiyang government">Beiyang government</a> based in <a href="/wiki/Beijing" title="Beijing">Beijing</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Nationalist_China-106">[104]</a> After purging his opponents in the KMT leadership, Chiang Kai-shek was appointed <a href="/wiki/Generalissimo" title="Generalissimo">Generalissimo</a> of the <a href="/wiki/National_Revolutionary_Army" title="National Revolutionary Army">National Revolutionary Army</a> and set out to defeat the warlords one at a time. The campaign saw massive success against <a href="/wiki/Wu_Peifu" title="Wu Peifu">Wu Peifu</a> in <a href="/wiki/Hunan" title="Hunan">Hunan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hubei" title="Hubei">Hubei</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Henan" title="Henan">Henan</a>. <a href="/wiki/Sun_Chuanfang" title="Sun Chuanfang">Sun Chuanfang</a> put up a stronger resistance, but popular support for the KMT and opposition to the warlords helped the <a href="/wiki/National_Revolutionary_Army" title="National Revolutionary Army">National Revolutionary Army</a> (NRA) make inroads into <a href="/wiki/Jiangxi" title="Jiangxi">Jiangxi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fujian" title="Fujian">Fujian</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Zhejiang" title="Zhejiang">Zhejiang</a>. As the NRA advanced, workers in the cities organized themselves into left-leaning <a href="/wiki/Trade_union" title="Trade union">trade unions</a>: in <a href="/wiki/Wuhan" title="Wuhan">Wuhan</a>, for example, more than 300,000 had joined trade unions by the end of the year.<a href="#cite_note-107">[105]</a> The All-China Federation of Labor (ACFL), founded by the Communists in 1925, reached 2.8 million members by 1927.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThomas19832-108">[106]</a> At the same time as workers organized in the cities, peasants rose up across the countryside of Hunan and Hubei provinces, appropriating the land of the wealthy landowners, who were in many cases killed. Such uprisings angered senior KMT figures, who were themselves landowners, emphasising the growing class and ideological divide within the revolutionary movement.<a href="#cite_note-109">[107]</a> CCP leader Chen Duxiu was also upset, both from doubt in the peasants' revolutionary capabilities and fear that premature revolt would wreck the United Front.<a href="#cite_note-Xuyin-110">[108]</a><a href="#cite_note-111">[109]</a> The KMT-CCP leadership dispatched prominent CCP cadre <a href="/wiki/Mao_Zedong" title="Mao Zedong">Mao Zedong</a> to investigate and report on the nature of the unrest. Mao had returned from a previous visit to his rural home town <a href="/wiki/Shaoshan" title="Shaoshan">Shaoshan</a> personally convinced that the peasantry had revolutionary potential, and over the course of 1926 had established himself as an authority on rural issues while lecturing at the <a href="/wiki/Peasant_Movement_Training_Institute" title="Peasant Movement Training Institute">Peasant Movement Training Institute</a>.<a href="#cite_note-112">[110]</a><a href="#cite_note-113">[111]</a> Mao spent just over a month in Hunan and published his report in March. Rather than condemning the peasant movement, his now-famous <a href="/wiki/Report_on_an_Investigation_of_the_Peasant_Movement_in_Hunan" title="Report on an Investigation of the Peasant Movement in Hunan">Hunan Report</a> made the case that a peasant-led revolution was not only justified, but practically possible and even inevitable.<a href="#cite_note-114">[112]</a><a href="#cite_note-115">[113]</a> Mao predicted that: <blockquote>In a very short time, in China's central, southern and northern provinces, several hundred million peasants will rise like a mighty storm, like a hurricane, a force so swift and violent that no power, however great, will be able to hold it back. They will smash all the trammels that bind them and rush forward along the road to liberation. They will sweep all the imperialists, warlords, corrupt officials, local tyrants and evil gentry into their graves. Every revolutionary party and every revolutionary comrade will be put to the test, to be accepted or rejected as they decide. There are three alternatives. To march at their head and lead them. To trail behind them, gesticulating and criticizing. Or to stand in their way and oppose them. Every Chinese is free to choose, but events will force you to make the choice quickly.<a href="#cite_note-116">[114]</a></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Wuhan_Nationalist_Government">Wuhan Nationalist Government</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_Communist_Revolution&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Wuhan Nationalist Government">edit</a>]</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Wuhan_government_leaders.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Wuhan_government_leaders.png/280px-Wuhan_government_leaders.png" decoding="async" width="280" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Wuhan_government_leaders.png/420px-Wuhan_government_leaders.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Wuhan_government_leaders.png/560px-Wuhan_government_leaders.png 2x" data-file-width="2037" data-file-height="1048" /></a><figcaption>Leaders of Wuhan Nationalist government, from left to right: Mikhail Borodin (second from left), Wang Jingwei, T. V. Soong and Eugene Chen.</figcaption></figure> After the capture of Wuhan, the Central Committee of the Kuomintang voted to move to their government to this more central location.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChen197813-117">[115]</a> Headed in Chiang's absence by Minister of Justice <a href="/wiki/Xu_Qian" title="Xu Qian">Xu Qian</a>, the executive committee was a mix of liberals and conservatives who had not been subject to Chiang's purge of leftists. They included Minister of Finance <a href="/wiki/Sun_Fo" title="Sun Fo">Sun Fo</a>, Minister for Foreign Affairs <a href="/wiki/Eugene_Chen" title="Eugene Chen">Eugene Chen</a>, and banker and industrialist <a href="/wiki/T._V._Soong" title="T. V. Soong">T. V. Soong</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELiuWanWangKong1995379-118">[116]</a> When they arrived in Wuhan on December 10, the Nationalists found a city gripped by enthusiasm for the revolution. The rapidly-expanding, Communist-led labor movement staged near-constant demonstrations in Wuhan itself and across the nominally KMT-controlled territories.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJordan1976118–120-119">[117]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChiang197869-120">[118]</a> Although still prevented from participating in the KMT government, the CCP established parallel structures of administration in areas liberated by the NRA.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJordan1976118–120-119">[117]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Wuhan_Nationalist_government" title="Wuhan Nationalist government">Wuhan government</a> proved its competency when, in January 1927, violent protests broke out in the British <a href="/wiki/Concessions_in_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Concessions in China">concession</a> at <a href="/wiki/Hankou" title="Hankou">Hankou</a>. Eugene Chen successfully negotiated its evacuation by the British and handover to the Chinese.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWorthing201675-121">[119]</a> The Wuhan administration gradually drifted away from Chiang, becoming a center of leftist power and seeking to reassert civilian control over the military. On 10 March, the <a href="/wiki/Wuhan_government" class="mw-redirect" title="Wuhan government">Wuhan leadership</a> nominally stripped Chiang of much of his military authority, though refrained from deposing him as commander-in-chief. At the same time, the Communist Party became an equal partner in the Wuhan government, sharing power with the KMT leftists.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWu1969126-122">[120]</a> Chiang Kai-shek declined to join the rest of the KMT in Wuhan, wary of the influence the CCP had there. Instead, he stayed at his military headquarters in <a href="/wiki/Nanchang" title="Nanchang">Nanchang</a> and began to rally anti-Communist elements in the KMT and NRA around him.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWu1969126–127-123">[121]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilbur198347-101">[99]</a> In February 1927, he launched an offensive on the last and most important cities under Sun Choufang's control: Nanjing and Shanghai. While two of Chiang's columns advanced on Shanghai, Sun was confronted with the defection of his navy and a communist general strike.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWorthing201675-121">[119]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2000181–183-124">[122]</a><a href="#cite_note-125">[123]</a> On 22 March, NRA General <a href="/wiki/Bai_Chongxi" title="Bai Chongxi">Bai Chongxi</a>'s forces marched into Shanghai victorious.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJordan1976115–116-126">[124]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWorthing201675-121">[119]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJowett201426-127">[125]</a> But the strike continued until Bai ordered its end on 24 March. The general disorder caused by the strike is said to have resulted in the deaths of 322 people, with 2,000 wounded, contributing to KMT feelings of unease with its rising Communist allies.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJordan1976116-128">[126]</a> The same day the Shanghai strike ended, nationalist forces entered Nanjing.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWorthing201675-121">[119]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJordan1976117-129">[127]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaylor200965-130">[128]</a> Almost immediately after arrival of the NRA, mass anti-foreigner riots broke out in the city, in an event that came to be known as the <a href="/wiki/Nanking_incident_of_1927" title="Nanking incident of 1927">Nanjing Incident</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWorthing201675-121">[119]</a> British and American naval forces were sent to evacuate their respective citizens, resulting in a naval bombardment that left the city burning and at least forty people dead.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETolley2000150–160-131">[129]</a> He's forces arrived on 25 March, and on the next day, Cheng and He were finally able to put an end to the violence.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJordan1976116-128">[126]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETolley2000150–160-131">[129]</a> Although it was a mix of both Nationalists and Communist soldiers within the army who had participated in the riots, Chiang Kai-shek's faction accused <a href="/wiki/Lin_Boqu" title="Lin Boqu">Lin Boqu</a> of planning the unrest in order to turn international opinion against the KMT.<a href="#cite_note-beede-132">[130]</a> Lin, a member of both the CCP and the KMT, had been serving as <a href="/wiki/Political_commissar" title="Political commissar">political commissar</a> of the Sixth Army, part of the forces that captured Nanjing.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJordan1976117-129">[127]</a> Whatever was responsible, the Nanjing Incident represented the culmination of tensions within the First United Front. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="First_phase_of_the_Civil_War_(1927–1936)">First phase of the Civil War (1927–1936)</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_Communist_Revolution&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: First phase of the Civil War (1927–1936)">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Shanghai_Massacre">Shanghai Massacre</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_Communist_Revolution&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Shanghai Massacre">edit</a>]</div> On April 12, 1927, Chiang Kai-shek and his right-wing faction of the KMT ordered <a href="/wiki/Shanghai_Massacre" class="mw-redirect" title="Shanghai Massacre">the massacre</a> of the Communists in Shanghai.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHunt2015113-133">[131]</a><a href="#cite_note-134">[132]</a> The <a href="/wiki/White_Terror_(mainland_China)" class="mw-redirect" title="White Terror (mainland China)">White Terror</a> spread nationwide and the United Front collapsed. In Beijing, 19 leading Communists were killed by <a href="/wiki/Zhang_Zuolin" title="Zhang Zuolin">Zhang Zuolin</a>.<a href="#cite_note-135">[133]</a><a href="#cite_note-Carter1976_p62-136">[134]</a> That May, tens of thousands of Communists and those suspected of being communists were killed, and the CCP lost approximately 15,000 of its 25,000 members.<a href="#cite_note-Carter1976_p62-136">[134]</a> Only in Wuhan, where leftist sympathizer <a href="/wiki/Wang_Jingwei" title="Wang Jingwei">Wang Jingwei</a> split from Chiang and proclaimed a rival <a href="/wiki/Government_of_the_Republic_of_China_in_Wuhan" class="mw-redirect" title="Government of the Republic of China in Wuhan">nationalist government</a>, were the Communists safe to hold their <a href="/wiki/5th_National_Congress_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party" title="5th National Congress of the Chinese Communist Party">Fifth National Congress</a>.<a href="#cite_note-137">[135]</a> However, under pressure from Chiang, Wang eventually <a href="/wiki/July_15_Incident" title="July 15 Incident">purged Communists from his government</a> and declared his loyalty to the right-wing government in Nanjing.<a href="#cite_note-Barnouin38-138">[136]</a><a href="#cite_note-139">[137]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECarter197663-140">[138]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Failed_insurrections_and_the_Chinese_Soviet">Failed insurrections and the Chinese Soviet</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_Communist_Revolution&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Failed insurrections and the Chinese Soviet">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Soviet_Republic" title="Chinese Soviet Republic">Chinese Soviet Republic</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:China_Soviet_Zones.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/China_Soviet_Zones.png/220px-China_Soviet_Zones.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="155" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/China_Soviet_Zones.png/330px-China_Soviet_Zones.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/China_Soviet_Zones.png/440px-China_Soviet_Zones.png 2x" data-file-width="1274" data-file-height="899" /></a><figcaption>After the Shanghai Massacre, the Communists retreated to the countryside and began a series of rural insurgencies, organized as <a href="/wiki/Soviet_(council)" title="Soviet (council)">soviets</a>.</figcaption></figure> In 1927, immediately after the collapse of Wang Jingwei's <a href="/wiki/Wuhan_Nationalist_government" title="Wuhan Nationalist government">leftist Kuomintang government</a> in Wuhan and Chiang Kai-shek's <a href="/wiki/Shanghai_massacre_of_1927" class="mw-redirect" title="Shanghai massacre of 1927">suppression of communists</a>, the CCP attempted a series of uprisings and military mutinies in Guangzhou, <a href="/wiki/Nanchang_Uprising" class="mw-redirect" title="Nanchang Uprising">Nanchang</a> and <a href="/wiki/Autumn_Harvest_Uprising" title="Autumn Harvest Uprising">Hunan</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThomas19833-141">[139]</a><a href="#cite_note-142">[140]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELi20125–8-143">[141]</a> Despite initial success they were unable to withstand direct pressure from the NRA. The immediate effect was to make it clear to CCP leaders that a formal military apparatus was needed, and during <a href="/wiki/Little_Long_March" title="Little Long March">the flight from Nanchang</a> they founded the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Red_Army" title="Chinese Red Army">Chinese Red Army</a>.<a href="#cite_note-144">[142]</a> The defeat left an opening for machinations within the party leadership. In late 1927, <a href="/wiki/Xiang_Zhongfa" title="Xiang Zhongfa">Xiang Zhongfa</a> was sent as the CCP's representative to celebrations of the Bolshevik Revolution's 10th Anniversary. While in Moscow, Xiang was able to convince the Soviet leadership to hold the CCP's <a href="/wiki/6th_National_Congress_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party" title="6th National Congress of the Chinese Communist Party">6th Party Congress</a> there, rather than in China.<a href="#cite_note-145">[143]</a> With the help of the <a href="/wiki/28_Bolsheviks" title="28 Bolsheviks">28 Bolsheviks</a>, Chinese students studying Marxism at the <a href="/wiki/Moscow_Sun_Yat-sen_University" title="Moscow Sun Yat-sen University">Moscow Sun Yat-sen University</a>, Xiang replaced Chen Duxiu as general secretary to the dismay of CCP leaders back in China.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChow2009-146">[144]</a> Upon his return to Shanghai, Xiang attempted several bureaucratic changes to consolidate centralized power, with mixed success.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeung199272-147">[145]</a> In 1930, the Comintern began pressuring the CCP to conduct more "anti-rightist" actions and <a href="/wiki/Li_Lisan" title="Li Lisan">Li Lisan</a> was promoted to propaganda chief. Li grew to become the effective paramount leader with support from Xiang and advocated for an immediate armed uprising in the cities. This was attempted in July 1930, but failed and again led to heavy losses. <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_of_the_Long_March_1934-1935-en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Map_of_the_Long_March_1934-1935-en.svg/220px-Map_of_the_Long_March_1934-1935-en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="168" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Map_of_the_Long_March_1934-1935-en.svg/330px-Map_of_the_Long_March_1934-1935-en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Map_of_the_Long_March_1934-1935-en.svg/440px-Map_of_the_Long_March_1934-1935-en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1119" data-file-height="857" /></a><figcaption>Eventually, the Communist insurgents were defeated and the CCP was forced to withdraw northwards in the <a href="/wiki/Long_March" title="Long March">Long March</a>.</figcaption></figure> Under pressure from Zhou Enlai and many others in the party, the Comintern sent Soviet functionary <a href="/wiki/Pavel_Mif" title="Pavel Mif">Pavel Mif</a> to replace Li Lisan and Xiang Zhongfa with members of the 28 Bolsheviks. <a href="/wiki/Bo_Gu" title="Bo Gu">Bo Gu</a> became nominal party secretary while <a href="/wiki/Wang_Ming" title="Wang Ming">Wang Ming</a> became the de facto paramount leader. Under the influence of Moscow, the strategy of direct confrontation with the KMT by organizing urban uprisings continued until 1933, when party leadership was finally forced to evacuate to the countryside. They fled to Jiangxi, where Mao Zedong had had considerable success in setting up the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Soviet_Republic" title="Chinese Soviet Republic">Chinese Soviet Republic</a>. Established in November 1931, the Soviet had helped expand CCP membership to over 300,000 and supported 100,000 Red Army soldiers.<a href="#cite_note-Xia-148">[146]</a><a href="#cite_note-Yang_1990_233-149">[147]</a> Mao's guerilla tactics had successfully repulsed three KMT <a href="/wiki/Encirclement_campaigns" class="mw-redirect" title="Encirclement campaigns">encirclement campaigns</a>. The CCP leadership <a href="/wiki/Ningdu_Conference" title="Ningdu Conference">quickly took over</a> from Mao when they arrived from Shanghai. Following the advice of <a href="/wiki/Otto_Braun_(communist)" title="Otto Braun (communist)">Otto Braun</a>, they replaced cautious guerilla tactics with a more traditional military strategy. The subsequent <a href="/wiki/Fourth_encirclement_campaign_against_the_Jiangxi_Soviet" title="Fourth encirclement campaign against the Jiangxi Soviet">fourth encirclement campaign</a> was a disaster for the Communists, and forced them to abandon South China altogether. They began the <a href="/wiki/Long_March" title="Long March">Long March</a>, a 9,000 kilometer retreat to Northern China, where Chiang Kai-shek's authority was weaker.<a href="#cite_note-Zhang-150">[148]</a> In January 1935, the CCP paused the march to hold a <a href="/wiki/Zunyi_Conference" title="Zunyi Conference">conference in Zunyi</a>. Here, Mao Zedong denounced the party leadership for its dogmatic adherence to urban revolution in the face of repeated defeats. He also criticized Otto Braun's conventional tactics. Instead, Mao put forward <a href="/wiki/People%27s_war" title="People's war">a strategy based on rural guerilla warfare</a> that prioritized winning peasant support. This was controversial because it conflicted with traditional party doctrine and the line endorsed by the Comintern. But with the support of Zhou Enlai, Mao defeated the 28 Bolsheviks and Otto Braun, becoming chairman of the Politburo and de facto leader of the party. Although the party survived the Long March, it had lost about 90% of its membership and was on the brink of destruction.<a href="#cite_note-Yang_1990_233-149">[147]</a> But the outbreak of the Second Sino-Japanese War gave the <a href="/wiki/Yan%27an_Soviet" title="Yan'an Soviet">Yan'an Soviet</a>, the communists' new base, a reprieve.<a href="#cite_note-:2-151">[149]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Second_Sino-Japanese_War_and_the_Second_United_Front">Second Sino-Japanese War and the Second United Front</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_Communist_Revolution&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Second Sino-Japanese War and the Second United Front">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Second_Sino-Japanese_War" title="Second Sino-Japanese War">Second Sino-Japanese War</a> and <a href="/wiki/Second_United_Front" title="Second United Front">Second United Front</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Eighth_Route_Army_meeting_on_Futuyu_Great_Wall,_spring_1938.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Eighth_Route_Army_meeting_on_Futuyu_Great_Wall%2C_spring_1938.jpg/220px-Eighth_Route_Army_meeting_on_Futuyu_Great_Wall%2C_spring_1938.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="142" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Eighth_Route_Army_meeting_on_Futuyu_Great_Wall%2C_spring_1938.jpg/330px-Eighth_Route_Army_meeting_on_Futuyu_Great_Wall%2C_spring_1938.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Eighth_Route_Army_meeting_on_Futuyu_Great_Wall%2C_spring_1938.jpg/440px-Eighth_Route_Army_meeting_on_Futuyu_Great_Wall%2C_spring_1938.jpg 2x" data-file-width="910" data-file-height="587" /></a><figcaption>During <a href="/wiki/WWII" class="mw-redirect" title="WWII">WWII</a>, one of the Communist units that joined the National Revolutionary Army was the <a href="/wiki/Eighth_Route_Army" title="Eighth Route Army">Eighth Route Army</a>, pictured here on <a href="/wiki/The_Great_Wall" class="mw-redirect" title="The Great Wall">the Great Wall</a>.</figcaption></figure> In 1931, the Japanese <a href="/wiki/Kwantung_Army" title="Kwantung Army">army</a> had <a href="/wiki/Japanese_invasion_of_Manchuria" title="Japanese invasion of Manchuria">occupied Manchuria</a>, which had nominally been under Chinese sovereignty.<a href="#cite_note-152">[150]</a> This triggered debates inside China on whether the <a href="/wiki/Nationalist_Government" class="mw-redirect" title="Nationalist Government">Nationalist Government</a> of Chiang Kai-shek, the administration with the strongest claim to national leadership at the time, should declare war on Japan.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGarver19885-153">[151]</a> Chiang, despite popular disapproval, wanted to continue to focus on wiping out the Chinese Communist Party before moving on to Japan.<a href="#cite_note-Chor-154">[152]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaylor2009125-155">[153]</a> In 1936, <a href="/wiki/Xi%27an_incident" class="mw-redirect" title="Xi'an incident">Chiang was arrested</a> by two of his generals in <a href="/wiki/Xi%27an" title="Xi'an">Xi'an</a>, who forced him to form a united front with the Communists against Japan.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaylor2009127-156">[154]</a> In return for the ceasefire, the Communists agreed to dissolve the Red Army and place their units under National Revolutionary Army command.<a href="#cite_note-157">[155]</a> This arrangement did not end tensions between the CCP and KMT.<a href="#cite_note-158">[156]</a> In January 1941, Chiang Kai-shek ordered Nationalist troops to ambush the CCP's <a href="/wiki/New_Fourth_Army" title="New Fourth Army">New Fourth Army</a>, one of the Communist armies that had been placed under Nationalist command, for alleged insubordination.<a href="#cite_note-159">[157]</a><a href="#cite_note-160">[158]</a> The <a href="/wiki/New_Fourth_Army_Incident" class="mw-redirect" title="New Fourth Army Incident">New Fourth Army Incident</a> effectively ended any substantive co-operation between the Nationalists and the Communists, although open fighting between the two sides remained sporadic throughout the war.<a href="#cite_note-schok-161">[159]</a> The war with Japan and the Second United Front created an enormous opportunity to expand CCP influence. French historian <a href="/wiki/Lucien_Bianco" title="Lucien Bianco">Lucien Bianco</a> argues that before the war, the peasantry had not been ready for revolution; economic reasons were not enough to mobilize them.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBianco1971202-162">[160]</a> But the nationalism caused by the war changed the situation: "It was the war that brought the Chinese peasantry and China to revolution; at the very least, it considerably accelerated the rise of the CCP to power."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBianco1971155-163">[161]</a> The Nationalists' image had been tarnished by Chiang's original reluctance to the take on the Japanese, while the Communists willingly adopted the rhetoric of national resistance against imperialism.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJohnson19624–5-164">[162]</a> Using their experience in rural guerilla warfare, the Communists were able to operate behind the front lines and gain influence among the numerous peasant resistance groups set-up to fight the Japanese.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJohnson19622–3-165">[163]</a><a href="#cite_note-166">[164]</a> In contrast with the Nationalists, the Communists undertook moderate land reform that made them extremely popular among the poorer peasants.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeMare20196–17-167">[165]</a> Communist cadres worked tirelessly to organize the local population in each new village they arrived, which had the dual benefits of spreading Communist ideas and allowing for more effective administration.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJohnson19622–3-165">[163]</a> In the eight years of war, the CCP membership rose from 40,000 to 1,200,000.<a href="#cite_note-168">[166]</a> According to historian <a href="/wiki/Chalmers_Johnson" title="Chalmers Johnson">Chalmers Johnson</a>, by the end of the war the CCP had also won the support of perhaps 100 million peasants in the regions where they had operated.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJohnson196211-169">[167]</a> The temporary truce with the Nationalists also made it possible for the Communists to once again target the urban proletariat, a policy advocated by the "internationalist" faction of the party. Led by <a href="/wiki/Wang_Ming" title="Wang Ming">Wang Ming</a>, this faction advocated mobilizing labor not for revolution, but rather to support to Nationalists (at least until the war was won).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThomas19836-170">[168]</a> Mao, in contrast, advocated continued focus on the peasantry, and ultimately managed to consolidate his position during the <a href="/wiki/Yan%27an_Rectification_Movement" title="Yan'an Rectification Movement">Yan'an Rectification Movement</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThomas19836-170">[168]</a><a href="#cite_note-LIEBERTHAL-3">[3]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Second_Phase_of_Civil_War_(1945–1949)">Second Phase of Civil War (1945–1949)</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_Communist_Revolution&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Second Phase of Civil War (1945–1949)">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Second_Kuomintang-Communist_Civil_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Second Kuomintang-Communist Civil War">Second Kuomintang-Communist Civil War</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Carrying_Cash_in_Republican_China_-_Preparing_to_pay_wages.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Carrying_Cash_in_Republican_China_-_Preparing_to_pay_wages.jpg/220px-Carrying_Cash_in_Republican_China_-_Preparing_to_pay_wages.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="207" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Carrying_Cash_in_Republican_China_-_Preparing_to_pay_wages.jpg/330px-Carrying_Cash_in_Republican_China_-_Preparing_to_pay_wages.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Carrying_Cash_in_Republican_China_-_Preparing_to_pay_wages.jpg/440px-Carrying_Cash_in_Republican_China_-_Preparing_to_pay_wages.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="471" /></a><figcaption>Starting in 1937 and lasting until the end of the Civil War, <a href="/wiki/Hyperinflation" title="Hyperinflation">hyperinflation</a> skyrocketed in the Republic of China.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Postwar_situation">Postwar situation</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_Communist_Revolution&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Postwar situation">edit</a>]</div> The impact of the war on the social and economics conditions of China had been brutal. An estimated 20 to 25 million Chinese were killed in fighting, massacres, and man-made or natural disasters.<a href="#cite_note-171">[169]</a> By 1946, Chinese industries operated at 20 percent capacity and had 25 percent of the output of pre-war China.<a href="#cite_note-172">[170]</a> The influx of cheap American goods forestalled any recovery. In order to coordinate the war effort, the Nationalist government had taken over more than 70% of Chinese industry, a dramatic increase from the 15% it owned before the war.<a href="#cite_note-173">[171]</a> This consolidation of wealth in the regime's hands contributed to the pervasive problem of corruption.<a href="#cite_note-174">[172]</a> The Nationalist currency had been undergoing <a href="/wiki/Chinese_hyperinflation" title="Chinese hyperinflation">hyperinflation</a> since the beginning of the war.<a href="#cite_note-Young-175">[173]</a> By 1945, retail market prices had reached 3,000% of their 1937 levels.<a href="#cite_note-Young-175">[173]</a> This problem was compounded by the presence of numerous other currencies printed by the Japanese, Communists, and other local authorities.<a href="#cite_note-Campbell_and_Tullock-176">[174]</a> The Nationalist Government failed to curb inflation after the Japanese surrender and continued to print more currency to pay for the civil war.<a href="#cite_note-177">[c]</a><a href="#cite_note-Tang_and_Hu-178">[175]</a><a href="#cite_note-Quddus_et_al-179">[176]</a> Hyperinflation reduced the real wages of peasants, workers, and especially soldiers, and destroyed the savings of the upper-middle class that was Chiang's base of support.<a href="#cite_note-Quddus_et_al-179">[176]</a> The power of the CCP had grown considerably by the end of the Second Sino-Japanese War. The <a href="/wiki/Eighth_Route_Army" title="Eighth Route Army">Eighth Route Army</a> and <a href="/wiki/New_Fourth_Army" title="New Fourth Army">New Fourth Army</a>—officially still part of the NRA, but in reality under independent Communist command—counted between 1.2 and 1.27 million men. An additional 1.8 to 2.68 million militia brought the total Communist forces to between 3 million and 4 million.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEXuLiu1989xxx-180">[177]</a><a href="#cite_note-Raleigh-181">[178]</a><a href="#cite_note-Robertson-182">[179]</a> When the Japanese surrendered, the Communists' "Liberated Zone" grew to contain 19 base areas (mostly in north China), making up one-quarter of the country's territory and one-third of its population.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEXuLiu1989xxx-180">[177]</a> In the south, the New Fourth Army had recovered from the <a href="/wiki/New_Fourth_Army_Incident" class="mw-redirect" title="New Fourth Army Incident">attempted massacre</a> of its forces and established a serious Communist presence along the banks of the <a href="/wiki/Yangtze" title="Yangtze">Yangtze</a>. Nonetheless, the CCP's forces were still numerically inferior to the rest of the NRA, which excluding the Communists counted around 4 million regulars and 1 million militia in its ranks.<a href="#cite_note-Raleigh-181">[178]</a> This was compounded by the Communists' lack of war material like trucks, artillery, and other heavy weaponry. For most of the war the Communists had operated in rural areas without factories or support from the <a href="/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II" title="Allies of World War II">Allies</a>, which the Kuomintang received in abundance.<a href="#cite_note-Kirby-183">[180]</a> As Mao Zedong said to an American Colonel <a href="/wiki/David_D._Barrett" title="David D. Barrett">David D. Barrett</a>, the Communists had an army based on "<a href="/wiki/Millet_plus_rifles" title="Millet plus rifles">millet plus rifles</a>."<a href="#cite_note-Kau2017-184">[181]</a><a href="#cite_note-Deng2011-185">[182]</a><a href="#cite_note-186">[183]</a><a href="#cite_note-a1-187">[184]</a><a href="#cite_note-a2-188">[185]</a> The international situation for the Communists was unfavorable in 1945. At <a href="/wiki/Yalta_Conference" title="Yalta Conference">Yalta</a>, the Allies had agreed to recognize USSR claims in the Far East in exchange for a <a href="/wiki/Soviet%E2%80%93Japanese_War" title="Soviet–Japanese War">Soviet declaration of war on Japan</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Radchenko-189">[186]</a> These claims included control of <a href="/wiki/L%C3%BCshunkou_District" class="mw-redirect" title="Lüshunkou District">Port Arthur</a> and joint control over the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Eastern_Railway" title="Chinese Eastern Railway">Chinese Eastern Railway</a>, which Chiang reluctantly accepted in return for <a href="/wiki/Sino-Soviet_Treaty_of_Friendship_and_Alliance" title="Sino-Soviet Treaty of Friendship and Alliance">Soviet recognition</a> of the KMT as the sole legitimate government of China.<a href="#cite_note-190">[187]</a><a href="#cite_note-191">[188]</a> In that way, the Communists appeared to have lost their most likely ally. The American <a href="/wiki/Dixie_Mission" title="Dixie Mission">Dixie Mission</a> had investigated the possibility of American support for the Communists, but although its findings were favorable, cooperation was stubbornly blocked by American Ambassador <a href="/wiki/Patrick_J._Hurley" title="Patrick J. Hurley">Patrick J. Hurley</a>.<a href="#cite_note-192">[189]</a> Hurley and the powerful pro-Nationalist <a href="/wiki/China_Lobby" class="mw-redirect" title="China Lobby">China Lobby</a> orchestrated the recall or dismissal of American "<a href="/wiki/China_Hands" title="China Hands">China Hands</a>" who favored cutting ties with the Nationalists or supporting the Communists, including <a href="/wiki/John_Service" class="mw-redirect" title="John Service">John Service</a>, <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stilwell" title="Joseph Stilwell">Joseph Stilwell</a>, and <a href="/wiki/David_D._Barrett" title="David D. Barrett">David Barrett</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Fenby,_Jonathan_page_446-193">[190]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELohbeck1956292-194">[191]</a><a href="#cite_note-195">[192]</a> By mid-1945, the United States was firmly committed to supporting Chiang. According to <a href="/wiki/William_Blum" title="William Blum">William Blum</a>, American aid included substantial amounts of mostly surplus military supplies, and loans were made to the KMT.<a href="#cite_note-196">[193]</a> In the two years following the Sino-Japanese War, the KMT had received $4.43 billion from the US—most of which was military aid.<a href="#cite_note-nat-197">[194]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Japanese_surrender_and_attempted_negotiations">Japanese surrender and attempted negotiations</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_Communist_Revolution&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Japanese surrender and attempted negotiations">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1945_Mao_and_Chiang.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/1945_Mao_and_Chiang.jpg/220px-1945_Mao_and_Chiang.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/1945_Mao_and_Chiang.jpg/330px-1945_Mao_and_Chiang.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/1945_Mao_and_Chiang.jpg/440px-1945_Mao_and_Chiang.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1364" /></a><figcaption>Mao and Chiang Kai-shek toast to victory over Japan in <a href="/wiki/Chongqing" title="Chongqing">Chongqing</a>, during negotiations.</figcaption></figure> On August 8, 1945, the Soviet Union <a href="/wiki/Soviet_invasion_of_Manchuria" title="Soviet invasion of Manchuria">invaded Manchuria</a>, immediately altering the military situation in China. The Soviet invasion, among other contemporary developments, made Japan's defeat inevitable.<a href="#cite_note-Bright-198">[195]</a><a href="#cite_note-Hasegawa2006-199">[196]</a> Both the Kuomintang and the Chinese Communist Party immediately ordered their forces to take as much territory from the Japanese as possible, which would yield not just land, but also weapons and equipment from the defeated Japanese units. Although Chiang Kai-shek was confident that he was in a strong position to win a civil war against the CCP, he also knew that if the Communists gained control of Japanese materiel, the balance of power would change.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-200">[197]</a> In order to buy time, and under American pressure to negotiate, Chiang Kai-shek reached out to Mao Zedong with a request that the latter fly to Chongqing to negotiate.<a href="#cite_note-Radchenko-189">[186]</a> At first, Mao demanded that Chiang grant the CCP certain conditions, but sustained pressure from Joseph Stalin made him realize the extent of the CCP's international isolation.<a href="#cite_note-Radchenko-189">[186]</a> On August 23, Mao told the <a href="/wiki/Politburo_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party" title="Politburo of the Chinese Communist Party">Politburo</a> that without Soviet backing, the CCP would have to make concessions to Chiang.<a href="#cite_note-Radchenko-189">[186]</a> Meanwhile, military forces on all sides continued their maneuvers. On the 20th, the last Japanese units in Manchuria surrendered to the Soviet Red Army.<a href="#cite_note-201">[198]</a> On the 26th, the CCP authorized army units and cadres to begin infiltrating the Manchurian countryside (a move tolerated by the Soviets).<a href="#cite_note-Radchenko-189">[186]</a> CCP dominance in northern China seriously concerned Chiang, who was not in a position to stop the CCP from taking <a href="/wiki/Beijing" title="Beijing">Beiping</a> or <a href="/wiki/Tianjin" title="Tianjin">Tianjin</a>. Chiang Kai-shek ordered the Japanese troops to remain at their post to receive the Kuomintang and not surrender their arms to the Communists.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZarrow2005338-202">[199]</a> Chiang called on the Americans for assistance, and the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> <a href="/wiki/Operation_Beleaguer" title="Operation Beleaguer">landed more than 50,000 marines</a> in northern China to occupy the major cities until the Nationalists could arrive.<a href="#cite_note-Millett,_pg._448-451-203">[200]</a><a href="#cite_note-mca-marines.org-204">[201]</a><a href="#cite_note-www.au.af.mil-205">[202]</a> Although greeted with enthusiasm, incidents such as the <a href="/wiki/Shen_Chong_case" title="Shen Chong case">rape of a Chinese student</a> quickly turned the population against the Americans and contributed to growing support for the Communists.<a href="#cite_note-206">[203]</a> The Americans were anxious to have the Nationalists take over their duties, and so <a href="/wiki/Albert_Coady_Wedemeyer" title="Albert Coady Wedemeyer">General Wedemeyer</a> further ordered the airlifting of 100,000 Nationalist troops into Northern China.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander199239-207">[204]</a> As Nationalist troops moved in to formerly occupied territories, looting and large-scale corruption were common. Under the pretext of "receiving the Japanese surrender," business interests within the KMT government occupied most of the banks, factories and commercial properties, which had previously been seized by the <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Army" title="Imperial Japanese Army">Imperial Japanese Army</a>.<a href="#cite_note-nat-197">[194]</a> They also conscripted troops at an accelerated pace from the civilian population and hoarded supplies, preparing for a resumption of war with the Communists. These harsh and unpopular measures caused great hardship for the residents of cities such as Shanghai, where the unemployment rate rose dramatically to 37.5%.<a href="#cite_note-nat-197">[194]</a> The Communists abstained from trying to take and hold any major cities (with the exception of <a href="/wiki/Jinzhou" title="Jinzhou">Jinzhou</a>), focusing instead on gaining control over the countryside.<a href="#cite_note-Radchenko-189">[186]</a> Nevertheless, as Mao left for negotiations he simultaneously ordered the <a href="/wiki/Shangdang_Campaign" title="Shangdang Campaign">Shangdang Campaign</a> to defeat as many KMT units in Shanxi as possible and thereby gain a stronger hand at the negotiating table.<a href="#cite_note-Zhu_and_Wang-208">[205]</a> During negotiations, Chiang's main offer was to move from the second stage of Sun Yat-Sen's stages of unification (KMT tutelage) to the third stage (constitutional government). Mao and Zhou Enlai, on the other hand, were willing to recognize Chiang as de jure President of China in return for de facto autonomy in the provinces of Shanxi, <a href="/wiki/Shandong" title="Shandong">Shandong</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hebei" title="Hebei">Hebei</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rehe" class="mw-redirect" title="Rehe">Rehe</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Chahar_Province" title="Chahar Province">Chahar</a>. They would be willing to join and support a KMT-led coalition government, but wanted to maintain separate armed forces in their provinces.<a href="#cite_note-Radchenko-189">[186]</a> Both sides criticized the other as unreasonable. Chiang viewed the degree of local autonomy requested by the Communists as a regression to the Warlord Era, and was not willing to sacrifice his goal of reunification.<a href="#cite_note-Radchenko-189">[186]</a> The Communists, on the other hand, suspected they would be massacred if they laid down their arms.<a href="#cite_note-Radchenko-189">[186]</a> Both sides eventually signed the <a href="/wiki/Double_Tenth_Agreement" title="Double Tenth Agreement">Double Tenth Agreement</a>, but this was mostly for show and the major issues were left unresolved.<a href="#cite_note-209">[206]</a><a href="#cite_note-210">[207]</a><a href="#cite_note-Xu-211">[208]</a> Negotiations between Chiang and Zhou would continue in <a href="/wiki/Nanjing" title="Nanjing">Nanjing</a>, but Mao returned to the Yan'an Soviet.<a href="#cite_note-Xu-211">[208]</a> The outbreak of fighting in Manchuria (see next section) proved to Ambassador Hurley that negotiations had failed, and he resigned in disgust.<a href="#cite_note-212">[209]</a> He was replaced by General <a href="/wiki/George_Marshall" class="mw-redirect" title="George Marshall">George Marshall</a>, who arrived in China on 20 December 1945. The goal of the <a href="/wiki/Marshall_Mission" title="Marshall Mission">Marshall Mission</a> was to bring both parties into a coalition government, with the hope that a strong, non-Communist China would act as a bulwark against the encroachment of the Soviet Union. Marshall drew both sides into negotiations which would drag on for more than a year. No significant agreements were reached, as both sides used the time to further prepare themselves for the ensuing conflict.<a href="#cite_note-213">[210]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Manchurian_Campaigns,_1946–1948">Manchurian Campaigns, 1946–1948</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_Communist_Revolution&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Manchurian Campaigns, 1946–1948">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Battle_of_Siping01.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Battle_of_Siping01.jpg/220px-Battle_of_Siping01.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="130" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Battle_of_Siping01.jpg/330px-Battle_of_Siping01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Battle_of_Siping01.jpg/440px-Battle_of_Siping01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="535" data-file-height="317" /></a><figcaption>Communist soldiers wait in trenches during the <a href="/wiki/Campaign_to_Defend_Siping" title="Campaign to Defend Siping">Campaign to Defend Siping</a>, 1946.</figcaption></figure> By the time that Nationalist units had been able to arrive in the major cities of northeastern China, Communist forces commanded by <a href="/wiki/Lin_Biao" title="Lin Biao">Lin Biao</a> were already in firm control of most of the countryside and surrounding areas, including the city of Jinzhou.<a href="#cite_note-214">[211]</a> On 15 November 1945, the Nationalists began a campaign to roll back these gains.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJessup1989-6">[6]</a> Chiang Kai-shek's forces pushed as far as Jinzhou by 26 November 1945, meeting with little resistance. Rather than confront the advancing Nationalists head on, Lin Biao avoided decisive confrontations, and in doing so was able to preserve the strength of his army.<a href="#cite_note-215">[212]</a> The Nationalist advance also prompted Stalin, who did not want the CCP entirely crushed, to command Marshal <a href="/wiki/Rodion_Malinovsky" title="Rodion Malinovsky">Rodion Malinovsky</a> to give most captured Japanese weapons to the CCP.<a href="#cite_note-216">[213]</a><a href="#cite_note-nat-197">[194]</a> This was decisive; from this point onwards the Communist forces were no longer just an army of "millet plus rifles". In March 1946, despite repeated requests from Chiang Kai-shek, the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Red_Army" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet Red Army">Soviet Red Army</a> under the command of Marshal Rodion Malinovsky continued to delay pulling out of Manchuria, while Malinovsky secretly told the CCP forces to move in behind them. Mao quickly seized the opportunity, ordering Lin Biao and <a href="/wiki/Zhu_De" title="Zhu De">Zhu De</a> to begin taking key cities, including <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Siping" title="Battle of Siping">Siping</a> and <a href="/wiki/Harbin" title="Harbin">Harbin</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Lew_36-217">[214]</a><a href="#cite_note-Historical_Evolution-218">[215]</a> These favourable conditions also facilitated many changes inside the Communist leadership: the more radical faction who wanted a complete military take-over of China finally gained the upper hand and defeated the careful opportunists.<a href="#cite_note-219">[216]</a> By May 3, all Soviet troops had withdrawn, and fighting between local Communist and Nationalist forces had broken out in earnest.<a href="#cite_note-Lew_36-217">[214]</a> The conflict would escalate to the scale of a nation-wide civil war over the summer, as Chiang Kai-shek launched a large-scale assault on Communist territory in north China with 113 brigades (a total of 1.6 million troops).<a href="#cite_note-Hu-220">[217]</a><a href="#cite_note-nat-197">[194]</a> Knowing their disadvantages in manpower and equipment, the CCP adopted a "passive defence" strategy. It avoided the strong points of the KMT army and was prepared to abandon territory in order to preserve its forces. In most cases the surrounding countryside and small towns had come under Communist influence long before the cities. The CCP also attempted to wear out the KMT forces as much as possible. This tactic seemed to be successful; after a year, the power balance became more favorable to the CCP. They wiped out 1.12 million KMT troops, while their strength grew to about two million men.<a href="#cite_note-nat-197">[194]</a> In March 1947 the KMT achieved a symbolic victory by seizing Yan'an, the capital of the Yan'an Soviet.<a href="#cite_note-221">[218]</a> The Communists counterattacked soon afterwards; on 30 June 1947 CCP troops crossed the Yellow River and moved to the <a href="/wiki/Dabie_Mountains" title="Dabie Mountains">Dabie Mountains</a>, restored and developed the <a href="/wiki/Central_Plain_(China)" class="mw-redirect" title="Central Plain (China)">Central Plain</a>. At the same time, Communist forces also began to counterattack in Northeastern China, North China and <a href="/wiki/East_China" title="East China">East China</a>.<a href="#cite_note-nat-197">[194]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Three_Campaigns,_1948–1949">The Three Campaigns, 1948–1949</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_Communist_Revolution&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: The Three Campaigns, 1948–1949">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Three_Campaigns_of_Chinese_Civil_War.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Three_Campaigns_of_Chinese_Civil_War.png/260px-Three_Campaigns_of_Chinese_Civil_War.png" decoding="async" width="260" height="364" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Three_Campaigns_of_Chinese_Civil_War.png/390px-Three_Campaigns_of_Chinese_Civil_War.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Three_Campaigns_of_Chinese_Civil_War.png/520px-Three_Campaigns_of_Chinese_Civil_War.png 2x" data-file-width="796" data-file-height="1113" /></a><figcaption>Map showing the <a href="/wiki/Liaoshen_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Liaoshen Campaign">Liaoshen</a>, Huaihai, and Pingjin Campaigns that decisively turned the war in favour of the CCP.</figcaption></figure> In late 1948, the CCP and the newly rechristened "<a href="/wiki/People%27s_Liberation_Army" title="People's Liberation Army">People's Liberation Army</a>" (PLA) launched the decisive <a href="/wiki/Liaoshen_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Liaoshen Campaign">Liaoshen Campaign</a>. The PLA finally captured for good the northern cities of <a href="/wiki/Shenyang" title="Shenyang">Shenyang</a> and <a href="/wiki/Changchun" title="Changchun">Changchun</a> and consolidated control of the Northeast.<a href="#cite_note-Westad-222">[219]</a> The <a href="/wiki/New_1st_Army" title="New 1st Army">New 1st Army</a>, regarded as the best KMT army, was forced to surrender after the CCP conducted a brutal six-month <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Changchun" title="Siege of Changchun">siege of Changchun</a> that resulted in more than 150,000 civilian deaths from starvation.<a href="#cite_note-AP-223">[220]</a> The conscripted peasants who filled the Nationalist ranks also were beginning to defect to the PLA in larger and larger numbers, drawn by the promise of land and much better treatment by Communist officers.<a href="#cite_note-224">[221]</a> The defection and capture of large numbers of well-trained KMT troops finally gave the PLA material superiority over the Nationalist army.<a href="#cite_note-225">[222]</a><a href="#cite_note-226">[223]</a> Manpower continued to grow as well; during the <a href="/wiki/Huaihai_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Huaihai Campaign">Huaihai Campaign</a> alone the CCP was able to mobilize 5,430,000 peasants to fight against the KMT forces.<a href="#cite_note-227">[224]</a> Now with tanks, heavy artillery, and other combined-arms assets, the PLA was prepared to execute offensive operations south of the Great Wall. In April 1948 the city of <a href="/wiki/Luoyang" title="Luoyang">Luoyang</a> fell, cutting the KMT army off from Xi'an.<a href="#cite_note-Elleman-228">[225]</a> Following a fierce battle, the CCP captured <a href="/wiki/Jinan" title="Jinan">Jinan</a> and Shandong province on 24 September 1948. The Huaihai Campaign of late 1948 and early 1949 secured east-central China for the CCP.<a href="#cite_note-Westad-222">[219]</a> The outcome of these encounters were decisive for the military outcome of the civil war.<a href="#cite_note-Westad-222">[219]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Pingjin_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Pingjin Campaign">Pingjin Campaign</a> resulted in the Communist conquest of northern China. It lasted 64 days, from 21 November 1948 to 31 January 1949.<a href="#cite_note-Finkld-229">[226]</a> The PLA suffered heavy casualties while securing <a href="/wiki/Zhangjiakou" title="Zhangjiakou">Zhangjiakou</a>, Tianjin along with its port and garrison at <a href="/wiki/Taku_Forts" title="Taku Forts">Taku</a> and <a href="/wiki/Beijing" title="Beijing">Beijing</a> (then "Beiping").<a href="#cite_note-Finkld-229">[226]</a> The CCP brought 890,000 troops from the northeast to oppose some 600,000 KMT troops.<a href="#cite_note-Elleman-228">[225]</a> There were 40,000 PLA casualties at Zhangjiakou alone. They in turn killed, wounded or captured some 520,000 KMT during the campaign.<a href="#cite_note-Finkld-229">[226]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:CCP_expand_1934_-_1949.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/CCP_expand_1934_-_1949.PNG/220px-CCP_expand_1934_-_1949.PNG" decoding="async" width="220" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/CCP_expand_1934_-_1949.PNG/330px-CCP_expand_1934_-_1949.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/81/CCP_expand_1934_-_1949.PNG 2x" data-file-width="383" data-file-height="395" /></a><figcaption>Areas colored yellow represent the final expansion of the CCP after the three campaigns and prior to the formal establishment of the People's Republic of China.</figcaption></figure> After achieving decisive victory at Liaoshen, Huaihai and Pingjin campaigns, the CCP wiped out 144 regular and 29 irregular KMT divisions, including 1.54 million veteran KMT troops, which significantly reduced the strength of Nationalist forces.<a href="#cite_note-nat-197">[194]</a> Stalin initially favored a coalition government in postwar China, and tried to persuade Mao to stop the CCP from crossing the Yangtze and attacking the KMT positions south of the river.<a href="#cite_note-230">[227]</a> Mao rejected Stalin's position and on 21 April, began the <a href="/wiki/Yangtze_River_Crossing_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Yangtze River Crossing Campaign">Yangtze River Crossing Campaign</a>. On 23 April they captured the KMT's capital, Nanjing.<a href="#cite_note-Zhang-150">[148]</a> The KMT government retreated to Canton (Guangzhou) until 15 October, Chongqing until 25 November, and then <a href="/wiki/Chengdu" title="Chengdu">Chengdu</a> before <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Nationalist_Party_retreat_to_Taiwan" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese Nationalist Party retreat to Taiwan">retreating to Taiwan</a> on 7 December. By late 1949 the People's Liberation Army was pursuing remnants of KMT forces southwards in southern China, and only <a href="/wiki/Tibet" title="Tibet">Tibet</a> was left. A Chinese Muslim <a href="/wiki/Hui_people" title="Hui people">Hui</a> cavalry regiment, the 14th <a href="/wiki/Dungan_people" title="Dungan people">Dungan</a> Cavalry, was sent by the Chinese government to attack Mongol and Soviet positions along the border in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Baitag_Bogd" title="Battle of Baitag Bogd">Battle of Baitag Bogd</a>.<a href="#cite_note-231">[228]</a><a href="#cite_note-232">[229]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Establishment_of_the_People's_Republic">Establishment of the People's Republic</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_Communist_Revolution&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Establishment of the People's Republic">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Proclamation_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="Proclamation of the People's Republic of China">Proclamation of the People's Republic of China</a></div> The founding of the <a href="/wiki/Central_People%27s_Government_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China_(1949%E2%80%931954)" title="Central People's Government of the People's Republic of China (1949–1954)">Central People's Government of China</a> was formally proclaimed by <a href="/wiki/Chairman_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party" title="Chairman of the Chinese Communist Party">Chairman</a> Mao Zedong on October 1, 1949, at 3:00 pm in <a href="/wiki/Tiananmen_Square" title="Tiananmen Square">Tiananmen Square</a> in Beijing, the new capital. The new <a href="/wiki/Flag_of_China" title="Flag of China">national flag of the People's Republic of China</a> (the Five-starred Red Flag) was officially unveiled and hoisted to a <a href="/wiki/21-gun_salute" title="21-gun salute">21-gun salute</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] The ceremony was followed by a PLA military parade. Commanded by <a href="/wiki/Nie_Rongzhen" title="Nie Rongzhen">Nie Rongzhen</a>, the Commander of the Northern China Military Region and inspected by Zhu De, the Commander-in-Chief of the PLA, the parade involved around 16,000 PLA officers and personnel.<a href="#cite_note-233">[230]</a> The parade, which was approved in June 1949, was the first large-scale and modern Chinese military parade, with the country having never done a public review of troops before under previous governments. <a href="/wiki/Liu_Bocheng" title="Liu Bocheng">Liu Bocheng</a> proposed to parade directors <a href="/wiki/Yang_Chengwu" title="Yang Chengwu">Yang Chengwu</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Tang_Yanjie&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tang Yanjie (page does not exist)">Tang Yanjie</a> be organized in the Soviet format, having personally witnessed a military parade on <a href="/wiki/Red_Square" title="Red Square">Red Square</a> in Moscow. The <a href="/wiki/Central_Military_Band_of_the_People%27s_Liberation_Army_of_China" title="Central Military Band of the People's Liberation Army of China">Northern Military Region Band (now the Central Military Band of the PLA)</a> provided musical accompaniment which included the <a href="/wiki/Military_Anthem_of_the_People%27s_Liberation_Army" title="Military Anthem of the People's Liberation Army">Military Anthem of the People's Liberation Army</a> and new national anthem of China, the <a href="/wiki/March_of_the_Volunteers" title="March of the Volunteers">March of the Volunteers</a>.<a href="#cite_note-provo-234">[231]</a><a href="#cite_note-Parade-235">[232]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Aftermath_and_legacy">Aftermath and legacy</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_Communist_Revolution&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Aftermath and legacy">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Annexation_of_Tibet_by_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="Annexation of Tibet by the People's Republic of China">Annexation of Tibet by the People's Republic of China</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cross-Strait_relations" class="mw-redirect" title="Cross-Strait relations">Cross-Strait relations</a>, <a href="/wiki/Black_Cat_Squadron" title="Black Cat Squadron">Black Cat Squadron</a>, and <a href="/wiki/1960%E2%80%931961_campaign_at_the_China%E2%80%93Burma_border" title="1960–1961 campaign at the China–Burma border">1960–1961 campaign at the China–Burma border</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:US_MAAG_Taiwan_Badge.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/US_MAAG_Taiwan_Badge.svg/100px-US_MAAG_Taiwan_Badge.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/US_MAAG_Taiwan_Badge.svg/150px-US_MAAG_Taiwan_Badge.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/US_MAAG_Taiwan_Badge.svg/200px-US_MAAG_Taiwan_Badge.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1457" data-file-height="1751" /></a><figcaption>Badge of MAAG ROC in <a href="/wiki/Vietnam_War" title="Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a>.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Stamp_china_1952_800_soldiers_marching.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Stamp_china_1952_800_soldiers_marching.jpg/220px-Stamp_china_1952_800_soldiers_marching.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="138" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Stamp_china_1952_800_soldiers_marching.jpg/330px-Stamp_china_1952_800_soldiers_marching.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Stamp_china_1952_800_soldiers_marching.jpg/440px-Stamp_china_1952_800_soldiers_marching.jpg 2x" data-file-width="944" data-file-height="594" /></a><figcaption>Chinese troops in Korea depicted on a 1952 Chinese postage stamp</figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Communist_terrorist_remnants_in_RASCOM_area.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Communist_terrorist_remnants_in_RASCOM_area.gif/220px-Communist_terrorist_remnants_in_RASCOM_area.gif" decoding="async" width="220" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Communist_terrorist_remnants_in_RASCOM_area.gif/330px-Communist_terrorist_remnants_in_RASCOM_area.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Communist_terrorist_remnants_in_RASCOM_area.gif/440px-Communist_terrorist_remnants_in_RASCOM_area.gif 2x" data-file-width="2539" data-file-height="1952" /></a><figcaption>Poster of Chinese rebels in Sarawak, Malaysia.</figcaption></figure> On October 1, 1949, Chairman Mao Zedong officially proclaimed the founding of the <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="People's Republic of China">People's Republic of China</a> at Tiananmen Square. Chiang Kai-shek, 600,000 Nationalist troops and about two million Nationalist-sympathizer refugees retreated to the island of Taiwan. After that, resistance to the Communists on the mainland was substantial but scattered, such as in the far south. An attempt to take the Nationalist-controlled island of <a href="/wiki/Kinmen" title="Kinmen">Kinmen</a> was thwarted in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Guningtou" title="Battle of Guningtou">Battle of Kuningtou</a>. In December 1949 Chiang proclaimed <a href="/wiki/Taipei" title="Taipei">Taipei</a>, Taiwan the temporary capital of the Republic, and continued to assert his government as the sole legitimate authority of all China, while the PRC government continued to call for the unification of all China. The last direct fighting between Nationalist and Communist forces ended with the Communist capture of <a href="/wiki/Hainan_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="Hainan Island">Hainan Island</a> in April 1950, though shelling and guerrilla raids continued for several years. <a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWestad2003305-236">[233]</a> In June 1950, the outbreak of the <a href="/wiki/Korean_War" title="Korean War">Korean War</a> led the United States government to place the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Seventh_Fleet" title="United States Seventh Fleet">United States Seventh Fleet</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Taiwan_Strait" title="Taiwan Strait">Taiwan Strait</a> to prevent either side from attacking the other.<a href="#cite_note-237">[234]</a> However, the CCP and Kuomintang kept <a href="/wiki/Cold_War_in_Asia" title="Cold War in Asia">clashing in Southeast Asia during the cold war</a>. The Kuomintang also made several last-ditch attempts to use Khampa troops against the Communists in southwest China. The Kuomintang formulated a plan in which three Khampa divisions would be assisted by the <a href="/wiki/Choekyi_Gyaltsen,_10th_Panchen_Lama" title="Choekyi Gyaltsen, 10th Panchen Lama">Panchen Lama</a> to oppose the Communists.<a href="#cite_note-238">[235]</a> Kuomintang intelligence reported that some Tibetan tusi chiefs and the Khampa Su Yonghe controlled 80,000 troops in Sichuan, Qinghai and Tibet. They hoped to use them against the Communist army.<a href="#cite_note-239">[236]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_Communist_Revolution&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/32px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="21" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/48px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/64px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /><a href="/wiki/Portal:China" title="Portal:China">China portal</a></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Symbol-hammer-and-sickle.svg/28px-Symbol-hammer-and-sickle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Symbol-hammer-and-sickle.svg/42px-Symbol-hammer-and-sickle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Symbol-hammer-and-sickle.svg/56px-Symbol-hammer-and-sickle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /><a href="/wiki/Portal:Communism" title="Portal:Communism">Communism portal</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_the_Chinese_Civil_War" title="Outline of the Chinese Civil War">Outline of the Chinese Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Chinese_Civil_War" title="Timeline of the Chinese Civil War">Timeline of the Chinese Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aftermath_of_World_War_II" title="Aftermath of World War II">Aftermath of World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loss_of_China" title="Loss of China">Loss of China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_F._Melby" title="John F. Melby">John F. Melby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_Revolution" title="Cultural Revolution">Cultural Revolution</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_Communist_Revolution&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-26"><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a> Social scientist <a href="/wiki/Chen_Hansheng" title="Chen Hansheng">Chen Hansheng</a> divides the rural population into five basic economic classes. At the top were landlords who owned large amounts of land, animals, and other capital and lived entirely off of what they collected in rents. The rich peasants took a significant portion of their income from rent, but owned slightly less land and therefore had to work their land themselves alongside hired labor. Middle peasants had enough land and capital to sustain themselves without working for wages, but neither could they afford to hire laborers. The poor peasants, usually the largest group, owned some land but not enough to live on, and had to sell part of their labor to landlords in order to make ends meet. Finally, on the lowest social rung were the hired laborers, who had no land of their own and had to survive entirely off of wages.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChen1933-25">[25]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a> A young Mao Zedong was also a member of this study group. </li> <li id="cite_note-177"><a href="#cite_ref-177">^</a> The Nationalists attempted two currency reforms in 1948 and 1949, but as discussed below, by then the lack of confidence in the Nationalist Government undermined the reforms' effectiveness.<a href="#cite_note-Campbell_and_Tullock-176">[174]</a> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_Communist_Revolution&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_Communist_Revolution&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Citations">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELynch201091-1"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELynch201091_1-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLynch2010">Lynch 2010</a>, p. 91. </li> <li id="cite_note-Cultural-2"><a href="#cite_ref-Cultural_2-0">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121025134115/http://history.cultural-china.com/en/34History7366.html">"Chinese Soviet Republic"</a>. Cultural China. cultural-china.com. 2007–2010. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://history.cultural-china.com/en/34History7366.html">the original</a> on 25 October 2012. Retrieved 21 September 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Cultural+China&rft.atitle=Chinese+Soviet+Republic&rft.date=2007%2F2010&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhistory.cultural-china.com%2Fen%2F34History7366.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+Communist+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-LIEBERTHAL-3">^ <a href="#cite_ref-LIEBERTHAL_3-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-LIEBERTHAL_3-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLieberthal2004" class="citation book cs1">Lieberthal, Kenneth (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/governingchinafr0000lieb">Governing China: From Revolution Through Reform</a>. <a href="/wiki/W._W._Norton" class="mw-redirect" title="W. W. Norton">W. W. Norton</a>. pp. 45–48. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-393-92492-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-393-92492-3"><bdi>978-0-393-92492-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Governing+China%3A+From+Revolution+Through+Reform&rft.pages=45-48&rft.pub=W.+W.+Norton&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-393-92492-3&rft.aulast=Lieberthal&rft.aufirst=Kenneth&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fgoverningchinafr0000lieb&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+Communist+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETian2021-4"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETian2021_4-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTian2021">Tian 2021</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECohn2007121–122-5"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECohn2007121–122_5-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCohn2007">Cohn 2007</a>, pp. 121–122. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJessup1989-6">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJessup1989_6-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJessup1989_6-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFJessup1989">Jessup 1989</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHu2003-7"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHu2003_7-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHu2003">Hu 2003</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-OER-8"><a href="#cite_ref-OER_8-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHodges" class="citation web cs1">Hodges, Francesca. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oerproject.com/-/media/WHP/PDF/Transcripts/WHP---The-Chinese-Communist-Revolution-in-a-Global-Perspective-Transcript.ashx">"The Chinese Communist Revolution in a Global Perspective"</a>. World History Project. OER Project. Retrieved 17 February 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=World+History+Project&rft.atitle=The+Chinese+Communist+Revolution+in+a+Global+Perspective&rft.aulast=Hodges&rft.aufirst=Francesca&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oerproject.com%2F-%2Fmedia%2FWHP%2FPDF%2FTranscripts%2FWHP---The-Chinese-Communist-Revolution-in-a-Global-Perspective-Transcript.ashx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+Communist+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEYangSaich2016-9"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYangSaich2016_9-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFYangSaich2016">Yang & Saich 2016</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPerry2018-10"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPerry2018_10-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPerry2018">Perry 2018</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-State_Dep-11"><a href="#cite_ref-State_Dep_11-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://history.state.gov/milestones/1945-1952/chinese-rev">"Milestones: 1945–1952: The Chinese Revolution of 1949"</a>. Office of the Historian. United States State Department. 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Belknap Press. p. 298. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-674-01693-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-674-01693-9"><bdi>0-674-01693-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Racing+the+Enemy%3A+Stalin%2C+Truman%2C+and+the+Surrender+of+Japan&rft.pages=298&rft.pub=Belknap+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=0-674-01693-9&rft.au=Tsuyoshi+Hasegawa&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fracingenemystali00hase%2Fpage%2F298&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+Communist+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-ReferenceA-200"><a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_200-0">^</a> Lilley, James. China hands: nine decades of adventure, espionage, and diplomacy in Asia. 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Retrieved 2017-01-17. <q>At the end of the 19th century, there were over ten villages and about 30,000 people in Harbin, and the economic elements such as transportation, trade and population began to develop, which laid the foundation for formation and development of the city.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Historical+Evolution&rft.pub=Harbin+Municipal+Government&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.harbin.gov.cn%2Fenglish%2FHarbin_Overview%2FHistorical_Evolution.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+Communist+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-219"><a href="#cite_ref-219">^</a> Michael M Sheng, Battling Western Imperialism, Princeton University Press, 1997, pp. 132–135 </li> <li id="cite_note-Hu-220"><a href="#cite_ref-Hu_220-0">^</a> Hu, Jubin. (2003). Projecting a Nation: Chinese National Cinema Before 1949. Hong Kong University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/962-209-610-7" title="Special:BookSources/962-209-610-7">962-209-610-7</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-221"><a href="#cite_ref-221">^</a> Lilley, James R. China Hands: Nine Decades of Adventure, Espionage, and Diplomacy in Asia. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-58648-136-3" title="Special:BookSources/1-58648-136-3">1-58648-136-3</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-Westad-222">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Westad_222-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Westad_222-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Westad_222-2">c</a> Westad, Odd Arne. (2003). Decisive Encounters: The Chinese Civil War, 1946–1950. 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Retrieved 28 June 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Warlords+and+Muslims+in+Chinese+Central+Asia%3A+a+political+history+of+Republican+Sinkiang+1911%E2%80%931949&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+England&rft.pages=225&rft.pub=CUP+Archive&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=0-521-25514-7&rft.au=Andrew+D.+W.+Forbes&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DIAs9AAAAIAAJ%26q%3Dwarlords%2Band%2Bmuslims&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+Communist+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-233"><a href="#cite_ref-233">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1949/10/02/93548261.html?zoom=15&pageNumber=1">"Reds Proclaim a Republic in China; Chou is Premier; Chinese Republic Launched by Reds"</a>. 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Retrieved October 8, 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Reds+Proclaim+a+Republic+in+China%3B+Chou+is+Premier%3B+Chinese+Republic+Launched+by+Reds&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftimesmachine.nytimes.com%2Ftimesmachine%2F1949%2F10%2F02%2F93548261.html%3Fzoom%3D15%26pageNumber%3D1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+Communist+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-provo-234"><a href="#cite_ref-provo_234-0">^</a> <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Resolution_on_the_Capital,_Calendar,_National_Anthem_and_National_Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" class="extiw" title="s:Resolution on the Capital, Calendar, National Anthem and National Flag of the People's Republic of China">Resolution on the Capital, Calendar, National Anthem, and National Flag of the People's Republic of China</a>. 1st <a href="/wiki/Chinese_People%27s_Political_Consultative_Conference" title="Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference">Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference</a> (Beijing), 27 September 1949. 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June 1950"</a>. Harry S. Truman Library and Museum. US Department of Defense. 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Vol. 67 of Routledge studies in the modern history of Asia (illustrated ed.). Taylor & Francis. p. 117. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-58264-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-58264-3"><bdi>978-0-415-58264-3</bdi></a>. Retrieved 27 December 2011. <q>China's far northwest.23 A simultaneous proposal suggested that, with the support of the new Panchen Lama and his entourage, at least three army divisions of anti-Communist Khampa Tibetans could be mustered in southwest China.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Modern+China%27s+ethnic+frontiers%3A+a+journey+to+the+west&rft.pages=117&rft.edition=illustrated&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-415-58264-3&rft.au=Hsiao-ting+Lin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DrsLQdBUgyMUC%26q%3Dshen%2Bin%2BChongqing%2Bto%2Brender%2Bclandestine%2Bsupport%2Bto%2Bpro-Nationalist%2Bunderground%2Bforces%2Bled%2Bby%2Ba%2BKhampa%2BTibetan%26pg%3DPA95&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+Communist+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-239"><a href="#cite_ref-239">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHsiao-ting_Lin2010" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Hsiao-ting Lin (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rsLQdBUgyMUC&q=shen+in+Chongqing+to+render+clandestine+support+to+pro-Nationalist+underground+forces+led+by+a+Khampa+Tibetan&pg=PA95">Modern China's ethnic frontiers: a journey to the west</a>. Vol. 67 of Routledge studies in the modern history of Asia (illustrated ed.). Taylor & Francis. p. xxi. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-58264-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-58264-3"><bdi>978-0-415-58264-3</bdi></a>. Retrieved 27 December 2011. <q>(tusi) from the Sichuan-Qinghai border; and Su Yonghe, a Khampa native-chieftain from Nagchuka on the Qinghai–Tibetan border. According to Nationalist intelligence reports, these leaders altogether commanded about 80000 irregulars.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Modern+China%27s+ethnic+frontiers%3A+a+journey+to+the+west&rft.pages=xxi&rft.edition=illustrated&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-415-58264-3&rft.au=Hsiao-ting+Lin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DrsLQdBUgyMUC%26q%3Dshen%2Bin%2BChongqing%2Bto%2Brender%2Bclandestine%2Bsupport%2Bto%2Bpro-Nationalist%2Bunderground%2Bforces%2Bled%2Bby%2Ba%2BKhampa%2BTibetan%26pg%3DPA95&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+Communist+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources">Sources</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_Communist_Revolution&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Sources">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKelly2015" class="citation web cs1">Kelly, Luke (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://disasterhistory.org/sichuan-famine-1936-1937">"Sichuan famine, 1936-37"</a>. Disaster History. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170420050036/http://www.disasterhistory.org:80/sichuan-famine-1936-1937">Archived</a> from the original on 2017-04-20. Retrieved 2023-03-14.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Disaster+History&rft.atitle=Sichuan+famine%2C+1936-37&rft.date=2015&rft.aulast=Kelly&rft.aufirst=Luke&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdisasterhistory.org%2Fsichuan-famine-1936-1937&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+Communist+Revolution" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGarnaut2013" class="citation journal cs1">Garnaut, Anthony (2013). "A Quantitative Description of the Henan Famine of 1942". Modern Asian Studies. 47 (6). Cambridge University Press: 2034, 2044. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0026749X13000103">10.1017/S0026749X13000103</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1469-8099">1469-8099</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:146274415">146274415</a>. <q>A detailed survey organized by the Nationalist government in 1943 of the impact of the famine came up with a toll of 1,484,983, broken down by county. The official population registers of Henan show a net decline in population from 1942 to 1943 of one million people, or 3 per cent of the population. If we assume that the natural rate of increase in the population before the famine was 2 per cent, [...] Comparison with the diminution in the size of age cohorts born during the famine years suggests that the official Nationalist figure includes population loss through excess mortality and declined fertility migration, which leaves a famine death toll of well under 1 million.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Modern+Asian+Studies&rft.atitle=A+Quantitative+Description+of+the+Henan+Famine+of+1942&rft.volume=47&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=2034%2C+2044&rft.date=2013&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A146274415%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1469-8099&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0026749X13000103&rft.aulast=Garnaut&rft.aufirst=Anthony&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+Communist+Revolution" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChen2002" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-script cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Chen, Sherong (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110707044408/http://scholar.ilib.cn/A-ISSN~1001-0491(2002)01-0036-05.html"><bdi lang="zh">浅析1928-1930年西北大旱灾的特点及影响</bdi></a> [An Elementary Study about the Characteristics and the Effect of the Great Drought in Northwest China from 1928 to 1930]. 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Retrieved 4 August 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E6%97%A0%E6%94%BF%E5%BA%9C%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89%E6%80%9D%E6%83%B3%E5%8F%B2&rft.place=Beijing&rft.edition=1&rft.pub=National+Defense+University+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=7-5626-0498-3&rft.aulast=Hu&rft.aufirst=Qingyun&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DAAJ4AAAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+Communist+Revolution" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHunt2015" class="citation book cs1">Hunt, Michael H. (2015). 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Rebels and Revolutionaries in North China, 1845-1945. <a href="/wiki/Stanford_University_Press" title="Stanford University Press">Stanford University Press</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rebels+and+Revolutionaries+in+North+China%2C+1845-1945&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=1980&rft.aulast=Perry&rft.aufirst=Elizabeth&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+Communist+Revolution" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPerry2018" class="citation book cs1">Perry, Elizabeth J. (2018). "Is the Chinese communist regime legitimate?". In Rudolph, Jennifer; Szonyi, Michael (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.harvard.edu/files/elizabethperry/files/perry_is_the_chinese_communist_regime_legitimate_v2_jr_edits.pdf">The China Questions: Critical Insights into a Rising Power</a> (PDF). Cambridge, Massachusetts: <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University_Press" title="Harvard University Press">Harvard University Press</a>. 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Retrieved 4 January 2013 – via <a href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=China%27s+Relations+With+Japan+1945-83%3A+The+Role+of+Liao+Chengzhi&rft.pub=Manchester+University+Press&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-0-7190-2795-6&rft.aulast=Radtke&rft.aufirst=Kurt+Werner&rft.au=Liao%2C+Chengzhi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJAsNAQAAIAAJ%26pg%3DPA23&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+Communist+Revolution" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoberts2016" class="citation book cs1">Roberts, John Peter (2016-01-21). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=dXt7jwEACAAJ">China: From Permanent Revolution to Counter-Revolution</a>. 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China: Understanding Its Past.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=China%3A+Understanding+Its+Past&rft.date=1998&rft.aulast=Tamura&rft.aufirst=Eileen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+Communist+Revolution" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTaylor2009" class="citation book cs1">Taylor, Jay (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/generalissimochi00tayl">The Generalissimo</a>. Cambridge: <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University_Press" title="Harvard University Press">Harvard University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0674033382" title="Special:BookSources/978-0674033382"><bdi>978-0674033382</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Generalissimo&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0674033382&rft.aulast=Taylor&rft.aufirst=Jay&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fgeneralissimochi00tayl&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+Communist+Revolution" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThomas1983" class="citation book cs1">Thomas, S. Bernard (1983). Labor and the Chinese Revolution, 1928-1948. 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University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0520910874" title="Special:BookSources/978-0520910874"><bdi>978-0520910874</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+Friend+to+Comrade%3A+The+Founding+of+the+Chinese+Communist+Party%2C+1920%E2%80%931927&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-0520910874&rft.aulast=van+de+Ven&rft.aufirst=Johan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ffromfriendtocomr00vand&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+Communist+Revolution" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVerbyla2010" class="citation book cs1">Verbyla, Bernice A. 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Retrieved 2019-03-08.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Decisive+Encounters%3A+The+Chinese+Civil+War%2C+1946%E2%80%931950&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-8047-4484-3&rft.aulast=Westad&rft.aufirst=Odd&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fdecisiveencounte00west&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+Communist+Revolution" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilbur1983" class="citation book cs1">Wilbur, C. Martin (1983). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hHrQKIKvZK8C">The Nationalist Revolution in China, 1923-1928</a>. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge" title="Cambridge">Cambridge</a>, England: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521318648" title="Special:BookSources/9780521318648"><bdi>9780521318648</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Nationalist+Revolution+in+China%2C+1923-1928&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+England&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1983&rft.isbn=9780521318648&rft.aulast=Wilbur&rft.aufirst=C.+Martin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DhHrQKIKvZK8C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+Communist+Revolution" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWorthing2016" class="citation book cs1">Worthing, Peter (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=BPG7CwAAQBAJ">General He Yingqin: The Rise and Fall of Nationalist China</a>. Cambridge, England: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781107144637" title="Special:BookSources/9781107144637"><bdi>9781107144637</bdi></a> – via <a href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=General+He+Yingqin%3A+The+Rise+and+Fall+of+Nationalist+China&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+England&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=9781107144637&rft.aulast=Worthing&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DBPG7CwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+Communist+Revolution" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFXiang1998" class="citation book cs1">Xiang, Ah (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.republicanchina.org/Zhongshan-Warship-Incident.pdf">"The Zhongshan Warship Incident"</a> (PDF). Tragedy of Chinese Revolution.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Zhongshan+Warship+Incident&rft.btitle=Tragedy+of+Chinese+Revolution&rft.date=1998&rft.aulast=Xiang&rft.aufirst=Ah&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.republicanchina.org%2FZhongshan-Warship-Incident.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+Communist+Revolution" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFXuLiu1989" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-script cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Xu, Shanguang; Liu, Jianping (1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=d9rSAAAAMAAJ"><bdi lang="zh">中国无政府主义史</bdi></a> [History of Anarchism in China] (in Chinese) (1 ed.). <a href="/wiki/Wuhan" title="Wuhan">Wuhan</a>: <a href="/wiki/Hubei_People%27s_Press" title="Hubei People's Press">Hubei People's Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/7-216-00337-3" title="Special:BookSources/7-216-00337-3"><bdi>7-216-00337-3</bdi></a> – via <a href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E6%97%A0%E6%94%BF%E5%BA%9C%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89%E5%8F%B2&rft.place=Wuhan&rft.edition=1&rft.pub=Hubei+People%27s+Press&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=7-216-00337-3&rft.aulast=Xu&rft.aufirst=Shanguang&rft.au=Liu%2C+Jianping&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dd9rSAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+Communist+Revolution" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYangSaich2016" class="citation book cs1">Yang, Benjamin; Saich, Tony (2016). The Rise to Power of the Chinese Communist Party: Documents and Analysis. New York: <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-56324-154-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-56324-154-3"><bdi>978-1-56324-154-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Rise+to+Power+of+the+Chinese+Communist+Party%3A+Documents+and+Analysis&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1-56324-154-3&rft.aulast=Yang&rft.aufirst=Benjamin&rft.au=Saich%2C+Tony&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+Communist+Revolution" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREF奎松2010" class="citation book cs1">奎松, 楊 (April 2010). 中間地帶的革命. Taiyuan: 山西人民出版社.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%E4%B8%AD%E9%96%93%E5%9C%B0%E5%B8%B6%E7%9A%84%E9%9D%A9%E5%91%BD&rft.place=Taiyuan&rft.pub=%E5%B1%B1%E8%A5%BF%E4%BA%BA%E6%B0%91%E5%87%BA%E7%89%88%E7%A4%BE&rft.date=2010-04&rft.aulast=%E5%A5%8E%E6%9D%BE&rft.aufirst=%E6%A5%8A&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+Communist+Revolution" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHunt2013" class="citation book cs1">Hunt, Michael (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/worldtransformed0000hunt">The World Transformed: 1945 to the Present</a> (First ed.). <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780312245832" title="Special:BookSources/9780312245832"><bdi>9780312245832</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+World+Transformed%3A+1945+to+the+Present&rft.edition=First&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=9780312245832&rft.aulast=Hunt&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fworldtransformed0000hunt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+Communist+Revolution" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGreen1993" class="citation book cs1">Green, Leslie C. (1993). The Contemporary Law of Armed Conflict.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Contemporary+Law+of+Armed+Conflict&rft.date=1993&rft.aulast=Green&rft.aufirst=Leslie+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+Communist+Revolution" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAllatsonMcCormack2008" class="citation book cs1">Allatson, Paul; McCormack, Jo (2008). Allatson, Paul; McCormack, Jo (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DaLkNE_20a0C">Exile cultures, misplaced identities</a>. Critical studies. Amsterdam ; New York, NY: Rodopi. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-420-2406-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-420-2406-9"><bdi>978-90-420-2406-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Exile+cultures%2C+misplaced+identities&rft.place=Amsterdam+%3B+New+York%2C+NY&rft.series=Critical+studies&rft.pub=Rodopi&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-90-420-2406-9&rft.aulast=Allatson&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft.au=McCormack%2C+Jo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DDaLkNE_20a0C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+Communist+Revolution" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJessup1989" class="citation book cs1">Jessup, John E. (1989). A Chronology of Conflict and Resolution, 1945–1985. New York: Greenwood Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-313-24308-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-313-24308-5"><bdi>0-313-24308-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Chronology+of+Conflict+and+Resolution%2C+1945%E2%80%931985&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Greenwood+Press&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=0-313-24308-5&rft.aulast=Jessup&rft.aufirst=John+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+Communist+Revolution" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLew2009" class="citation book cs1">Lew, Christopher R. (2009). The Third Chinese Revolutionary Civil War, 1945-49: an analysis of Communist strategy and leadership. Asian states and empires. London New York: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-77730-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-77730-8"><bdi>978-0-415-77730-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Third+Chinese+Revolutionary+Civil+War%2C+1945-49%3A+an+analysis+of+Communist+strategy+and+leadership&rft.place=London+New+York&rft.series=Asian+states+and+empires&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-415-77730-8&rft.aulast=Lew&rft.aufirst=Christopher+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+Communist+Revolution" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLohbeck1956" class="citation book cs1">Lohbeck, Don (1956). Patrick J. Hurley. Chicaho: Henry Regnery Company.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Patrick+J.+Hurley&rft.place=Chicaho&rft.pub=Henry+Regnery+Company&rft.date=1956&rft.aulast=Lohbeck&rft.aufirst=Don&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+Communist+Revolution" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFColumbia2001" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20041012155059/http://www.bartleby.com/65/co/Cominter.html">"Comintern"</a>. The Columbia Encyclopedia (6th ed.). 2001. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bartleby.com/65/co/Cominter.html">the original</a> on 12 October 2004.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Comintern&rft.btitle=The+Columbia+Encyclopedia&rft.edition=6th&rft.date=2001&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bartleby.com%2F65%2Fco%2FCominter.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+Communist+Revolution" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFranke1970" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Wolfgang_Franke" title="Wolfgang Franke">Franke, Wolfgang</a> (1970). A Century of Chinese revolution: 1851-1949 (in German). University of South Carolina Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Century+of+Chinese+revolution%3A+1851-1949&rft.pub=University+of+South+Carolina+Press&rft.date=1970&rft.aulast=Franke&rft.aufirst=Wolfgang&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+Communist+Revolution" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWortzel1999" class="citation book cs1">Wortzel, Larry M. (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rfu-hR8msh4C">Dictionary of contemporary Chinese military history</a>. Westport, Conn.: <a href="/wiki/Greenwood_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="Greenwood Press">Greenwood Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-29337-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-313-29337-5"><bdi>978-0-313-29337-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+contemporary+Chinese+military+history&rft.place=Westport%2C+Conn.&rft.pub=Greenwood+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-313-29337-5&rft.aulast=Wortzel&rft.aufirst=Larry+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Drfu-hR8msh4C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+Communist+Revolution" class="Z3988">.</li></ul> </div> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" 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href="/wiki/Continuous_Revolution_Theory" title="Continuous Revolution Theory">Continuous Revolution Theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_Revolution" title="Cultural Revolution">Cultural Revolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Four_Olds" title="Four Olds">Four Olds</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxism%E2%80%93Leninism" title="Marxism–Leninism">Marxism–Leninism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_line" title="Mass line">Mass line</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newborn_socialist_things" title="Newborn socialist things">Newborn socialist things</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Democracy" title="New Democracy">New Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/One_Divides_into_Two" title="One Divides into Two">One Divides into Two</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_war" title="People's war">People's war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Probable_defeat" title="Probable defeat">Probable defeat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proletarian_nation#Use_in_Maoism" title="Proletarian nation">Proletarian nation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutionary_base_area" title="Revolutionary base area">Revolutionary base area</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seek_truth_from_facts" title="Seek truth from facts">Seek truth from facts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_and_self-criticism_(Marxism%E2%80%93Leninism)" title="Criticism and self-criticism (Marxism–Leninism)">Self-criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_imperialism" title="Social imperialism">Social imperialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_Worlds_Theory" title="Three Worlds Theory">Three Worlds Theory</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Variants</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maoism%E2%80%93Third_Worldism" title="Maoism–Third Worldism">Maoism–Third Worldism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mao-spontex" title="Mao-spontex">Mao-spontex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxism%E2%80%93Leninism%E2%80%93Maoism" title="Marxism–Leninism–Maoism">Marxism–Leninism–Maoism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gonzalo_Thought" title="Gonzalo Thought">Gonzalo Thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxism%E2%80%93Leninism%E2%80%93Maoism%E2%80%93Prachanda_Path" title="Marxism–Leninism–Maoism–Prachanda Path">Prachanda Path</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mao_Zedong" title="Mao Zedong">Mao Zedong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faiz_Ahmad" title="Faiz Ahmad">Faiz Ahmad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Althusser" title="Louis Althusser">Louis Althusser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samir_Amin" title="Samir Amin">Samir Amin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bob_Avakian" title="Bob Avakian">Bob Avakian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alain_Badiou" title="Alain Badiou">Alain Badiou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohan_Baidya" title="Mohan Baidya">Mohan Baidya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afzal_Bangash" title="Afzal Bangash">Afzal Bangash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Bettelheim" title="Charles Bettelheim">Charles Bettelheim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biplav" title="Biplav">Biplav</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bo_Xilai" title="Bo Xilai">Bo Xilai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chen_Boda" title="Chen Boda">Chen Boda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chin_Peng" title="Chin Peng">Chin Peng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pushpa_Kamal_Dahal" title="Pushpa Kamal Dahal">Pushpa Kamal Dahal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saroj_Dutta" title="Saroj Dutta">Saroj Dutta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norm_Gallagher" title="Norm Gallagher">Norm Gallagher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abimael_Guzm%C3%A1n" title="Abimael Guzmán">Abimael Guzmán</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harry_Haywood" title="Harry Haywood">Harry Haywood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ted_Hill_(Australian_communist)" title="Ted Hill (Australian communist)">Ted Hill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%B0brahim_Kaypakkaya" title="İbrahim Kaypakkaya">İbrahim Kaypakkaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jiang_Qing" title="Jiang Qing">Jiang Qing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kang_Sheng" title="Kang Sheng">Kang Sheng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Li_Minqi" title="Li Minqi">Li Minqi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lin_Biao" title="Lin Biao">Lin Biao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charu_Majumdar" title="Charu Majumdar">Charu Majumdar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Mulele" title="Pierre Mulele">Pierre Mulele</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huey_P._Newton" title="Huey P. Newton">Huey P. Newton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nie_Yuanzi" title="Nie Yuanzi">Nie Yuanzi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qi_Benyu" title="Qi Benyu">Qi Benyu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ganapathy_(Maoist)" title="Ganapathy (Maoist)">Muppala Lakshmana Rao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narayan_Sanyal_(politician)" title="Narayan Sanyal (politician)">Narayan Sanyal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siraj_Sikder" title="Siraj Sikder">Siraj Sikder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jose_Maria_Sison" title="Jose Maria Sison">Jose Maria Sison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Hongwen" title="Wang Hongwen">Wang Hongwen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yao_Wenyuan" title="Yao Wenyuan">Yao Wenyuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akram_Yari" title="Akram Yari">Akram Yari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhang_Chunqiao" title="Zhang Chunqiao">Zhang Chunqiao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salim_Rubaya_Ali" title="Salim Rubaya Ali">Salmin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Theoretical works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;font-style:italic;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Report_on_an_Investigation_of_the_Peasant_Movement_in_Hunan" title="Report on an Investigation of the Peasant Movement in Hunan">Report on an Investigation of the Peasant Movement in Hunan</a> (1927)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Contradiction" title="On Contradiction">On Contradiction</a> (1937)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Practice" title="On Practice">On Practice</a> (1937)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Guerrilla_Warfare_(Mao_Zedong_book)" title="On Guerrilla Warfare (Mao Zedong book)">On Guerrilla Warfare</a> (1937)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Protracted_War" title="On Protracted War">On Protracted War</a> (1938)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ten_Major_Relationships" title="Ten Major Relationships">On the Ten Major Relationships</a> (1956)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_the_Correct_Handling_of_Contradictions_Among_the_People" title="On the Correct Handling of Contradictions Among the People">On the Correct Handling of Contradictions Among the People</a> (1957)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_Critique_of_Soviet_Economics" title="A Critique of Soviet Economics">A Critique of Soviet Economics</a> (1960)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quotations_from_Chairman_Mao_Tse-tung" title="Quotations from Chairman Mao Tse-tung">Quotations from Chairman Mao Tse-tung</a> (1964)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historic_Eight_Documents" title="Historic Eight Documents">Historic Eight Documents</a> (1965—1966)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombard_the_Headquarters" title="Bombard the Headquarters">Bombard the Headquarters</a> (1966)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Settlers:_The_Mythology_of_the_White_Proletariat" title="Settlers: The Mythology of the White Proletariat">Settlers: The Mythology of the White Proletariat</a> (1983)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">History</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Soviet_Republic" title="Chinese Soviet Republic">Chinese Soviet Republic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jiangxi_Soviet" title="Jiangxi Soviet">Jiangxi Soviet</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Long_March" title="Long March">Long March</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Chinese Communist Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="History of the People's Republic of China">People's Republic of China</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China_(1949%E2%80%931976)" title="History of the People's Republic of China (1949–1976)">1949–1976</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China_(1976%E2%80%931989)" title="History of the People's Republic of China (1976–1989)">1976–1989</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China_(1989%E2%80%932002)" title="History of the People's Republic of China (1989–2002)">1989–2002</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China_(2002%E2%80%93present)" title="History of the People's Republic of China (2002–present)">2002–present</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Campaign_to_Suppress_Counterrevolutionaries" title="Campaign to Suppress Counterrevolutionaries">Campaign to Suppress Counterrevolutionaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_War" title="Korean War">Korean War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Soviet_split" title="Sino-Soviet split">Sino-Soviet split</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Leap_Forward" title="Great Leap Forward">Great Leap Forward</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_power_movement" title="Black power movement">Black power movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_Revolution" title="Cultural Revolution">Cultural Revolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/16_May_Notification" title="16 May Notification">16 May Notification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_August" title="Red August">Red August</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/January_Storm" title="January Storm">January Storm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Down_to_the_Countryside_Movement" title="Down to the Countryside Movement">Down to the Countryside Movement</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Communist_movement" title="New Communist movement">New Communist movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cambodian_Civil_War" title="Cambodian Civil War">Cambodian Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naxalite%E2%80%93Maoist_insurgency" title="Naxalite–Maoist insurgency">Naxalite–Maoist insurgency</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Naxalbari_uprising" title="Naxalbari uprising">Naxalbari uprising</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_People%27s_Army_rebellion" title="New People's Army rebellion">New People's Army rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Albanian_split" title="Sino-Albanian split">Sino-Albanian split</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maoist_insurgency_in_Turkey" title="Maoist insurgency in Turkey">Maoist insurgency in Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_and_state_funeral_of_Mao_Zedong" title="Death and state funeral of Mao Zedong">Death and funeral of Mao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cambodian%E2%80%93Vietnamese_War" title="Cambodian–Vietnamese War">Cambodian–Vietnamese War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Two_Whatevers" title="Two Whatevers">Two Whatevers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peruvian_Civil_War_of_1980%E2%80%932000" title="Peruvian Civil War of 1980–2000">Peruvian Civil War of 1980–2000</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nepalese_Civil_War" title="Nepalese Civil War">Nepalese Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chongqing_model" title="Chongqing model">Chongqing model</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Communist_Party" title="Chinese Communist Party">Chinese Communist Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shining_Path" title="Shining Path">Communist Party of Peru – Shining Path</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Democratic_Front_of_the_Philippines" title="National Democratic Front of the Philippines">National Democratic Front of the Philippines</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_the_Philippines" title="Communist Party of the Philippines">Communist Party of the Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_People%27s_Army" title="New People's Army">New People's Army</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_Turkey/Marxist%E2%80%93Leninist" title="Communist Party of Turkey/Marxist–Leninist">Communist Party of Turkey/Marxist–Leninist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_Nepal_(Maoist_Centre)" title="Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist Centre)">Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist Centre)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_India_(Maoist)" title="Communist Party of India (Maoist)">Communist Party of India (Maoist)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proletarian_Party_of_East_Bengal" title="Proletarian Party of East Bengal">Proletarian Party of East Bengal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_Burma" title="Communist Party of Burma">Communist Party of Burma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_Ecuador_%E2%80%93_Red_Sun" title="Communist Party of Ecuador – Red Sun">Communist Party of Ecuador – Red Sun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serve_the_People_(Norway)" title="Serve the People (Norway)">Serve the People – Communist League</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Panther_Party" title="Black Panther Party">Black Panther Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutionary_Internationalist_Movement" title="Revolutionary Internationalist Movement">Revolutionary Internationalist Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communist_(Maoist)_Party_of_Afghanistan" title="Communist (Maoist) Party of Afghanistan">Communist (Maoist) Party of Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Conference_of_Marxist%E2%80%93Leninist_Parties_and_Organizations_(International_Newsletter)" title="International Conference of Marxist–Leninist Parties and Organizations (International Newsletter)">International Conference of Marxist–Leninist Parties and Organizations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Communist_League_(Maoist)" title="International Communist League (Maoist)">International Communist League</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_China" title="Anarchism in China">Anarchism in China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Big-character_poster" title="Big-character poster">Big-character poster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feudal_fascism" title="Feudal fascism">Feudal fascism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hoxhaism" title="Hoxhaism">Hoxhaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guevarism" title="Guevarism">Guevarism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juche" title="Juche">Juche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Left_communism_in_China" title="Left communism in China">Left communism in China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mao_Zedong%27s_cult_of_personality" title="Mao Zedong's cult of personality">Mao's cult of personality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanjie" title="Nanjie">Nanjie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_communism" title="National communism">National communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Democracy_(Philippines)" title="National Democracy (Philippines)">National Democracy Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naxalism" title="Naxalism">Naxalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazi-Maoism" title="Nazi-Maoism">Nazi-Maoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Left" title="New Left">New Left</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_New_Left" title="Chinese New Left">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Left_in_Japan" title="New Left in Japan">Japanese</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Guards" title="Red Guards">Red Guards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Star_Over_China" title="Red Star Over China">Red Star Over China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialist_ideology_of_the_Kuomintang" title="Socialist ideology of the Kuomintang">Socialist ideology of the Kuomintang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thought_reform_in_China" title="Thought reform in China">Thought reform in China</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/16px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/24px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, 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src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Red_flag_II.svg/16px-Red_flag_II.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Red_flag_II.svg/24px-Red_flag_II.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Red_flag_II.svg/32px-Red_flag_II.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="466" data-file-height="411" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Socialism" title="Portal:Socialism">Socialism portal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:A_coloured_voting_box.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/16px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/24px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png 1.5x, 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Chinese_Civil_War" title="Template:Chinese Civil War"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:inherit">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Chinese_Civil_War" title="Template talk:Chinese Civil War"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:inherit">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Chinese_Civil_War" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Chinese Civil War"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:inherit">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Chinese_Civil_War" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Civil_War" title="Chinese Civil War">Chinese Civil War</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2" style="background: none;"><div> <dl><dt>Principal belligerents and <a href="/wiki/Template:Campaignbox_Chinese_Civil_War" title="Template:Campaignbox Chinese Civil War">campaigns</a></dt></dl> <a href="/wiki/File:Emblem_of_the_Kuomintang.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Emblem_of_the_Kuomintang.svg/20px-Emblem_of_the_Kuomintang.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Emblem_of_the_Kuomintang.svg/30px-Emblem_of_the_Kuomintang.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Emblem_of_the_Kuomintang.svg/40px-Emblem_of_the_Kuomintang.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Kuomintang" title="Kuomintang">Nationalist Party</a> / <a href="/wiki/Taiwan" title="Taiwan"><img alt="Taiwan" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Nationalist_government" title="Nationalist government">National Government</a> (<a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China_Army.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China_Army.svg/20px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China_Army.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China_Army.svg/30px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China_Army.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China_Army.svg/40px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China_Army.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/National_Revolutionary_Army" title="National Revolutionary Army">National Revolutionary Army</a>) <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Republic_of_China" title="Constitution of the Republic of China">→</a> <a href="/wiki/Taiwan" title="Taiwan"><img alt="Taiwan" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Government_of_the_Republic_of_China" title="Government of the Republic of China">Constitutional ROC Government</a> (<a href="/wiki/Republic_of_China_Armed_Forces" title="Republic of China Armed Forces">ROC Armed Forces</a>) <a href="/wiki/Retreat_of_the_government_of_the_Republic_of_China_to_Taiwan" title="Retreat of the government of the Republic of China to Taiwan">→</a> <a href="/wiki/Taiwan" title="Taiwan"><img alt="Taiwan" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Taiwan" title="Taiwan">Republic of China on Taiwan</a><hr /> <a href="/wiki/File:Danghui_(pre-1996).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Danghui_%28pre-1996%29.svg/20px-Danghui_%28pre-1996%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Danghui_%28pre-1996%29.svg/30px-Danghui_%28pre-1996%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Danghui_%28pre-1996%29.svg/40px-Danghui_%28pre-1996%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="305" data-file-height="305" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Communist_Party" title="Chinese Communist Party">Communist Party</a> / <a href="/wiki/File:National_Flag_of_Chinese_Soviet_Republic.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/National_Flag_of_Chinese_Soviet_Republic.svg/20px-National_Flag_of_Chinese_Soviet_Republic.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/National_Flag_of_Chinese_Soviet_Republic.svg/30px-National_Flag_of_Chinese_Soviet_Republic.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/National_Flag_of_Chinese_Soviet_Republic.svg/40px-National_Flag_of_Chinese_Soviet_Republic.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="360" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Soviet_Republic" title="Chinese Soviet Republic">Soviet Republic</a> (<a href="/wiki/File:%E4%B8%AD%E5%9C%8B%E5%B7%A5%E8%BE%B2%E7%B4%85%E8%BB%8D%E8%BB%8D%E6%97%97.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/%E4%B8%AD%E5%9C%8B%E5%B7%A5%E8%BE%B2%E7%B4%85%E8%BB%8D%E8%BB%8D%E6%97%97.svg/20px-%E4%B8%AD%E5%9C%8B%E5%B7%A5%E8%BE%B2%E7%B4%85%E8%BB%8D%E8%BB%8D%E6%97%97.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/%E4%B8%AD%E5%9C%8B%E5%B7%A5%E8%BE%B2%E7%B4%85%E8%BB%8D%E8%BB%8D%E6%97%97.svg/30px-%E4%B8%AD%E5%9C%8B%E5%B7%A5%E8%BE%B2%E7%B4%85%E8%BB%8D%E8%BB%8D%E6%97%97.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/%E4%B8%AD%E5%9C%8B%E5%B7%A5%E8%BE%B2%E7%B4%85%E8%BB%8D%E8%BB%8D%E6%97%97.svg/40px-%E4%B8%AD%E5%9C%8B%E5%B7%A5%E8%BE%B2%E7%B4%85%E8%BB%8D%E8%BB%8D%E6%97%97.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="350" data-file-height="229" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Red_Army" title="Chinese Red Army">Red Army</a>) <a href="/wiki/Second_United_Front" title="Second United Front">→</a> <a href="/wiki/Communist-controlled_China_(1927%E2%80%931949)" title="Communist-controlled China (1927–1949)">Liberated Area</a> (<a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China_Army.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China_Army.svg/20px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China_Army.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China_Army.svg/30px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China_Army.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China_Army.svg/40px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China_Army.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Eighth_Route_Army" title="Eighth Route Army">8th Route Army</a>, <a href="/wiki/New_Fourth_Army" title="New Fourth Army">New Fourth Army</a>, <a href="/wiki/Militia_(China)" title="Militia (China)">etc.</a> <a class="mw-selflink selflink">→</a> <a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_the_People%27s_Liberation_Army.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Liberation_Army.svg/20px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Liberation_Army.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Liberation_Army.svg/30px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Liberation_Army.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Liberation_Army.svg/40px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Liberation_Army.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="750" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Liberation_Army" title="People's Liberation Army">People's Liberation Army</a>) <a href="/wiki/Proclamation_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="Proclamation of the People's Republic of China">→</a> <img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">People's Republic of China</a> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;color:inherit;"><div style="padding:0px"><table class="navbox-columns-table" style="border-spacing: 0px; text-align:left;width:100%;"><tbody><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="font-weight:bold;background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;">Pre-1945</td><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;font-weight:bold;background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Second_Kuomintang-Communist_Civil_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Second Kuomintang-Communist Civil War">Post-1945</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td class="navbox-list" style="padding:0px;text-align: left;width:10em;"><div> <table style="line-height: 1.3em;"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right: 0.7em;"> 1923</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Sun%E2%80%93Joffe_Manifesto" title="Sun–Joffe Manifesto">Sun–Joffe Manifesto</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right: 0.7em;"> 1924</td><td> <a href="/wiki/First_United_Front" title="First United Front">First United Front</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right: 0.7em;"> 1926</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Canton_Coup" title="Canton Coup">Canton Coup</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right: 0.7em;"> 1927–1949</td><td> <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Chinese Communist Revolution</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right: 0.7em;"> 1927</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Nanking_incident_of_1927" title="Nanking incident of 1927">Nanking incident</a> <a href="/wiki/Shanghai_Commune_of_1927" title="Shanghai Commune of 1927">Shanghai Commune</a> <a href="/wiki/Shanghai_massacre" title="Shanghai massacre">Shanghai massacre</a> <a href="/wiki/Nanjing%E2%80%93Wuhan_split" class="mw-redirect" title="Nanjing–Wuhan split">Nanjing–Wuhan split</a> <a href="/wiki/July_15_Incident" title="July 15 Incident">715 Incident</a> <a href="/wiki/Little_Long_March" title="Little Long March">Little Long March</a> <a href="/wiki/Nanchang_uprising" title="Nanchang uprising">Nanchang uprising</a> <a href="/wiki/Autumn_Harvest_Uprising" title="Autumn Harvest Uprising">Autumn Harvest Uprising</a> <a href="/wiki/Guangzhou_Uprising" title="Guangzhou Uprising">Guangzhou Uprising</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right: 0.7em;"> 1930–1934</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Encirclement_campaigns_(Chinese_Civil_War)" title="Encirclement campaigns (Chinese Civil War)">Encirclement campaigns</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right: 0.7em;"> 1931–1934</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Soviet_Republic" title="Chinese Soviet Republic">Chinese Soviet Republic</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right: 0.7em;"> 1933–1934</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Fujian_People%27s_Government" title="Fujian People's Government">Fujian People's Government</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right: 0.7em;"> 1934–1936</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Long_March" title="Long March">Long March</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right: 0.7em;"> 1936</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Xi%27an_Incident" title="Xi'an Incident">Xi'an Incident</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right: 0.7em;"> 1937–1946</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Second_United_Front" title="Second United Front">Second United Front</a> (<a href="/wiki/Wartime_perception_of_the_Chinese_Communists" title="Wartime perception of the Chinese Communists">Wartime perception of the Chinese Communists</a>)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right: 0.7em;"> 1941</td><td> <a href="/wiki/New_Fourth_Army_incident" title="New Fourth Army incident">New Fourth Army incident</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right: 0.7em;"> 1944</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Dixie_Mission" title="Dixie Mission">Dixie Mission</a></td></tr></tbody></table> </div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;text-align: left;width:10em;"><div> <table style="line-height: 1.3em"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right: 0.7em;"> 1945</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Chongqing_Negotiations" title="Chongqing Negotiations">Chongqing Negotiations</a> <a href="/wiki/Double_Tenth_Agreement" title="Double Tenth Agreement">Double Tenth Agreement</a> <a href="/wiki/Retrocession_of_Taiwan" title="Retrocession of Taiwan">Retrocession of Taiwan</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right: 0.7em;"> 1946</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Jiaochangkou_incident" title="Jiaochangkou incident">Jiaochangkou Incident</a> <a href="/wiki/Shen_Chong_case" title="Shen Chong case">Peiping rape case</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right: 0.7em;"> 1945–1947</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Marshall_Mission" title="Marshall Mission">Marshall Mission</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right: 0.7em;"> 1945–1949</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Operation_Beleaguer" title="Operation Beleaguer">Operation Beleaguer</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right: 0.7em;"> 1947</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Yu_Zisan_Incident" title="Yu Zisan Incident">Yu Zisan Incident</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right: 0.7em;"> 1948</td><td> <a href="/wiki/SS_Kiangya" title="SS Kiangya">SS Kiangya incident</a> <a href="/wiki/Liaoshen_campaign" title="Liaoshen campaign">Liaoshen campaign</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right: 0.7em;"> 1948–1949</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Huaihai_campaign" title="Huaihai campaign">Huaihai campaign</a> <a href="/wiki/Pingjin_campaign" title="Pingjin campaign">Pingjin campaign</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right: 0.7em;"> 1949</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Taiping_(steamer)" title="Taiping (steamer)">Taiping Steamer Incident</a> <a href="/wiki/Yangtze_River_Crossing_campaign" title="Yangtze River Crossing campaign">Yangtze River Crossing campaign</a> <a href="/wiki/Amethyst_incident" title="Amethyst incident">Amethyst Incident</a> <a href="/wiki/Retreat_of_the_government_of_Republic_of_China_to_Taiwan" class="mw-redirect" title="Retreat of the government of Republic of China to Taiwan">ROC Government retreat to Taiwan</a> <a href="/wiki/Incorporation_of_Xinjiang_into_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="Incorporation of Xinjiang into the People's Republic of China">PRC incorporation of Xinjiang</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right: 0.7em;"> 1949–1953</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Shanghai_(1949-1953)" title="Bombing of Shanghai (1949-1953)">Bombing of Shanghai</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right: 0.7em;"> 1950</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Hainan_Island" title="Battle of Hainan Island">Hainan Island campaign</a> <a href="/wiki/Wanshan_Archipelago_Campaign" title="Wanshan Archipelago Campaign">Wanshan Archipelago Campaign</a> </td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right: 0.7em;"> 1950–1958</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Kuomintang_Islamic_insurgency" title="Kuomintang Islamic insurgency">Kuomintang Islamic insurgency</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right: 0.7em;"> 1961–1972</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Project_National_Glory" title="Project National Glory">Project National Glory</a></td></tr></tbody></table> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="23x15px&#124;border_&#124;alt=China&#124;link=China_Cross-strait_relations_23x15px&#124;border_&#124;alt=Taiwan&#124;link=Taiwan" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Cross-strait_relations" title="Template:Cross-strait relations"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Cross-strait_relations" title="Template talk:Cross-strait relations"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Cross-strait_relations" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Cross-strait relations"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="23x15px&#124;border_&#124;alt=China&#124;link=China_Cross-strait_relations_23x15px&#124;border_&#124;alt=Taiwan&#124;link=Taiwan" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/China" title="China"><img alt="China" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Cross-strait_relations" title="Cross-strait relations">Cross-strait relations</a> <a href="/wiki/Taiwan" title="Taiwan"><img alt="Taiwan" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Diplomatic posts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hong_Kong_Economic,_Trade_and_Cultural_Office_(Taiwan)" title="Hong Kong Economic, Trade and Cultural Office (Taiwan)">Hong Kong Economic, Trade and Cultural Office (Taiwan)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taipei_Economic_and_Cultural_Office_in_Hong_Kong" title="Taipei Economic and Cultural Office in Hong Kong">Taipei Economic and Cultural Office in Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macau_Economic_and_Cultural_Office_(Taiwan)" title="Macau Economic and Cultural Office (Taiwan)">Macau Economic and Cultural Office (Taiwan)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taipei_Economic_and_Cultural_Office_in_Macau" title="Taipei Economic and Cultural Office in Macau">Taipei Economic and Cultural Office in Macau</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Diplomacy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Opening_of_the_South-North_route" title="Opening of the South-North route">Opening of the South-North route</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restoration_of_Taiwan_strait_shipping" title="Restoration of Taiwan strait shipping">Restoration of Taiwan strait shipping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kinmen_Agreement" title="Kinmen Agreement">Kinmen Agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wang%E2%80%93Koo_summit" title="Wang–Koo summit">Wang–Koo summit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross-strait_charter" title="Cross-strait charter">Cross-strait charter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2004_Taiwanese_cross-strait_relations_referendum" title="2004 Taiwanese cross-strait relations referendum">2004 Taiwanese cross-strait relations referendum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/May_17_Statement" title="May 17 Statement">May 17 Statement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2005_Pan%E2%80%93Blue_visits_to_mainland_China" class="mw-redirect" title="2005 Pan–Blue visits to mainland China">2005 Pan–Blue visits to mainland China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross-strait_high-level_talks" title="Cross-strait high-level talks">Cross-strait high-level talks</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Chen%E2%80%93Chiang_summit" title="First Chen–Chiang summit">First Chen–Chiang summit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Chen%E2%80%93Chiang_summit" title="Second Chen–Chiang summit">Second Chen–Chiang summit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Chen%E2%80%93Chiang_summit" title="Fourth Chen–Chiang summit">Fourth Chen–Chiang summit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifth_Chen%E2%80%93Chiang_summit" title="Fifth Chen–Chiang summit">Fifth Chen–Chiang summit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sixth_Chen%E2%80%93Chiang_summit" title="Sixth Chen–Chiang summit">Sixth Chen–Chiang summit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seventh_Chen%E2%80%93Chiang_summit" title="Seventh Chen–Chiang summit">Seventh Chen–Chiang summit</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuan_Tuan_and_Yuan_Yuan" title="Tuan Tuan and Yuan Yuan">Tuan Tuan and Yuan Yuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_Cooperation_Framework_Agreement" title="Economic Cooperation Framework Agreement">Economic Cooperation Framework Agreement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cross-Strait_CEO_Summit" title="Cross-Strait CEO Summit">Cross-Strait CEO Summit</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross-Strait_Service_Trade_Agreement" title="Cross-Strait Service Trade Agreement">Cross-Strait Service Trade Agreement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jinjiang%E2%80%93Kinmen_Pipeline" title="Jinjiang–Kinmen Pipeline">Jinjiang–Kinmen Pipeline</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2014_Wang%E2%80%93Zhang_meetings" title="2014 Wang–Zhang meetings">2014 Wang–Zhang meetings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2015_Xi%E2%80%93Chu_meeting" title="2015 Xi–Chu meeting">2015 Xi–Chu meeting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ma%E2%80%93Xi_meeting" title="Ma–Xi meeting">Ma–Xi meeting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Straits_Forum" title="Straits Forum">Straits Forum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shanghai-Taipei_City_Forum" title="Shanghai-Taipei City Forum">Shanghai-Taipei City Forum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Ma%E2%80%93Xi_meeting" title="Second Ma–Xi meeting">Second Ma–Xi meeting</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Conflicts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Civil_War" title="Chinese Civil War">Chinese Civil War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Second_Kuomintang-Communist_Civil_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Second Kuomintang-Communist Civil War">Second Kuomintang-Communist Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retreat_of_the_government_of_the_Republic_of_China_to_Taiwan" title="Retreat of the government of the Republic of China to Taiwan">Retreat of the government of the Republic of China to Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guanbi_policy" title="Guanbi policy">Guanbi policy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Taiwan_Strait_Crisis" title="First Taiwan Strait Crisis">First Taiwan Strait Crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Project_National_Glory" title="Project National Glory">Project National Glory</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Dong-Yin" title="Battle of Dong-Yin">Battle of Dong-Yin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Dongshan" title="Battle of Dongshan">Battle of Dongshan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_East_Chongwu" title="Battle of East Chongwu">Battle of East Chongwu</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Taiwan_Strait_Crisis" title="Second Taiwan Strait Crisis">Second Taiwan Strait Crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Taiwan_Strait_Crisis" title="Third Taiwan Strait Crisis">Third Taiwan Strait Crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Senkaku_Islands" title="Senkaku Islands">Senkaku Islands</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Senkaku_Islands_dispute" title="Senkaku Islands dispute">Dispute</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Incidents</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Capture_of_the_Tuapse" title="Capture of the Tuapse">Capture of the Tuapse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kashmir_Princess" title="Kashmir Princess">Kashmir Princess</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_General_Assembly_Resolution_2758" class="mw-redirect" title="United Nations General Assembly Resolution 2758">United Nations General Assembly Resolution 2758</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joint_Communiqu%C3%A9_on_the_Establishment_of_Diplomatic_Relations" title="Joint Communiqué on the Establishment of Diplomatic Relations">Joint Communiqué on the Establishment of Diplomatic Relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CAAC_Flight_296" title="CAAC Flight 296">CAAC Flight 296</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/China_Airlines_Flight_334" title="China Airlines Flight 334">China Airlines Flight 334</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1987_Lieyu_massacre" title="1987 Lieyu massacre">1987 Lieyu massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Min_Ping_Yu_No._5540_incident" title="Min Ping Yu No. 5540 incident">Min Ping Yu No. 5540 incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Min_Ping_Yu_No._5202" title="Min Ping Yu No. 5202">Min Ping Yu No. 5202</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1990_Guangzhou_Baiyun_airport_collisions" title="1990 Guangzhou Baiyun airport collisions">1990 Guangzhou Baiyun airport collisions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qiandao_Lake_incident" title="Qiandao Lake incident">Qiandao Lake incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/China_Airlines_Flight_611" title="China Airlines Flight 611">China Airlines Flight 611</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunflower_Student_Movement" title="Sunflower Student Movement">Sunflower Student Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Braga_incident" title="Braga incident">Braga incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Black_Box_Curriculum_Movement" title="Anti-Black Box Curriculum Movement">Anti-Black Box Curriculum Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Liqiang" title="Wang Liqiang">Wang Liqiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_pineapples" title="Freedom pineapples">Freedom pineapples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2021_Solomon_Islands_unrest" title="2021 Solomon Islands unrest">2021 Solomon Islands unrest</a></li> <li>Chinese military exercises around Taiwan <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2022_Chinese_military_exercises_around_Taiwan" title="2022 Chinese military exercises around Taiwan">2022</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2023_Chinese_military_exercises_around_Taiwan" title="2023 Chinese military exercises around Taiwan">2023</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joint_Sword-2024" title="Joint Sword-2024">2024</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2024_Kinmen_Chinese_motorboat_capsizing_incident" title="2024 Kinmen Chinese motorboat capsizing incident">2024 Kinmen Chinese motorboat capsizing incident</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Legislation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cross-Strait_Act" title="Cross-Strait Act">Cross-Strait Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proposed_National_Unification_Promotion_Law" title="Proposed National Unification Promotion Law">Proposed National Unification Promotion Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Secession_Law" title="Anti-Secession Law">Anti-Secession Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Infiltration_Act" title="Anti-Infiltration Act">Anti-Infiltration Act</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/All-China_Federation_of_Taiwan_Compatriots" title="All-China Federation of Taiwan Compatriots">All-China Federation of Taiwan Compatriots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alumni_Association_of_Huangpu_Military_Academy" title="Alumni Association of Huangpu Military Academy">Alumni Association of Huangpu Military Academy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Association_for_Relations_Across_the_Taiwan_Straits" title="Association for Relations Across the Taiwan Straits">Association for Relations Across the Taiwan Straits</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Association_for_Tourism_Exchange_Across_the_Taiwan_Straits" title="Association for Tourism Exchange Across the Taiwan Straits">Association for Tourism Exchange Across the Taiwan Straits</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Leading_Group_for_Taiwan_Affairs" title="Central Leading Group for Taiwan Affairs">Central Leading Group for Taiwan Affairs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/China_Council_for_the_Promotion_of_Peaceful_National_Reunification" title="China Council for the Promotion of Peaceful National Reunification">China Council for the Promotion of Peaceful National Reunification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross-Straits_Common_Market_Foundation" title="Cross-Straits Common Market Foundation">Cross-Straits Common Market Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross-Strait_Economic,_Trade_and_Culture_Forum" title="Cross-Strait Economic, Trade and Culture Forum">Cross-Strait Economic, Trade and Culture Forum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross-Strait_Peace_Forum" title="Cross-Strait Peace Forum">Cross-Strait Peace Forum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Alliance_for_China%27s_Reunification_under_the_Three_Principles_of_the_People" title="Grand Alliance for China's Reunification under the Three Principles of the People">Grand Alliance for China's Reunification under the Three Principles of the People</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lienchiang_Cross-Strait_Matters_Forum" title="Lienchiang Cross-Strait Matters Forum">Lienchiang Cross-Strait Matters Forum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mainland_Affairs_Council" title="Mainland Affairs Council">Mainland Affairs Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Unification_Council" title="National Unification Council">National Unification Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Straits_Exchange_Foundation" title="Straits Exchange Foundation">Straits Exchange Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwan_Affairs_Office" title="Taiwan Affairs Office">Taiwan Affairs Office</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwan_Competitiveness_Forum" title="Taiwan Competitiveness Forum">Taiwan Competitiveness Forum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwan_Strait_Tourism_Association" title="Taiwan Strait Tourism Association">Taiwan Strait Tourism Association</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1992_Consensus" title="1992 Consensus">1992 Consensus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/China_Circle" title="China Circle">China Circle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_unification" title="Chinese unification">Chinese unification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_nationalism" title="Chinese nationalism">Chinese nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_irredentism" title="Chinese irredentism">Chinese irredentism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Taipei" title="Chinese Taipei">Chinese Taipei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross-Strait_Economic_Zone" title="Cross-Strait Economic Zone">Cross-Strait Economic Zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dang_Guo" title="Dang Guo">Dang Guo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Noes_and_One_Without" title="Four Noes and One Without">Four Noes and One Without</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greater_China" title="Greater China">Greater China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Han_chauvinism" title="Han chauvinism">Han chauvinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/One_China" title="One China">One China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/One-China_policy" class="mw-redirect" title="One-China policy">One-China policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/One_Country_on_Each_Side" title="One Country on Each Side">One Country on Each Side</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/One_country,_two_systems" title="One country, two systems">One country, two systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propaganda_in_China" title="Propaganda in China">Propaganda in China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross-strait_propaganda" title="Cross-strait propaganda">Cross-strait propaganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_China_on_Taiwan" title="Republic of China on Taiwan">Republic of China on Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-determination" title="Self-determination">Self-determination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialist_ideology_of_the_Kuomintang" title="Socialist ideology of the Kuomintang">Socialist ideology of the Kuomintang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism_with_Chinese_characteristics" title="Socialism with Chinese characteristics">Socialism with Chinese characteristics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_non-state-to-state_relations" class="mw-redirect" title="Special non-state-to-state relations">Special non-state-to-state relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Six_Assurances" title="Six Assurances">Six Assurances</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwan,_China" title="Taiwan, China">Taiwan, China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Two_Chinas" title="Two Chinas">Two Chinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_Noes" title="Three Noes">Three Noes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_Links" title="Three Links">Three Links</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwan_consensus" title="Taiwan consensus">Taiwan consensus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwan_independence_movement" title="Taiwan independence movement">Taiwan independence movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_the_Undetermined_Status_of_Taiwan" title="Theory of the Undetermined Status of Taiwan">Theory of the Undetermined Status of Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_front_in_Taiwan" title="United front in Taiwan">United front in Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Under_the_Roof_of_One_China" title="Under the Roof of One China">Under the Roof of One China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xi_Jinping_Thought" title="Xi Jinping Thought">Xi Jinping Thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhonghua_minzu" title="Zhonghua minzu">Zhonghua minzu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fujian%E2%80%93Taiwan_relationship" title="Fujian–Taiwan relationship">Fujian–Taiwan relationship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hong_Kong%E2%80%93Taiwan_relations" title="Hong Kong–Taiwan relations">Hong Kong–Taiwan relations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hong_Kong%E2%80%93Taiwan_Economic_and_Cultural_Co-operation_and_Promotion_Council" title="Hong Kong–Taiwan Economic and Cultural Co-operation and Promotion Council">Hong Kong–Taiwan Economic and Cultural Co-operation and Promotion Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwan%E2%80%93Hong_Kong_Economic_and_Cultural_Co-operation_Council" title="Taiwan–Hong Kong Economic and Cultural Co-operation Council">Taiwan–Hong Kong Economic and Cultural Co-operation Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hong_Kong_and_Kowloon_Trades_Union_Council" title="Hong Kong and Kowloon Trades Union Council">Hong Kong and Kowloon Trades Union Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pro-ROC_camp_(Hong_Kong)" class="mw-redirect" title="Pro-ROC camp (Hong Kong)">Pro-ROC camp</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Travel_Document" title="Chinese Travel Document">Chinese Travel Document</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwan_Entry_Permit" class="mw-redirect" title="Taiwan Entry Permit">Taiwan Entry Permit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mainland_Travel_Permit_for_Taiwan_Resident" title="Mainland Travel Permit for Taiwan Resident">Mainland Travel Permit for Taiwan Resident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross-strait_language_database" title="Cross-strait language database">Cross-strait language database</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ECFA_Debate" title="ECFA Debate">ECFA Debate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HMS_Aurora_(12)" title="HMS Aurora (12)">HMS Aurora (12)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/China_and_the_United_Nations" title="China and the United Nations">China and the United Nations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/China_and_the_World_Bank" title="China and the World Bank">China and the World Bank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_intelligence_activity_abroad" title="Chinese intelligence activity abroad">Chinese intelligence activity abroad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_information_operations_and_information_warfare" title="Chinese information operations and information warfare">Chinese information operations and information warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Soviet_Republic" title="Chinese Soviet Republic">Chinese Soviet Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_religion_in_China" title="Freedom of religion in China">Freedom of religion in China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_China" title="Foreign relations of China">Foreign relations of China</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dates_of_establishment_of_diplomatic_relations_with_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="Dates of establishment of diplomatic relations with the People's Republic of China">Timeline of diplomatic relations with China</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_status_of_Taiwan" title="Political status of Taiwan">Political status of Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_Taiwan" title="Foreign relations of Taiwan">Foreign relations of Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opinion_polling_on_Taiwanese_identity" title="Opinion polling on Taiwanese identity">Opinion polling on Taiwanese identity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_diplomatic_relations_of_the_Republic_of_China" title="Timeline of diplomatic relations of the Republic of China">Timeline of diplomatic relations with Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geostrategy_in_Taiwan" title="Geostrategy in Taiwan">Geostrategy in Taiwan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Communist_Hero" title="Anti-Communist Hero">Anti-Communist Hero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Milk_Tea_Alliance" title="Milk Tea Alliance">Milk Tea Alliance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taishang" title="Taishang">Taishang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G3_Beijing%E2%80%93Taipei_Expressway" title="G3 Beijing–Taipei Expressway">G3 Beijing–Taipei Expressway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G99_Taiwan_Ring_Expressway" title="G99 Taiwan Ring Expressway">G99 Taiwan Ring Expressway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/China_National_Highway_228_(Taiwan)" title="China National Highway 228 (Taiwan)">China National Highway 228 (Taiwan)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongolian_and_Tibetan_Affairs_Commission" title="Mongolian and Tibetan Affairs Commission">Mongolian and Tibetan Affairs Commission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibet_Religious_Foundation_of_His_Holiness_the_Dalai_Lama" title="Tibet Religious Foundation of His Holiness the Dalai Lama">Tibet Religious Foundation of His Holiness the Dalai Lama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_World_Turned_Upside_Down_(sculpture)" title="The World Turned Upside Down (sculpture)">The World Turned Upside Down</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Go_and_Reclaim_the_Mainland" title="Go and Reclaim the Mainland">Go and Reclaim the Mainland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pro-Republic_of_China" title="Pro-Republic of China">Pro-Republic of China</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" 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