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vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Coverture_and_other_marriage_regulations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4 Coverture and other marriage regulations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Coverture_and_other_marriage_regulations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Suffrage_and_politics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Suffrage_and_politics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.5 Suffrage and politics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Suffrage_and_politics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Menus" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Menus"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.6 Menus </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Menus-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Trends_over_time" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Trends_over_time"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.7 Trends over time </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Trends_over_time-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gender_stereotypes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gender_stereotypes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Gender stereotypes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gender_stereotypes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_language" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_language"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 In language </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-In_language-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle In language subsection </button> <ul id="toc-In_language-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Sexist_and_gender-neutral_language" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sexist_and_gender-neutral_language"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Sexist and gender-neutral language </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sexist_and_gender-neutral_language-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sexism_in_languages_other_than_English" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sexism_in_languages_other_than_English"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Sexism in languages other than English </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sexism_in_languages_other_than_English-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gender-specific_pejorative_terms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gender-specific_pejorative_terms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Gender-specific pejorative terms </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gender-specific_pejorative_terms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Occupational_sexism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Occupational_sexism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Occupational sexism </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Occupational_sexism-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Occupational sexism subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Occupational_sexism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Gap_in_hiring" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gap_in_hiring"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Gap in hiring </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gap_in_hiring-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Earnings_gap" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Earnings_gap"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Earnings gap </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Earnings_gap-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Causes_for_wage_discrimination" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Causes_for_wage_discrimination"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2.1 Causes for wage discrimination </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Causes_for_wage_discrimination-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Glass_ceiling_effect" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Glass_ceiling_effect"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 Glass ceiling effect </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Glass_ceiling_effect-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Potential_remedies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Potential_remedies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3.1 Potential remedies </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Potential_remedies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Weight-based_sexism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Weight-based_sexism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.4 Weight-based sexism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Weight-based_sexism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Transgender_discrimination" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Transgender_discrimination"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.5 Transgender discrimination </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Transgender_discrimination-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Objectification" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Objectification"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Objectification </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Objectification-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Objectification subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Objectification-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-In_advertising" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_advertising"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 In advertising </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_advertising-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pornography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pornography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 Pornography </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pornography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Prostitution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prostitution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3 Prostitution </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Prostitution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Media_portrayals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Media_portrayals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.4 Media portrayals </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Media_portrayals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sexist_jokes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sexist_jokes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.5 Sexist jokes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sexist_jokes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gender_identity_discrimination" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gender_identity_discrimination"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Gender identity discrimination </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Gender_identity_discrimination-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Gender identity discrimination subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Gender_identity_discrimination-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Oppositional_sexism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Oppositional_sexism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 Oppositional sexism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Oppositional_sexism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Transgender_discrimination_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Transgender_discrimination_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2 Transgender discrimination </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Transgender_discrimination_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Examples" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Examples"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Examples </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Examples-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Examples subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Examples-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Child_and_forced_marriage" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Child_and_forced_marriage"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.1 Child and forced marriage </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Child_and_forced_marriage-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dating" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dating"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.2 Dating </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dating-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Domestic_violence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Domestic_violence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.3 Domestic violence </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Domestic_violence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Education" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Education"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.4 Education </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Education-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fashion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fashion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.5 Fashion </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fashion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Female_genital_mutilation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Female_genital_mutilation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.6 Female genital mutilation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Female_genital_mutilation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gendercide_and_forced_sterilization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gendercide_and_forced_sterilization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.7 Gendercide and forced sterilization </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gendercide_and_forced_sterilization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Legal_justice_and_regulations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legal_justice_and_regulations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.8 Legal justice and regulations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Legal_justice_and_regulations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Military" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Military"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.9 Military </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Military-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sentencing_disparity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sentencing_disparity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.10 Sentencing disparity </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sentencing_disparity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reproductive_rights" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reproductive_rights"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.11 Reproductive rights </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reproductive_rights-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sexual_assault_and_treatment_of_victims" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sexual_assault_and_treatment_of_victims"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.12 Sexual assault and treatment of victims </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sexual_assault_and_treatment_of_victims-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-War_rape" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#War_rape"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.13 War rape </div> </a> <ul id="toc-War_rape-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 Sources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 Bibliography </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Sexism</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 102 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-102" aria-hidden="true" > 102 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seksisme" title="Seksisme – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Seksisme" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sexismus" title="Sexismus – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Sexismus" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-anp mw-list-item"><a href="https://anp.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A6" title="लिंगवाद – Angika" lang="anp" hreflang="anp" data-title="लिंगवाद" data-language-autonym="अंगिका" data-language-local-name="Angika" class="interlanguage-link-target">अंगिका</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%AD%D9%8A%D8%B2_%D8%AC%D9%86%D8%B3%D9%8A" title="تحيز جنسي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="تحيز جنسي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sexismu" title="Sexismu – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Sexismu" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seksizm" title="Seksizm – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Seksizm" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%99%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%97%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A6" title="লিঙ্গবাদ – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="লিঙ্গবাদ" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%A8ng-pia%CC%8Dt-ch%C3%BA-g%C4%AB" title="Sèng-pia̍t-chú-gī – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Sèng-pia̍t-chú-gī" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%B8%D3%99%D1%82%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA" title="Енсиәтселек – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Енсиәтселек" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target">Башҡортса</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%81%D1%96%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Сексізм – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Сексізм" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%8D%D0%BA%D1%81%D1%96%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Сэксізм – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Сэксізм" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg badge-Q70894304 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B7%D1%8A%D0%BC" title="Сексизъм – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Сексизъм" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seksizam" title="Seksizam – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Seksizam" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sexisme" title="Sexisme – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Sexisme" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sexismus" title="Sexismus – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Sexismus" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhywiaeth" title="Rhywiaeth – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Rhywiaeth" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sexisme" title="Sexisme – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Sexisme" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sexismus" title="Sexismus – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Sexismus" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seksism" title="Seksism – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Seksism" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A3%CE%B5%CE%BE%CE%B9%CF%83%CE%BC%CF%8C%CF%82" title="Σεξισμός – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Σεξισμός" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sexismo" title="Sexismo – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Sexismo" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seksismo" title="Seksismo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Seksismo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sexismo" title="Sexismo – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Sexismo" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%86%D8%B3%DB%8C%D8%AA%E2%80%8C%DA%AF%D8%B1%D8%A7%DB%8C%DB%8C" title="جنسیت‌گرایی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="جنسیت‌گرایی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sexisme" title="Sexisme – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Sexisme" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seksisme" title="Seksisme – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Seksisme" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gn%C3%A9asachas" title="Gnéasachas – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Gnéasachas" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sexismo" title="Sexismo – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Sexismo" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xal mw-list-item"><a href="https://xal.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Сексизм – Kalmyk" lang="xal" hreflang="xal" data-title="Сексизм" data-language-autonym="Хальмг" data-language-local-name="Kalmyk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Хальмг</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%84%B1_%EC%B0%A8%EB%B3%84" title="성 차별 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="성 차별" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wariyar_Jinsi" title="Wariyar Jinsi – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Wariyar Jinsi" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hausa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8D%D5%A5%D6%84%D5%BD%D5%AB%D5%A6%D5%B4" title="Սեքսիզմ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Սեքսիզմ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A6" title="लिंगवाद – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="लिंगवाद" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seksizam" title="Seksizam – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Seksizam" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seksisme" title="Seksisme – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Seksisme" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xh mw-list-item"><a href="https://xh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ucalucalulo_ngokwesini" title="Ucalucalulo ngokwesini – Xhosa" lang="xh" hreflang="xh" data-title="Ucalucalulo ngokwesini" data-language-autonym="IsiXhosa" data-language-local-name="Xhosa" class="interlanguage-link-target">IsiXhosa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kynjamismunun" title="Kynjamismunun – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Kynjamismunun" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sessismo" title="Sessismo – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Sessismo" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%A4%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%94_%D7%9E%D7%99%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%AA" title="אפליה מינית – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="אפליה מינית" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kbp mw-list-item"><a href="https://kbp.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C9%9Bk%C9%A9siizim_(sexisme)" title="Sɛkɩsiizim (sexisme) – Kabiye" lang="kbp" hreflang="kbp" data-title="Sɛkɩsiizim (sexisme)" data-language-autonym="Kabɩyɛ" data-language-local-name="Kabiye" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kabɩyɛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A1%E1%83%94%E1%83%A5%E1%83%A1%E1%83%98%E1%83%96%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98" title="სექსიზმი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="სექსიზმი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Сексизм – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Сексизм" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ubaguzi_jinsia" title="Ubaguzi jinsia – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Ubaguzi jinsia" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seksis" title="Seksis – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Seksis" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kreyòl ayisyen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seksism" title="Seksism – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Seksism" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kriyòl gwiyannen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zayendperest%C3%AE" title="Zayendperestî – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Zayendperestî" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Сексизм – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Сексизм" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sexismus" title="Sexismus – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Sexismus" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seksisms" title="Seksisms – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Seksisms" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sexismus" title="Sexismus – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Sexismus" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lëtzebuergesch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seksizmas" title="Seksizmas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Seksizmas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sesisme" title="Sesisme – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Sesisme" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingua Franca Nova</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Szexizmus" title="Szexizmus – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Szexizmus" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mai mw-list-item"><a href="https://mai.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%99%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AD%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE" title="लैङ्गिक विभेदता – Maithili" lang="mai" hreflang="mai" data-title="लैङ्गिक विभेदता" data-language-autonym="मैथिली" data-language-local-name="Maithili" class="interlanguage-link-target">मैथिली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BC" title="Сексизам – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Сексизам" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B2%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%82%E0%B4%97%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%B5%E0%B5%87%E0%B4%9A%E0%B4%A8%E0%B4%82" title="ലിംഗവിവേചനം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ലിംഗവിവേചനം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%AD%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6" title="लिंगभेद – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="लिंगभेद" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seksisme" title="Seksisme – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Seksisme" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-min mw-list-item"><a href="https://min.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seksisme" title="Seksisme – Minangkabau" lang="min" hreflang="min" data-title="Seksisme" data-language-autonym="Minangkabau" data-language-local-name="Minangkabau" class="interlanguage-link-target">Minangkabau</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl mw-list-item"><a href="https://mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sexismo" title="Sexismo – Mirandese" lang="mwl" hreflang="mwl" data-title="Sexismo" data-language-autonym="Mirandés" data-language-local-name="Mirandese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Mirandés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seksisme" title="Seksisme – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Seksisme" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%99%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AD%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE" title="लैङ्गिक विभेदता – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="लैङ्गिक विभेदता" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%99%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%AD%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6" title="लिङ्गभेद – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="लिङ्गभेद" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाल भाषा</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%80%A7%E5%B7%AE%E5%88%A5" title="性差別 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="性差別" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gender_kamsitish" title="Gender kamsitish – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Gender kamsitish" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%86%D8%B3%DB%8C_%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%AA%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%B2" title="جنسی امتیاز – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="جنسی امتیاز" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%86%D8%B3%D9%8A%D8%AA_%D9%BE%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%86%D9%87" title="جنسيت پالنه – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="جنسيت پالنه" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sexizim" title="Sexizim – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Sexizim" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Patois</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seksizm" title="Seksizm – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Seksizm" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sexismo" title="Sexismo – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Sexismo" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro badge-Q70893996 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sexism" title="Sexism – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Sexism" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%81%D1%96%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Сексізм – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Сексізм" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русиньскый</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Сексизм – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Сексизм" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sessismu" title="Sessismu – Sardinian" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Sessismu" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="Sardinian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sardu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tn mw-list-item"><a href="https://tn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Go_Tlhaola_Batho_ka_Bong" title="Go Tlhaola Batho ka Bong – Tswana" lang="tn" hreflang="tn" data-title="Go Tlhaola Batho ka Bong" data-language-autonym="Setswana" data-language-local-name="Tswana" class="interlanguage-link-target">Setswana</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seksizmi" title="Seksizmi – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Seksizmi" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sissismu" title="Sissismu – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Sissismu" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sicilianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sexism" title="Sexism – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Sexism" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%86%D8%B3%D9%8A%D8%AA" title="جنسيت – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="جنسيت" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target">سنڌي</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sexizmus" title="Sexizmus – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Sexizmus" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seksizem" title="Seksizem – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Seksizem" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%DB%8E%DA%A9%D8%B3%DB%8C%D8%B2%D9%85" title="سێکسیزم – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="سێکسیزم" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BC" title="Сексизам – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Сексизам" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seksizam" title="Seksizam – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Seksizam" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%A9ksisme" title="Séksisme – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Séksisme" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sunda</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seksismi" title="Seksismi – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Seksismi" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sexism" title="Sexism – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Sexism" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seksismo" title="Seksismo – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Seksismo" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%A9_%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D" title="பாலின வாதம் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="பாலின வாதம்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%98%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B5%E0%B8%94%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%87%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%9E%E0%B8%A8" title="ลัทธิกีดกันทางเพศ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ลัทธิกีดกันทางเพศ" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B0%D1%8A%D0%B1%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B8_%D2%B7%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%8F%D1%82%D3%A3" title="Таъбизи ҷинсиятӣ – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Таъбизи ҷинсиятӣ" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target">Тоҷикӣ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ve mw-list-item"><a href="https://ve.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tshitalula_kha_sia_la_zwa_mbeu" title="Tshitalula kha sia la zwa mbeu – Venda" lang="ve" hreflang="ve" data-title="Tshitalula kha sia la zwa mbeu" data-language-autonym="Tshivenda" data-language-local-name="Venda" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tshivenda</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cinsiyet%C3%A7ilik" title="Cinsiyetçilik – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Cinsiyetçilik" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Сексизм – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Сексизм" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%86%D8%B3%DB%8C_%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%AA%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%B2" title="جنسی امتیاز – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="جنسی امتیاز" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ph%C3%A2n_bi%E1%BB%87t_gi%E1%BB%9Bi_t%C3%ADnh" title="Phân biệt giới tính – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Phân biệt giới tính" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fiu-vro mw-list-item"><a href="https://fiu-vro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seksism" title="Seksism – Võro" lang="vro" hreflang="vro" data-title="Seksism" data-language-autonym="Võro" data-language-local-name="Võro" class="interlanguage-link-target">Võro</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%80%A7%E5%88%AB%E6%AD%A7%E8%A7%86" title="性别歧视 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="性别歧视" 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data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> <div id="mw-indicator-pp-default" class="mw-indicator"><div class="mw-parser-output"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Protection_policy#semi" title="This article is semi-protected."><img alt="Page semi-protected" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/20px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/40px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Prejudice or discrimination based on a person's sex or gender</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Sex discrimination" redirects here. For discrimination based on sexuality, see <a href="/wiki/Sexual_orientation_discrimination" title="Sexual orientation discrimination">Sexual orientation discrimination</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Anti-sexism" redirects here. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Anti-sexism_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Anti-sexism (disambiguation)">Anti-sexism (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Genderism_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Genderism (disambiguation)">Genderism (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Suffragette_arrest,_London,_1914.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A woman under arrest walking between two policemen" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Suffragette_arrest%2C_London%2C_1914.jpg/250px-Suffragette_arrest%2C_London%2C_1914.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788" /><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle" style="background:#ffdd99;p">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Discrimination" title="Category:Discrimination">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="font-size:175%; line-height:1.0em; background:#ffdd99;"><a href="/wiki/Discrimination" title="Discrimination">Discrimination</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image" style="padding:0.5em 0"><a href="/wiki/File:Emojione_1F6AB.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Emojione_1F6AB.svg/120px-Emojione_1F6AB.svg.png" decoding="async" width="70" height="70" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Emojione_1F6AB.svg/250px-Emojione_1F6AB.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;background:#ffdd99;padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;font-size:110%;;color: var(--color-base)">Forms</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Institutional_discrimination" title="Institutional discrimination">Institutional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reverse_discrimination" title="Reverse discrimination">Reverse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_discrimination" title="Structural discrimination">Structural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statistical_discrimination_(economics)" title="Statistical discrimination (economics)">Statistical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systemic_bias" title="Systemic bias">Systemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taste-based_discrimination" title="Taste-based discrimination">Taste-based</a></li></ul></div></div> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;background:#ffdd99;padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;font-size:110%;;color: var(--color-base)">Attributes</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ageism" title="Ageism">Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caste" title="Caste">Caste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Class_discrimination" title="Class discrimination">Class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dialect_discrimination" title="Dialect discrimination">Dialect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ableism" title="Ableism">Disability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_discrimination" title="Economic discrimination">Economic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_discrimination" title="Genetic discrimination">Genetic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_based_on_hair_texture" title="Discrimination based on hair texture">Hair texture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Height_discrimination" title="Height discrimination">Height</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_discrimination" title="Linguistic discrimination">Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lookism" title="Lookism">Looks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanism" title="Sanism">Mental disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_based_on_nationality" title="Discrimination based on nationality">Nationality or citizenship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism" title="Racism">Race / Ethnicity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reverse_racism" title="Reverse racism">Reverse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_based_on_skin_tone" title="Discrimination based on skin tone">Skin color</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_racism" title="Scientific racism">Scientific racism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rankism" title="Rankism">Rank</a></li> <li>Sex <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reverse_sexism" title="Reverse sexism">Reverse</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_orientation_discrimination" title="Sexual orientation discrimination">Sexual orientation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speciesism" title="Speciesism">Species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sizeism" title="Sizeism">Size</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viewpoint_discrimination" title="Viewpoint discrimination">Viewpoint</a></li></ul></div></div> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;background:#ffdd99;padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;font-size:110%;;color: var(--color-base)">Social</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arophobia" class="mw-redirect" title="Arophobia">Arophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_people_with_albinism" title="Persecution of people with albinism">Anti-albinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_asexual_people" title="Discrimination against asexual people">Acephobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adultism" title="Adultism">Adultism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Do-gooder_derogation" title="Do-gooder derogation">Anti-altruistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_autistic_people" title="Discrimination against autistic people">Anti-autism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_homeless_people" title="Discrimination against homeless people">Anti-homelessness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_drug_addicts" title="Discrimination against drug addicts">Anti-drug addicts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-intellectualism" title="Anti-intellectualism">Anti-intellectualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_intersex_people" title="Discrimination against intersex people">Anti-intersex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bias_against_left-handed_people" title="Bias against left-handed people">Anti-left handedness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Masonry" title="Anti-Masonry">Anti-Masonry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aporophobia" title="Aporophobia">Aporophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Audism" title="Audism">Audism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biphobia" title="Biphobia">Biphobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clannism" class="mw-redirect" title="Clannism">Clannism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elitism" title="Elitism">Elitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ephebiphobia" title="Ephebiphobia">Ephebiphobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_determinants_of_health" title="Social determinants of health">Health</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Social_determinants_of_mental_health" title="Social determinants of mental health">mental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_determinants_of_health_in_poverty" title="Social determinants of health in poverty">in poverty</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_stigma_of_obesity" title="Social stigma of obesity">Fatphobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_gay_men" title="Discrimination against gay men">Gayphobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerontophobia" title="Gerontophobia">Gerontophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heterosexism" title="Heterosexism">Heterosexism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_people_with_HIV/AIDS" title="Discrimination against people with HIV/AIDS">HIV/AIDS stigma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypergamy" title="Hypergamy">Hypergamy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homophobia" title="Homophobia">Homophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/In-group_favoritism" title="In-group favoritism">In-group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leprosy_stigma" title="Leprosy stigma">Leprosy stigma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lesbophobia" class="mw-redirect" title="Lesbophobia">Lesbophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_men" title="Discrimination against men">Against men</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Misandry" title="Misandry">Misandry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Misogyny" title="Misogyny">Misogyny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nepotism" title="Nepotism">Nepotism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outgroup_favoritism" title="Outgroup favoritism">Outgroup</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fear_of_children" title="Fear of children">Pedophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perpetual_foreigner" title="Perpetual foreigner">Perpetual foreigner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pregnancy_discrimination" title="Pregnancy discrimination">Pregnancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sectarianism" title="Sectarianism">Sectarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supremacism" title="Supremacism">Supremacism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aryanism" title="Aryanism">Aryanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_supremacy" title="Black supremacy">Black</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hutu_Power" title="Hutu Power">Hutu</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chauvinism" title="Chauvinism">Chauvinism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Han_chauvinism" title="Han chauvinism">Han</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matriarchy" title="Matriarchy">Female</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthropocentrism" title="Anthropocentrism">Human</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nordicism" title="Nordicism">Nordicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patriarchy" title="Patriarchy">Male</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_supremacy" title="Jewish supremacy">Jewish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ultranationalism" title="Ultranationalism">Ultranationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_supremacy" title="White supremacy">White</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transphobia" title="Transphobia">Transphobia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_non-binary_people" title="Discrimination against non-binary people">Non-binary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transmisogyny" title="Transmisogyny">Transmisogyny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_transgender_men" title="Discrimination against transgender men">Trans men</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vegaphobia" title="Vegaphobia">Vegaphobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenophobia" title="Xenophobia">Xenophobia</a></li></ul></div></div> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;background:#ffdd99;padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;font-size:110%;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Religious_discrimination" title="Religious discrimination">Religious</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_atheists" title="Discrimination against atheists">Atheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antireligious_campaigns_in_China" title="Antireligious campaigns in China">Campaigns in China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exclusivism#Religious_exclusivism" title="Exclusivism">Exclusivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%ADs" title="Persecution of Baháʼís">Baháʼí Faith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Buddhists" title="Persecution of Buddhists">Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Christian_sentiment" title="Anti-Christian sentiment">Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians" title="Persecution of Christians">Persecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Catholicism" title="Anti-Catholicism">Catholicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Eastern_Orthodox_Christians" title="Persecution of Eastern Orthodox Christians">Eastern Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Copts" title="Persecution of Copts">Coptic Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Jehovah%27s_Witnesses" title="Persecution of Jehovah's Witnesses">Jehovah's Witnesses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Mormonism" title="Anti-Mormonism">LDS or Mormon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Protestantism" title="Anti-Protestantism">Protestantism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Orthodox_Tewahedo_Christianity" title="Persecution of Orthodox Tewahedo Christianity">Tewahedo Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians_in_the_post%E2%80%93Cold_War_era" title="Persecution of Christians in the post–Cold War era">post–Cold War era</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Falun_Gong" title="Persecution of Falun Gong">Falun Gong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Hindu_sentiment" title="Anti-Hindu sentiment">Hinduism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Hindus" title="Persecution of Hindus">Persecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Untouchability" title="Untouchability">Untouchability</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamophobia" title="Islamophobia">Islam</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_religious_police" title="Islamic religious police">Religious police</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apostasy_in_Islam#Punishment" title="Apostasy in Islam">Punishment of apostasy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Muslims" title="Persecution of Muslims">Persecution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Ahmadis" title="Persecution of Ahmadis">Ahmadiyya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Shi%27ism" title="Anti-Shi'ism">Shi'ism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Sufis" title="Persecution of Sufis">Sufism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Sunnism" title="Anti-Sunnism">Sunnism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_minority_Muslim_groups" title="Persecution of minority Muslim groups">minority Muslim</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_antisemitism" title="Religious antisemitism">Judaism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Jews" title="Persecution of Jews">Persecution</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_discrimination_against_modern_pagans" title="Religious discrimination against modern pagans">Neopaganism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Rastafari" title="Persecution of Rastafari">Rastafari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Serers" title="Persecution of Serers">Serers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Sikh_sentiment" title="Anti-Sikh sentiment">Sikhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Yazidis" title="Persecution of Yazidis">Yazidism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Zoroastrians" title="Persecution of Zoroastrians">Zoroastrianism</a></li></ul></div></div> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;background:#ffdd99;padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;font-size:110%;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Racism" title="Racism">Race or ethnicity</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Afghan_sentiment" title="Anti-Afghan sentiment">Afghan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-African_sentiment" title="Anti-African sentiment">African</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Fulani_sentiment" title="Anti-Fulani sentiment">Fulani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Igbo_sentiment" title="Anti-Igbo sentiment">Igbo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Serers" title="Persecution of Serers">Serers</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Albanian_sentiment" title="Anti-Albanian sentiment">Albanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Arab_racism" title="Anti-Arab racism">Arab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Armenian_sentiment" title="Anti-Armenian sentiment">Armenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_against_Asians" title="Racism against Asians">Asian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Asian_racism_in_France" title="Anti-Asian racism in France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Asian_racism_in_post-Apartheid_South_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Asian racism in post-Apartheid South Africa">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Asian_racism_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Asian racism in the United States">United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Assyrian_sentiment" title="Anti-Assyrian sentiment">Assyrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Australian_sentiment" title="Anti-Australian sentiment">Australian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Austrian_sentiment" title="Anti-Austrian sentiment">Austrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Azerbaijani_sentiment" title="Anti-Azerbaijani sentiment">Azerbaijani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Black_racism" title="Anti-Black racism">Black people</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Racism_against_African_Americans" title="Racism against African Americans">African Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-black_discrimination_in_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-black discrimination in China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-black_racism_in_South_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-black racism in South Africa">South Africa</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Bengali_sentiment" title="Anti-Bengali sentiment">Bengali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_for_the_Protection_of_Macedonian_National_Honor" class="mw-redirect" title="Law for the Protection of Macedonian National Honor">Bulgarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Catalan_sentiment" title="Anti-Catalan sentiment">Catalan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Chechen_sentiment" title="Anti-Chechen sentiment">Chechen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Chinese_sentiment" title="Anti-Chinese sentiment">Chinese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Han_sentiment" title="Anti-Han sentiment">Han people</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Colombian_sentiment" title="Anti-Colombian sentiment">Colombian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Croat_sentiment" title="Anti-Croat sentiment">Croat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Dutch_sentiment" title="Anti-Dutch sentiment">Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-English_sentiment" title="Anti-English sentiment">English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Estonian_sentiment" title="Anti-Estonian sentiment">Estonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Filipino_sentiment" title="Anti-Filipino sentiment">Filipino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-French_sentiment" title="Anti-French sentiment">French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Finnish_sentiment" title="Anti-Finnish sentiment">Finnish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Georgian_sentiment" title="Anti-Georgian sentiment">Georgian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-German_sentiment" title="Anti-German sentiment">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Greek_sentiment" title="Anti-Greek sentiment">Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antihaitianismo" class="mw-redirect" title="Antihaitianismo">Haitian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Hazaras" title="Persecution of Hazaras">Hazara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Hungarian_sentiment" title="Anti-Hungarian sentiment">Hungarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Indian_sentiment" title="Anti-Indian sentiment">Indian</a></li> <li>Indigenous people <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-indigenous_racism_in_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-indigenous racism in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-indigenous_racism_in_Canada" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-indigenous racism in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-indigenous_racism_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-indigenous racism in the United States">United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Iranian_sentiment" title="Anti-Iranian sentiment">Iranian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Irish_sentiment" title="Anti-Irish sentiment">Irish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Italianism" title="Anti-Italianism">Italian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Japanese_sentiment" title="Anti-Japanese sentiment">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antisemitism" title="Antisemitism">Jewish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eliminationist_antisemitism" title="Eliminationist antisemitism">Eliminationist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_antisemitism" title="New antisemitism">New</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_antisemitism" title="Religious antisemitism">Religious</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Yiddish_sentiment" title="Anti-Yiddish sentiment">Anti-Yiddish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zionist_antisemitism" title="Zionist antisemitism">Zionist</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Korean_sentiment" title="Anti-Korean sentiment">Korean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Kurdish_sentiment" title="Anti-Kurdish sentiment">Kurdish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Lithuanian_sentiment" title="Anti-Lithuanian sentiment">Lithuanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Malay_sentiment" title="Anti-Malay sentiment">Malay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-M%C4%81ori_sentiment" title="Anti-Māori sentiment">Māori</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Mexican_sentiment" title="Anti-Mexican sentiment">Mexican</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti%E2%80%93Middle_Eastern_sentiment" title="Anti–Middle Eastern sentiment">Middle Eastern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Mongolianism" title="Anti-Mongolianism">Mongolian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Montenegrin_sentiment" title="Anti-Montenegrin sentiment">Montenegrin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Nigerian_sentiment" title="Anti-Nigerian sentiment">Nigerian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Pakistan_sentiment" title="Anti-Pakistan sentiment">Pakistani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Palestinianism" title="Anti-Palestinianism">Palestinians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Pashtun_sentiment" title="Anti-Pashtun sentiment">Pashtun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Polish_sentiment" title="Anti-Polish sentiment">Polish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lusophobia" title="Lusophobia">Portuguese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Quebec_sentiment" title="Anti-Quebec sentiment">Quebec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Romani_sentiment" title="Anti-Romani sentiment">Romani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Romanian_sentiment" title="Anti-Romanian sentiment">Romanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Russian_sentiment" title="Anti-Russian sentiment">Russian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Scottish_sentiment" title="Anti-Scottish sentiment">Scottish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Serb_sentiment" title="Anti-Serb sentiment">Serb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Slavic_sentiment" title="Anti-Slavic sentiment">Slavic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Somali_sentiment" title="Anti-Somali sentiment">Somali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Spanish_sentiment" title="Anti-Spanish sentiment">Spanish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Taiwanese_sentiment" title="Anti-Taiwanese sentiment">Taiwanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tatarophobia" title="Tatarophobia">Tatar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Thai_sentiment" title="Anti-Thai sentiment">Thai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Tibetan_sentiment" title="Anti-Tibetan sentiment">Tibetan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Turkish_sentiment" title="Anti-Turkish sentiment">Turkish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Ukrainian_sentiment" title="Anti-Ukrainian sentiment">Ukrainian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Uyghur_sentiment" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Uyghur sentiment">Uyghur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_incidents_of_xenophobia_during_the_Venezuelan_refugee_crisis" title="List of incidents of xenophobia during the Venezuelan refugee crisis">Venezuelan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Vietnamese_sentiment" title="Anti-Vietnamese sentiment">Vietnamese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Welsh_sentiment" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Welsh sentiment">Welsh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-white_racism" title="Anti-white racism">White people</a></li></ul></div></div> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;background:#ffdd99;padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;font-size:110%;;color: var(--color-base)">Manifestations</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Algorithmic_bias" title="Algorithmic bias">Algorithmic bias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-LGBTQ_rhetoric" title="Anti-LGBTQ rhetoric">Anti-LGBTQ rhetoric</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_organizations_designated_by_the_Southern_Poverty_Law_Center_as_anti-LGBTQ_hate_groups" title="List of organizations designated by the Southern Poverty Law Center as anti-LGBTQ hate groups">SPLC-designated list of anti-LGBTQ hate groups</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blood_libel" title="Blood libel">Blood libel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bullying" title="Bullying">Bullying</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cancel_culture" title="Cancel culture">Cancel culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment_for_homosexuality" title="Capital punishment for homosexuality">Capital punishment for homosexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carnism" title="Carnism">Carnism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_bias" title="Cognitive bias">Cognitive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compulsory_sterilization" title="Compulsory sterilization">Compulsory sterilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corrective_rape" title="Corrective rape">Corrective rape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter-jihad" title="Counter-jihad">Counter-jihad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_genocide" title="Cultural genocide">Cultural genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defamation" title="Defamation">Defamation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democide" title="Democide">Democide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dog_whistle_(politics)" title="Dog whistle (politics)">Dog whistle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domicide" title="Domicide">Domicide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_discrimination" title="Economic discrimination">Economic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_in_education" title="Discrimination in education">Education</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Academic_bias" title="Academic bias">Academic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bias_in_curricula" title="Bias in curricula">In curricula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexism_in_academia" title="Sexism in academia">Sexism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eliminationism" title="Eliminationism">Eliminationism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eliminationist_antisemitism" title="Eliminationist antisemitism">Eliminationist antisemitism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Employment_discrimination" title="Employment discrimination">Employment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enemy_of_the_people" title="Enemy of the people">Enemy of the people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_racism" title="Environmental racism">Environmental racism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_cleansing" title="Ethnic cleansing">Ethnic cleansing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_conflict" title="Ethnic conflict">Ethnic conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_hatred" title="Ethnic hatred">Ethnic hatred</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_joke" title="Ethnic joke">Ethnic joke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnocide" title="Ethnocide">Ethnocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_of_excellence" title="Discrimination of excellence">Excellence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender-based_dress_codes" title="Gender-based dress codes">Gender-based dress codes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cosmetics_policy" title="Cosmetics policy">Cosmetics policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_heel_policy" title="High heel policy">High heel policy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_conversion" title="Forced conversion">Forced conversion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freak_show" title="Freak show">Freak show</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Funding_bias" title="Funding bias">Funding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gay_bashing" title="Gay bashing">Gay bashing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gendercide" title="Gendercide">Gendercide</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Transgender_genocide" title="Transgender genocide">Transgender genocide</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genital_modification_and_mutilation" title="Genital modification and mutilation">Genital modification and mutilation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Circumcision" title="Circumcision">Circumcision</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Female_genital_mutilation" title="Female genital mutilation">Female genital mutilation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intersex_medical_interventions" title="Intersex medical interventions">Intersex medical interventions</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genocide" title="Genocide">Genocide</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Genocides_in_history" title="Genocides in history">examples</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glass_ceiling" title="Glass ceiling">Glass ceiling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hate_crime" title="Hate crime">Hate crime</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Disability_hate_crime" title="Disability hate crime">Disability hate crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Violence_against_LGBTQ_people" title="Violence against LGBTQ people">Violence against LGBTQ people</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Violence_against_transgender_people" title="Violence against transgender people">Violence against transgender people</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hate_group" title="Hate group">Hate group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hate_speech" title="Hate speech">Hate speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institution" title="Institution">Institutional</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Institutional_abuse" title="Institutional abuse">Abuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institutional_discrimination" title="Institutional discrimination">Discrimination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institutional_racism" title="Institutional racism">Racism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patient_dumping" title="Patient dumping">Homeless dumping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Housing_discrimination" title="Housing discrimination">Housing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypergamy" title="Hypergamy">Hypergamy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Age_disparity_in_sexual_relationships" title="Age disparity in sexual relationships">Age disparity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_rolling" title="Indian rolling">Indian rolling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_inequality" title="International inequality">International inequality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kill_Haole_Day" title="Kill Haole Day">Kill Haole Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lavender_scare" class="mw-redirect" title="Lavender scare">Lavender scare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_LGBTQ%2B_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Discrimination against LGBTQ+ people">LGBTQ+</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_grooming_conspiracy_theory" title="LGBTQ grooming conspiracy theory">grooming conspiracy theory</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_death" title="Language death">Linguicide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching" title="Lynching">Lynching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_bias" title="Media bias">Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minority_stress" title="Minority stress">Minority stress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_exclusion" title="Moral exclusion">Moral exclusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mortgage_discrimination" title="Mortgage discrimination">Mortgage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stop_Murder_Music" title="Stop Murder Music">Murder music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_mascot_controversy" title="Native American mascot controversy">Native American mascots</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atlanta_Braves_tomahawk_chop_and_name_controversy" title="Atlanta Braves tomahawk chop and name controversy">Braves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_Blackhawks_name_and_logo_controversy" title="Chicago Blackhawks name and logo controversy">Blackhawks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kansas_City_Chiefs_name_controversy" title="Kansas City Chiefs name controversy">Chiefs</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Work_(human_activity)" title="Work (human activity)">Occupational</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_apartheid" title="Occupational apartheid">Apartheid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_inequality" title="Occupational inequality">Inequality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_injustice" title="Occupational injustice">Injustice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_segregation" title="Occupational segregation">Segregation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opposition_to_immigration" title="Opposition to immigration">Opposition to immigration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paper_genocide" title="Paper genocide">Paper genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution" title="Persecution">Persecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pogrom" title="Pogrom">Pogrom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_bias" title="Political bias">Political</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Political_repression" title="Political repression">Political repression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ideological_repression" title="Ideological repression">Ideological repression</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Purge" title="Purge">Purge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racialization" title="Racialization">Racialization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_persecution" title="Religious persecution">Religious persecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_terrorism" title="Religious terrorism">Religious terrorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_violence" title="Religious violence">Religious violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_war" title="Religious war">Religious war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scapegoating" title="Scapegoating">Scapegoating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selective_enforcement" title="Selective enforcement">Selective enforcement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Selective_prosecution" title="Selective prosecution">Selective prosecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sentencing_disparity" title="Sentencing disparity">Sentencing disparity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_harassment" title="Sexual harassment">Sexual harassment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex-selective_abortion" title="Sex-selective abortion">Sex-selective abortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slut-shaming" title="Slut-shaming">Slut-shaming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_abuse" title="Structural abuse">Structural abuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_discrimination" title="Structural discrimination">Structural discrimination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_evil" title="Structural evil">Structural evil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_inequality" title="Structural inequality">Structural inequality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_violence" title="Structural violence">Structural violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_differences_in_suicide" title="Gender differences in suicide">Suicide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Untermensch" title="Untermensch">Untermensch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Violence_against_transgender_people" title="Violence against transgender people">Trans bashing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victimisation" title="Victimisation">Victimisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Violence_against_women" title="Violence against women">Violence against women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_flight" title="White flight">White flight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_genocide_conspiracy_theory" title="White genocide conspiracy theory">White genocide conspiracy theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wife_selling" title="Wife selling">Wife selling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Witch_hunt" title="Witch hunt">Witch hunt</a></li></ul></div></div> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;background:#ffdd99;padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;font-size:110%;;color: var(--color-base)">Policies</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Algorithmic_wage_discrimination" title="Algorithmic wage discrimination">Algorithmic wage discrimination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_candidacy" title="Age of candidacy">Age of candidacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limpieza_de_sangre" title="Limpieza de sangre">Blood purity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blood_quantum_laws" title="Blood quantum laws">Blood quantum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breadwinner_model" title="Breadwinner model">Breadwinner model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conscription_and_sexism" title="Conscription and sexism">Conscription and sexism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_of_apartheid" title="Crime of apartheid">Crime of apartheid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disability" title="Disability">Disabilities</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Disabilities_(Catholics)" title="Disabilities (Catholics)">Catholic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_disabilities" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish disabilities">Jewish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disparate_impact" title="Disparate impact">Disparate impact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fagging" title="Fagging">Fagging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_pay_gap" title="Gender pay gap">Gender pay gap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_role" title="Gender role">Gender roles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protecting_Women%27s_Private_Spaces_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Protecting Women's Private Spaces Act">Protecting Women's Private Spaces Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerontocracy" title="Gerontocracy">Gerontocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerrymandering" title="Gerrymandering">Gerrymandering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghetto_benches" title="Ghetto benches">Ghetto benches</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internment" title="Internment">Internment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_quota" title="Jewish quota">Jewish quota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_for_Protection_of_the_Nation" title="Law for Protection of the Nation">Law for Protection of the Nation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_rights_opposition" title="LGBTQ rights opposition">LGBTQ rights opposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blood_donation_restrictions_on_men_who_have_sex_with_men" title="Blood donation restrictions on men who have sex with men">MSM blood donation restrictions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/No_kid_zone" title="No kid zone">No kid zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Numerus_clausus" title="Numerus clausus">Numerus clausus (as religious or racial quota)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/One-drop_rule" title="One-drop rule">One-drop rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_quota" title="Racial quota">Racial quota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_steering" title="Racial steering">Racial steering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Redlining" title="Redlining">Redlining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Same-sex_marriage" title="Same-sex marriage">Same-sex marriage (laws and issues prohibiting)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geographical_segregation" title="Geographical segregation">Segregation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Age_segregation" title="Age segregation">age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation" title="Racial segregation">racial</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jim_Crow_laws" title="Jim Crow laws">Jim Crow laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuremberg_Laws" title="Nuremberg Laws">Nuremberg Laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Segregation_academy" title="Segregation academy">Segregation academy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_segregation" title="Religious segregation">religious</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_segregation" title="Sex segregation">sexual</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Islam_and_gender_segregation" title="Islam and gender segregation">in Islam</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_exclusion" title="Social exclusion">Social exclusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sodomy_law" title="Sodomy law">Sodomy law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_atheism" title="State atheism">State atheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_religion" title="State religion">State religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ugly_law" title="Ugly law">Ugly law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voter_suppression" title="Voter suppression">Voter suppression</a></li></ul></div></div> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;background:#ffdd99;padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;font-size:110%;;color: var(--color-base)">Countermeasures</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Affirmative_action" title="Affirmative action">Affirmative action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-discrimination_law" title="Anti-discrimination law">Anti-discrimination law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-racism" title="Anti-racism">Anti-racism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Audit_study" title="Audit study">Audit study</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autism_rights_movement" title="Autism rights movement">Autism rights movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blind_audition" title="Blind audition">Blind audition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_colorblindness" title="Constitutional colorblindness">Constitutional colorblindness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross-sex_friendship" title="Cross-sex friendship">Cross-sex friendship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_assimilation" title="Cultural assimilation">Cultural assimilation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_pluralism" title="Cultural pluralism">Cultural pluralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diversity,_equity,_and_inclusion" title="Diversity, equity, and inclusion">Diversity, equity, and inclusion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diversity_training" title="Diversity training">Diversity training</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empowerment" title="Empowerment">Empowerment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fat_acceptance_movement" title="Fat acceptance movement">Fat acceptance movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism" title="Feminism">Feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fighting_Discrimination" title="Fighting Discrimination">Fighting Discrimination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golden_Rule" title="Golden Rule">Golden Rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hate_speech_laws_by_country" title="Hate speech laws by country">Hate speech laws by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human rights">Human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intersex_human_rights" title="Intersex human rights">Intersex human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korenizatsiia" title="Korenizatsiia">Korenizatsiia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_rights_by_country_or_territory" title="LGBTQ rights by country or territory">LGBTQ rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_in_the_movement_against_apartheid" title="Music in the movement against apartheid">Music in the movement against apartheid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonviolence" title="Nonviolence">Nonviolence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_integration" title="Racial integration">Racial integration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reappropriation" title="Reappropriation">Reappropriation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rock_Against_Sexism" title="Rock Against Sexism">Rock Against Sexism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-determination" title="Self-determination">Self-determination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_integration" title="Social integration">Social integration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toleration" title="Toleration">Toleration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transgender_rights_movement" title="Transgender rights movement">Transgender rights movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_suffrage" title="Universal suffrage">Universal suffrage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_rights" title="Women's rights">Women's rights</a></li></ul></div></div> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;background:#ffdd99;padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;font-size:110%;;color: var(--color-base)">Related topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allophilia" title="Allophilia">Allophilia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alterity" title="Alterity">Alterity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amatonormativity" title="Amatonormativity">Amatonormativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bias" title="Bias">Bias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cisnormativity" title="Cisnormativity">Cisnormativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_liberties" title="Civil liberties">Civil liberties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criminalization_of_homosexuality" title="Criminalization of homosexuality">Criminalization of homosexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dehumanization" title="Dehumanization">Dehumanization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diseases_of_despair" class="mw-redirect" title="Diseases of despair">Diseases of despair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diversity_(politics)" title="Diversity (politics)">Diversity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Multiculturalism" title="Multiculturalism">Multiculturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurodiversity" title="Neurodiversity">Neurodiversity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_penalty" title="Ethnic penalty">Ethnic penalty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Figleaf_(linguistics)" title="Figleaf (linguistics)">Figleaf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender-blind" title="Gender-blind">Gender-blind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heteronormativity" title="Heteronormativity">Heteronormativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_eugenics" title="History of eugenics">Historical eugenics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internalized_oppression" title="Internalized oppression">Internalized oppression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intersectionality" title="Intersectionality">Intersectionality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mad_pride" title="Mad pride">Mad pride</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Masculism" title="Masculism">Masculism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_model_of_disability" title="Medical model of disability">Medical model of disability</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Medical_model_of_autism" class="mw-redirect" title="Medical model of autism">autism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Net_bias" title="Net bias">Net bias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonperson_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Nonperson (disambiguation)">Nonperson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oikophobia" title="Oikophobia">Oikophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oppression" title="Oppression">Oppression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Police_brutality" title="Police brutality">Police brutality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Respect" title="Respect">Respect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polyculturalism" title="Polyculturalism">Polyculturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_distance" title="Power distance">Power distance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prejudice" title="Prejudice">Prejudice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prisoner_abuse" title="Prisoner abuse">Prisoner abuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_bias_in_criminal_news_in_the_United_States" title="Racial bias in criminal news in the United States">Racial bias in criminal news in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_by_country" title="Racism by country">Racism by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_color_blindness" title="Racial color blindness">Racial color blindness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_intolerance" title="Religious intolerance">Religious intolerance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second-generation_gender_bias" title="Second-generation gender bias">Second-generation gender bias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Snob" title="Snob">Snobbery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_equity" title="Social equity">Social equity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_exclusion" title="Social exclusion">Social exclusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_identity_threat" title="Social identity threat">Social identity threat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_model_of_disability" title="Social model of disability">Social model of disability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_privilege" title="Social privilege">Social privilege</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_privilege" title="Christian privilege">Christian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Male_privilege" title="Male privilege">male</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_privilege" title="White privilege">white</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_stigma" title="Social stigma">Social stigma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speciesism" title="Speciesism">Speciesism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stereotype" title="Stereotype">Stereotype</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stereotype_threat" title="Stereotype threat">threat</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_talk_(racism_in_the_United_States)" title="The talk (racism in the United States)">The talk</a></li></ul></div></div> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Discrimination_sidebar" title="Template:Discrimination sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Discrimination_sidebar" class="mw-redirect" title="Template talk:Discrimination sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Discrimination_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Discrimination sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> Sexism is <a href="/wiki/Prejudice" title="Prejudice">prejudice</a> or <a href="/wiki/Discrimination" title="Discrimination">discrimination</a> based on one's <a href="/wiki/Sex" title="Sex">sex</a> or <a href="/wiki/Gender" title="Gender">gender</a>. Sexism can affect anyone, but primarily affects <a href="/wiki/Women" class="mw-redirect" title="Women">women</a> and <a href="/wiki/Girl" title="Girl">girls</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Discrimination_Against_Women-1">[1]</a> It has been linked to <a href="/wiki/Gender_role" title="Gender role">gender roles</a> and <a href="/wiki/Stereotype" title="Stereotype">stereotypes</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Matsumoto_2001-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-Nakdimen_1984-3">[3]</a> and may include the belief that one sex or gender is intrinsically superior to another.<a href="#cite_note-Schaefer_2011-4">[4]</a> Extreme sexism may foster <a href="/wiki/Sexual_harassment" title="Sexual harassment">sexual harassment</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rape" title="Rape">rape</a>, and other forms of <a href="/wiki/Sexual_violence" title="Sexual violence">sexual violence</a>.<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-Masequesmay_2014-6">[6]</a> Discrimination in this context is defined as discrimination toward people based on their <a href="/wiki/Gender_identity" title="Gender identity">gender identity</a><a href="#cite_note-Macklem_2003-7">[7]</a> or their gender or sex differences.<a href="#cite_note-Lenhart_2004-8">[8]</a> An example of this is <a href="/wiki/Workplace_inequality" class="mw-redirect" title="Workplace inequality">workplace inequality</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Lenhart_2004-8">[8]</a> Sexism refers to violation of equal opportunities (<a href="/wiki/Equal_opportunity" title="Equal opportunity">formal equality</a>) based on gender or refers to violation of <a href="/wiki/Equality_of_outcome" title="Equality of outcome">equality of outcomes</a> based on gender, also called <a href="/wiki/Substantive_equality" title="Substantive equality">substantive equality</a>.<a href="#cite_note-EU-9">[9]</a> Sexism may arise from social or cultural customs and norms.<a href="#cite_note-Macfarlane_2019-10">[10]</a> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology_and_definitions">Etymology and definitions</h2></div> According to legal scholar <a href="/wiki/Fred_R._Shapiro" title="Fred R. Shapiro">Fred R. Shapiro</a>, the term "sexism" was most likely coined on November 18, 1965, by Pauline M. Leet during a "Student-Faculty Forum" at <a href="/wiki/Franklin_and_Marshall_College" class="mw-redirect" title="Franklin and Marshall College">Franklin and Marshall College</a>. Specifically, the word sexism appears in Leet's forum contribution "Women and the Undergraduate", and she defines it by comparing it to racism, stating in part, "When you argue ... that since fewer women write good poetry this justifies their total exclusion, you are taking a position analogous to that of the racist—I might call you, in this case, a 'sexist' ... Both the racist and the sexist are acting as if all that has happened had never happened, and both of them are making decisions and coming to conclusions about someone's value by referring to factors which are in both cases irrelevant."<a href="#cite_note-:0-11">[11]</a> According to the <a href="/wiki/Oxford_English_Dictionary" title="Oxford English Dictionary">Oxford English Dictionary</a>, the first time the term sexism appeared in print was in <a href="/wiki/Caroline_Bird_(American_author)" title="Caroline Bird (American author)">Caroline Bird</a>’s speech "On Being Born Female", which was delivered before the <a href="/wiki/Episcopal_Church_(United_States)" title="Episcopal Church (United States)">Episcopal Church</a> Executive Council in <a href="/wiki/Greenwich,_Connecticut" title="Greenwich, Connecticut">Greenwich, Connecticut</a>, and subsequently published on November 15, 1968, in Vital Speeches of the Day (p. 6).<a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a> Sexism may be defined as an <a href="/wiki/Ideology" title="Ideology">ideology</a> based on the belief that one sex is superior to another.<a href="#cite_note-Schaefer_2011-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-Macionis_2010-13">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-Schaefer_2009-14">[14]</a> It is discrimination, prejudice, or stereotyping based on gender, and is most often expressed toward women and girls.<a href="#cite_note-Discrimination_Against_Women-1">[1]</a> <a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">Sociology</a> has examined sexism as manifesting at both the individual and the <a href="/wiki/Social_institution" class="mw-redirect" title="Social institution">institutional</a> level.<a href="#cite_note-Schaefer_2009-14">[14]</a> According to Richard Schaefer, sexism is perpetuated by all major <a href="/wiki/Social_institutions" class="mw-redirect" title="Social institutions">social institutions</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Schaefer_2009-14">[14]</a> Sociologists describe parallels among other ideological systems of oppression such as <a href="/wiki/Racism" title="Racism">racism</a>, which also operates at both the individual and institutional level.<a href="#cite_note-Hughes_2009-15">[15]</a> Early female sociologists <a href="/wiki/Charlotte_Perkins_Gilman" title="Charlotte Perkins Gilman">Charlotte Perkins Gilman</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ida_B._Wells" title="Ida B. Wells">Ida B. Wells</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Harriet_Martineau" title="Harriet Martineau">Harriet Martineau</a> described systems of <a href="/wiki/Gender_inequality" title="Gender inequality">gender inequality</a>, but did not use the term sexism, which was coined later. Sociologists who adopted the functionalist paradigm, e.g. <a href="/wiki/Talcott_Parsons" title="Talcott Parsons">Talcott Parsons</a>, understood gender inequality as the natural outcome of a dimorphic model of gender.<a href="#cite_note-Witt_2017-16">[16]</a> Psychologists Mary Crawford and <a href="/wiki/Rhoda_Unger" title="Rhoda Unger">Rhoda Unger</a> define sexism as prejudice held by individuals that encompasses "negative attitudes and values about women as a group."<a href="#cite_note-Crawford_p9-17">[17]</a> <a href="/wiki/Peter_Glick_(psychologist)" title="Peter Glick (psychologist)">Peter Glick</a> and <a href="/wiki/Susan_Fiske" title="Susan Fiske">Susan Fiske</a> coined the term <a href="/wiki/Ambivalent_sexism" title="Ambivalent sexism">ambivalent sexism</a> to describe how stereotypes about women can be both positive and negative, and that individuals compartmentalize the stereotypes they hold into hostile sexism or benevolent sexism.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECrawfordUnger200459–60-18">[18]</a> Feminist author <a href="/wiki/Bell_hooks" title="Bell hooks">bell hooks</a> defines sexism as a system of oppression that results in disadvantages for women.<a href="#cite_note-Hooks_2000-19">[19]</a> Feminist philosopher <a href="/wiki/Marilyn_Frye" title="Marilyn Frye">Marilyn Frye</a> defines sexism as an "attitudinal-conceptual-cognitive-orientational complex" of <a href="/wiki/Androcentrism" title="Androcentrism">male supremacy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Male_chauvinism" class="mw-redirect" title="Male chauvinism">male chauvinism</a>, and misogyny.<a href="#cite_note-Frye_1983-20">[20]</a> Philosopher <a href="/wiki/Kate_Manne" title="Kate Manne">Kate Manne</a> defines sexism as one branch of a <a href="/wiki/Patriarchy" title="Patriarchy">patriarchal order</a>. In her definition, sexism rationalizes and justifies patriarchal norms, in contrast with <a href="/wiki/Misogyny" title="Misogyny">misogyny</a>, the branch which polices and enforces patriarchal norms. Manne says that sexism often attempts to make patriarchal social arrangements seem natural, good, or inevitable so that there appears to be no reason to resist them.<a href="#cite_note-Manne_2019-21">[21]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History"> History</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pre-agricultural_world">Pre-agricultural world</h3></div> Evidence is lacking to support the idea that many pre-agricultural societies afforded women a higher status than women today,<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a> however, historians are reasonably sure that women had roughly equal social power to men in many such societies.<a href="#cite_note-Lockard_2014-23">[23]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ancient_civilizations"> Ancient civilizations</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:A_Hindoo_Widow_Burning_Herself_with_the_Corpse_of_her_Husband.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Engraving of a woman preparing to self-immolate with her husband's corpse" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/A_Hindoo_Widow_Burning_Herself_with_the_Corpse_of_her_Husband.jpg/250px-A_Hindoo_Widow_Burning_Herself_with_the_Corpse_of_her_Husband.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="136" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/A_Hindoo_Widow_Burning_Herself_with_the_Corpse_of_her_Husband.jpg/330px-A_Hindoo_Widow_Burning_Herself_with_the_Corpse_of_her_Husband.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/A_Hindoo_Widow_Burning_Herself_with_the_Corpse_of_her_Husband.jpg/500px-A_Hindoo_Widow_Burning_Herself_with_the_Corpse_of_her_Husband.jpg 2x" data-file-width="750" data-file-height="465" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Sati_(practice)" title="Sati (practice)">Sati</a>, or self-immolation by widows, was prevalent in <a href="/wiki/Hindu" class="mw-redirect" title="Hindu">Hindu</a> society until the early 19th century.</figcaption></figure> After the adoption of agriculture and sedentary cultures, the concept that one gender was inferior to the other was established; most often this was imposed upon women and girls.<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a> The status of <a href="/wiki/Women_in_ancient_Egypt" title="Women in ancient Egypt">women in ancient Egypt</a> depended on their fathers or husbands, but they had property rights and could attend court, including as plaintiffs.<a href="#cite_note-Silverman_2003-25">[25]</a> Examples of unequal treatment of women in the ancient world include written laws preventing women from participating in the political process; for instance, <a href="/wiki/Women_in_ancient_Rome" title="Women in ancient Rome">women in ancient Rome</a> could not vote or hold <a href="/wiki/Roman_magistrate" title="Roman magistrate">political office</a>.<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a> Another example is scholarly texts that indoctrinate children in female inferiority; <a href="/wiki/Women_in_ancient_and_imperial_China" title="Women in ancient and imperial China">women in ancient China</a> were taught the <a href="/wiki/Confucian" class="mw-redirect" title="Confucian">Confucian</a> principles that a woman should <a href="/wiki/Three_Obediences_and_Four_Virtues" title="Three Obediences and Four Virtues">obey</a> her father in childhood, husband in marriage, and son in widowhood.<a href="#cite_note-Wu_2009-27">[27]</a> On the other hand, <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_women" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglo-Saxon women">women of the Anglo-Saxon era</a> were commonly afforded equal status.<a href="#cite_note-Lehmberg_2013-28">[28]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Witch_hunts_and_trials">Witch hunts and trials</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Witch_hunt" title="Witch hunt">Witch hunt</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Malleus_maleficarum,_K%C3%B6ln_1520,_Titelseite.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Titlepage from the book Malleus Maleficarum" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Malleus_maleficarum%2C_K%C3%B6ln_1520%2C_Titelseite.jpg/330px-Malleus_maleficarum%2C_K%C3%B6ln_1520%2C_Titelseite.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="209" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Malleus_maleficarum%2C_K%C3%B6ln_1520%2C_Titelseite.jpg/390px-Malleus_maleficarum%2C_K%C3%B6ln_1520%2C_Titelseite.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ee/Malleus_maleficarum%2C_K%C3%B6ln_1520%2C_Titelseite.jpg 2x" data-file-width="455" data-file-height="365" /></a><figcaption>"The Hammer of Witches which destroyeth Witches and their heresy as with a two-edged sword". Title page of the seventh <a href="/wiki/Cologne" title="Cologne">Cologne</a> edition of the <a href="/wiki/Malleus_Maleficarum" title="Malleus Maleficarum">Malleus Maleficarum</a>, 1520, from the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Sydney_Library" title="University of Sydney Library">University of Sydney Library</a>.<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a></figcaption></figure> Sexism may have been the impetus that fueled the witch trials between the 15th and 18th centuries.<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Early_modern_Europe" title="Early modern Europe">early modern Europe</a>, and in the European colonies in North America, claims were made that <a href="/wiki/Witch" class="mw-redirect" title="Witch">witches</a> were a threat to <a href="/wiki/Christendom" title="Christendom">Christendom</a>. The misogyny of that period played a role in the persecution of these women.<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a><a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Malleus_Maleficarum" title="Malleus Maleficarum">Malleus Maleficarum</a> by <a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Kramer" title="Heinrich Kramer">Heinrich Kramer</a>, the book which played a major role in the witch hunts and trials, the author argues that women are more likely to practice witchcraft than men, and writes that: <dl><dd>All wickedness is but little to the wickedness of a woman ... What else is a woman but a foe to friendship, an inescapable punishment, a necessary evil, a natural temptation, a desirable calamity, a domestic danger, a delectable detriment, an evil of nature, painted with fair colors!<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a></dd></dl> Witchcraft remains illegal in several countries, including <a href="/wiki/Saudi_Arabia" title="Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a>, where it is <a href="/wiki/Punishable_by_death" class="mw-redirect" title="Punishable by death">punishable by death</a>. In 2011, a woman was beheaded in that country for "witchcraft and sorcery".<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a> Murders of women after being accused of witchcraft remain common in some parts of the world; for example, in <a href="/wiki/Tanzania" title="Tanzania">Tanzania</a>, about 500 elderly women are murdered each year following such accusations.<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a> When women are targeted with accusations of witchcraft and subsequent violence, it is often the case that several forms of discrimination interact – for example, discrimination based on gender with discrimination based on <a href="/wiki/Caste" title="Caste">caste</a>, as is the case in India and Nepal, where such crimes are relatively common.<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Coverture_and_other_marriage_regulations">Coverture and other marriage regulations</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Coverture" title="Coverture">Coverture</a>, <a href="/wiki/Marital_power" title="Marital power">Marital power</a>, <a href="/wiki/Restitution_of_conjugal_rights" title="Restitution of conjugal rights">Restitution of conjugal rights</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kirchberg_v._Feenstra" title="Kirchberg v. Feenstra">Kirchberg v. Feenstra</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Marriage_bar" title="Marriage bar">Marriage bar</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Say_no_to_dowry.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="An Indian Anti-dowry poster headed Say No To Dowry" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Say_no_to_dowry.jpg/250px-Say_no_to_dowry.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="265" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Say_no_to_dowry.jpg/330px-Say_no_to_dowry.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Say_no_to_dowry.jpg/500px-Say_no_to_dowry.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1613" data-file-height="2511" /></a><figcaption>Anti-<a href="/wiki/Dowry" title="Dowry">dowry</a> poster in <a href="/wiki/Bangalore,_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Bangalore, India">Bangalore, India</a>. According to Amnesty International, "[T]he ongoing reality of dowry-related violence is an example of what can happen when women are treated as property."<a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a></figcaption></figure> Until the 20th century, U.S. and <a href="/wiki/English_law" title="English law">English law</a> observed the system of <a href="/wiki/Coverture" title="Coverture">coverture</a>, where "by marriage, the husband and wife are one person in law; that is the very being or legal existence of the woman is suspended during the marriage".<a href="#cite_note-Blackstone's_Commentaries-39">[39]</a> U.S. women were not legally defined as "persons" until 1875 (<a href="/wiki/Minor_v._Happersett" title="Minor v. Happersett">Minor v. Happersett</a>, 88 U.S. 162).<a href="#cite_note-Legacy_'98_2001-40">[40]</a> A similar legal doctrine, called <a href="/wiki/Marital_power" title="Marital power">marital power</a>, existed under <a href="/wiki/Roman_Dutch_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Dutch law">Roman Dutch law</a> (and is still partially in force in present-day <a href="/wiki/Eswatini" title="Eswatini">Eswatini</a>).[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Restrictions on married women's rights were common in Western countries until a few decades ago: for instance, French married women obtained the right to work without their husband's permission in 1965,<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a><a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a><a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a> and in West Germany women obtained this right in 1977.<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a><a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a> During the <a href="/wiki/Francisco_Franco" title="Francisco Franco">Franco</a> era, in Spain, a married woman required her husband's consent (called permiso marital) for employment, ownership of property and traveling away from home; the permiso marital was abolished in 1975.<a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a> In Australia, until 1983, a married woman's passport application had to be authorized by her husband.<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a> Women in parts of the world continue to lose their legal rights in marriage. For example, <a href="/wiki/Yemen" title="Yemen">Yemeni</a> marriage regulations state that a wife must obey her husband and must not leave home without his permission.<a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a>, the law allows husbands to legally "punish" their wives.<a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a> In the <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Republic_of_Congo" class="mw-redirect" title="Democratic Republic of Congo">Democratic Republic of Congo</a>, the Family Code states that the husband is the head of the household; the wife owes her obedience to her husband; a wife has to live with her husband wherever he chooses to live; and wives must have their husbands' authorization to bring a case in court or initiate other legal proceedings.<a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a> Abuses and discriminatory practices against women in marriage are often rooted in financial payments such as <a href="/wiki/Dowry" title="Dowry">dowry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bride_price" title="Bride price">bride price</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Dower" title="Dower">dower</a>.<a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a> These transactions often serve as legitimizing <a href="/wiki/Coercive_control" class="mw-redirect" title="Coercive control">coercive control</a> of the wife by her husband and in giving him authority over her; for instance Article 13 of the <a href="/wiki/Code_of_Personal_Status_(Tunisia)" class="mw-redirect" title="Code of Personal Status (Tunisia)">Code of Personal Status (Tunisia)</a> states that, "The husband shall not, in default of payment of the dower, force the woman to consummate the marriage",<a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a><a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a> implying that, if the dower is paid, <a href="/wiki/Marital_rape" title="Marital rape">marital rape</a> is permitted. In this regard, critics have questioned the alleged gains of women in <a href="/wiki/Tunisia" title="Tunisia">Tunisia</a>, and its image as a progressive country in the region, arguing that discrimination against women remains very strong there.<a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a><a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a><a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a> The <a href="/wiki/World_Organisation_Against_Torture" title="World Organisation Against Torture">World Organisation Against Torture</a> (OMCT) has recognized the "independence and ability to leave an abusive husband" as crucial in stopping mistreatment of women.<a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a> However, in some parts of the world, once married, women have very little chance of leaving a violent husband: obtaining a <a href="/wiki/Divorce" title="Divorce">divorce</a> is very difficult in many jurisdictions because of the need to prove <a href="/wiki/Divorce#At-fault_divorce" title="Divorce">fault</a> in court. While attempting a <a href="/wiki/De_facto" title="De facto">de facto</a> separation (moving away from the marital home) is also impossible because of laws preventing this. For instance, in <a href="/wiki/Afghanistan" title="Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a>, a wife who leaves her marital home risks being imprisoned for "running away".<a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a><a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a> In addition, many former British colonies, including <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a>, maintain the concept of <a href="/wiki/Restitution_of_conjugal_rights" title="Restitution of conjugal rights">restitution of conjugal rights</a>,<a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a> under which a wife may be ordered by court to return to her husband; if she fails to do so, she may be held in <a href="/wiki/Contempt_of_court" title="Contempt of court">contempt of court</a>.<a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a><a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a> Other problems have to do with the payment of the <a href="/wiki/Bride_price" title="Bride price">bride price</a>: if the wife wants to leave, her husband may demand the return of the bride price that he had paid to the woman's family; and the woman's family often cannot or does not want to pay it back.<a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a><a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a><a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a> Laws, regulations, and traditions related to marriage continue to discriminate against women in many parts of the world, and to contribute to the mistreatment of women, in particular in areas related to <a href="/wiki/Sexual_violence" title="Sexual violence">sexual violence</a> and to self-determination regarding <a href="/wiki/Sexuality" class="mw-redirect" title="Sexuality">sexuality</a>, the violation of the latter now being acknowledged as a violation of <a href="/wiki/Women%27s_rights" title="Women's rights">women's rights</a>. In 2012, <a href="/wiki/Navi_Pillay" title="Navi Pillay">Navi Pillay</a>, then <a href="/wiki/High_Commissioner_for_Human_Rights" class="mw-redirect" title="High Commissioner for Human Rights">High Commissioner for Human Rights</a>, stated that: <blockquote>Women are frequently treated as property, they are sold into marriage, into trafficking, into sexual slavery. Violence against women frequently takes the form of sexual violence. Victims of such violence are often accused of promiscuity and held responsible for their fate, while infertile women are rejected by husbands, families and communities. In many countries, married women may not refuse to have sexual relations with their husbands, and often have no say in whether they use contraception ... Ensuring that women have full autonomy over their bodies is the first crucial step towards achieving substantive equality between women and men. Personal issues—such as when, how and with whom they choose to have sex, and when, how and with whom they choose to have children—are at the heart of living a life in dignity.<a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Suffrage_and_politics">Suffrage and politics</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Annie_Kenney_and_Christabel_Pankhurst.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Two woman carry a sign reading "Votes for Women"." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Annie_Kenney_and_Christabel_Pankhurst.jpg/250px-Annie_Kenney_and_Christabel_Pankhurst.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="255" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Annie_Kenney_and_Christabel_Pankhurst.jpg/330px-Annie_Kenney_and_Christabel_Pankhurst.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Annie_Kenney_and_Christabel_Pankhurst.jpg/500px-Annie_Kenney_and_Christabel_Pankhurst.jpg 2x" data-file-width="717" data-file-height="1077" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Annie_Kenney" title="Annie Kenney">Annie Kenney</a> and <a href="/wiki/Christabel_Pankhurst" title="Christabel Pankhurst">Christabel Pankhurst</a></figcaption></figure> Gender has been used as a tool for discrimination against women in the political sphere. <a href="/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage" title="Women's suffrage">Women's suffrage</a> was not achieved until 1893, when New Zealand was the first country to grant women the right to vote. Saudi Arabia is the most recent country, as of August 2015, to extend the right to vote to women in 2011.<a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a> Some Western countries allowed women the right to vote only relatively recently. <a href="/wiki/Switzerland" title="Switzerland">Swiss</a> women gained the right to vote in federal elections in 1971,<a href="#cite_note-Switzerland's_Long_Way-68">[68]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Appenzell_Innerrhoden" title="Appenzell Innerrhoden">Appenzell Innerrhoden</a> became the last <a href="/wiki/Cantons_of_Switzerland" title="Cantons of Switzerland">canton</a> to grant women the right to vote on local issues in 1991, when it was forced to do so by the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Supreme_Court_of_Switzerland" title="Federal Supreme Court of Switzerland">Federal Supreme Court of Switzerland</a>.<a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a> French women were granted the right to vote in 1944.<a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a><a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a> In Greece, women obtained the right to vote in 1952.<a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Liechtenstein" title="Liechtenstein">Liechtenstein</a>, women obtained the right to vote in 1984, through the <a href="/wiki/Liechtenstein_women%27s_suffrage_referendum,_1984" class="mw-redirect" title="Liechtenstein women's suffrage referendum, 1984">women's suffrage referendum of 1984</a>.<a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a><a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a> While almost every woman today has the right to vote, there is still progress to be made for women in politics. Studies have shown that in several democracies including Australia, Canada, and the United States, women are still represented using gender stereotypes in the press.<a href="#cite_note-Kittilson_2008-75">[75]</a> Multiple authors have shown that gender differences in the media are less evident today than they used to be in the 1980s, but are still present. Certain issues (e.g., education) are likely to be linked with female candidates, while other issues (e.g., taxes) are likely to be linked with male candidates.<a href="#cite_note-Kittilson_2008-75">[75]</a> In addition, there is more emphasis on female candidates' personal qualities, such as their appearance and their personality, as females are portrayed as emotional and dependent.<a href="#cite_note-Kittilson_2008-75">[75]</a> There is a widespread imbalance of lawmaking power between men and women. The ratio of women to men in legislatures is used as a measure of gender equality in the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations'</a> <a href="/wiki/Gender_Empowerment_Measure" title="Gender Empowerment Measure">Gender Empowerment Measure</a> and its newer incarnation the <a href="/wiki/Gender_Inequality_Index" title="Gender Inequality Index">Gender Inequality Index</a>. Speaking about China, Lanyan Chen stated that, since men more than women serve as the gatekeepers of policy making, this may lead to women's needs not being properly represented. In this sense, the inequality in lawmaking power also causes gender discrimination.<a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Menus">Menus</h3></div> Until the early 1980s, some high-end restaurants had two <a href="/wiki/Menu" title="Menu">menus</a>: a regular menu with the prices listed for men and a second menu for women, which did not have the prices listed (it was called the "ladies' menu"), so that the female diner would not know the prices of the items.<a href="#cite_note-Frost_2018-77">[77]</a> In 1980, Kathleen Bick took a male business partner out to dinner at L'Orangerie in West Hollywood. After she was given a women's menu without prices and her guest got one with prices, Bick hired lawyer <a href="/wiki/Gloria_Allred" title="Gloria Allred">Gloria Allred</a> to file a discrimination lawsuit, on the grounds that the women's menu went against the California Civil Rights Act.<a href="#cite_note-Frost_2018-77">[77]</a> Bick stated that getting a women's menu without prices left her feeling "humiliated and incensed". The owners of the restaurant defended the practice, saying it was done as a courtesy, like the way men would stand up when a woman enters the room. Even though the lawsuit was dropped, the restaurant ended its gender-based menu policy.<a href="#cite_note-Frost_2018-77">[77]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Trends_over_time">Trends over time</h3></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Globalize plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-globalize" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><img alt="Globe icon." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Ambox_globe_content.svg/48px-Ambox_globe_content.svg.png" decoding="async" width="48" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Ambox_globe_content.svg/73px-Ambox_globe_content.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Ambox_globe_content.svg/97px-Ambox_globe_content.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="350" data-file-height="290" /></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">The examples and perspective in this section may not represent a <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Countering_systemic_bias" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Countering systemic bias">worldwide view</a> of the subject. You may <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sexism&action=edit">improve this section</a>, discuss the issue on the <a href="/wiki/Talk:Sexism" title="Talk:Sexism">talk page</a>, or create a new section, as appropriate. (March 2021) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table>A 2021 study found little evidence that levels of sexism had changed from 2004 to 2018 in the United States.<a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Gender_stereotypes">Gender stereotypes</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Gender_role#Gender_stereotypes" title="Gender role">Gender role § Gender stereotypes</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Implicit_stereotype#Gender_stereotypes" title="Implicit stereotype">Implicit stereotype § Gender stereotypes</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bettie_Page_driving.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Series of photographs lampooning women drivers" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Bettie_Page_driving.jpg/300px-Bettie_Page_driving.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="205" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Bettie_Page_driving.jpg/450px-Bettie_Page_driving.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Bettie_Page_driving.jpg/600px-Bettie_Page_driving.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1758" data-file-height="1202" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Bettie_Page" title="Bettie Page">Bettie Page</a> portrays stereotypes about women <a href="/wiki/Automobile_Driving" class="mw-redirect" title="Automobile Driving">drivers</a> in 1952.</figcaption></figure> Gender stereotypes are widely held beliefs about the characteristics and behavior of women and men.<a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a> <a href="/wiki/Empirical" class="mw-redirect" title="Empirical">Empirical</a> studies have found widely shared cultural beliefs that men are more socially valued and more competent than women in a number of activities.<a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a><a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a> Dustin B. Thoman and others (2008) hypothesize that "[t]he socio-cultural salience of ability versus other components of the gender-math stereotype may impact women pursuing math". Through the experiment comparing the math outcomes of women under two various gender-math stereotype components, which are the ability of math and the effort on math respectively, Thoman and others found that women's math performance is more likely to be affected by the negative ability stereotype, which is influenced by sociocultural beliefs in the United States, rather than the effort component. As a result of this experiment and the sociocultural beliefs in the United States, Thoman and others concluded that individuals' academic outcomes can be affected by the gender-math stereotype component that is influenced by the sociocultural beliefs.<a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_language">In language</h2></div> Sexism in language exists when language devalues members of a certain gender.<a href="#cite_note-Sexism_in_Language-83">[83]</a> Sexist language, in many instances, promotes male superiority.<a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a> Sexism in language affects consciousness, perceptions of reality, encoding and transmitting cultural meanings and socialization.<a href="#cite_note-Sexism_in_Language-83">[83]</a> Researchers have pointed to the semantic rule in operation in language of the <a href="/wiki/Male_as_norm" title="Male as norm">male-as-norm</a>. This results in sexism as the male becomes the standard and those who are not male are relegated to the inferior.<a href="#cite_note-Spender_1980-85">[85]</a> Sexism in language is considered a form of indirect sexism because it is not always overt.<a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a> Examples include: <ul><li>Using generic masculine terms to reference a group of mixed gender, such as "mankind", "man" (referring to humanity), "guys", or "officers and men"</li> <li>Using the singular masculine pronoun (he, his, him) as the default to refer to a person of unknown gender</li> <li>Terms ending in "-man" that may be performed by those of non-male genders, such as businessman, chairman, or policeman</li> <li>Using unnecessary gender markers, such as "male nurse" implying that simply a "nurse" is by default assumed to be female.<a href="#cite_note-Kennison_2003-87">[87]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sexist_and_gender-neutral_language">Sexist and gender-neutral language</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Gender-neutral_language" title="Gender-neutral language">Gender-neutral language</a></div> Various 20th century feminist movements, from <a href="/wiki/Liberal_feminism" title="Liberal feminism">liberal feminism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Radical_feminism" title="Radical feminism">radical feminism</a> to <a href="/wiki/Standpoint_feminism" title="Standpoint feminism">standpoint feminism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Postmodern_feminism" title="Postmodern feminism">postmodern feminism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Queer_theory" title="Queer theory">queer theory</a>, have considered language in their theorizing.<a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a> Most of these theories have maintained a critical stance on language that calls for a change in the way speakers use their language. One of the most common calls is for gender-neutral language. Many have called attention, however, to the fact that the English language is not inherently sexist in its linguistic system, but the way it is used becomes sexist and gender-neutral language could thus be employed.<a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sexism_in_languages_other_than_English">Sexism in languages other than English</h3></div> <a href="/wiki/Romanic_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Romanic languages">Romanic languages</a> such as <a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a><a href="#cite_note-Sayare_2012-90">[90]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Spanish_language" title="Spanish language">Spanish</a><a href="#cite_note-Mexico_Advisesd_Workers-91">[91]</a> may be seen as reinforcing sexism, in that the masculine form is the default. The word "<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/mademoiselle" class="extiw" title="wikt:mademoiselle">mademoiselle</a>", meaning "<a href="/wiki/Miss" title="Miss">miss</a>", was declared banished from French administrative forms in 2012 by Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Fillon" title="François Fillon">François Fillon</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Sayare_2012-90">[90]</a> Current pressure calls for the use of the masculine plural pronoun as the default in a mixed-sex group to change.<a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a> As for Spanish, Mexico's Ministry of the Interior published a guide on how to reduce the use of sexist language.<a href="#cite_note-Mexico_Advisesd_Workers-91">[91]</a> <a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a> speakers have also raised questions about how sexism intersects with grammar.<a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a> The German language is heavily inflected for gender, number, and case; nearly all nouns denoting the occupations or statuses of human beings are gender-differentiated. For more gender-neutral constructions, gerund nouns are sometimes used instead, as this eliminates the grammatical gender distinction in the plural, and significantly reduces it in the singular. For example, instead of die Studenten ("the men students") or die Studentinnen ("the women students"), one writes die Studierenden ("the [people who are] studying").<a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a> However, this approach introduces an element of ambiguity, because gerund nouns more precisely denote one currently engaged in the activity, rather than one who routinely engages in it as their primary occupation.<a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>, some writers have pointed to sexism inherent in the structure of written characters. For example, the character for man is linked to those for positive qualities like courage and effect while the character for wife is composed of a female part and a broom, considered of low worth.<a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Gender-specific_pejorative_terms">Gender-specific pejorative terms</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable selfref">See also: <a href="/wiki/Category:Sex-_and_gender-related_slurs" title="Category:Sex- and gender-related slurs">Category:Sex- and gender-related slurs</a></div> Gender-specific pejorative terms intimidate or harm another person because of their gender. Sexism can be expressed in language with negative gender-oriented implications,<a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Disdain" class="mw-redirect" title="Disdain">condescension</a>. For example, one may refer to a female as a "girl" rather than a "woman", implying that she is subordinate or not fully mature. Other examples include obscene language. Some words are offensive to transgender people, including "tranny", "she-male", or "he-she". Intentional <a href="/wiki/Transphobia#Misgendering_and_exclusion" title="Transphobia">misgendering</a> (assigning the wrong gender to someone) and the pronoun "it" are also considered pejorative.<a href="#cite_note-Mills_College_2013-98">[98]</a><a href="#cite_note-Sandeen_2011-99">[99]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Occupational_sexism">Occupational sexism</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Occupational_sexism" title="Occupational sexism">Occupational sexism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Second-generation_gender_bias" title="Second-generation gender bias">Second-generation gender bias</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1224211176">.mw-parser-output .quotebox{background-color:#F9F9F9;border:1px solid #aaa;box-sizing:border-box;padding:10px;font-size:88%;max-width:100%}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft{margin:.5em 1.4em .8em 0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright{margin:.5em 0 .8em 1.4em}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.centered{overflow:hidden;position:relative;margin:.5em auto .8em auto}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft span,.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright span{font-style:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox>blockquote{margin:0;padding:0;border-left:0;font-family:inherit;font-size:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-title{text-align:center;font-size:110%;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote>:first-child{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote:last-child>:last-child{margin-bottom:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:before{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" “ ";vertical-align:-45%;line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:after{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" ” ";line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .left-aligned{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .right-aligned{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .center-aligned{text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quote-title,.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quotebox-quote{display:block}.mw-parser-output .quotebox cite{display:block;font-style:normal}@media screen and (max-width:640px){.mw-parser-output .quotebox{width:100%!important;margin:0 0 .8em!important;float:none!important}}</style><div class="quotebox pullquote floatright" style="width:30%; border-width: 1px; font-size: 80%; color: #202122;background-color: #F9F9F9; margin–top:1.5em;margin-bottom:1.5em;padding:2.0em"> <div class="quotebox-title" style="color: #202122;background-color: #F9F9F9; color: #555555;">"Calling nurses by their first names"</div> <blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style=""> The practice of using first names for individuals from a profession that is predominantly female occurs in health care. Physicians are typically referred to using their last name, but nurses are referred to, even by physicians they do not know, by their first name. According to <a href="/wiki/Suzanne_Gordon" title="Suzanne Gordon">Suzanne Gordon</a>, a typical conversation between a physician and a nurse is: "Hello Jane. I'm Dr. Smith. Would you hand me the patient's chart?" </blockquote> <div style="padding-bottom: 0; padding-top: 0.5em"><cite class="center-aligned" style="">–Nursing Against the Odds: How Health Care Cost Cutting, Media Stereotypes, and Medical Hubris Undermine Nurses and Patient Care<a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a></cite></div> </div> Occupational sexism refers to <a href="/wiki/Discrimination" title="Discrimination">discriminatory</a> practices, statements or actions, based on a person's <a href="/wiki/Sex" title="Sex">sex</a>, occurring in the workplace. One form of occupational sexism is <a href="/wiki/Wage_discrimination" class="mw-redirect" title="Wage discrimination">wage discrimination</a>. In 2008, the <a href="/wiki/Organisation_for_Economic_Co-operation_and_Development" class="mw-redirect" title="Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development">Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development</a> (OECD) found that while female employment rates have expanded and gender employment and wage gaps have narrowed nearly everywhere, on average women still have 20% less chance to have a job and are paid 17% less than men.<a href="#cite_note-OECD_2008a-101">[101]</a> The report stated: <blockquote>[In] many countries, labour market discrimination—i.e. the unequal treatment of equally productive individuals only because they belong to a specific group—is still a crucial factor inflating disparities in employment and the quality of job opportunities [...] Evidence presented in this edition of the Employment Outlook suggests that about 8 percent of the variation in gender employment gaps and 30 percent of the variation in gender wage gaps across OECD countries can be explained by discriminatory practices in the labor market.<a href="#cite_note-OECD_2008a-101">[101]</a><a href="#cite_note-OECD_2008b-102">[102]</a></blockquote> It also found that although almost all OECD countries, including the U.S.,<a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a> have established anti-discrimination laws, these laws are difficult to enforce.<a href="#cite_note-OECD_2008a-101">[101]</a> Women who enter predominantly male work groups can experience the negative consequences of <a href="/wiki/Tokenism" title="Tokenism">tokenism</a>: performance pressures, social isolation, and role encapsulation.<a href="#cite_note-Yoder_1991-104">[104]</a> Tokenism could be used to camouflage sexism, to preserve male workers' advantage in the workplace.<a href="#cite_note-Yoder_1991-104">[104]</a> No link exists between the proportion of women working in an organization/company and the improvement of their working conditions. Ignoring sexist issues may exacerbate women's occupational problems.<a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a> In the <a href="/wiki/World_Values_Survey" title="World Values Survey">World Values Survey</a> of 2005, responders were asked if they thought wage work should be restricted to men only. In Iceland, the percentage that agreed was 3.6%, whereas in Egypt it was 94.9%.<a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Gap_in_hiring">Gap in hiring</h3></div> Research has repeatedly shown that mothers in the United States are less likely to be hired than equally qualified fathers and if hired, receive a lower salary than male applicants with children.<a href="#cite_note-Folbre_2009-107">[107]</a><a href="#cite_note-Goodman_2007-108">[108]</a><a href="#cite_note-Correll_2007-109">[109]</a><a href="#cite_note-Aloi_2005-110">[110]</a> One study found that female applicants were favored; however, its results have been met with skepticism from other researchers, since it contradicts most other studies on the issue. Joan C. Williams, a distinguished professor at the University of California's Hastings College of Law, raised issues with its methodology, pointing out that the fictional female candidates it used were unusually well-qualified. Studies using more moderately qualified graduate students have found that male students are much more likely to be hired, offered better salaries, and offered mentorship.<a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a><a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a> In Europe, studies based on field experiments in the labor market, provide evidence for no severe levels of discrimination based on female gender. However, unequal treatment is still measured in particular situations, for instance, when candidates apply for positions at a higher functional level in Belgium,<a href="#cite_note-Baert_2016-113">[113]</a> when they apply at their fertile ages in France,<a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a> and when they apply for male-dominated occupations in Austria.<a href="#cite_note-115">[115]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Earnings_gap">Earnings gap</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Gender_pay_gap" title="Gender pay gap">Gender pay gap</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:EU_27_Gender_Pay_Gap_2014.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Bar graph showing the gender pay gap in European countries" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/EU_27_Gender_Pay_Gap_2014.png/300px-EU_27_Gender_Pay_Gap_2014.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/EU_27_Gender_Pay_Gap_2014.png/450px-EU_27_Gender_Pay_Gap_2014.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/EU_27_Gender_Pay_Gap_2014.png/600px-EU_27_Gender_Pay_Gap_2014.png 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="720" /></a><figcaption>Gender pay gap in average gross hourly earnings according to <a href="/wiki/Eurostat" title="Eurostat">Eurostat</a> 2014<a href="#cite_note-Situation_in_the_EU-116">[116]</a></figcaption></figure> Studies have concluded that on average women earn lower wages than men worldwide. Some people argue that this results from widespread gender discrimination in the workplace. Others argue that the wage gap results from different choices by men and women, such as women placing more value than men on having children, and men being more likely than women to choose careers in high paying fields such as business, engineering, and technology. <a href="/wiki/Eurostat" title="Eurostat">Eurostat</a> found a persistent, average gender pay gap of 27.5% in the 27 <a href="/wiki/Member_state_of_the_European_Union" title="Member state of the European Union">EU member states</a> in 2008.<a href="#cite_note-Situation_in_the_EU-116">[116]</a> Similarly, the OECD found that female full-time employees earned 27% less than their male counterparts in OECD countries in 2009.<a href="#cite_note-OECD_2008a-101">[101]</a><a href="#cite_note-OECD_2008b-102">[102]</a> In the United States, the female-to-male earnings ratio was 0.77 in 2009; female full-time, year-round (FTYR) workers earned 77% as much as male FTYR workers. Women's earnings relative to men's fell from 1960 to 1980 (56.7–54.2%), rose rapidly from 1980 to 1990 (54.2–67.6%), leveled off from 1990 to 2000 (67.6–71.2%) and rose from 2000 to 2009 (71.2–77.0%).<a href="#cite_note-U.S._Census_Bureau_2010-117">[117]</a><a href="#cite_note-118">[118]</a> As of the late 2010s, it has decreased back to around 1990 to 2000 levels (68.6-71.1%).<a href="#cite_note-119">[119]</a><a href="#cite_note-120">[120]</a> When the first <a href="/wiki/Equal_Pay_Act_of_1963" title="Equal Pay Act of 1963">Equal Pay Act</a> was passed in 1963, female full-time workers earned 48.9% as much as male full-time workers.<a href="#cite_note-U.S._Census_Bureau_2010-117">[117]</a> Research conducted in Czechia and Slovakia shows that, even after the governments passed anti-discrimination legislation, two thirds of the gender gap in wages remained unexplained and segregation continued to "represent a major source of the gap".<a href="#cite_note-121">[121]</a> The gender gap can also vary across-occupation and within occupation. In Taiwan, for example, studies show how the bulk of gender wage discrepancies occur within-occupation.<a href="#cite_note-122">[122]</a> In Russia, research shows that the gender wage gap is distributed unevenly across income levels, and that it mainly occurs at the lower end of income distribution.<a href="#cite_note-Gerry_2004-123">[123]</a> The research also found that "wage arrears and payment in-kind attenuated wage discrimination, particularly amongst the lowest paid workers, suggesting that Russian enterprise managers assigned lowest importance to equity considerations when allocating these forms of payment".<a href="#cite_note-Gerry_2004-123">[123]</a> The gender pay gap has been attributed to differences in personal and workplace characteristics between men and women (such as education, hours worked and occupation), innate behavioral and biological differences between men and women and discrimination in the labor market (such as gender stereotypes and customer and employer bias). Women take significantly more time off to raise children than men.<a href="#cite_note-124">[124]</a> In certain countries such as South Korea, it has also been a long-established practice to lay-off female employees upon marriage.<a href="#cite_note-125">[125]</a> A study by Professor <a href="/wiki/Linda_C._Babcock" title="Linda C. Babcock">Linda C. Babcock</a> in her book Women Don't Ask shows that men are eight times more likely to ask for a pay raise, suggesting that pay inequality may be partly a result of behavioral differences between the sexes.<a href="#cite_note-126">[126]</a> However, studies generally find that a portion of the gender pay gap remains unexplained after accounting for factors assumed to influence earnings; the unexplained portion of the wage gap is attributed to gender discrimination.<a href="#cite_note-127">[127]</a> Estimates of the discriminatory component of the gender pay gap vary. The OECD estimated that approximately 30% of the gender pay gap across OECD countries is because of discrimination.<a href="#cite_note-OECD_2008a-101">[101]</a> Australian research shows that discrimination accounts for approximately 60% of the wage differential between men and women.<a href="#cite_note-NATSEM_2009-128">[128]</a><a href="#cite_note-129">[129]</a> <a href="/wiki/Male%E2%80%93female_income_disparity_in_the_United_States#Explaining_the_gender_pay_gap" class="mw-redirect" title="Male–female income disparity in the United States">Studies examining the gender pay gap in the United States</a> show that a much of the wage differential remains unexplained, after controlling for factors affecting pay. One study of college graduates found that the portion of the pay gap unexplained after all other factors are taken into account is five percent one year after graduating and 12% a decade after graduation.<a href="#cite_note-Carman_2007-130">[130]</a><a href="#cite_note-131">[131]</a><a href="#cite_note-132">[132]</a><a href="#cite_note-133">[133]</a> A study by the <a href="/wiki/American_Association_of_University_Women" title="American Association of University Women">American Association of University Women</a> found that women graduates in the United States are paid less than men doing the same work and majoring in the same field.<a href="#cite_note-134">[134]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:US_gender_pay_gap,_by_sex,_race-ethnicity-2009.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Graph showing weekly earnings by various categories" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/US_gender_pay_gap%2C_by_sex%2C_race-ethnicity-2009.png/300px-US_gender_pay_gap%2C_by_sex%2C_race-ethnicity-2009.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/US_gender_pay_gap%2C_by_sex%2C_race-ethnicity-2009.png/450px-US_gender_pay_gap%2C_by_sex%2C_race-ethnicity-2009.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/US_gender_pay_gap%2C_by_sex%2C_race-ethnicity-2009.png/600px-US_gender_pay_gap%2C_by_sex%2C_race-ethnicity-2009.png 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="720" /></a><figcaption>Median weekly earnings of full-time wage and salary workers, by sex, race, and ethnicity, U.S., 2009<a href="#cite_note-Bureau_of_Labor_Statistics_2009-135">[135]</a></figcaption></figure> Wage discrimination is theorized as contradicting the economic concept of <a href="/wiki/Supply_and_demand" title="Supply and demand">supply and demand</a>, which states that if a good or service (in this case, labor) is in demand and has value it will find its price in the market. If a worker offered equal value for less pay, supply and demand would indicate a greater demand for lower-paid workers. If a business hired lower-wage workers for the same work, it would lower its costs and enjoy a <a href="/wiki/Competitive_advantage" title="Competitive advantage">competitive advantage</a>. According to supply and demand, if women offered equal value demand (and wages) should rise since they offer a better price (lower wages) for their service than men do.<a href="#cite_note-136">[136]</a> Research at Cornell University and elsewhere indicates that mothers in the United States are less likely to be hired than equally qualified fathers and, if hired, receive a lower salary than male applicants with children.<a href="#cite_note-Folbre_2009-107">[107]</a><a href="#cite_note-Goodman_2007-108">[108]</a><a href="#cite_note-Cahn_2010-137">[137]</a><a href="#cite_note-Young_2009-138">[138]</a><a href="#cite_note-Correll_2007-109">[109]</a><a href="#cite_note-Aloi_2005-110">[110]</a> The OECD found that "a significant impact of children on women's pay is generally found in the United Kingdom and the United States".<a href="#cite_note-OECD_2002-139">[139]</a> Fathers earn $7,500 more, on average, than men without children do.<a href="#cite_note-Lips_2009-140">[140]</a> There is research to suggest that the gender wage gap leads to big losses for the economy.<a href="#cite_note-141">[141]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Causes_for_wage_discrimination"> Causes for wage discrimination</h4></div> The non-adjusted gender pay gap (the difference without taking into account differences in working hours, occupations, education, and work experience) is not itself a measure of discrimination. Rather, it combines differences in the average pay of women and men to serve as a barometer of comparison. Differences in pay are caused by: <ul><li>occupational segregation (with more men in higher paid industries and women in lower paid industries),</li> <li>vertical segregation (fewer women in senior, and hence better paying positions),</li> <li>ineffective equal pay legislation,</li> <li>women's overall paid working hours, and</li> <li>barriers to entry into the labor market (such as education level and single parenting rate).<a href="#cite_note-Leythienne_2018-142">[142]</a></li></ul> Some variables that help explain the non-adjusted gender pay gap include economic activity, working time, and job tenure.<a href="#cite_note-Leythienne_2018-142">[142]</a> Gender-specific factors, including gender differences in qualifications and discrimination, overall wage structure, and the differences in remuneration across industry sectors all influence the gender pay gap.<a href="#cite_note-143">[143]</a> <a href="/wiki/Eurostat" title="Eurostat">Eurostat</a> estimated in 2016 that after allowing for average characteristics of men and women, women still earn 11.5% less than men. Since this estimate accounts for average differences between men and women, it is an estimation of the unexplained gender pay gap (i.e., that which cannot be accounted for by factors such as differences in profession).<a href="#cite_note-144">[144]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Glass_ceiling_effect">Glass ceiling effect</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Glass_ceiling" title="Glass ceiling">Glass ceiling</a></div> "The popular notion of glass ceiling effects implies that gender (or other) disadvantages are stronger at the top of the hierarchy than at lower levels and that these disadvantages become worse later in a person's career."<a href="#cite_note-145">[145]</a> In the United States, women account for 52% of the overall labor force, but make up only three percent of corporate CEOs and top executives.<a href="#cite_note-Matsa_2011-146">[146]</a> Some researchers see the root cause of this situation in the tacit discrimination based on gender, conducted by current top executives and corporate directors (primarily male), and "the historic absence of women in top positions", which "may lead to <a href="/wiki/Hysteresis" title="Hysteresis">hysteresis</a>, preventing women from accessing powerful, male-dominated professional networks, or same-sex mentors".<a href="#cite_note-Matsa_2011-146">[146]</a> The glass ceiling effect is noted as being especially persistent for women of color. According to a report, "women of colour perceive a 'concrete ceiling' and not simply a glass ceiling".<a href="#cite_note-Matsa_2011-146">[146]</a> In the economics profession, it has been observed that women are more inclined than men to dedicate their time to teaching and service. Since continuous research work is crucial for promotion, "the cumulative effect of small, contemporaneous differences in research orientation could generate the observed significant gender difference in promotion".<a href="#cite_note-147">[147]</a> In the high-tech industry, research shows that, regardless of the intra-firm changes, "extra-organizational pressures will likely contribute to continued gender stratification as firms upgrade, leading to the potential masculinization of skilled high-tech work".<a href="#cite_note-148">[148]</a> The United Nations asserts that "progress in bringing women into leadership and decision making positions around the world remains far too slow".<a href="#cite_note-United_Nations_2006-149">[149]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Potential_remedies">Potential remedies</h4></div> Research by David Matsa and Amalia Miller suggests that a remedy to the glass ceiling could be increasing the number of women on corporate boards, which could lead to increases in the number of women working in top management positions.<a href="#cite_note-Matsa_2011-146">[146]</a> The same research suggests that this could also result in a "feedback cycle in which the presence of more female managers increases the qualified pool of potential female board members (for the companies they manage, as well as other companies), leading to greater female board membership and then further increases in female executives".<a href="#cite_note-United_Nations_2006-149">[149]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Weight-based_sexism">Weight-based sexism</h3></div> A 2009 study found that being overweight harms women's career advancement, but presents no barrier for men. <a href="/wiki/Overweight" title="Overweight">Overweight</a> women were significantly underrepresented among company bosses, making up between five and 22% of female CEOs. However, the proportion of overweight male CEOs was between 45% and 61%, over-representing overweight men. On the other hand, approximately five percent of CEOs were obese among both genders. The author of the study stated that the results suggest that "the '<a href="/wiki/Glass_ceiling" title="Glass ceiling">glass ceiling</a> effect' on women's advancement may reflect not only general negative stereotypes about the competencies of women but also weight bias that results in the application of stricter appearance standards to women."<a href="#cite_note-150">[150]</a><a href="#cite_note-151">[151]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Transgender_discrimination">Transgender discrimination</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Transgender_inequality" title="Transgender inequality">Transgender inequality</a></div> Transgender people also experience significant workplace discrimination and harassment.<a href="#cite_note-152">[152]</a> Unlike sex-based discrimination, refusing to hire (or firing) a worker for their gender identity or expression is not explicitly illegal in most U.S. states.<a href="#cite_note-Steinmetz_2015-153">[153]</a> In June 2020, the United States Supreme Court ruled that federal civil rights law protects gay, lesbian and transgender workers. Writing for the majority, Justice <a href="/wiki/Neil_Gorsuch" title="Neil Gorsuch">Neil Gorsuch</a> wrote: "An employer who fires an individual for being homosexual or transgender fires that person for traits or actions it would not have questioned in members of a different sex. Sex plays a necessary and undisguisable role in the decision, exactly what Title VII forbids."<a href="#cite_note-154">[154]</a> The ruling however did not protect <a href="/wiki/LGBT" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT">LGBT</a> employees from being fired based on their sexual orientation or gender identity in businesses of 15 workers or less.<a href="#cite_note-155">[155]</a> In August 1995, Kimberly Nixon filed a complaint with the <a href="/wiki/British_Columbia_Human_Rights_Tribunal" title="British Columbia Human Rights Tribunal">British Columbia Human Rights Tribunal</a> against Vancouver Rape Relief & Women's Shelter. Nixon, a <a href="/wiki/Trans_woman" title="Trans woman">trans woman</a>, had been interested in volunteering as a counsellor with the shelter. When the shelter learned that she was <a href="/wiki/Transsexual" title="Transsexual">transsexual</a>, they told Nixon that she would not be allowed to volunteer with the organization. Nixon argued that this constituted illegal discrimination under Section 41 of the British Columbia <a href="/wiki/Human_Rights_Code_(British_Columbia)" title="Human Rights Code (British Columbia)">Human Rights Code</a>. Vancouver Rape Relief countered that individuals are shaped by the <a href="/wiki/Socialization" title="Socialization">socialization</a> and experiences of their formative years, and that Nixon had been socialized as a male growing up, and that, therefore, Nixon would not be able to provide sufficiently effective counselling to the female born women that the shelter served. Nixon took her case to the Supreme Court of Canada, which refused to hear the case.<a href="#cite_note-156">[156]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Objectification">Objectification</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Menu.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Illustration of a woman splayed across a wine menu" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Menu.jpg/250px-Menu.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="268" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Menu.jpg/255px-Menu.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c4/Menu.jpg 2x" data-file-width="305" data-file-height="480" /></a><figcaption>Example of <a href="/wiki/Sexual_objectification" title="Sexual objectification">sexual objectification</a> of women on a wine menu</figcaption></figure> In <a href="/wiki/Social_philosophy" title="Social philosophy">social philosophy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Objectification" title="Objectification">objectification</a> is the act of treating a person as an object or thing. Objectification plays a central role in feminist theory, especially <a href="/wiki/Sexual_objectification" title="Sexual objectification">sexual objectification</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Papadaki_2018-157">[157]</a> Feminist writer and gender equality activist Joy Goh-Mah argues that by being objectified, a person is denied agency.<a href="#cite_note-158">[158]</a> According to the philosopher <a href="/wiki/Martha_Nussbaum" title="Martha Nussbaum">Martha Nussbaum</a>, a person might be objectified if one or more of the following properties are applied to them:<a href="#cite_note-159">[159]</a> <ol><li>Instrumentality: treating the object as a <a href="/wiki/Tool" title="Tool">tool</a> for another's purposes: "The objectifier treats the object as a tool of his or her purposes."</li> <li>Denial of <a href="/wiki/Autonomy" title="Autonomy">autonomy</a>: treating the object as lacking in autonomy or <a href="/wiki/Self-determination" title="Self-determination">self-determination</a>: "The objectifier treats the object as lacking in autonomy and self-determination."</li> <li>Inertness: treating the object as lacking in <a href="/wiki/Agency_(philosophy)" title="Agency (philosophy)">agency</a> or <a href="/wiki/Action_(philosophy)" title="Action (philosophy)">activity</a>: "The objectifier treats the object as lacking in agency, and perhaps also in activity."</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fungibility" title="Fungibility">Fungibility</a>: treating the object as interchangeable with other objects: "The objectifier treats the object as interchangeable (a) with other objects of the same type, and/or (b) with objects of other types."</li> <li>Violability: treating the object as lacking in boundary integrity and violable: "The objectifier treats the object as lacking in boundary integrity, as something that it is permissible to break up, smash, break into."</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ownership" title="Ownership">Ownership</a>: treating the object as if it can be owned, bought, or sold: "The objectifier treats the object as something that is owned by another, can be bought or sold, etc."</li> <li>Denial of <a href="/wiki/Subjectivity" class="mw-redirect" title="Subjectivity">subjectivity</a>: treating the object as if there is no need for concern for its experiences or feelings: "The objectifier treats the object as something whose experience and feelings (if any) need not be taken into account."</li></ol> <a href="/wiki/Rae_Helen_Langton" class="mw-redirect" title="Rae Helen Langton">Rae Helen Langton</a>, in Sexual Solipsism: Philosophical Essays on Pornography and Objectification, proposed three more properties to be added to Nussbaum's list:<a href="#cite_note-Papadaki_2018-157">[157]</a><a href="#cite_note-Langton_2009-160">[160]</a> <ol><li>Reduction to body: the treatment of a person as identified with their body, or body parts;</li> <li>Reduction to appearance: the treatment of a person primarily in terms of how they look, or how they appear to the senses;</li> <li>Silencing: the treatment of a person as if they are silent, lacking the capacity to speak.</li></ol> According to objectification theory, objectification can have important repercussions on women, particularly young women, as it can negatively impact their psychological health and lead to the development of mental disorders, such as <a href="/wiki/Major_depressive_disorder" title="Major depressive disorder">unipolar depression</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sexual_dysfunction" title="Sexual dysfunction">sexual dysfunction</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Eating_disorder" title="Eating disorder">eating disorders</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Fredrickson_1997-161">[161]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_advertising">In advertising</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Two_girls_examining_a_bulletin_board_posted_on_a_fence._An_advertisement_painted_above_them_asks_%22Are_You_a_Woman%3F%22.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Two girls examining a bulletin board posted on a fence. An advertisement painted above them asks "Are You a Woman?"." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Two_girls_examining_a_bulletin_board_posted_on_a_fence._An_advertisement_painted_above_them_asks_%22Are_You_a_Woman%3F%22.jpg/250px-Two_girls_examining_a_bulletin_board_posted_on_a_fence._An_advertisement_painted_above_them_asks_%22Are_You_a_Woman%3F%22.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="270" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Two_girls_examining_a_bulletin_board_posted_on_a_fence._An_advertisement_painted_above_them_asks_%22Are_You_a_Woman%3F%22.jpg/330px-Two_girls_examining_a_bulletin_board_posted_on_a_fence._An_advertisement_painted_above_them_asks_%22Are_You_a_Woman%3F%22.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Two_girls_examining_a_bulletin_board_posted_on_a_fence._An_advertisement_painted_above_them_asks_%22Are_You_a_Woman%3F%22.jpg/500px-Two_girls_examining_a_bulletin_board_posted_on_a_fence._An_advertisement_painted_above_them_asks_%22Are_You_a_Woman%3F%22.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4871" data-file-height="5986" /></a><figcaption>Women examining a bulletin board posted on a fence. An advertisement painted above them asks "Are You a Woman?"</figcaption></figure> While advertising used to portray women and men in obviously stereotypical roles (e.g., as a housewife, breadwinner), in modern advertisements, they are no longer solely confined to their traditional roles. However, advertising today still stereotypes men and women, albeit in more subtle ways, including by sexually objectifying them.<a href="#cite_note-162">[162]</a> Women are most often targets of sexism in advertising.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] When in advertisements with men they are often shorter and put in the background of images, shown in more "feminine" poses, and generally present a higher degree of "body display".<a href="#cite_note-163">[163]</a> Today, some countries (for example <a href="/wiki/Norway" title="Norway">Norway</a> and <a href="/wiki/Denmark" title="Denmark">Denmark</a>) have laws against <a href="/wiki/Sex_in_advertising" title="Sex in advertising">sexual objectification in advertising</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Holmes_2008-164">[164]</a> Nudity is not banned, and nude people can be used to advertise a product if they are relevant to the product advertised. Sol Olving, head of Norway's Kreativt Forum (an association of the country's top advertising agencies) explained, "You could have a naked person advertising shower gel or a cream, but not a woman in a bikini draped across a car".<a href="#cite_note-Holmes_2008-164">[164]</a> Other countries continue to ban nudity (on traditional obscenity grounds), but also make explicit reference to sexual objectification, such as <a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israel</a>'s ban of <a href="/wiki/Billboard" title="Billboard">billboards</a> that "depicts sexual humiliation or abasement, or presents a human being as an object available for sexual use".<a href="#cite_note-165">[165]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pornography">Pornography</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Feminist_views_on_pornography" title="Feminist views on pornography">Feminist views on pornography</a></div> Anti-pornography feminist <a href="/wiki/Catharine_MacKinnon" class="mw-redirect" title="Catharine MacKinnon">Catharine MacKinnon</a> argues that <a href="/wiki/Pornography" title="Pornography">pornography</a> contributes to sexism by objectifying women and portraying them in submissive roles.<a href="#cite_note-166">[166]</a> MacKinnon, along with <a href="/wiki/Andrea_Dworkin" title="Andrea Dworkin">Andrea Dworkin</a>, argues that pornography reduces women to mere tools, and is a form of sex discrimination.<a href="#cite_note-Papadaki_2012-167">[167]</a> The two scholars highlight the link between objectification and pornography by stating: <blockquote>We define pornography as the graphic sexually explicit subordination of women through pictures and words that also includes (i) women are presented dehumanized as sexual objects, things, or commodities; or (ii) women are presented as sexual objects who enjoy humiliation or pain; or (iii) women are presented as sexual objects experiencing sexual pleasure in rape, incest or other sexual assault; or (iv) women are presented as sexual objects tied up, cut up or mutilated or bruised or physically hurt; or (v) women are presented in postures or positions of sexual submission, servility, or display; or (vi) women's body parts—including but not limited to vaginas, breasts, or buttocks—are exhibited such that women are reduced to those parts; or (vii) women are presented being penetrated by objects or animals; or (viii) women are presented in scenarios of degradation, humiliation, injury, torture, shown as filthy or inferior, bleeding, bruised, or hurt in a context that makes these conditions sexual."<a href="#cite_note-Dworkin_1988-168">[168]</a></blockquote> <a href="/wiki/Robin_Morgan" title="Robin Morgan">Robin Morgan</a> and Catharine MacKinnon suggest that certain types of pornography also contribute to <a href="/wiki/Violence_against_women" title="Violence against women">violence against women</a> by eroticizing scenes in which women are dominated, coerced, humiliated or <a href="/wiki/Sexually_assault" class="mw-redirect" title="Sexually assault">sexually assaulted</a>.<a href="#cite_note-169">[169]</a><a href="#cite_note-Jeffries_2006-170">[170]</a> Some people opposed to pornography, including MacKinnon, charge that the production of pornography entails physical, psychological, and economic <a href="/wiki/Coercion" title="Coercion">coercion</a> of the women who perform and model in it.<a href="#cite_note-Shrage_2007-171">[171]</a><a href="#cite_note-172">[172]</a><a href="#cite_note-Wattenberg_1995-173">[173]</a> Opponents of pornography charge that it presents a distorted image of sexual relations and reinforces sexual myths; it shows women as continually available and willing to engage in sex at any time, with any person, on their terms, responding positively to any requests. MacKinnon writes: <blockquote>Pornography affects people's belief in rape myths. So for example if a woman says "I didn't consent" and people have been viewing pornography, they believe rape myths and believe the woman did consent no matter what she said. That when she said no, she meant yes. When she said she didn't want to, that meant more beer. When she said she would prefer to go home, that means she's a lesbian who needs to be given a good corrective experience. Pornography promotes these rape myths and desensitizes people to violence against women so that you need more violence to become sexually aroused if you're a pornography consumer. This is very well documented.<a href="#cite_note-174">[174]</a></blockquote> Defenders of pornography and anti-censorship activists (including <a href="/wiki/Sex-positive_feminists" class="mw-redirect" title="Sex-positive feminists">sex-positive feminists</a>) argue that pornography does not seriously impact a mentally healthy individual, since the viewer can distinguish between fantasy and reality.<a href="#cite_note-175">[175]</a> Some also contend that both men and women are objectified in pornography, particularly <a href="/wiki/Sadomasochism" title="Sadomasochism">sadistic or masochistic</a> pornography in which men are objectified and sexually used by women.<a href="#cite_note-176">[176]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Prostitution">Prostitution</h3></div> <a href="/wiki/Prostitution" title="Prostitution">Prostitution</a> is the business or practice of engaging in <a href="/wiki/Human_sexual_activity" title="Human sexual activity">sexual relations</a> for <a href="/wiki/Payment" title="Payment">payment</a>.<a href="#cite_note-177">[177]</a><a href="#cite_note-178">[178]</a> Sex workers are often objectified and are seen as existing only to serve clients, thus calling their sense of agency into question. There is a prevailing notion that because they sell sex professionally, prostitutes automatically consent to all sexual contact.<a href="#cite_note-Sullivan_2007-179">[179]</a> As a result, sex workers face higher <a href="/wiki/Violence_against_prostitutes" title="Violence against prostitutes">rates of violence</a> and sexual assault. This is often dismissed, ignored and not taken seriously by authorities.<a href="#cite_note-Sullivan_2007-179">[179]</a> In many countries, prostitution is dominated by brothels or pimps, who often claim ownership over sex workers. This sense of ownership furthers the concept that sex workers are void of agency.<a href="#cite_note-180">[180]</a> This is literally the case in instances of <a href="/wiki/Sexual_slavery" title="Sexual slavery">sexual slavery</a>. Various authors have argued that female prostitution is based on male sexism that condones the idea that unwanted sex with a woman is acceptable, that men's desires must be satisfied, and that women are coerced into and exist to serve men sexually.<a href="#cite_note-181">[181]</a><a href="#cite_note-182">[182]</a><a href="#cite_note-183">[183]</a><a href="#cite_note-184">[184]</a> The <a href="/wiki/European_Women%27s_Lobby" title="European Women's Lobby">European Women's Lobby</a> condemned prostitution as "an intolerable form of male violence".<a href="#cite_note-185">[185]</a> <a href="/wiki/Carole_Pateman" title="Carole Pateman">Carole Pateman</a> writes that:<blockquote> Prostitution is the use of a woman's body by a man for his own satisfaction. There is no desire or satisfaction on the part of the prostitute. Prostitution is not mutual, pleasurable exchange of the use of bodies, but the unilateral use of a woman's body by a man in exchange for money.<a href="#cite_note-186">[186]</a></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Media_portrayals">Media portrayals</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Misogyny_in_rap_music" title="Misogyny in rap music">Misogyny in rap music</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sexism_in_heavy_metal_music" class="mw-redirect" title="Sexism in heavy metal music">Sexism in heavy metal music</a></div> Some scholars believe that media portrayals of demographic groups can both maintain and disrupt attitudes and behaviors toward those groups.<a href="#cite_note-187">[187]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>]<a href="#cite_note-188">[188]</a><a href="#cite_note-189">[189]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] According to Susan Douglas: "Since the early 1990s, much of the media have come to overrepresent women as having made it-completely-in the professions, as having gained sexual equality with men, and having achieved a level of financial success and comfort enjoyed primarily by Tiffany's-encrusted doyennes of Laguna Beach."<a href="#cite_note-190">[190]</a> These images may be harmful, particularly to women and racial and ethnic minority groups. For example, a study of African American women found they feel that media portrayals of themselves often reinforce stereotypes of this group as overly sexual and idealize images of lighter-skinned, thinner African American women (images African American women describe as objectifying).<a href="#cite_note-191">[191]</a> In a recent analysis of images of Haitian women in the Associated Press photo archive from 1994 to 2009, several themes emerged emphasizing the "otherness" of Haitian women and characterizing them as victims in need of rescue.<a href="#cite_note-192">[192]</a> In an attempt to study the effect of <a href="/wiki/Media_consumption" title="Media consumption">media consumption</a> on males, Samantha and Bridges found an effect on body shame, though not through self-objectification as it was found in comparable studies of women. The authors conclude that the current measures of objectification were designed for women and do not measure men accurately.<a href="#cite_note-193">[193]</a> Another study found a negative effect on eating attitudes and body satisfaction of consumption of beauty and fitness magazines for women and men respectively but again with different mechanisms, namely self-objectification for women and internalization for men.<a href="#cite_note-194">[194]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sexist_jokes">Sexist jokes</h3></div> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Frederick_T._Attenborough&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Frederick T. Attenborough (page does not exist)">Frederick Attenborough</a> argues that sexist jokes can be a form of sexual objectification, which reduce the butt of the joke to an object. They not only objectify women, but can also condone violence or prejudice against women.<a href="#cite_note-195">[195]</a> "Sexist humor—the denigration of women through humor—for instance, trivializes sex discrimination under the veil of benign amusement, thus precluding challenges or opposition that nonhumorous sexist communication would likely incur."<a href="#cite_note-Ford_2007-196">[196]</a> A study of 73 male undergraduate students by Ford found that "sexist humor can promote the behavioral expression of prejudice against women amongst sexist men".<a href="#cite_note-Ford_2007-196">[196]</a> According to the study, when sexism is presented in a humorous manner it is viewed as tolerable and socially acceptable: "Disparagement of women through humor 'freed' sexist participants from having to conform to the more general and more restrictive norms regarding discrimination against women."<a href="#cite_note-Ford_2007-196">[196]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Gender_identity_discrimination">Gender identity discrimination</h2></div> Gender discrimination is discrimination based on actual or perceived <a href="/wiki/Gender_identity" title="Gender identity">gender identity</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Feder_2013-197">[197]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] Gender identity is "the gender-related identity, appearance, or mannerisms or other gender-related characteristics of an individual, with or without regard to the individual's designated sex at birth".<a href="#cite_note-Feder_2013-197">[197]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] Gender discrimination is theoretically different from sexism.<a href="#cite_note-198">[198]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] Whereas sexism is prejudice based on biological sex, gender discrimination specifically addresses discrimination towards gender identities, including <a href="/wiki/Third_gender" title="Third gender">third gender</a>, <a href="/wiki/Genderqueer" class="mw-redirect" title="Genderqueer">genderqueer</a>, and other <a href="/wiki/Non-binary_gender" title="Non-binary gender">non-binary</a> identified people.<a href="#cite_note-Macklem_2003-7">[7]</a> It is especially attributed to how people are treated in the workplace,<a href="#cite_note-Lenhart_2004-8">[8]</a> and banning discrimination on the basis of gender identity and expression has emerged as a subject of contention in the American legal system.<a href="#cite_note-Human_Rights_Campaign_2015-199">[199]</a> According to a recent report by the <a href="/wiki/Congressional_Research_Service" title="Congressional Research Service">Congressional Research Service</a>, "although the majority of federal courts to consider the issue have concluded that discrimination on the basis of gender identity is not sex discrimination, there have been several courts that have reached the opposite conclusion".<a href="#cite_note-Feder_2013-197">[197]</a> Hurst states that "[c]ourts often confuse sex, gender and sexual orientation, and confuse them in a way that results in denying the rights not only of gays and lesbians, but also of those who do not present themselves or act in a manner traditionally expected of their sex".<a href="#cite_note-200">[200]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Oppositional_sexism">Oppositional sexism</h3></div> Oppositional sexism is a term coined by <a href="/wiki/Transfeminism" title="Transfeminism">transfeminist</a> author <a href="/wiki/Julia_Serano" title="Julia Serano">Julia Serano</a>, who defined oppositional sexism as "the belief that male and female are rigid, mutually exclusive categories".<a href="#cite_note-Serano_2007-201">[201]</a> Oppositional sexism plays a vital role in a number of <a href="/wiki/Social_norm" title="Social norm">social norms</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Cisnormativity" title="Cisnormativity">cisnormativity</a> and <a href="/wiki/Heteronormativity" title="Heteronormativity">heteronormativity</a>. Oppositional sexism normalizes masculine expression in males and feminine expression in females while simultaneously demonizing femininity in males and masculinity in females. This concept plays a crucial role in supporting <a href="/wiki/Cissexism" class="mw-redirect" title="Cissexism">cissexism</a>, the social norm that views cisgender people as both natural and privileged as opposed to transgender people.<a href="#cite_note-Pedersen_2015-202">[202]</a> The idea of having two, opposite genders is tied to sexuality through what <a href="/wiki/Gender_studies" title="Gender studies">gender theorist</a> <a href="/wiki/Judith_Butler" title="Judith Butler">Judith Butler</a> calls a "compulsory practice of heterosexuality".<a href="#cite_note-Pedersen_2015-202">[202]</a> Because oppositional sexism is tied to heteronormativity in this way, non-heterosexuals are seen as breaking gender norms.<a href="#cite_note-Pedersen_2015-202">[202]</a> The concept of opposite genders sets a "dangerous precedent", according to Serano, where "if men are big then women must be small; and if men are strong then women must be weak".<a href="#cite_note-Serano_2007-201">[201]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Gender_binary" title="Gender binary">gender binary</a> and oppositional norms work together to support "traditional sexism", the belief that femininity is inferior to and serves masculinity.<a href="#cite_note-Pedersen_2015-202">[202]</a> Serano states that oppositional sexism works in tandem with "traditional sexism". This ensures that "those who are masculine have power over those who are feminine, and that only those that are born male will be seen as authentically masculine."<a href="#cite_note-Serano_2007-201">[201]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Transgender_discrimination_2">Transgender discrimination</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Transphobia" title="Transphobia">Transphobia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Healthcare_and_the_LGBT_community" class="mw-redirect" title="Healthcare and the LGBT community">Healthcare and the LGBT community</a></div> Transgender discrimination is discrimination towards peoples whose gender identity differs from the social expectations of the biological sex they were born with.<a href="#cite_note-203">[203]</a> Forms of discrimination include but are not limited to identity documents not reflecting one's gender, sex-segregated public restrooms and other facilities, dress codes according to binary gender codes, and lack of access to and existence of appropriate health care services.<a href="#cite_note-Grossman_2012-204">[204]</a> In a recent adjudication, the <a href="/wiki/Equal_Employment_Opportunity_Commission" title="Equal Employment Opportunity Commission">Equal Employment Opportunity Commission</a> (EEOC) concluded that discrimination against a transgender person is sex discrimination.<a href="#cite_note-Grossman_2012-204">[204]</a> The 2008–09 National Transgender Discrimination Survey (NTDS)—a U.S. study by the National Center for Transgender Equality and the National Gay and Lesbian Task Force in collaboration with the National Black Justice Coalition that was, at its time, the most extensive survey of transgender discrimination—showed that Black <a href="/wiki/Transgender_people_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Transgender people in the United States">transgender people in the United States</a> suffer "the combination of anti-transgender bias and persistent, structural and individual racism" and that "black transgender people live in extreme poverty that is more than twice the rate for transgender people of all races (15%), four times the general Black population rate (9%) and over eight times the general US population rate (4%)".<a href="#cite_note-205">[205]</a> Further discrimination is faced by gender nonconforming individuals, whether transitioning or not, because of displacement from societally acceptable gender binaries and visible stigmatization. According to the NTDS, transgender gender nonconforming (TGNC) individuals face between eight percent and 15% higher rates of self and social discrimination and violence than binary transgender individuals. Lisa R. Miller and Eric Anthony Grollman found in their 2015 study that "gender nonconformity may heighten trans people's exposure to discrimination and health-harming behaviors. Gender nonconforming trans adults reported more events of major and everyday transphobic discrimination than their gender conforming counterparts."<a href="#cite_note-206">[206]</a> In another study conducted in collaboration with the League of United Latin American Citizens, Latino/a transgender people who were non-citizens were most vulnerable to harassment, abuse and violence.<a href="#cite_note-207">[207]</a> An updated version of the NTDS survey, called the 2015 U.S. Transgender Survey, was published in December 2016.<a href="#cite_note-208">[208]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Examples">Examples</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Child_and_forced_marriage">Child and forced marriage</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Child_marriage" title="Child marriage">Child marriage</a> and <a href="/wiki/Forced_marriage" title="Forced marriage">Forced marriage</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Dowry" title="Dowry">Dowry</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bride_price" title="Bride price">Bride price</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Girl_Summit_-_22nd_July_in_London_(14498368279).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Poster against child and forced marriage" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Girl_Summit_-_22nd_July_in_London_%2814498368279%29.jpg/220px-Girl_Summit_-_22nd_July_in_London_%2814498368279%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="126" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Girl_Summit_-_22nd_July_in_London_%2814498368279%29.jpg/330px-Girl_Summit_-_22nd_July_in_London_%2814498368279%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Girl_Summit_-_22nd_July_in_London_%2814498368279%29.jpg/440px-Girl_Summit_-_22nd_July_in_London_%2814498368279%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="868" data-file-height="499" /></a><figcaption> Poster against child and forced marriage</figcaption></figure> A child marriage is a marriage where one or both spouses are under 18, a practice that disproportionately affects women.<a href="#cite_note-UNICEF_2014-209">[209]</a><a href="#cite_note-HRW_2013-210">[210]</a> Child marriages are most common in South Asia, the <a href="/wiki/Middle_East" title="Middle East">Middle East</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sub-Saharan_Africa" title="Sub-Saharan Africa">Sub-Saharan Africa</a>, but occur in other parts of the world, too. The practice of marrying young girls is rooted in patriarchal ideologies of control of female behavior and is also sustained by traditional practices such as dowry and bride price.<a href="#cite_note-211">[211]</a> Child marriage is strongly connected with protecting female <a href="/wiki/Virginity" title="Virginity">virginity</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Forced_Early_Marriage-212">[212]</a> UNICEF states that:<a href="#cite_note-UNICEF_2014-209">[209]</a> <blockquote>Marrying girls under 18 years old is rooted in <a href="/wiki/Gender_discrimination" class="mw-redirect" title="Gender discrimination">gender discrimination</a>, encouraging premature and continuous child bearing and giving preference to boys' education. Child marriage is also a strategy for economic survival as families marry off their daughters at an early age to reduce their economic burden.</blockquote> Consequences of child marriage include restricted education and employment prospects, increased risk of domestic violence, <a href="/wiki/Child_sexual_abuse" title="Child sexual abuse">child sexual abuse</a>, pregnancy and birth complications, and <a href="/wiki/Social_isolation" title="Social isolation">social isolation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-HRW_2013-210">[210]</a><a href="#cite_note-Forced_Early_Marriage-212">[212]</a> Early and forced marriage are defined as forms of modern-day slavery by the <a href="/wiki/International_Labour_Organization" title="International Labour Organization">International Labour Organization</a>.<a href="#cite_note-213">[213]</a> In some cases, a woman or girl who has been raped may be forced to marry her rapist to restore the honor of her family;<a href="#cite_note-whqlibdoc.who.int-214">[214]</a><a href="#cite_note-215">[215]</a> <a href="/wiki/Marriage_by_abduction" class="mw-redirect" title="Marriage by abduction">marriage by abduction</a>, a practice in which a man abducts the woman or girl whom he wishes to marry and rapes her to force the marriage is common in <a href="/wiki/Ethiopia" title="Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-216">[216]</a><a href="#cite_note-217">[217]</a><a href="#cite_note-218">[218]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Dating">Dating</h3></div> In case of heterosexual <a href="/wiki/Dating" title="Dating">dating</a>, sexist <a href="/wiki/Social_norm" title="Social norm">social norms</a> are widespread, such as men asking women out on dates or men <a href="/wiki/Marriage_proposal" title="Marriage proposal">proposing marriage</a> while women avoid showing overt <a href="/wiki/Agency_(psychology)" title="Agency (psychology)">initiate</a>.<a href="#cite_note-d673-219">[219]</a> Some women reject gender <a href="/wiki/Egalitarianism" title="Egalitarianism">egalitarian</a> dating norms, such as women asking men out on dates, due to fear of <a href="/wiki/Social_rejection#Romantic_rejection" title="Social rejection">rejection</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ambivalent_sexism" title="Ambivalent sexism">benevolent sexism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-p358-220">[220]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Domestic_violence">Domestic violence</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Honor_killing" title="Honor killing">Honor killing</a>, <a href="/wiki/Acid_throwing" class="mw-redirect" title="Acid throwing">Acid throwing</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Dowry_death" title="Dowry death">Dowry death</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Acid_attack_victim.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Portrait of a female acid attack victim showing facial injuries" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Acid_attack_victim.jpg/300px-Acid_attack_victim.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="199" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Acid_attack_victim.jpg/450px-Acid_attack_victim.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Acid_attack_victim.jpg/600px-Acid_attack_victim.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="680" /></a><figcaption> Acid attack victim in <a href="/wiki/Cambodia" title="Cambodia">Cambodia</a></figcaption></figure> Although the exact rates are widely disputed, there is a large body of cross-cultural evidence that <a href="/wiki/Domestic_violence" title="Domestic violence">domestic violence</a> is mostly committed by men against women.<a href="#cite_note-Dobash_1992-221">[221]</a><a href="#cite_note-Compton_2010-222">[222]</a><a href="#cite_note-Brinkerhoff_2008-223">[223]</a> In addition, there is a broad consensus that women are more often subjected to severe forms of abuse and are more likely to be injured by an abusive partner.<a href="#cite_note-Compton_2010-222">[222]</a><a href="#cite_note-Brinkerhoff_2008-223">[223]</a> The United Nations recognizes domestic violence as a form of <a href="/wiki/Gender-based_violence" class="mw-redirect" title="Gender-based violence">gender-based violence</a>, which it describes as a <a href="/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human rights">human rights</a> violation, and the result of sexism.<a href="#cite_note-224">[224]</a> Domestic violence is tolerated and even legally accepted in many parts of the world. For instance, in 2010, the <a href="/wiki/United_Arab_Emirates" title="United Arab Emirates">United Arab Emirates</a> (UAE)'s Supreme Court ruled that a man has the right to discipline his wife and children physically if he does not leave visible marks.<a href="#cite_note-225">[225]</a> In 2015, <a href="/wiki/Equality_Now" title="Equality Now">Equality Now</a> drew attention to a section of the Penal Code of Northern Nigeria, titled Correction of Child, Pupil, Servant or Wife which reads: "(1) Nothing is an offence which does not amount to the infliction of grievous hurt upon any persons which is done: (...) (d) by a husband for the purpose of correcting his wife, such husband and wife being subject to any native law or custom in which such correction is recognized as lawful."<a href="#cite_note-226">[226]</a> <a href="/wiki/Honor_killings" class="mw-redirect" title="Honor killings">Honor killings</a> are another form of domestic violence practiced in several parts of the world, and their victims are predominantly women.<a href="#cite_note-Maris_2001-227">[227]</a> Honor killings can occur because of refusal to enter into an arranged marriage, maintaining a relationship relatives disapprove of, extramarital sex, becoming the victim of rape, dress seen as inappropriate, or homosexuality.<a href="#cite_note-228">[228]</a><a href="#cite_note-229">[229]</a><a href="#cite_note-230">[230]</a> The <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Office_on_Drugs_and_Crime" title="United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime">United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime</a> states that, "[h]onour crimes, including killing, are one of history's oldest forms of gender-based violence".<a href="#cite_note-231">[231]</a> According to a report of the Special Rapporteur submitted to the 58th session of the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Commission_on_Human_Rights" title="United Nations Commission on Human Rights">United Nations Commission on Human Rights</a> concerning cultural practices in the family that reflect violence against women: <blockquote>The Special Rapporteur indicated that there had been contradictory decisions with regard to the honor defense in <a href="/wiki/Brazil" title="Brazil">Brazil</a>, and that legislative provisions allowing for partial or complete defense in that context could be found in the penal codes of Argentina, Ecuador, Egypt, Guatemala, Iran, Israel, Jordan, Peru, Syria, Venezuela, and the <a href="/wiki/Palestinian_National_Authority" class="mw-redirect" title="Palestinian National Authority">Palestinian National Authority</a>.<a href="#cite_note-UN_Secretary-General_2002-232">[232]</a></blockquote> Practices such as honor killings and stoning continue to be supported by mainstream politicians and other officials in some countries. In Pakistan, after the 2008 <a href="/wiki/Honour_killing_in_Pakistan" title="Honour killing in Pakistan">Balochistan honor killings</a> in which five women were killed by tribesmen of the <a href="/wiki/Umrani" title="Umrani">Umrani Tribe</a> of <a href="/wiki/Balochistan_(Pakistan)" class="mw-redirect" title="Balochistan (Pakistan)">Balochistan</a>, Pakistani federal minister for Postal Services <a href="/wiki/Israr_Ullah_Zehri" title="Israr Ullah Zehri">Israr Ullah Zehri</a> defended the practice:<a href="#cite_note-Hussain_2008-233">[233]</a> "These are centuries-old traditions, and I will continue to defend them. Only those who indulge in immoral acts should be afraid."<a href="#cite_note-Telegraph_2008-234">[234]</a> Following the 2006 case of <a href="/wiki/Sakineh_Mohammadi_Ashtiani" title="Sakineh Mohammadi Ashtiani">Sakineh Mohammadi Ashtiani</a> (which has placed Iran under international pressure for its stoning sentences), <a href="/wiki/Mohammad-Javad_Larijani" title="Mohammad-Javad Larijani">Mohammad-Javad Larijani</a>, a senior envoy and chief of Iran's Human Rights Council, defended the practice of stoning; he claimed it was a "lesser punishment" than <a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment" title="Capital punishment">execution</a>, because it allowed those convicted a chance at survival.<a href="#cite_note-235">[235]</a> <a href="/wiki/Dowry_deaths" class="mw-redirect" title="Dowry deaths">Dowry deaths</a> result from the killing of women who are unable to pay the high dowry price for their marriage. According to <a href="/wiki/Amnesty_International" title="Amnesty International">Amnesty International</a>, "the ongoing reality of dowry-related violence is an example of what can happen when women are treated as property".<a href="#cite_note-236">[236]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Education">Education</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_education" title="Sex differences in education">Sex differences in education</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sexism_in_academia" title="Sexism in academia">Sexism in academia</a></div> Women have traditionally had limited access to higher education.<a href="#cite_note-237">[237]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] In the past, when women were admitted to higher education, they were encouraged to major in less-scientific subjects; the study of <a href="/wiki/English_literature" title="English literature">English literature</a> in American and British colleges and universities was instituted as a field considered suitable to women's "lesser intellects".<a href="#cite_note-238">[238]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] Educational specialties in higher education produce and perpetuate inequality between men and women.<a href="#cite_note-239">[239]</a> Disparity persists particularly in computer and <a href="/wiki/Information_science" title="Information science">information science</a>, where in the US women received only 21% of the undergraduate degrees, and in engineering, where women obtained only 19% of the degrees in 2008.<a href="#cite_note-240">[240]</a> Only one out of five of physics doctorates in the US are awarded to women, and only about half those women are American.<a href="#cite_note-Pollack_2013-241">[241]</a> Of all the physics professors in the country, only 14% are women.<a href="#cite_note-Pollack_2013-241">[241]</a> As of 2019, women account for just 27% of all workers in <a href="/wiki/STEM" class="mw-redirect" title="STEM">STEM</a> fields, and on average earn almost 20% less than men in the same industries.<a href="#cite_note-242">[242]</a> World <a href="/wiki/Literacy#Gender_disparities" title="Literacy">literacy</a> is lower for females than for males. Data from <a href="/wiki/The_World_Factbook" title="The World Factbook">The World Factbook</a> shows that 79.7% of women are literate, compared to 88.6% of men (aged 15 and over).<a href="#cite_note-243">[243]</a> In some parts of the world, girls continue to be excluded from proper public or private education. In parts of Afghanistan, girls who go to school face serious violence from some local community members and religious groups.<a href="#cite_note-Torgan_2012-244">[244]</a> According to 2010 UN estimates, only Afghanistan, Pakistan and Yemen had less than 90 girls per 100 boys at school.<a href="#cite_note-245">[245]</a> Jayachandran and <a href="/wiki/Adriana_Lleras-Muney" title="Adriana Lleras-Muney">Lleras-Muney's</a> study of Sri Lankan economic development has suggested that increases in the life expectancy for women encourages educational investment because a longer time horizon increases the value of investments that pay out over time.<a href="#cite_note-246">[246]</a> Educational opportunities and outcomes for women have greatly improved in the West. Since 1991, the proportion of women enrolled in college in the United States has exceeded the enrollment rate for men, and the gap has widened over time.<a href="#cite_note-247">[247]</a> As of 2007<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sexism&action=edit">[update]</a>, women made up the majority—54%—of the 10.8 million college students enrolled in the United States.<a href="#cite_note-248">[248]</a> However, research by Diane Halpern has indicated that boys receive more attention, praise, blame and punishment in the grammar-school classroom,<a href="#cite_note-249">[249]</a> and "this pattern of more active teacher attention directed at male students continues at the postsecondary level".<a href="#cite_note-250">[250]</a> Over time, female students speak less in a classroom setting.<a href="#cite_note-251">[251]</a> Teachers also tend to spend more time supporting the academic achievements of girls.<a href="#cite_note-252">[252]</a> Boys are frequently diagnosed with <a href="/wiki/ADHD" class="mw-redirect" title="ADHD">ADHD</a>, which some see as a result of school systems being more likely to apply these labels to males.<a href="#cite_note-253">[253]</a> A recent study by the OECD in over 60 countries found that teachers give boys lower grades for the same work. The researchers attribute this to stereotypical ideas about boys and recommend teachers to be aware of this gender bias.<a href="#cite_note-254">[254]</a> One study found that students give female professors worse evaluation scores than male professors, even though the students appear to do as well under female professors as male professors.<a href="#cite_note-255">[255]</a> Gender bias and gender-based discrimination still permeate the education process in many settings. For example, in the teaching and learning process, including differential engagement, expectations and interactions by teachers with their male and female students, as well as gender stereotypes in <a href="/wiki/Textbook" title="Textbook">textbooks</a> and learning materials. There has been a lack in adequate resources and infrastructure to ensure safe and enabling <a href="/wiki/Learning_environment" title="Learning environment">learning environments</a>, and insufficient policy, legal and planning frameworks, that respect, protect and fulfil the <a href="/wiki/Right_to_education" title="Right to education">right to education</a>.<a href="#cite_note-256">[256]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fashion">Fashion</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Foot_binding" title="Foot binding">Foot binding</a> and <a href="/wiki/Burqa" title="Burqa">Burqa</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Gendered_associations_of_pink_and_blue" title="Gendered associations of pink and blue">Gendered associations of pink and blue</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gobert_-_Louis_XV_as_child,_Fundaci%C3%B3n_Jakober.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Louis XV as a boy wearing a pink dress." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Gobert_-_Louis_XV_as_child%2C_Fundaci%C3%B3n_Jakober.jpg/250px-Gobert_-_Louis_XV_as_child%2C_Fundaci%C3%B3n_Jakober.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="207" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Gobert_-_Louis_XV_as_child%2C_Fundaci%C3%B3n_Jakober.jpg/330px-Gobert_-_Louis_XV_as_child%2C_Fundaci%C3%B3n_Jakober.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Gobert_-_Louis_XV_as_child%2C_Fundaci%C3%B3n_Jakober.jpg/340px-Gobert_-_Louis_XV_as_child%2C_Fundaci%C3%B3n_Jakober.jpg 2x" data-file-width="350" data-file-height="427" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Louis_XV" title="Louis XV">Louis XV</a> in 1712, a boy wearing a pink dress</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:A_HIGH_CASTE_LADYS_DAINTY_LILY_FEET.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A Chinese woman shows the effects of foot binding on her feet." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/A_HIGH_CASTE_LADYS_DAINTY_LILY_FEET.jpg/250px-A_HIGH_CASTE_LADYS_DAINTY_LILY_FEET.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="175" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/A_HIGH_CASTE_LADYS_DAINTY_LILY_FEET.jpg/330px-A_HIGH_CASTE_LADYS_DAINTY_LILY_FEET.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/A_HIGH_CASTE_LADYS_DAINTY_LILY_FEET.jpg/500px-A_HIGH_CASTE_LADYS_DAINTY_LILY_FEET.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1911" data-file-height="1968" /></a><figcaption>Chinese woman shows the effect of <a href="/wiki/Foot_binding" title="Foot binding">foot binding</a>.</figcaption></figure> Feminists argue that clothing and footwear fashion have been oppressive to women, restricting their movements, increasing their vulnerability, and endangering their health.<a href="#cite_note-257">[257]</a> Using thin models in the fashion industry has encouraged the development of <a href="/wiki/Bulimia" class="mw-redirect" title="Bulimia">bulimia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Anorexia_nervosa" title="Anorexia nervosa">anorexia nervosa</a>, as well as locking female consumers into false feminine identities.<a href="#cite_note-258">[258]</a> The assignment of gender-specific baby clothes can instill in children a belief in negative gender stereotypes.<a href="#cite_note-259">[259]</a> One example is the assignment in some countries of the color pink to girls and blue to boys. The fashion is recent one. At the beginning of the 20th century the trend was the opposite: blue for girls and pink for boys.<a href="#cite_note-260">[260]</a> In the early 1900s, The Women's Journal wrote that "pink being a more decided and stronger colour, is more suitable for the boy, while blue, which is more delicate and dainty, is prettier for the girl". DressMaker magazine also explained that "[t]he preferred colour to dress young boys in is pink. Blue is reserved for girls as it is considered paler, and the more dainty of the two colours, and pink is thought to be stronger (akin to red)".<a href="#cite_note-261">[261]</a> Today, in many countries, it is considered inappropriate for boys to wear dresses and skirts, but this is also a relatively recent view. From the mid-16th century<a href="#cite_note-262">[262]</a> until the late 19th or early 20th century, young boys in the <a href="/wiki/Western_world" title="Western world">Western world</a> were <a href="/wiki/Breeching_(boys)" title="Breeching (boys)">unbreeched</a> and wore <a href="/wiki/Gown" title="Gown">gowns</a> or dresses until an age that varied between two and eight.<a href="#cite_note-263">[263]</a> Laws that dictate how women must dress are seen by many international human rights organizations, such as Amnesty International, as gender discrimination.<a href="#cite_note-Amnesty_International_2010-264">[264]</a> In many countries, women face violence for failing to adhere to certain dress codes, whether by the authorities (such as the <a href="/wiki/Religious_police" title="Religious police">religious police</a>), family members, or the community.<a href="#cite_note-265">[265]</a><a href="#cite_note-266">[266]</a> Amnesty International states: <blockquote>Interpretations of religion, culture, or tradition cannot justify imposing rules about dress on those who choose to dress differently. States should take measures to protect individuals from being coerced to dress in specific ways by family members, community or religious groups or leaders.<a href="#cite_note-Amnesty_International_2010-264">[264]</a></blockquote> The production process also faces criticism for sexist practices. In the garment industry, approximately 80 percent of workers are female.<a href="#cite_note-267">[267]</a> Much garment production is located in Asia because of low labor costs. Women who work in these factories are sexually harassed by managers and male workers, paid low wages, and <a href="/wiki/Pregnancy_discrimination" title="Pregnancy discrimination">discriminated against when pregnant</a>.<a href="#cite_note-268">[268]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Female_genital_mutilation">Female genital mutilation</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Female_genital_mutilation" title="Female genital mutilation">Female genital mutilation</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Campaign_road_sign_against_female_genital_mutilation_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Campaign sign against female genital mutilation that reads:Stop Female Circumcision It is Dangerous to Women's Health" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Campaign_road_sign_against_female_genital_mutilation_%28cropped%29.jpg/250px-Campaign_road_sign_against_female_genital_mutilation_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Campaign_road_sign_against_female_genital_mutilation_%28cropped%29.jpg/330px-Campaign_road_sign_against_female_genital_mutilation_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Campaign_road_sign_against_female_genital_mutilation_%28cropped%29.jpg/500px-Campaign_road_sign_against_female_genital_mutilation_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="957" data-file-height="651" /></a><figcaption>Campaign against <a href="/wiki/Female_genital_mutilation" title="Female genital mutilation">female genital mutilation</a> in <a href="/wiki/Uganda" title="Uganda">Uganda</a></figcaption></figure> Female genital mutilation is defined by the <a href="/wiki/World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization">World Health Organization</a> (WHO) as "all procedures that involve partial or total removal of the external female genitalia, or other injury to the female genital organs for non-medical reasons". The WHO further states, "The practice has no health benefits for girls and women and [can] cause severe bleeding and problems urinating, and later cysts, infections, as well as complications in childbirth and increased risk of newborn deaths."<a href="#cite_note-WHO_Female_Genital_Mutilation-269">[269]</a> It "is recognized internationally as a violation of the human rights of girls and women" and "constitutes an extreme form of discrimination against women".<a href="#cite_note-WHO_Female_Genital_Mutilation-269">[269]</a> The <a href="/wiki/European_Parliament" title="European Parliament">European Parliament</a> stated in a 2014 resolution that the practice "clearly goes against the European founding value of equality between women and men and maintains traditional values according to which women are seen as the objects and properties of men".<a href="#cite_note-European_Parliament_2014-270">[270]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Gendercide_and_forced_sterilization">Gendercide and forced sterilization</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:2012_Birth_Sex_Ratio_World_Map.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="World map showing birth sex ratios" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/2012_Birth_Sex_Ratio_World_Map.jpg/250px-2012_Birth_Sex_Ratio_World_Map.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="91" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/2012_Birth_Sex_Ratio_World_Map.jpg/330px-2012_Birth_Sex_Ratio_World_Map.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/2012_Birth_Sex_Ratio_World_Map.jpg/500px-2012_Birth_Sex_Ratio_World_Map.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1800" data-file-height="820" /></a><figcaption>World map of birth sex ratios, 2012</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Something_you_wouldn%27t_see_in_America_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Sign in an Indian clinic reading "Prenatal disclosure of sex of foetues is prohibited under law" in English and Hindi." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Something_you_wouldn%27t_see_in_America_%28cropped%29.jpg/250px-Something_you_wouldn%27t_see_in_America_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="93" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Something_you_wouldn%27t_see_in_America_%28cropped%29.jpg/330px-Something_you_wouldn%27t_see_in_America_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1732" data-file-height="1075" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:G106-Dajipu-to-Daye-hills-0068.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Roadside graffiti reading:"Crack down on medically unnecessary fetus sex identification and pregnancy termination practices."" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/G106-Dajipu-to-Daye-hills-0068.jpg/250px-G106-Dajipu-to-Daye-hills-0068.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="113" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/G106-Dajipu-to-Daye-hills-0068.jpg/330px-G106-Dajipu-to-Daye-hills-0068.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption>"Crack down on medically unnecessary fetus sex identification and pregnancy termination practices."</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Female_infanticide" title="Female infanticide">Female infanticide</a> is the killing of newborn female children, while female <a href="/wiki/Sex-selective_abortion" title="Sex-selective abortion">selective abortion</a> is the terminating of a pregnancy based upon the female sex of the fetus. <a href="/wiki/Gendercide" title="Gendercide">Gendercide</a> is the systematic killing of members of a specific gender and it is an extreme form of gender-based violence.<a href="#cite_note-EIGE-271">[271]</a><a href="#cite_note-BBC_Ethics_Guide-272">[272]</a><a href="#cite_note-273">[273]</a> Female infanticide is more common than male infanticide, and is especially prevalent in <a href="/wiki/South_Asia" title="South Asia">South Asia</a>, in countries such as <a href="/wiki/Female_infanticide_in_China" title="Female infanticide in China">China</a>, <a href="/wiki/Female_infanticide_in_India" title="Female infanticide in India">India</a> and <a href="/wiki/Female_infanticide_in_Pakistan" title="Female infanticide in Pakistan">Pakistan</a>.<a href="#cite_note-BBC_Ethics_Guide-272">[272]</a><a href="#cite_note-274">[274]</a><a href="#cite_note-275">[275]</a> Recent studies suggest that over 90 million <a href="/wiki/Missing_women_of_Asia" class="mw-redirect" title="Missing women of Asia">women and girls are missing</a> in China and India as a result of infanticide.<a href="#cite_note-276">[276]</a><a href="#cite_note-277">[277]</a> Sex-selective abortion involves terminating a pregnancy based upon the predicted sex of the baby. The abortion of female fetuses is most common in areas where a culture values male children over females,<a href="#cite_note-Goodkind_1999-278">[278]</a> such as parts of <a href="/wiki/East_Asia" title="East Asia">East Asia</a> and South Asia (China, India, Korea), the <a href="/wiki/Caucasus" title="Caucasus">Caucasus</a> (Azerbaijan, Armenia and Georgia), and <a href="/wiki/Western_Balkans" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Balkans">Western Balkans</a> (Albania, Macedonia, Montenegro, Kosovo).<a href="#cite_note-Goodkind_1999-278">[278]</a><a href="#cite_note-Gettis_2004-279">[279]</a> One reason for this preference is that males are seen as generating more income than females. The trend has grown steadily over the previous decade, and may result in a future shortage of women.<a href="#cite_note-280">[280]</a> <a href="/wiki/Forced_sterilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Forced sterilization">Forced sterilization</a> and <a href="/wiki/Forced_abortion" title="Forced abortion">forced abortion</a> are also forms of gender-based violence.<a href="#cite_note-EIGE-271">[271]</a> Forced sterilization was practiced during the first half of the 20th century by many Western countries and there are reports of this practice being currently employed in some countries, such as <a href="/wiki/Uzbekistan" title="Uzbekistan">Uzbekistan</a> and China.<a href="#cite_note-281">[281]</a><a href="#cite_note-282">[282]</a><a href="#cite_note-283">[283]</a><a href="#cite_note-284">[284]</a> In China, the <a href="/wiki/One_child_policy" class="mw-redirect" title="One child policy">one child policy</a> interacting with the low status of women has been deemed responsible for many abuses, such as female infanticide, sex-selective abortion, abandonment of baby girls, forced abortion, and forced sterilization.<a href="#cite_note-285">[285]</a><a href="#cite_note-286">[286]</a> In India, the custom of dowry is strongly related to female infanticide, sex-selective abortion, abandonment and mistreatment of girls.<a href="#cite_note-287">[287]</a> Such practices are especially present in the northwestern part of the country: <a href="/wiki/Jammu_and_Kashmir_(union_territory)" title="Jammu and Kashmir (union territory)">Jammu and Kashmir</a>, <a href="/wiki/Haryana" title="Haryana">Haryana</a>, <a href="/wiki/Punjab,_India" title="Punjab, India">Punjab</a>, <a href="/wiki/Uttarakhand" title="Uttarakhand">Uttarakhand</a> and <a href="/wiki/Delhi" title="Delhi">Delhi</a>. (See <a href="/wiki/Female_foeticide_in_India" title="Female foeticide in India">Female foeticide in India</a> and <a href="/wiki/Female_infanticide_in_India" title="Female infanticide in India">Female infanticide in India</a>). <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Legal_justice_and_regulations">Legal justice and regulations</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Taliban_beating_woman_in_public_RAWA.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A Taliban religious policeman beating a woman because she removed her burqa in public." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Taliban_beating_woman_in_public_RAWA.jpg/250px-Taliban_beating_woman_in_public_RAWA.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="149" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Taliban_beating_woman_in_public_RAWA.jpg/330px-Taliban_beating_woman_in_public_RAWA.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Taliban_beating_woman_in_public_RAWA.jpg/440px-Taliban_beating_woman_in_public_RAWA.jpg 2x" data-file-width="447" data-file-height="302" /></a><figcaption> Member of the Taliban's <a href="/wiki/Islamic_religious_police" title="Islamic religious police">religious police</a> beating an Afghan woman in <a href="/wiki/Kabul" title="Kabul">Kabul</a> on August 26, 2001. <a href="/wiki/Political_violence" title="Political violence">State violence</a> against women is a form of discrimination.</figcaption></figure> In several <a href="/wiki/Organisation_of_Islamic_Cooperation" title="Organisation of Islamic Cooperation">Organisation of Islamic Cooperation</a> (OIC) countries the legal testimony of a woman is worth legally half of that of a man (see <a href="/wiki/Status_of_women%27s_testimony_in_Islam" title="Status of women's testimony in Islam">Status of women's testimony in Islam</a>). Such countries include: Algeria (in criminal cases), Bahrain (in <a href="/wiki/Sharia" title="Sharia">Sharia</a> courts), Egypt (in family courts), Iran (in most cases), Iraq (in some cases), Jordan (in Sharia courts), Kuwait (in family courts), Libya (in some cases), Morocco (in family cases), Palestine (in cases related to marriage, divorce and child custody), Qatar (in family law matters), Syria (in Sharia courts), United Arab Emirates (in some civil matters), Yemen (not allowed to testify at all in cases of adultery and retribution), and Saudi Arabia.<a href="#cite_note-288">[288]</a><a href="#cite_note-289">[289]</a> Such laws have been criticized by <a href="/wiki/Human_Rights_Watch" title="Human Rights Watch">Human Rights Watch</a> and Equality Now as being discriminatory towards women.<a href="#cite_note-290">[290]</a><a href="#cite_note-291">[291]</a> Some countries use <a href="/wiki/Stoning" title="Stoning">stoning</a> as a form of capital punishment. According to Amnesty International, the majority of those stoned are women and women are disproportionately affected by stoning because of sexism in the legal system.<a href="#cite_note-292">[292]</a> The criminal justice system in many <a href="/wiki/Common_law_countries" class="mw-redirect" title="Common law countries">common law countries</a> has also been accused of discriminating against women. <a href="/wiki/Provocation_(legal)" class="mw-redirect" title="Provocation (legal)">Provocation</a> is, in many common law countries, a partial defense to <a href="/wiki/Murder" title="Murder">murder</a>, which converts what would have been murder into <a href="/wiki/Manslaughter" title="Manslaughter">manslaughter</a>. It is meant to be applied when a person kills in the "heat of passion" upon being "provoked" by the behavior of the victim. This defense has been criticized as being gendered, favoring men, because of it being used disproportionately in cases of <a href="/wiki/Adultery" title="Adultery">adultery</a>, and other domestic disputes when women are killed by their partners. As a result of the defense exhibiting a strong gender bias, and being a form of legitimization of male violence against women and minimization of the harm caused by violence against women, it has been abolished or restricted in several jurisdictions.<a href="#cite_note-293">[293]</a><a href="#cite_note-294">[294]</a> The traditional leniency towards <a href="/wiki/Crimes_of_passion" class="mw-redirect" title="Crimes of passion">crimes of passion</a> in Latin American countries has been deemed to have its origin in the view that women are property.<a href="#cite_note-Mayell_2002-295">[295]</a> In 2002, Widney Brown, advocacy director for Human Rights Watch, stated that, "[S]o-called crimes of passion have a similar dynamic [to honor killings] in that the women are killed by male family members and the crimes are perceived as excusable or understandable."<a href="#cite_note-Mayell_2002-295">[295]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Office_of_the_United_Nations_High_Commissioner_for_Human_Rights" title="Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights">Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights</a> (OHCHR) has called for "the elimination of discriminatory provisions in the legislation, including mitigating factors for 'crimes of passion'."<a href="#cite_note-296">[296]</a> Transgender people face widespread discrimination while incarcerated. They are generally housed according to their legal birth sex, rather than their gender identity. Studies have shown that transgender people are at an increased risk for harassment and sexual assault in this environment. They may also be denied access to medical procedures related to their reassignment.<a href="#cite_note-297">[297]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Military">Military</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Conscription_and_sexism" title="Conscription and sexism">Conscription and sexism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Women_in_the_military" title="Women in the military">Women in the military</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:20110610_WN_S1015650_0034_-_Flickr_-_NZ_Defence_Force.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/20110610_WN_S1015650_0034_-_Flickr_-_NZ_Defence_Force.jpg/220px-20110610_WN_S1015650_0034_-_Flickr_-_NZ_Defence_Force.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/20110610_WN_S1015650_0034_-_Flickr_-_NZ_Defence_Force.jpg/330px-20110610_WN_S1015650_0034_-_Flickr_-_NZ_Defence_Force.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/20110610_WN_S1015650_0034_-_Flickr_-_NZ_Defence_Force.jpg/440px-20110610_WN_S1015650_0034_-_Flickr_-_NZ_Defence_Force.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4256" data-file-height="2832" /></a><figcaption>New Zealand soldiers</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Conscription" title="Conscription">Conscription</a>, or compulsory military service, has been criticized as sexist.<a href="#cite_note-Benatar_2012-298">[298]</a>: 102 <a href="#cite_note-299">[299]</a> During the Modern era, prior to the late 20th century, mostly men were subjected to conscription, although there were several instances of conscription of women in <a href="/wiki/Ancient_history" title="Ancient history">Antiquity</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Gagova_2015-300">[300]</a><a href="#cite_note-Matanov_2014-301">[301]</a><a href="#cite_note-Benatar_2012-298">[298]</a>: 255 <a href="#cite_note-302">[302]</a><a href="#cite_note-303">[303]</a><a href="#cite_note-304">[304]</a><a href="#cite_note-305">[305]</a> Today most countries still require only men to serve in the military. In his book The Second Sexism: Discrimination Against Men and Boys (2012), philosopher <a href="/wiki/David_Benatar" title="David Benatar">David Benatar</a> states that "[t]he prevailing assumption is that where conscription is necessary, it is only men who should be conscripted and, similarly, that only males should be forced into combat". This, he believes, "is a sexist assumption".<a href="#cite_note-Benatar_2012-298">[298]</a>: 102  Anthropologist Ayse Gül Altinay has commented that "given equal suffrage rights, there is no other citizenship practice that differentiates as radically between men and women as compulsory male conscription".<a href="#cite_note-Altinay_2004-306">[306]</a>: 34  Only nine countries conscript women into their armed forces: China, Eritrea, Israel, Libya, Malaysia, North Korea, Norway, Peru, and Taiwan.<a href="#cite_note-307">[307]</a><a href="#cite_note-Koranyi_2014-308">[308]</a> Other countries—such as <a href="/wiki/Conscription_in_Finland" title="Conscription in Finland">Finland</a>, <a href="/wiki/Conscription_in_Turkey" title="Conscription in Turkey">Turkey</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Conscription_in_Singapore" class="mw-redirect" title="Conscription in Singapore">Singapore</a>—still use a system of conscription which requires military service from men only, although women may serve voluntarily. In 2014, Norway became the first <a href="/wiki/NATO" title="NATO">NATO</a> country to introduce obligatory military service for women as an act of gender equality<a href="#cite_note-Koranyi_2014-308">[308]</a><a href="#cite_note-309">[309]</a> and in 2015, the <a href="/wiki/Netherlands" title="Netherlands">Dutch</a> government started preparing a gender-neutral draft law.<a href="#cite_note-310">[310]</a> The gender selective draft has been challenged in the United States.<a href="#cite_note-311">[311]</a> Conditions in the military have been described as "sexually abusive" and the "sexual persecution" of women.<a href="#cite_note-312">[312]</a> Relentless sexist ridicule, hostility, and sexual harassment has been frequently reported.<a href="#cite_note-313">[313]</a><a href="#cite_note-314">[314]</a> Women in the military are more likely to be raped by a male fellow soldier than killed by the enemy.<a href="#cite_note-315">[315]</a><a href="#cite_note-316">[316]</a><a href="#cite_note-317">[317]</a> Prosecution of the reported crimes fails to move forward, as the Pentagon claimed it would undermine the leadership of the commanders.<a href="#cite_note-318">[318]</a><a href="#cite_note-319">[319]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sentencing_disparity">Sentencing disparity</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Sentencing_disparity" title="Sentencing disparity">Sentencing disparity</a></div> In the United States, some studies have shown that for identical crimes, men are given harsher sentences than women. Controlling for arrest offense, criminal history, and other pre-charge variables, sentences are over 60% heavier for men. Women are more likely to avoid charges entirely, and to avoid imprisonment if convicted.<a href="#cite_note-McCormack_2012-320">[320]</a><a href="#cite_note-University_of_Michigan_2012-321">[321]</a> The gender disparity varies according to the nature of the case. For example, the gender gap is less pronounced in fraud cases than in drug trafficking and firearms. This disparity occurs in US federal courts, despite guidelines designed to avoid differential sentencing.<a href="#cite_note-Doerner_2009-322">[322]</a> The death penalty may also suffer from gender bias. According to Shatz and Shatz, "[t]he present study confirms what earlier studies have shown: that the death penalty is imposed on women relatively infrequently and that it is disproportionately imposed for the killing of women".<a href="#cite_note-323">[323]</a> There have been several reasons postulated for the gender criminal justice disparity in the United States. One of the most common is the expectation that women are predominantly care-givers.<a href="#cite_note-McCormack_2012-320">[320]</a><a href="#cite_note-University_of_Michigan_2012-321">[321]</a><a href="#cite_note-Doerner_2009-322">[322]</a> Other possible reasons include the "girlfriend theory" (whereby women are seen as tools of their boyfriends),<a href="#cite_note-University_of_Michigan_2012-321">[321]</a> the theory that female defendants are more likely to cooperate with authorities,<a href="#cite_note-University_of_Michigan_2012-321">[321]</a> and that women are often successful at turning their violent crime into victimhood by citing defenses such as <a href="/wiki/Postpartum_depression" title="Postpartum depression">postpartum depression</a> or <a href="/wiki/Battered_wife_syndrome" class="mw-redirect" title="Battered wife syndrome">battered wife syndrome</a>.<a href="#cite_note-324">[324]</a> However, none of these theories account for the total disparity,<a href="#cite_note-University_of_Michigan_2012-321">[321]</a> and sexism has also been suggested as an underlying cause.<a href="#cite_note-325">[325]</a> Gender discrimination also helps explain the differences between trial outcomes in which some female defendants are sentenced to death and other female defendants are sentenced to lesser punishments. <a href="/wiki/Phillip_Barron" title="Phillip Barron">Phillip Barron</a> argues that female defendants are more likely to be sentenced to death for crimes that violate gender norms, such as killing children or killing strangers.<a href="#cite_note-326">[326]</a> One study found that: <blockquote>[O]n average, women receive lighter sentences in comparison with men ... roughly 30% of the gender differences in incarceration cannot be explained by the observed criminal characteristics of offense and offender. We also find evidence of considerable heterogeneity across judges in their treatment of female and male offenders. There is little evidence, however, that tastes for gender discrimination are driving the mean gender disparity or the variance in treatment between judges.<a href="#cite_note-327">[327]</a></blockquote> A 2017 study by Knepper found that "female plaintiffs filing workplace sex discrimination claims are substantially more likely to settle and win compensation whenever a female judge is assigned to the case. Additionally, female judges are 15 percentage points less likely than male judges to grant motions filed by defendants, which suggests that final negotiations are shaped by the emergence of the bias."<a href="#cite_note-328">[328]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reproductive_rights">Reproductive rights</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Reproductive_rights" title="Reproductive rights">Reproductive rights</a></div> The <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Population_Fund" title="United Nations Population Fund">United Nations Population Fund</a> writes that, "Family planning is central to gender equality and women's empowerment".<a href="#cite_note-UNFPA-329">[329]</a> Women in many countries around the world are denied medical and informational services related to <a href="/wiki/Reproductive_health" class="mw-redirect" title="Reproductive health">reproductive health</a>, including access to pregnancy care, family planning, and contraception.<a href="#cite_note-UNFPA-329">[329]</a><a href="#cite_note-330">[330]</a> In countries with very strict abortion laws (particularly in <a href="/wiki/Latin_America" title="Latin America">Latin America</a>) women who suffer <a href="/wiki/Miscarriages" class="mw-redirect" title="Miscarriages">miscarriages</a> are often investigated by the police under suspicion of having deliberately provoked the miscarriage and are sometimes jailed,<a href="#cite_note-331">[331]</a> a practice which Amnesty International called a "ruthless campaign against women's rights".<a href="#cite_note-332">[332]</a> Doctors may be reluctant to treat pregnant women who are very ill, because they are afraid the treatment may result in fetal loss.<a href="#cite_note-333">[333]</a> According to <a href="/wiki/Amnesty_International" title="Amnesty International">Amnesty International</a>, "Discriminatory attitudes towards women and girls also means access to sex education and contraceptives are near impossible [in El Salvador]".<a href="#cite_note-334">[334]</a> The organization has also criticized laws and policies which require the husband's consent for a woman to use reproductive health services as being discriminatory and dangerous to <a href="/wiki/Women%27s_health" title="Women's health">women's health</a> and life: "[F]or the woman who needs her husband's consent to get contraception, the consequences of discrimination can be serious—even fatal".<a href="#cite_note-335">[335]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sexual_assault_and_treatment_of_victims">Sexual assault and treatment of victims</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Sexual_assault" title="Sexual assault">Sexual assault</a> and <a href="/wiki/Post-assault_treatment_of_sexual_assault_victims" title="Post-assault treatment of sexual assault victims">Post-assault treatment of sexual assault victims</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bangalore_protests_following_Delhi_gang-rape_(photo_-_Jim_Ankan_Deka).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="People carrying a banner marching in a protest against gang rape" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Bangalore_protests_following_Delhi_gang-rape_%28photo_-_Jim_Ankan_Deka%29.jpg/250px-Bangalore_protests_following_Delhi_gang-rape_%28photo_-_Jim_Ankan_Deka%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Bangalore_protests_following_Delhi_gang-rape_%28photo_-_Jim_Ankan_Deka%29.jpg/330px-Bangalore_protests_following_Delhi_gang-rape_%28photo_-_Jim_Ankan_Deka%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Bangalore_protests_following_Delhi_gang-rape_%28photo_-_Jim_Ankan_Deka%29.jpg/500px-Bangalore_protests_following_Delhi_gang-rape_%28photo_-_Jim_Ankan_Deka%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="530" /></a><figcaption>People in <a href="/wiki/Bangalore" class="mw-redirect" title="Bangalore">Bangalore</a>, India, demanding justice for a student <a href="/wiki/2012_Delhi_gang_rape_case" class="mw-redirect" title="2012 Delhi gang rape case">gang-raped in Delhi</a> in 2012</figcaption></figure> Research by Lisak and Roth into factors motivating perpetrators of sexual assault, including rape, against women revealed a pattern of hatred towards women and pleasure in inflicting psychological and physical trauma, rather than sexual interest.<a href="#cite_note-Lisak_1988-336">[336]</a> Mary Odem and Peggy Reeves Sanday posit that rape is the result not of pathology but of systems of male dominance, cultural practices and beliefs.<a href="#cite_note-Sanday_1981-337">[337]</a> Odem, Jody Clay-Warner, and <a href="/wiki/Susan_Brownmiller" title="Susan Brownmiller">Susan Brownmiller</a> argue that sexist attitudes are propagated by a series of myths about rape and rapists.<a href="#cite_note-Odem_1998-338">[338]</a>: 130–140 <a href="#cite_note-Brownmiller_1975-339">[339]</a> They state that in contrast to those myths, rapists often plan a rape before they choose a victim<a href="#cite_note-Odem_1998-338">[338]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Acquaintance_rape" title="Acquaintance rape">acquaintance rape</a> (not assault by a stranger) is the most common form of rape.<a href="#cite_note-Odem_1998-338">[338]</a>: xiv <a href="#cite_note-Bohmer_1991-340">[340]</a> Odem also asserts that these rape myths propagate sexist attitudes about men, by perpetuating the belief that men cannot control their sexuality.<a href="#cite_note-Odem_1998-338">[338]</a> Sexism can promote the stigmatization of women and girls who have been raped and inhibit recovery.<a href="#cite_note-whqlibdoc.who.int-214">[214]</a> In many parts of the world, women who have been raped are <a href="/wiki/Social_rejection" title="Social rejection">ostracized</a>, rejected by their families, subjected to violence, and—in extreme cases—may become victims of honor killings because they are deemed to have brought shame upon their families.<a href="#cite_note-whqlibdoc.who.int-214">[214]</a><a href="#cite_note-341">[341]</a> The criminalization of marital rape is very recent, having occurred during the past few decades; in many countries it is still legal. Several countries in Eastern Europe and Scandinavia made spousal rape illegal before 1970; other European countries and some English-speaking countries outside Europe outlawed it later, mostly in the 1980s and 1990s;<a href="#cite_note-342">[342]</a> some countries outlawed it in the 2000s.<a href="#cite_note-343">[343]</a> The WHO wrote that: "Marriage is often used to legitimize a range of forms of sexual violence against women. The custom of marrying off young children, particularly girls, is found in many parts of the world. This practice—legal in many countries—is a form of sexual violence, since the children involved are unable to give or withhold their consent".<a href="#cite_note-whqlibdoc.who.int-214">[214]</a> In countries where <a href="/wiki/Fornication" title="Fornication">fornication</a> or <a href="/wiki/Adultery" title="Adultery">adultery</a> are illegal, victims of rape can be charged criminally.<a href="#cite_note-344">[344]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="War_rape">War rape</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/War_rape" class="mw-redirect" title="War rape">War rape</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:DRC_raped_women.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Female rape victims stand in front of a "peace hut"." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/DRC_raped_women.jpg/250px-DRC_raped_women.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/DRC_raped_women.jpg/330px-DRC_raped_women.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/DRC_raped_women.jpg/500px-DRC_raped_women.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2400" data-file-height="1800" /></a><figcaption>Meeting of victims of <a href="/wiki/Sexual_violence_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Sexual violence in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">sexual violence in the Democratic Republic of the Congo</a></figcaption></figure> Sexism is manifested by the crime of rape targeting women civilians and soldiers, committed by soldiers, combatants or civilians during armed conflict, war or military occupation. This arises from the long tradition of women being seen as sexual booty and from the misogynistic culture of military training.<a href="#cite_note-345">[345]</a><a href="#cite_note-346">[346]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 20em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ambivalent_sexism" title="Ambivalent sexism">Ambivalent sexism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antifeminism" title="Antifeminism">Antifeminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Androcide" title="Androcide">Androcide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Femicide" title="Femicide">Femicide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism" title="Feminism">Feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_movement" title="Feminist movement">Feminist movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_apartheid" title="Gender apartheid">Gender apartheid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_bias_on_Wikipedia" title="Gender bias on Wikipedia">Gender bias on Wikipedia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_discrimination_in_Pakistan" class="mw-redirect" title="Gender discrimination in Pakistan">Gender discrimination in Pakistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gendered_racism" title="Gendered racism">Gendered racism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_egalitarianism" class="mw-redirect" title="Gender egalitarianism">Gender egalitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_neutrality" title="Gender neutrality">Gender neutrality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_polarization" title="Gender polarization">Gender polarization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heterosexism" title="Heterosexism">Heterosexism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hipster_sexism" title="Hipster sexism">Hipster sexism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internalized_sexism" title="Internalized sexism">Internalized sexism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Male_privilege" title="Male privilege">Male privilege</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Masculism" title="Masculism">Masculism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matriarchy" title="Matriarchy">Matriarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Men_and_feminism" class="mw-redirect" title="Men and feminism">Men and feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Men%27s_movement" title="Men's movement">Men's movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Misandry" title="Misandry">Misandry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Misogyny" title="Misogyny">Misogyny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Organization_for_Men_Against_Sexism" title="National Organization for Men Against Sexism">National Organization for Men Against Sexism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_sexism" title="Occupational sexism">Occupational sexism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pink-collar_worker" title="Pink-collar worker">Pink-collar worker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patriarchy" title="Patriarchy">Patriarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reverse_sexism" title="Reverse sexism">Reverse sexism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_humans" title="Sex differences in humans">Sex differences in humans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexism_and_video_games" title="Sexism and video games">Sexism and video games</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexism_in_academia" title="Sexism in academia">Sexism in academia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexism_in_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Sexism in India">Sexism in India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexism_in_the_technology_industry" title="Sexism in the technology industry">Sexism in the technology industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_segregation" title="Sex segregation">Sex segregation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women-are-wonderful_effect" title="Women-are-wonderful effect">Women-are-wonderful effect</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Discrimination_Against_Women-1">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Discrimination_Against_Women_1-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Discrimination_Against_Women_1-1">b</a> Sources: <ul><li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFStevensonLindberg2011" class="citation book cs1">Stevenson, Angus; Lindberg, Christine A., eds. (2011). New Oxford American Dictionary. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-989153-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-989153-5"><bdi>978-0-19-989153-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=New+Oxford+American+Dictionary&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-19-989153-5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASexism" class="Z3988"> Defines sexism as "prejudice, stereotyping, or discrimination, typically against women, on the basis of sex".[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>]</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCuddJones2008" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ann_E._Cudd" class="mw-redirect" title="Ann E. Cudd">Cudd, Ann E.</a>; Jones, Leslie E. (2008). "Sexism". In Frey, R. G.; Wellman, Christopher Heath (eds.). A Companion to Applied Ethics. Blackwell Companions to Philosophy. John Wiley & Sons. p. 104. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-7190-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-7190-8"><bdi>978-1-4051-7190-8</bdi></a>. <q>[I]n the more accurate and more specific sense [...] 'sexism' refers to a historically and globally pervasive form of oppression against women.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Sexism&rft.btitle=A+Companion+to+Applied+Ethics&rft.series=Blackwell+Companions+to+Philosophy&rft.pages=104&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1-4051-7190-8&rft.aulast=Cudd&rft.aufirst=Ann+E.&rft.au=Jones%2C+Leslie+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASexism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMasequesmay2008" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Masequesmay, Gina (2008). "Sexism". In O'Brien, Jodi (ed.). Encyclopedia of Gender and Society, Volume 2. Thousand Oaks, Calif.: SAGE Publications. pp. 748–751. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4522-6602-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4522-6602-2"><bdi>978-1-4522-6602-2</bdi></a>. <q>Sexism usually refers to prejudice or discrimination based on sex or gender, especially against women and girls. [...] Sexism is an ideology or practices that maintain patriarchy or male domination.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Sexism&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Gender+and+Society%2C+Volume+2&rft.place=Thousand+Oaks%2C+Calif.&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E748-%3C%2Fspan%3E751&rft.pub=SAGE+Publications&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1-4522-6602-2&rft.aulast=Masequesmay&rft.aufirst=Gina&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASexism" class="Z3988"> Also see: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r996643573">.mw-parser-output .block-indent{padding-left:3em;padding-right:0;overflow:hidden}</style><div class="block-indent" style="padding-left: 2em;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMasequesmay2024" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Masequesmay, Gina (January 5, 2024). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/sexism">"Sexism"</a>. Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved February 19, 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Sexism&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.date=2024-01-05&rft.aulast=Masequesmay&rft.aufirst=Gina&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Ftopic%2Fsexism&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASexism" class="Z3988"></div></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHornsby2005" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jennifer_Hornsby" title="Jennifer Hornsby">Hornsby, Jennifer</a> (2005). "Sexism". In Honderich, Ted (ed.). The Oxford Companion to Philosophy (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-103747-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-103747-4"><bdi>978-0-19-103747-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Sexism&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Companion+to+Philosophy&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-19-103747-4&rft.aulast=Hornsby&rft.aufirst=Jennifer&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASexism" class="Z3988"> Defines sexism as "thought or practice which may permeate language and which assumes women's inferiority to men".[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>]</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFJaryJary2005" class="citation book cs1">Jary, David; Jary, Julia, eds. (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/collinsdictionar0000unse_t6p4/page/551/mode/1up?view=theater">Collins Dictionary of Sociology</a> (4th ed.). Glasgow: HarperCollins Publishers. p. 551. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-00-718399-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-00-718399-9"><bdi>978-0-00-718399-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Collins+Dictionary+of+Sociology&rft.place=Glasgow&rft.pages=551&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=HarperCollins+Publishers&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-00-718399-9&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcollinsdictionar0000unse_t6p4%2Fpage%2F551%2Fmode%2F1up%3Fview%3Dtheater&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASexism" class="Z3988"> Defines sexism as discrimination against either men or women on the grounds of sex, and also "any devaluation or denigration of women or men, but particularly women, which is embodied in institutions and social relationships".</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFScruton2007" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Roger_Scruton" title="Roger Scruton">Scruton, Roger</a> (2007). The Palgrave Macmillan Dictionary of Political Thought (3rd ed.). Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hants.: Palgrave Macmillan. p. 631. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-230-62509-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-230-62509-9"><bdi>978-0-230-62509-9</bdi></a>. <q>Either sex may be the object of sexist attitudes [...] however, it is commonly held that, in developed societies, women have been the usual victims.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Palgrave+Macmillan+Dictionary+of+Political+Thought&rft.place=Houndmills%2C+Basingstoke%2C+Hants.&rft.pages=631&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-230-62509-9&rft.aulast=Scruton&rft.aufirst=Roger&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASexism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSears,_James_T.2007" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/James_T._Sears" title="James T. Sears">Sears, James T.</a>, ed. (2007). "Sexism". The Greenwood Encyclopedia of Love, Courtship, and Sexuality through History, Volume 6: The Modern World. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-3133-3646-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-3133-3646-1"><bdi>978-0-3133-3646-1</bdi></a>. <q>Sexism is any act, attitude, or institutional configuration that systematically subordinates or devalues women. Built upon the belief that men and women are constitutionally different, sexism takes these differences as indications that men are inherently superior to women, which then is used to justify the nearly universal dominance of men in social and familial relationships, as well as politics, religion, language, law, and economics.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Sexism&rft.btitle=The+Greenwood+Encyclopedia+of+Love%2C+Courtship%2C+and+Sexuality+through+History%2C+Volume+6%3A+The+Modern+World&rft.place=Westport%2C+Conn.&rft.pub=Greenwood+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-3133-3646-1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASexism" class="Z3988">[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>]</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFFoster2011" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Foster, Carly Hayden (2011). "Sexism". In Kurian, George Thomas (ed.). The Encyclopedia of Political Science. Washington, D.C.: CQ Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-9331-1644-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-9331-1644-0"><bdi>978-1-9331-1644-0</bdi></a>. <q>[B]oth men and women can experience sexism, but sexism against women is more pervasive [...]</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Sexism&rft.btitle=The+Encyclopedia+of+Political+Science&rft.place=Washington%2C+D.C.&rft.pub=CQ+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-9331-1644-0&rft.aulast=Foster&rft.aufirst=Carly+Hayden&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASexism" class="Z3988">[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>]</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFJohnson2000" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Allan_G._Johnson" title="Allan G. Johnson">Johnson, Allan G.</a> (2000). The Blackwell Dictionary of Sociology: A User's Guide to Sociological Language (2nd ed.). Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-631-21681-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-631-21681-0"><bdi>978-0-631-21681-0</bdi></a>. <q>[T]he key test of whether something is sexist [...] lies in its consequences: if it supports male privilege, then it is by definition sexist. I specify 'male privilege' because in every known society where gender inequality exists, males are privileged over females.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Blackwell+Dictionary+of+Sociology%3A+A+User%27s+Guide+to+Sociological+Language&rft.place=Oxford%2C+UK&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Blackwell+Publishers&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-631-21681-0&rft.aulast=Johnson&rft.aufirst=Allan+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASexism" class="Z3988">[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>]</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLorber2010" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Judith_Lorber" title="Judith Lorber">Lorber, Judith</a> (2010). Gender Inequality: Feminist Theories and Politics (4th ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. p. 4. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-1953-7522-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-1953-7522-0"><bdi>978-0-1953-7522-0</bdi></a>. <q>Although we speak of gender inequality, it is usually women who are disadvantaged relative to similarly situated men.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Gender+Inequality%3A+Feminist+Theories+and+Politics&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=4&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-1953-7522-0&rft.aulast=Lorber&rft.aufirst=Judith&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASexism" class="Z3988"> [Emphasis in original.]</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWortmanLoftusWeaver1999" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Camille_B._Wortman" class="mw-redirect" title="Camille B. Wortman">Wortman, Camille B.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_F._Loftus" class="mw-redirect" title="Elizabeth F. Loftus">Loftus, Elizabeth F.</a>; Weaver, Charles A. (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/psychology5edwort/page/601/mode/1up?view=theater">Psychology</a> (5th ed.). Boston: McGraw-Hill. p. 601. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-0707-1931-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-0707-1931-6"><bdi>978-0-0707-1931-6</bdi></a>. <q>Sexism, or prejudice toward one sex (almost always women), has existed throughout recorded history.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Psychology&rft.place=Boston&rft.pages=601&rft.edition=5th&rft.pub=McGraw-Hill&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-0707-1931-6&rft.aulast=Wortman&rft.aufirst=Camille+B.&rft.au=Loftus%2C+Elizabeth+F.&rft.au=Weaver%2C+Charles+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fpsychology5edwort%2Fpage%2F601%2Fmode%2F1up%3Fview%3Dtheater&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASexism" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </li> <li id="cite_note-Matsumoto_2001-2"><a href="#cite_ref-Matsumoto_2001_2-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMatsumoto2001" class="citation book cs1">Matsumoto, David (2001). The Handbook of Culture and Psychology. Oxford University Press. p. 197. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-513181-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-513181-9"><bdi>978-0-19-513181-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Handbook+of+Culture+and+Psychology&rft.pages=197&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-19-513181-9&rft.aulast=Matsumoto&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASexism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Nakdimen_1984-3"><a href="#cite_ref-Nakdimen_1984_3-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFNakdimen1984" class="citation journal cs1">Nakdimen, K. A. (1984). "The Physiognomic Basis of Sexual Stereotyping". <a href="/wiki/American_Journal_of_Psychiatry" class="mw-redirect" title="American Journal of Psychiatry">American Journal of Psychiatry</a>. 141 (4): 499–503. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1176%2Fajp.141.4.499">10.1176/ajp.141.4.499</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/6703126">6703126</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Journal+of+Psychiatry&rft.atitle=The+Physiognomic+Basis+of+Sexual+Stereotyping&rft.volume=141&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E499-%3C%2Fspan%3E503&rft.date=1984&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1176%2Fajp.141.4.499&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F6703126&rft.aulast=Nakdimen&rft.aufirst=K.+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASexism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Schaefer_2011-4">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Schaefer_2011_4-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Schaefer_2011_4-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSchaefer2011" class="citation book cs1">Schaefer, Richard T. (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/sociologyinmodul0000scha_m7y8/page/315/mode/1up?view=theater">"Women: The Oppressed Majority"</a>. Sociology in Modules. New York: McGraw-Hill. p. 315. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-07-802677-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-07-802677-5"><bdi>978-0-07-802677-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Women%3A+The+Oppressed+Majority&rft.btitle=Sociology+in+Modules&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=315&rft.pub=McGraw-Hill&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-07-802677-5&rft.aulast=Schaefer&rft.aufirst=Richard+T.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsociologyinmodul0000scha_m7y8%2Fpage%2F315%2Fmode%2F1up%3Fview%3Dtheater&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASexism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a> Forcible Rape Institutionalized Sexism in the Criminal Justice System| Gerald D. Robin Division of Criminal Justice, <a href="/wiki/University_of_New_Haven" title="University of New Haven">University of New Haven</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Masequesmay_2014-6"><a href="#cite_ref-Masequesmay_2014_6-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMasequesmay2024" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Masequesmay, Gina (January 5, 2024). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/sexism">"Sexism"</a>. Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved February 19, 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Sexism&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.date=2024-01-05&rft.aulast=Masequesmay&rft.aufirst=Gina&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Ftopic%2Fsexism&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASexism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Macklem_2003-7">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Macklem_2003_7-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Macklem_2003_7-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMacklem2003" class="citation book cs1">Macklem, Tony (2003). Beyond Comparison: Sex and Discrimination. New York: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-82682-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-82682-2"><bdi>978-0-521-82682-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Beyond+Comparison%3A+Sex+and+Discrimination&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-521-82682-2&rft.aulast=Macklem&rft.aufirst=Tony&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASexism" class="Z3988">[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] </li> <li id="cite_note-Lenhart_2004-8">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lenhart_2004_8-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lenhart_2004_8-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lenhart_2004_8-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSharyn_Ann_Lenhart2004" class="citation book cs1">Sharyn Ann Lenhart (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Rt2SAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA6">Clinical Aspects of Sexual Harassment and Gender Discrimination: Psychological Consequences and Treatment Interventions</a>. <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>. p. 6. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-135-94131-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-135-94131-4"><bdi>978-1-135-94131-4</bdi></a>. Retrieved April 20, 2018. <q>Gender or Sex Discrimination: This term refers to the types of gender bias that have a negative impact. The term has legal, as well as theoretical and psychological, definitions. Psychological consequences can be more readily inferred from the latter, but both definitions are of significance. Theoretically, gender discrimination has been described as (1) the unequal rewards that men and women receive in the workplace or academic environment because of their gender or sex difference (DiThomaso, 1989); (2) a process occurring in work or educational settings in which an individual is overtly or covertly limited access to an opportunity or a resource because of a sex or is given the opportunity or the resource reluctantly and may face harassment for picking it (Roeske & Pleck, 1983); or (3) both.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Clinical+Aspects+of+Sexual+Harassment+and+Gender+Discrimination%3A+Psychological+Consequences+and+Treatment+Interventions&rft.pages=6&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-1-135-94131-4&rft.au=Sharyn+Ann+Lenhart&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DRt2SAgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASexism" class="Z3988">[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] </li> <li id="cite_note-EU-9"><a href="#cite_ref-EU_9-0">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177/1358229120927947">De Vos, M. (2020). The European Court of Justice and the march towards substantive equality in European Union anti-discrimination law. International Journal of Discrimination and the Law, 20(1), 62-87.</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Macfarlane_2019-10"><a href="#cite_ref-Macfarlane_2019_10-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMacfarlaneCoppackMasters2019" class="citation news cs1">Macfarlane, Christina; Coppack, Sean; Masters, James (September 12, 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://edition.cnn.com/2019/09/12/football/iran-blue-girl-sahar-khodayari-spt-intl/index.html">"FIFA must act after death of Iran's 'Blue Girl,' says activist"</a>. CNN. Retrieved June 20, 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=FIFA+must+act+after+death+of+Iran%27s+%27Blue+Girl%2C%27+says+activist&rft.date=2019-09-12&rft.aulast=Macfarlane&rft.aufirst=Christina&rft.au=Coppack%2C+Sean&rft.au=Masters%2C+James&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fedition.cnn.com%2F2019%2F09%2F12%2Ffootball%2Firan-blue-girl-sahar-khodayari-spt-intl%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASexism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-11"><a href="#cite_ref-:0_11-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFShapiro1985" class="citation journal cs1">Shapiro, Fred R. (1985). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/454643">"Historical Notes on the Vocabulary of the Women's Movement"</a>. 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Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Pearson Education. p. 330. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-205-74989-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-205-74989-8"><bdi>978-0-205-74989-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/468109511">468109511</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sociology&rft.place=Upper+Saddle+River%2C+N.J.&rft.pages=330&rft.edition=13th&rft.pub=Pearson+Education&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F468109511&rft.isbn=978-0-205-74989-8&rft.aulast=Macionis&rft.aufirst=John+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASexism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Schaefer_2009-14">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Schaefer_2009_14-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Schaefer_2009_14-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Schaefer_2009_14-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSchaefer2009" class="citation book cs1">Schaefer, Richard T. 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Boston: McGraw Hill/Higher Education. p. 247. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-07-340425-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-07-340425-7"><bdi>978-0-07-340425-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sociology%3A+The+Core&rft.place=Boston&rft.pages=247&rft.edition=9th&rft.pub=McGraw+Hill%2FHigher+Education&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-07-340425-7&rft.aulast=Hughes&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft.au=Kroehler%2C+Carolyn+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsociologycore0009edhugh%2Fpage%2F247%2Fmode%2F1up%3Fref%3Dol%26view%3Dtheater&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASexism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Witt_2017-16"><a href="#cite_ref-Witt_2017_16-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWitt2017" class="citation book cs1">Witt, Jon (2017). 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New York: McGraw-Hill. p. 301. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-259-70272-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-259-70272-3"><bdi>978-1-259-70272-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/968304061">968304061</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=SOC+2018&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=301&rft.edition=5th&rft.pub=McGraw-Hill&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F968304061&rft.isbn=978-1-259-70272-3&rft.aulast=Witt&rft.aufirst=Jon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASexism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Crawford_p9-17"><a href="#cite_ref-Crawford_p9_17-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCrawfordUnger2004" class="citation book cs1">Crawford, Mary; Unger, Rhoda K. 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BBC News. Retrieved April 6, 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BBC+News&rft.atitle=Scandinavian+split+on+sexist+ads&rft.date=2008-04-25&rft.aulast=Holmes&rft.aufirst=Stephanie&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.bbc.co.uk%2F2%2Fhi%2Feurope%2F7365722.stm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASexism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-165"><a href="#cite_ref-165">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="Article_214" class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oecd.org/investment/anti-bribery/anti-briberyconvention/43289694.pdf">Israeli Penal Law 5737–1977: Obscene publication and display</a> (PDF) (6th ed.). OECD. pp. 70–71. Retrieved February 26, 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Israeli+Penal+Law+5737%E2%80%931977%3A+Obscene+publication+and+display&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E70-%3C%2Fspan%3E71&rft.edition=6th&rft.pub=OECD&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.oecd.org%2Finvestment%2Fanti-bribery%2Fanti-briberyconvention%2F43289694.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASexism" class="Z3988"> (English translation) </li> <li id="cite_note-166"><a href="#cite_ref-166">^</a> MacKinnon, Catharine (1987). Feminism Unmodified: Discourses on Life and Law. Cambridge, MA: <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University_Press" title="Harvard University Press">Harvard University Press</a>. p. 147. </li> <li id="cite_note-Papadaki_2012-167"><a href="#cite_ref-Papadaki_2012_167-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPapadaki2011" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Papadaki, Evangelia (June 28, 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2012/entries/feminism-objectification/">"Feminist Perspectives on Objectification"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a> (Winter 2012 ed.). Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Retrieved December 1, 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Feminist+Perspectives+on+Objectification&rft.btitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.edition=Winter+2012&rft.pub=Metaphysics+Research+Lab%2C+Stanford+University&rft.date=2011-06-28&rft.aulast=Papadaki&rft.aufirst=Evangelia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Farchives%2Fwin2012%2Fentries%2Ffeminism-objectification%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASexism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Dworkin_1988-168"><a href="#cite_ref-Dworkin_1988_168-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFAndrea_DworkinCatharine_A._MacKinnon1988" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Andrea_Dworkin" title="Andrea Dworkin">Andrea Dworkin</a>; <a href="/wiki/Catharine_MacKinnon" class="mw-redirect" title="Catharine MacKinnon">Catharine A. MacKinnon</a> (August 1988). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=J69HAQAAIAAJ">Pornography and civil rights: a new day for women's equality</a>. Organizing Against Pornography. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-9621849-0-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-9621849-0-1"><bdi>978-0-9621849-0-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Pornography+and+civil+rights%3A+a+new+day+for+women%27s+equality&rft.pub=Organizing+Against+Pornography&rft.date=1988-08&rft.isbn=978-0-9621849-0-1&rft.au=Andrea+Dworkin&rft.au=Catharine+A.+MacKinnon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJ69HAQAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASexism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-169"><a href="#cite_ref-169">^</a> Morgan, Robin. (1974). "Theory and Practice: Pornography and Rape". In: Going Too Far: The Personal Chronicle of a Feminist. (1977). <a href="/wiki/Random_House" title="Random House">Random House</a>. 333 p. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-394-48227-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-394-48227-1">0-394-48227-1</a>. (1978 ed, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-394-72612-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-394-72612-X">0-394-72612-X</a>.) </li> <li id="cite_note-Jeffries_2006-170"><a href="#cite_ref-Jeffries_2006_170-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFJeffries2006" class="citation news cs1">Jeffries, Stuart (April 12, 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2006/apr/12/gender.politicsphilosophyandsociety">"Are women human? (interview with Catharine MacKinnon)"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Guardian" title="The Guardian">The Guardian</a>. London. Retrieved September 1, 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Are+women+human%3F+%28interview+with+Catharine+MacKinnon%29&rft.date=2006-04-12&rft.aulast=Jeffries&rft.aufirst=Stuart&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fworld%2F2006%2Fapr%2F12%2Fgender.politicsphilosophyandsociety&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASexism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Shrage_2007-171"><a href="#cite_ref-Shrage_2007_171-0">^</a> Shrage, Laurie. (July 13, 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/feminist-sex-markets/#Por">"Feminist Perspectives on Sex Markets: Pornography"</a>. In: <a href="/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-172"><a href="#cite_ref-172">^</a> Mackinnon, Catherine A. (1984) "Not a moral issue." <a href="/wiki/Yale_Law_and_Policy_Review" class="mw-redirect" title="Yale Law and Policy Review">Yale Law and Policy Review</a> 2:321-345. Reprinted in: Mackinnon (1989). Toward a Feminist Theory of the State Harvard University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-674-89645-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-674-89645-9">0-674-89645-9</a> (1st ed), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-674-89646-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-674-89646-7">0-674-89646-7</a> (2nd ed). "Sex forced on real women so that it can be sold at a profit to be forced on other real women; women's bodies trussed and maimed and raped and made into things to be hurt and obtained and accessed, and this presented as the nature of women; the coercion that is visible and the coercion that has become invisible—this and more grounds the feminist concern with pornography" </li> <li id="cite_note-Wattenberg_1995-173"><a href="#cite_ref-Wattenberg_1995_173-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWattenberg1995" class="citation episode cs1">Wattenberg, Ben (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pbs.org/thinktank/transcript215.html">"A Conversation With Catherine MacKinnon (transcript)"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Think_Tank_with_Ben_Wattenberg" title="Think Tank with Ben Wattenberg">Think Tank</a>. PBS. Retrieved February 18, 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Think+Tank&rft.date=1995&rft.aulast=Wattenberg&rft.aufirst=Ben&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pbs.org%2Fthinktank%2Ftranscript215.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASexism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-174"><a href="#cite_ref-174">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFJeffries2006" class="citation news cs1">Jeffries, Stuart (April 12, 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2006/apr/12/gender.politicsphilosophyandsociety">"Stuart Jeffries talks to leading feminist Catharine MacKinnon"</a>. The Guardian. London.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Stuart+Jeffries+talks+to+leading+feminist+Catharine+MacKinnon&rft.date=2006-04-12&rft.aulast=Jeffries&rft.aufirst=Stuart&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fworld%2F2006%2Fapr%2F12%2Fgender.politicsphilosophyandsociety&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASexism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-175"><a href="#cite_ref-175">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFStrossen1993" class="citation journal cs1">Strossen, Nadine (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1073402">"A Feminist Critique of "the" Feminist Critique of Pornography"</a>. Virginia Law Review. 79 (5): 1129. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1073402">10.2307/1073402</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0042-6601">0042-6601</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1073402">1073402</a>. <q>By insisting that "pornography" instills misogynistic attitudes, or even behavior, in viewers-or at least male viewers-the feminist pro-censorship faction ignores the subjective, complex nature of the interactions between an individual and a text or an image. This reductionist approach denies the existence of ambiguity, subtlety, and irony. It overlooks the boundary between fantasy, imagination, and ideas, on the one hand, and behavior on the other.126 Ultimately, it denies individual autonomy, assuming that at least some viewers of "pornography" will automatically react to it in a simplistic, "monkey-see, monkey-do" fashion. In the words of Professor McCormack, pro-censorship feminists "reject the distinction between thought and deed which is both the cornerstone of liberal democracy and the foundation of a humanistic model of human nature."</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Virginia+Law+Review&rft.atitle=A+Feminist+Critique+of+%22the%22+Feminist+Critique+of+Pornography&rft.volume=79&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=1129&rft.date=1993&rft.issn=0042-6601&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1073402%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1073402&rft.aulast=Strossen&rft.aufirst=Nadine&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1073402&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASexism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-176"><a href="#cite_ref-176">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.seejane.org/downloads/Hatton_Trautner_Sexuality_and_Culture.pdf">[1]</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130123115712/http://www.seejane.org/downloads/Hatton_Trautner_Sexuality_and_Culture.pdf">Archived</a> January 23, 2013, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-177"><a href="#cite_ref-177">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/prostitution">"Prostitution—Definition and More from the Free Merriam-Webster Dictionary"</a>. Merriam-Webster. Retrieved September 19, 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Prostitution%E2%80%94Definition+and+More+from+the+Free+Merriam-Webster+Dictionary&rft.btitle=Merriam-Webster&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.merriam-webster.com%2Fdictionary%2Fprostitution&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASexism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-178"><a href="#cite_ref-178">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://definitions.uslegal.com/p/prostitution">"Prostitution Law & Legal Definition"</a>. US Legal. Retrieved March 19, 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Prostitution+Law+%26+Legal+Definition&rft.pub=US+Legal&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdefinitions.uslegal.com%2Fp%2Fprostitution&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASexism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sullivan_2007-179">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Sullivan_2007_179-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sullivan_2007_179-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSullivan,_Barbara2007" class="citation journal cs1">Sullivan, Barbara (2007). "Rape, Prostitution and Consent". <a href="/wiki/Australian_and_New_Zealand_Journal_of_Criminology" class="mw-redirect" title="Australian and New Zealand Journal of Criminology">Australian and New Zealand Journal of Criminology</a>. 40 (2): 127–142. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1375%2Facri.40.2.127">10.1375/acri.40.2.127</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145263451">145263451</a>. <q>In common law jurisdictions like the United Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand and Canada, some of the evidentiary jurisprudence clearly linked chastity with veracity. So women who were or had been sex workers, those who were 'rumoured' to be prostitutes or who were simply promiscuous and behaving 'like a prostitute' lacked credibility as complainants, which made it difficult for the prosecution to prove the sexual assault beyond a reasonable doubt. Women in any of these categories were seen at law as 'commonly available' to men, as always consenting to sexual activity and thus, as not able to be raped. Men accused of sexual assault were therefore able to use evidence of prostitution to defend themselves, to undermine the credibility of rape complainants and to successfully avoid conviction.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Australian+and+New+Zealand+Journal+of+Criminology&rft.atitle=Rape%2C+Prostitution+and+Consent&rft.volume=40&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E127-%3C%2Fspan%3E142&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1375%2Facri.40.2.127&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A145263451%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.au=Sullivan%2C+Barbara&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASexism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-180"><a href="#cite_ref-180">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://walnet.org/csis/papers/redefining.html">"Redefining Prostitution as Sex Work on the International Agenda"</a>. walnet.org.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=walnet.org&rft.atitle=Redefining+Prostitution+as+Sex+Work+on+the+International+Agenda&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwalnet.org%2Fcsis%2Fpapers%2Fredefining.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASexism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-181"><a href="#cite_ref-181">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060903143328/http://www.soc.iastate.edu/sapp/Prostitution.pdf">"Readings on Prostitution"</a> (PDF). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.soc.iastate.edu/sapp/Prostitution.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on September 3, 2006.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Readings+on+Prostitution&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.soc.iastate.edu%2Fsapp%2FProstitution.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASexism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-182"><a href="#cite_ref-182">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFJulie_Bindel2006" class="citation news cs1">Julie Bindel (January 18, 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2006/jan/18/ukcrime.prisonsandprobation">"Julie Bindel: Eradicate the oldest oppression—UK news—The Guardian"</a>. the Guardian.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=the+Guardian&rft.atitle=Julie+Bindel%3A+Eradicate+the+oldest+oppression%E2%80%94UK+news%E2%80%94The+Guardian&rft.date=2006-01-18&rft.au=Julie+Bindel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fuk%2F2006%2Fjan%2F18%2Fukcrime.prisonsandprobation&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASexism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-183"><a href="#cite_ref-183">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFJulie_Bindel2007" class="citation news cs1">Julie Bindel (September 10, 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2007/sep/10/endingatradeinmisery">"Ending a trade in misery"</a>. the Guardian.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=the+Guardian&rft.atitle=Ending+a+trade+in+misery&rft.date=2007-09-10&rft.au=Julie+Bindel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fcommentisfree%2F2007%2Fsep%2F10%2Fendingatradeinmisery&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASexism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-184"><a href="#cite_ref-184">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFJeffreys2008" class="citation book cs1">Jeffreys, Sheila (November 11, 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9mlFgjEBYWYC">The Industrial Vagina</a>. Taylor & Francis. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-203-69830-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-203-69830-3"><bdi>978-0-203-69830-3</bdi></a>. Retrieved March 31, 2015 – via <a href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Industrial+Vagina&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2008-11-11&rft.isbn=978-0-203-69830-3&rft.aulast=Jeffreys&rft.aufirst=Sheila&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D9mlFgjEBYWYC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASexism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-185"><a href="#cite_ref-185">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.womenslobby.eu/spip.php?article472">"European Women's Lobby: Prostitution in Europe: 60 Years of Reluctance"</a>. womenslobby.eu.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=womenslobby.eu&rft.atitle=European+Women%27s+Lobby%3A+Prostitution+in+Europe%3A+60+Years+of+Reluctance&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.womenslobby.eu%2Fspip.php%3Farticle472&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASexism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-186"><a href="#cite_ref-186">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPateman1988" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Carole_Pateman" title="Carole Pateman">Pateman, Carole</a> (1988). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jH2KPvZF1L0C">The Sexual Contract</a>. Stanford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-1477-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-1477-8"><bdi>978-0-8047-1477-8</bdi></a>. Retrieved March 31, 2015 – via <a href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Sexual+Contract&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=978-0-8047-1477-8&rft.aulast=Pateman&rft.aufirst=Carole&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DjH2KPvZF1L0C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASexism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-187"><a href="#cite_ref-187">^</a> Cole, E., & Henderson Daniel, J. (Eds.). (2005). Featuring females: Feminist analyses of media. Washington, DC: <a href="/wiki/American_Psychological_Association" title="American Psychological Association">American Psychological Association</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2F11213-000">10.1037/11213-000</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-188"><a href="#cite_ref-188">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHalliwellMalsonTischner2011" class="citation journal cs1">Halliwell, E.; Malson, H.; Tischner, I. (2011). "Are contemporary media images which seem to display women as sexually empowering actually harmful to women?". <a href="/wiki/Psychology_of_Women_Quarterly" title="Psychology of Women Quarterly">Psychology of Women Quarterly</a>. 35: 34–45. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0361684310385217">10.1177/0361684310385217</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143146656">143146656</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Psychology+of+Women+Quarterly&rft.atitle=Are+contemporary+media+images+which+seem+to+display+women+as+sexually+empowering+actually+harmful+to+women%3F&rft.volume=35&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E34-%3C%2Fspan%3E45&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F0361684310385217&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A143146656%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Halliwell&rft.aufirst=E.&rft.au=Malson%2C+H.&rft.au=Tischner%2C+I.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASexism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-189"><a href="#cite_ref-189">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFEntmanRojecki2000" class="citation book cs1">Entman, R.; Rojecki, A. (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/blackimageinwh00entm">The Black image in the White mind: Media and race in America</a>. Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-21075-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-21075-9"><bdi>978-0-226-21075-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Black+image+in+the+White+mind%3A+Media+and+race+in+America&rft.place=Chicago%2C+Illinois&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-226-21075-9&rft.aulast=Entman&rft.aufirst=R.&rft.au=Rojecki%2C+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fblackimageinwh00entm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASexism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-190"><a href="#cite_ref-190">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFDouglas2010" class="citation book cs1">Douglas, Susan J. (2010). The Rise of Enlightened Sexism. New York, NY: St. Martin's Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-312-67392-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-312-67392-5"><bdi>978-0-312-67392-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Rise+of+Enlightened+Sexism&rft.place=New+York%2C+NY&rft.pub=St.+Martin%27s+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-312-67392-5&rft.aulast=Douglas&rft.aufirst=Susan+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASexism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-191"><a href="#cite_ref-191">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWatsonRobinsonDispenzaNazari2012" class="citation journal cs1">Watson, L. B.; Robinson, D.; Dispenza, F.; Nazari, N. (2012). "African American women's sexual objectification experiences: A qualitative study". Psychology of Women Quarterly. 36 (4): 227–239. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0361684312454724">10.1177/0361684312454724</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144040468">144040468</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Psychology+of+Women+Quarterly&rft.atitle=African+American+women%27s+sexual+objectification+experiences%3A+A+qualitative+study&rft.volume=36&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E227-%3C%2Fspan%3E239&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F0361684312454724&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A144040468%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Watson&rft.aufirst=L.+B.&rft.au=Robinson%2C+D.&rft.au=Dispenza%2C+F.&rft.au=Nazari%2C+N.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASexism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-192"><a href="#cite_ref-192">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRendonNicolas2012" class="citation journal cs1">Rendon, M. 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Retrieved March 31, 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BBC+News&rft.atitle=Should+we+not+dress+girls+in+pink%3F&rft.date=2009-01-08&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.bbc.co.uk%2F2%2Fhi%2Fuk_news%2Fmagazine%2F7817496.stm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASexism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-262"><a href="#cite_ref-262">^</a> Melanie Scheussler suggests a date of post-1540 for England, France, and the Low Countries; see Scheussler, "'She Hath Over Grown All that She Ever Hath': Children's Clothing in the Lisle Letters, 1533–40", in Netherton, Robin, and Gale R. Owen-Crocker, editors, Medieval Clothing and Textiles, Volume 3, p. 185. 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Rituals., p. 47 "despite their exclusion from the sphere of power, women were sometimes subjected to conscription not only in the Byzantine Empire, but in any other parts of Europe too"; p. 66: "After that in 811 Krum mobilized thousands of armed women in the battle against the Byzantine emperor Nicephorus I". Polis. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-954-8624-45-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-954-8624-45-9"><bdi>978-954-8624-45-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Power.+Ideologies.+Rituals.%2C+p.+47+%22despite+their+exclusion+from+the+sphere+of+power%2C+women+were+sometimes+subjected+to+conscription+not+only+in+the+Byzantine+Empire%2C+but+in+any+other+parts+of+Europe+too%22%3B+p.+66%3A+%22After+that+in+811+Krum+mobilized+thousands+of+armed+women+in+the+battle+against+the+Byzantine+emperor+Nicephorus+I%22&rft.pub=Polis&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-954-8624-45-9&rft.aulast=Gagova&rft.aufirst=Krasimira&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASexism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Matanov_2014-301"><a href="#cite_ref-Matanov_2014_301-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMatanov2014" class="citation book cs1">Matanov, Hristo (2014). 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IK Gutenberg. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9786191760183" title="Special:BookSources/9786191760183"><bdi>9786191760183</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%D0%92+%D1%82%D1%8A%D1%80%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5+%D0%BD%D0%B0+%D1%81%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BE+%D0%B2%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B5.+%D0%9D%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F%D1%82+%D0%BF%D1%8A%D1%82+%D0%BD%D0%B0+%D0%B1%D1%8A%D0%BB%D0%B3%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B5+%28VII%E2%80%93XV+%D0%B2.%29%28in+Bulgarian%29%2C+pp.+91+%22Furthermore+Khan+Krum+subjected+to+conscription+thousand+of+women+and+Avars+in+the+Battle+of+Pliska%22&rft.pub=IK+Gutenberg&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=9786191760183&rft.aulast=Matanov&rft.aufirst=Hristo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASexism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-302"><a href="#cite_ref-302">^</a> Goldstein, Joshua S. 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Retrieved March 31, 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=In+These+Times&rft.atitle=Why+Soldiers+Rape&rft.date=2008-08-13&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.inthesetimes.com%2Farticle%2F3848%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASexism" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/File:Definition_of_Free_Cultural_Works_logo_notext.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Definition_of_Free_Cultural_Works_logo_notext.svg/12px-Definition_of_Free_Cultural_Works_logo_notext.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Definition_of_Free_Cultural_Works_logo_notext.svg/18px-Definition_of_Free_Cultural_Works_logo_notext.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Definition_of_Free_Cultural_Works_logo_notext.svg/24px-Definition_of_Free_Cultural_Works_logo_notext.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="219" data-file-height="218" /></a> This article incorporates text from a <a href="/wiki/Free_content" title="Free content">free content</a> work. Licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0 IGO. Text taken from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000369000?posInSet=1&queryId=1d7dd56b-7298-433b-a194-50d378d393e6">From access to empowerment: UNESCO strategy for gender equality in and through education 2019-2025</a>, UNESCO, UNESCO. UNESCO.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2></div> <ul><li>Atwell, Mary Welek. 2002. 'Equal Protection of the Law?: Gender and Justice in the United States'. New York: P. Lang. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8204-5502-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8204-5502-0">978-0-8204-5502-0</a></li> <li>Benatar, David. The Second Sexism: Discrimination Against Men And Boys. 2012. <a href="/wiki/John_Wiley_%26_Sons" class="mw-redirect" title="John Wiley & Sons">John Wiley & Sons</a> Inc., West Sussex, UK; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-470-67446-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-470-67446-8">978-0-470-67446-8</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBojarska2012" class="citation journal cs1">Bojarska, Katarzyna (2012). "Responding to lexical stimuli with gender associations: A Cognitive–Cultural Model". <a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Language_and_Social_Psychology" title="Journal of Language and Social Psychology">Journal of Language and Social Psychology</a>. 32: 46–61. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0261927X12463008">10.1177/0261927X12463008</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145006661">145006661</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Language+and+Social+Psychology&rft.atitle=Responding+to+lexical+stimuli+with+gender+associations%3A+A+Cognitive%E2%80%93Cultural+Model&rft.volume=32&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E46-%3C%2Fspan%3E61&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F0261927X12463008&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A145006661%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Bojarska&rft.aufirst=Katarzyna&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASexism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCuddAndreasen2005" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ann_Cudd" title="Ann Cudd">Cudd, Ann E.</a>; Andreasen, Robin O. (2005). Feminist theory: a philosophical anthology. Oxford, UK Malden, Massachusetts: <a href="/wiki/Blackwell_Publishing" class="mw-redirect" title="Blackwell Publishing">Blackwell Publishing</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-1661-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-1661-9"><bdi>978-1-4051-1661-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Feminist+theory%3A+a+philosophical+anthology&rft.place=Oxford%2C+UK+Malden%2C+Massachusetts&rft.pub=Blackwell+Publishing&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-1-4051-1661-9&rft.aulast=Cudd&rft.aufirst=Ann+E.&rft.au=Andreasen%2C+Robin+O.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASexism" class="Z3988"> Part II What is Sexism? pp. 69–114.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCuddJones2005" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Ann_Cudd" title="Ann Cudd">Cudd, Ann E.</a>; Jones, Leslie E. (2005), "Sexism", in Frey, R.G.; Heath Wellman, Christopher (eds.), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/companiontoappli0000unse/page/102">A companion to applied ethics</a>, Blackwell Companions to Philosophy, Oxford, UK; Malden, Massachusetts: Blackwell Publishing, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/companiontoappli0000unse/page/102">102–117</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2F9780470996621.ch8">10.1002/9780470996621.ch8</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-3345-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-3345-6"><bdi>978-1-4051-3345-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Sexism&rft.btitle=A+companion+to+applied+ethics&rft.place=Oxford%2C+UK%3B+Malden%2C+Massachusetts&rft.series=Blackwell+Companions+to+Philosophy&rft.pages=102-117&rft.pub=Blackwell+Publishing&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2F9780470996621.ch8&rft.isbn=978-1-4051-3345-6&rft.aulast=Cudd&rft.aufirst=Ann+E.&rft.au=Jones%2C+Leslie+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcompaniontoappli0000unse%2Fpage%2F102&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASexism" class="Z3988"></li> <li>"Discrimination against Transgender People." ACLU. Available (online) : <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aclu.org/lgbt-rights/discrimination-against-transgender-people">"Discrimination </a> against Transgender People." ACLU. Available (online) : <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aclu.org/lgbt-rights/discrimination-against-transgender-people">Transgender Rights</a></li> <li>"Employment Non-Discrimination Act". Human Rights Campaign. Available (online): <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140520071809/http://www.hrc.org/laws-and-legislation/federal-legislation/employment-non-discrimination-act">Employment Non-Discrimination Act | Human Rights Campaign</a></li> <li>Feder, Jody and Cynthia Brougher. Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity Discrimination in Employment: A Legal Analysis of the Employment [<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">ISBN missing</a>]</li> <li>Haberfeld, Yitchak. Employment Discrimination: An Organizational Model [<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">ISBN missing</a>]</li> <li>Hurst, C. Social Inequality: Forms, Causes, and Consequences. Sixth Edition. 2007. 131, 139–142 [<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">ISBN missing</a>]</li> <li>Macklem, Tony. 2004. Beyond Comparison: Sex and Discrimination. New York: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. [<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">ISBN missing</a>]</li> <li>Non-Discrimination Act (ENDA)." July 15, 2013. Available (online): www.fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/R40934.pdf</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leila_Schneps" title="Leila Schneps">Leila Schneps</a> and <a href="/wiki/Coralie_Colmez" title="Coralie Colmez">Coralie Colmez</a>, <a href="/wiki/Math_on_Trial" title="Math on Trial">Math on trial. How numbers get used and abused in the courtroom</a>, <a href="/wiki/Basic_Books" title="Basic Books">Basic Books</a>, 2013. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-465-03292-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-465-03292-1">978-0-465-03292-1</a>. (Sixth chapter: "Math error number 6: Simpson's paradox. The Berkeley sex bias case: discrimination detection").</li> <li>"Transgender." UC Berkekely Online. Available (online): <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://geneq.berkeley.edu/lgbt_resources_definiton_of_terms#transgender">GenEq | Centers for Educational Justice & Community Engagement</a> ↑ ↑ "Discrimination against Transgender People." ACLU. Available (online) : <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aclu.org/lgbt-rights/discrimination-against-transgender-people">Transgender Rights</a></li> <li>Management Journal 35.1 (1992): 161–180. Business Source Complete.</li> <li>Kail, R., & Cavanaugh, J. (2010). Human Growth and Development (5 ed.). Belmont, Ca: <a href="/wiki/Cengage" class="mw-redirect" title="Cengage">Wadsworth Learning</a> [<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">ISBN missing</a>]</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output 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0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Institutional_discrimination" title="Institutional discrimination">Institutional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reverse_discrimination" title="Reverse discrimination">Reverse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_discrimination" title="Structural discrimination">Structural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statistical_discrimination_(economics)" title="Statistical discrimination (economics)">Statistical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systemic_bias" title="Systemic bias">Systemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taste-based_discrimination" title="Taste-based discrimination">Taste-based</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Attributes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;padding:0.26em 0; line-height:1.5em; background:transparent;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ageism" title="Ageism">Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caste" title="Caste">Caste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Class_discrimination" title="Class discrimination">Class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dialect_discrimination" title="Dialect discrimination">Dialect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ableism" title="Ableism">Disability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_discrimination" title="Economic discrimination">Economic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_discrimination" title="Genetic discrimination">Genetic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_based_on_hair_texture" title="Discrimination based on hair texture">Hair texture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Height_discrimination" title="Height discrimination">Height</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_discrimination" title="Linguistic discrimination">Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lookism" title="Lookism">Looks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanism" title="Sanism">Mental disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_based_on_nationality" title="Discrimination based on nationality">Nationality or citizenship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism" title="Racism">Race / Ethnicity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reverse_racism" title="Reverse racism">Reverse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_based_on_skin_tone" title="Discrimination based on skin tone">Skin color</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_racism" title="Scientific racism">Scientific racism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rankism" title="Rankism">Rank</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Sex</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reverse_sexism" title="Reverse sexism">Reverse</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_orientation_discrimination" title="Sexual orientation discrimination">Sexual orientation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speciesism" title="Speciesism">Species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sizeism" title="Sizeism">Size</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viewpoint_discrimination" title="Viewpoint discrimination">Viewpoint</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Social</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arophobia" class="mw-redirect" title="Arophobia">Arophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_people_with_albinism" title="Persecution of people with albinism">Anti-albinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_asexual_people" title="Discrimination against asexual people">Acephobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adultism" title="Adultism">Adultism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Do-gooder_derogation" title="Do-gooder derogation">Anti-altruistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_autistic_people" title="Discrimination against autistic people">Anti-autism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_homeless_people" title="Discrimination against homeless people">Anti-homelessness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_drug_addicts" title="Discrimination against drug addicts">Anti-drug addicts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-intellectualism" title="Anti-intellectualism">Anti-intellectualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_intersex_people" title="Discrimination against intersex people">Anti-intersex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bias_against_left-handed_people" title="Bias against left-handed people">Anti-left handedness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Masonry" title="Anti-Masonry">Anti-Masonry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aporophobia" title="Aporophobia">Aporophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Audism" title="Audism">Audism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biphobia" title="Biphobia">Biphobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clannism" class="mw-redirect" title="Clannism">Clannism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elitism" title="Elitism">Elitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ephebiphobia" title="Ephebiphobia">Ephebiphobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_determinants_of_health" title="Social determinants of health">Health</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Social_determinants_of_mental_health" title="Social determinants of mental health">mental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_determinants_of_health_in_poverty" title="Social determinants of health in poverty">in poverty</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_stigma_of_obesity" title="Social stigma of obesity">Fatphobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_gay_men" title="Discrimination against gay men">Gayphobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerontophobia" title="Gerontophobia">Gerontophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heterosexism" title="Heterosexism">Heterosexism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_people_with_HIV/AIDS" title="Discrimination against people with HIV/AIDS">HIV/AIDS stigma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypergamy" title="Hypergamy">Hypergamy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homophobia" title="Homophobia">Homophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/In-group_favoritism" title="In-group favoritism">In-group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leprosy_stigma" title="Leprosy stigma">Leprosy stigma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lesbophobia" class="mw-redirect" title="Lesbophobia">Lesbophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_men" title="Discrimination against men">Against men</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Misandry" title="Misandry">Misandry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Misogyny" title="Misogyny">Misogyny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nepotism" title="Nepotism">Nepotism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outgroup_favoritism" title="Outgroup favoritism">Outgroup</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fear_of_children" title="Fear of children">Pedophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perpetual_foreigner" title="Perpetual foreigner">Perpetual foreigner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pregnancy_discrimination" title="Pregnancy discrimination">Pregnancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sectarianism" title="Sectarianism">Sectarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supremacism" title="Supremacism">Supremacism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aryanism" title="Aryanism">Aryanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_supremacy" title="Black supremacy">Black</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hutu_Power" title="Hutu Power">Hutu</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chauvinism" title="Chauvinism">Chauvinism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Han_chauvinism" title="Han chauvinism">Han</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matriarchy" title="Matriarchy">Female</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthropocentrism" title="Anthropocentrism">Human</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nordicism" title="Nordicism">Nordicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patriarchy" title="Patriarchy">Male</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_supremacy" title="Jewish supremacy">Jewish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ultranationalism" title="Ultranationalism">Ultranationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_supremacy" title="White supremacy">White</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transphobia" title="Transphobia">Transphobia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_non-binary_people" title="Discrimination against non-binary people">Non-binary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transmisogyny" title="Transmisogyny">Transmisogyny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_transgender_men" title="Discrimination against transgender men">Trans men</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vegaphobia" title="Vegaphobia">Vegaphobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenophobia" title="Xenophobia">Xenophobia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Religious_discrimination" title="Religious discrimination">Religious</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_atheists" title="Discrimination against atheists">Atheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antireligious_campaigns_in_China" title="Antireligious campaigns in China">Campaigns in China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exclusivism#Religious_exclusivism" title="Exclusivism">Exclusivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%ADs" title="Persecution of Baháʼís">Baháʼí Faith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Buddhists" title="Persecution of Buddhists">Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Christian_sentiment" title="Anti-Christian sentiment">Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians" title="Persecution of Christians">Persecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Catholicism" title="Anti-Catholicism">Catholicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Eastern_Orthodox_Christians" title="Persecution of Eastern Orthodox Christians">Eastern Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Copts" title="Persecution of Copts">Coptic Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Jehovah%27s_Witnesses" title="Persecution of Jehovah's Witnesses">Jehovah's Witnesses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Mormonism" title="Anti-Mormonism">LDS or Mormon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Protestantism" title="Anti-Protestantism">Protestantism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Orthodox_Tewahedo_Christianity" title="Persecution of Orthodox Tewahedo Christianity">Tewahedo Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians_in_the_post%E2%80%93Cold_War_era" title="Persecution of Christians in the post–Cold War era">post–Cold War era</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Falun_Gong" title="Persecution of Falun Gong">Falun Gong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Hindu_sentiment" title="Anti-Hindu sentiment">Hinduism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Hindus" title="Persecution of Hindus">Persecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Untouchability" title="Untouchability">Untouchability</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamophobia" title="Islamophobia">Islam</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_religious_police" title="Islamic religious police">Religious police</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apostasy_in_Islam#Punishment" title="Apostasy in Islam">Punishment of apostasy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Muslims" title="Persecution of Muslims">Persecution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Ahmadis" title="Persecution of Ahmadis">Ahmadiyya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Shi%27ism" title="Anti-Shi'ism">Shi'ism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Sufis" title="Persecution of Sufis">Sufism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Sunnism" title="Anti-Sunnism">Sunnism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_minority_Muslim_groups" title="Persecution of minority Muslim groups">minority Muslim</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_antisemitism" title="Religious antisemitism">Judaism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Jews" title="Persecution of Jews">Persecution</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_discrimination_against_modern_pagans" title="Religious discrimination against modern pagans">Neopaganism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Rastafari" title="Persecution of Rastafari">Rastafari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Serers" title="Persecution of Serers">Serers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Sikh_sentiment" title="Anti-Sikh sentiment">Sikhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Yazidis" title="Persecution of Yazidis">Yazidism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Zoroastrians" title="Persecution of Zoroastrians">Zoroastrianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Racism" title="Racism">Race / Ethnicity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Afghan_sentiment" title="Anti-Afghan sentiment">Afghan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-African_sentiment" title="Anti-African sentiment">African</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Fulani_sentiment" title="Anti-Fulani sentiment">Fulani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Igbo_sentiment" title="Anti-Igbo sentiment">Igbo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Serers" title="Persecution of Serers">Serers</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Albanian_sentiment" title="Anti-Albanian sentiment">Albanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Arab_racism" title="Anti-Arab racism">Arab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Armenian_sentiment" title="Anti-Armenian sentiment">Armenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_against_Asians" title="Racism against Asians">Asian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Asian_racism_in_France" title="Anti-Asian racism in France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Asian_racism_in_post-Apartheid_South_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Asian racism in post-Apartheid South Africa">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Asian_racism_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Asian racism in the United States">United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Assyrian_sentiment" title="Anti-Assyrian sentiment">Assyrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Australian_sentiment" title="Anti-Australian sentiment">Australian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Austrian_sentiment" title="Anti-Austrian sentiment">Austrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Azerbaijani_sentiment" title="Anti-Azerbaijani sentiment">Azerbaijani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Black_racism" title="Anti-Black racism">Black people</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Racism_against_African_Americans" title="Racism against African Americans">African Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-black_discrimination_in_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-black discrimination in China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-black_racism_in_South_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-black racism in South Africa">South Africa</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Bengali_sentiment" title="Anti-Bengali sentiment">Bengali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_for_the_Protection_of_Macedonian_National_Honor" class="mw-redirect" title="Law for the Protection of Macedonian National Honor">Bulgarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Catalan_sentiment" title="Anti-Catalan sentiment">Catalan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Chechen_sentiment" title="Anti-Chechen sentiment">Chechen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Chinese_sentiment" title="Anti-Chinese sentiment">Chinese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Han_sentiment" title="Anti-Han sentiment">Han people</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Colombian_sentiment" title="Anti-Colombian sentiment">Colombian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Croat_sentiment" title="Anti-Croat sentiment">Croat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Dutch_sentiment" title="Anti-Dutch sentiment">Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-English_sentiment" title="Anti-English sentiment">English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Estonian_sentiment" title="Anti-Estonian sentiment">Estonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Filipino_sentiment" title="Anti-Filipino sentiment">Filipino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-French_sentiment" title="Anti-French sentiment">French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Finnish_sentiment" title="Anti-Finnish sentiment">Finnish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Georgian_sentiment" title="Anti-Georgian sentiment">Georgian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-German_sentiment" title="Anti-German sentiment">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Greek_sentiment" title="Anti-Greek sentiment">Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antihaitianismo" class="mw-redirect" title="Antihaitianismo">Haitian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Hazaras" title="Persecution of Hazaras">Hazara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Hungarian_sentiment" title="Anti-Hungarian sentiment">Hungarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Indian_sentiment" title="Anti-Indian sentiment">Indian</a></li> <li>Indigenous people <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-indigenous_racism_in_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-indigenous racism in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-indigenous_racism_in_Canada" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-indigenous racism in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-indigenous_racism_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-indigenous racism in the United States">United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Iranian_sentiment" title="Anti-Iranian sentiment">Iranian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Irish_sentiment" title="Anti-Irish sentiment">Irish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Italianism" title="Anti-Italianism">Italian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Japanese_sentiment" title="Anti-Japanese sentiment">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antisemitism" title="Antisemitism">Jewish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eliminationist_antisemitism" title="Eliminationist antisemitism">Eliminationist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_antisemitism" title="New antisemitism">New</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_antisemitism" title="Religious antisemitism">Religious</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Yiddish_sentiment" title="Anti-Yiddish sentiment">Anti-Yiddish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zionist_antisemitism" title="Zionist antisemitism">Zionist</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Korean_sentiment" title="Anti-Korean sentiment">Korean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Kurdish_sentiment" title="Anti-Kurdish sentiment">Kurdish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Lithuanian_sentiment" title="Anti-Lithuanian sentiment">Lithuanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Malay_sentiment" title="Anti-Malay sentiment">Malay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-M%C4%81ori_sentiment" title="Anti-Māori sentiment">Māori</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Mexican_sentiment" title="Anti-Mexican sentiment">Mexican</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti%E2%80%93Middle_Eastern_sentiment" title="Anti–Middle Eastern sentiment">Middle Eastern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Mongolianism" title="Anti-Mongolianism">Mongolian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Montenegrin_sentiment" title="Anti-Montenegrin sentiment">Montenegrin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Nigerian_sentiment" title="Anti-Nigerian sentiment">Nigerian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Pakistan_sentiment" title="Anti-Pakistan sentiment">Pakistani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Palestinianism" title="Anti-Palestinianism">Palestinians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Pashtun_sentiment" title="Anti-Pashtun sentiment">Pashtun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Polish_sentiment" title="Anti-Polish sentiment">Polish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lusophobia" title="Lusophobia">Portuguese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Quebec_sentiment" title="Anti-Quebec sentiment">Quebec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Romani_sentiment" title="Anti-Romani sentiment">Romani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Romanian_sentiment" title="Anti-Romanian sentiment">Romanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Russian_sentiment" title="Anti-Russian sentiment">Russian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Scottish_sentiment" title="Anti-Scottish sentiment">Scottish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Serb_sentiment" title="Anti-Serb sentiment">Serb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Slavic_sentiment" title="Anti-Slavic sentiment">Slavic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Somali_sentiment" title="Anti-Somali sentiment">Somali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Spanish_sentiment" title="Anti-Spanish sentiment">Spanish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Taiwanese_sentiment" title="Anti-Taiwanese sentiment">Taiwanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tatarophobia" title="Tatarophobia">Tatar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Thai_sentiment" title="Anti-Thai sentiment">Thai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Tibetan_sentiment" title="Anti-Tibetan sentiment">Tibetan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Turkish_sentiment" title="Anti-Turkish sentiment">Turkish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Ukrainian_sentiment" title="Anti-Ukrainian sentiment">Ukrainian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Uyghur_sentiment" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Uyghur sentiment">Uyghur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_incidents_of_xenophobia_during_the_Venezuelan_refugee_crisis" title="List of incidents of xenophobia during the Venezuelan refugee crisis">Venezuelan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Vietnamese_sentiment" title="Anti-Vietnamese sentiment">Vietnamese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Welsh_sentiment" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Welsh sentiment">Welsh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-white_racism" title="Anti-white racism">White people</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Manifestations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;padding:0.26em 0; line-height:1.5em; background:transparent;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Algorithmic_bias" title="Algorithmic bias">Algorithmic bias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-LGBTQ_rhetoric" title="Anti-LGBTQ rhetoric">Anti-LGBTQ rhetoric</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_organizations_designated_by_the_Southern_Poverty_Law_Center_as_anti-LGBTQ_hate_groups" title="List of organizations designated by the Southern Poverty Law Center as anti-LGBTQ hate groups">SPLC-designated list of anti-LGBTQ hate groups</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blood_libel" title="Blood libel">Blood libel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bullying" title="Bullying">Bullying</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cancel_culture" title="Cancel culture">Cancel culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment_for_homosexuality" title="Capital punishment for homosexuality">Capital punishment for homosexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carnism" title="Carnism">Carnism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_bias" title="Cognitive bias">Cognitive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compulsory_sterilization" title="Compulsory sterilization">Compulsory sterilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corrective_rape" title="Corrective rape">Corrective rape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter-jihad" title="Counter-jihad">Counter-jihad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_genocide" title="Cultural genocide">Cultural genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defamation" title="Defamation">Defamation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democide" title="Democide">Democide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dog_whistle_(politics)" title="Dog whistle (politics)">Dog whistle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domicide" title="Domicide">Domicide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_discrimination" title="Economic discrimination">Economic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_in_education" title="Discrimination in education">Education</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Academic_bias" title="Academic bias">Academic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bias_in_curricula" title="Bias in curricula">In curricula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexism_in_academia" title="Sexism in academia">Sexism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eliminationism" title="Eliminationism">Eliminationism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eliminationist_antisemitism" title="Eliminationist antisemitism">Eliminationist antisemitism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Employment_discrimination" title="Employment discrimination">Employment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enemy_of_the_people" title="Enemy of the people">Enemy of the people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_racism" title="Environmental racism">Environmental racism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_cleansing" title="Ethnic cleansing">Ethnic cleansing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_conflict" title="Ethnic conflict">Ethnic conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_hatred" title="Ethnic hatred">Ethnic hatred</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_joke" title="Ethnic joke">Ethnic joke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnocide" title="Ethnocide">Ethnocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_of_excellence" title="Discrimination of excellence">Excellence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender-based_dress_codes" title="Gender-based dress codes">Gender-based dress codes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cosmetics_policy" title="Cosmetics policy">Cosmetics policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_heel_policy" title="High heel policy">High heel policy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_conversion" title="Forced conversion">Forced conversion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freak_show" title="Freak show">Freak show</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Funding_bias" title="Funding bias">Funding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gay_bashing" title="Gay bashing">Gay bashing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gendercide" title="Gendercide">Gendercide</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Transgender_genocide" title="Transgender genocide">Transgender genocide</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genital_modification_and_mutilation" title="Genital modification and mutilation">Genital modification and mutilation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Circumcision" title="Circumcision">Circumcision</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Female_genital_mutilation" title="Female genital mutilation">Female genital mutilation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intersex_medical_interventions" title="Intersex medical interventions">Intersex medical interventions</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genocide" title="Genocide">Genocide</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Genocides_in_history" title="Genocides in history">examples</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glass_ceiling" title="Glass ceiling">Glass ceiling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hate_crime" title="Hate crime">Hate crime</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Disability_hate_crime" title="Disability hate crime">Disability hate crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Violence_against_LGBTQ_people" title="Violence against LGBTQ people">Violence against LGBTQ people</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Violence_against_transgender_people" title="Violence against transgender people">Violence against transgender people</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hate_group" title="Hate group">Hate group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hate_speech" title="Hate speech">Hate speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institution" title="Institution">Institutional</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Institutional_abuse" title="Institutional abuse">Abuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institutional_discrimination" title="Institutional discrimination">Discrimination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institutional_racism" title="Institutional racism">Racism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patient_dumping" title="Patient dumping">Homeless dumping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Housing_discrimination" title="Housing discrimination">Housing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypergamy" title="Hypergamy">Hypergamy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Age_disparity_in_sexual_relationships" title="Age disparity in sexual relationships">Age disparity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_rolling" title="Indian rolling">Indian rolling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_inequality" title="International inequality">International inequality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kill_Haole_Day" title="Kill Haole Day">Kill Haole Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lavender_scare" class="mw-redirect" title="Lavender scare">Lavender scare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_LGBTQ%2B_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Discrimination against LGBTQ+ people">LGBTQ+</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_grooming_conspiracy_theory" title="LGBTQ grooming conspiracy theory">grooming conspiracy theory</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_death" title="Language death">Linguicide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching" title="Lynching">Lynching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_bias" title="Media bias">Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minority_stress" title="Minority stress">Minority stress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_exclusion" title="Moral exclusion">Moral exclusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mortgage_discrimination" title="Mortgage discrimination">Mortgage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stop_Murder_Music" title="Stop Murder Music">Murder music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_mascot_controversy" title="Native American mascot controversy">Native American mascots</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atlanta_Braves_tomahawk_chop_and_name_controversy" title="Atlanta Braves tomahawk chop and name controversy">Braves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_Blackhawks_name_and_logo_controversy" title="Chicago Blackhawks name and logo controversy">Blackhawks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kansas_City_Chiefs_name_controversy" title="Kansas City Chiefs name controversy">Chiefs</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Work_(human_activity)" title="Work (human activity)">Occupational</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_apartheid" title="Occupational apartheid">Apartheid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_inequality" title="Occupational inequality">Inequality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_injustice" title="Occupational injustice">Injustice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_segregation" title="Occupational segregation">Segregation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opposition_to_immigration" title="Opposition to immigration">Opposition to immigration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paper_genocide" title="Paper genocide">Paper genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution" title="Persecution">Persecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pogrom" title="Pogrom">Pogrom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_bias" title="Political bias">Political</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Political_repression" title="Political repression">Political repression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ideological_repression" title="Ideological repression">Ideological repression</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Purge" title="Purge">Purge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racialization" title="Racialization">Racialization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_persecution" title="Religious persecution">Religious persecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_terrorism" title="Religious terrorism">Religious terrorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_violence" title="Religious violence">Religious violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_war" title="Religious war">Religious war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scapegoating" title="Scapegoating">Scapegoating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selective_enforcement" title="Selective enforcement">Selective enforcement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Selective_prosecution" title="Selective prosecution">Selective prosecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sentencing_disparity" title="Sentencing disparity">Sentencing disparity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_harassment" title="Sexual harassment">Sexual harassment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex-selective_abortion" title="Sex-selective abortion">Sex-selective abortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slut-shaming" title="Slut-shaming">Slut-shaming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_abuse" title="Structural abuse">Structural abuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_discrimination" title="Structural discrimination">Structural discrimination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_evil" title="Structural evil">Structural evil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_inequality" title="Structural inequality">Structural inequality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_violence" title="Structural violence">Structural violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_differences_in_suicide" title="Gender differences in suicide">Suicide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Untermensch" title="Untermensch">Untermensch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Violence_against_transgender_people" title="Violence against transgender people">Trans bashing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victimisation" title="Victimisation">Victimisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Violence_against_women" title="Violence against women">Violence against women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_flight" title="White flight">White flight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_genocide_conspiracy_theory" title="White genocide conspiracy theory">White genocide conspiracy theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wife_selling" title="Wife selling">Wife selling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Witch_hunt" title="Witch hunt">Witch hunt</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Discriminatory policies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Algorithmic_wage_discrimination" title="Algorithmic wage discrimination">Algorithmic wage discrimination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_candidacy" title="Age of candidacy">Age of candidacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limpieza_de_sangre" title="Limpieza de sangre">Blood purity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blood_quantum_laws" title="Blood quantum laws">Blood quantum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breadwinner_model" title="Breadwinner model">Breadwinner model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conscription_and_sexism" title="Conscription and sexism">Conscription and sexism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_of_apartheid" title="Crime of apartheid">Crime of apartheid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disability" title="Disability">Disabilities</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Disabilities_(Catholics)" title="Disabilities (Catholics)">Catholic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_disabilities" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish disabilities">Jewish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disparate_impact" title="Disparate impact">Disparate impact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fagging" title="Fagging">Fagging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_pay_gap" title="Gender pay gap">Gender pay gap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_role" title="Gender role">Gender roles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protecting_Women%27s_Private_Spaces_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Protecting Women's Private Spaces Act">Protecting Women's Private Spaces Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerontocracy" title="Gerontocracy">Gerontocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerrymandering" title="Gerrymandering">Gerrymandering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghetto_benches" title="Ghetto benches">Ghetto benches</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internment" title="Internment">Internment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_quota" title="Jewish quota">Jewish quota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_for_Protection_of_the_Nation" title="Law for Protection of the Nation">Law for Protection of the Nation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_rights_opposition" title="LGBTQ rights opposition">LGBTQ rights opposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blood_donation_restrictions_on_men_who_have_sex_with_men" title="Blood donation restrictions on men who have sex with men">MSM blood donation restrictions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/No_kid_zone" title="No kid zone">No kid zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Numerus_clausus" title="Numerus clausus">Numerus clausus (as religious or racial quota)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/One-drop_rule" title="One-drop rule">One-drop rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_quota" title="Racial quota">Racial quota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_steering" title="Racial steering">Racial steering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Redlining" title="Redlining">Redlining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Same-sex_marriage" title="Same-sex marriage">Same-sex marriage (laws and issues prohibiting)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geographical_segregation" title="Geographical segregation">Segregation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Age_segregation" title="Age segregation">age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation" title="Racial segregation">racial</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jim_Crow_laws" title="Jim Crow laws">Jim Crow laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuremberg_Laws" title="Nuremberg Laws">Nuremberg Laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Segregation_academy" title="Segregation academy">Segregation academy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_segregation" title="Religious segregation">religious</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_segregation" title="Sex segregation">sexual</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Islam_and_gender_segregation" title="Islam and gender segregation">in Islam</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_exclusion" title="Social exclusion">Social exclusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sodomy_law" title="Sodomy law">Sodomy law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_atheism" title="State atheism">State atheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_religion" title="State religion">State religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ugly_law" title="Ugly law">Ugly law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voter_suppression" title="Voter suppression">Voter suppression</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Countermeasures</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;padding:0.26em 0; line-height:1.5em; background:transparent;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Affirmative_action" title="Affirmative action">Affirmative action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-discrimination_law" title="Anti-discrimination law">Anti-discrimination law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-racism" title="Anti-racism">Anti-racism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Audit_study" title="Audit study">Audit study</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autism_rights_movement" title="Autism rights movement">Autism rights movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blind_audition" title="Blind audition">Blind audition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_colorblindness" title="Constitutional colorblindness">Constitutional colorblindness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross-sex_friendship" title="Cross-sex friendship">Cross-sex friendship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_assimilation" title="Cultural assimilation">Cultural assimilation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_pluralism" title="Cultural pluralism">Cultural pluralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diversity,_equity,_and_inclusion" title="Diversity, equity, and inclusion">Diversity, equity, and inclusion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diversity_training" title="Diversity training">Diversity training</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empowerment" title="Empowerment">Empowerment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fat_acceptance_movement" title="Fat acceptance movement">Fat acceptance movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism" title="Feminism">Feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fighting_Discrimination" title="Fighting Discrimination">Fighting Discrimination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golden_Rule" title="Golden Rule">Golden Rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hate_speech_laws_by_country" title="Hate speech laws by country">Hate speech laws by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human rights">Human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intersex_human_rights" title="Intersex human rights">Intersex human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korenizatsiia" title="Korenizatsiia">Korenizatsiia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_rights_by_country_or_territory" title="LGBTQ rights by country or territory">LGBTQ rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_in_the_movement_against_apartheid" title="Music in the movement against apartheid">Music in the movement against apartheid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonviolence" title="Nonviolence">Nonviolence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_integration" title="Racial integration">Racial integration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reappropriation" title="Reappropriation">Reappropriation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rock_Against_Sexism" title="Rock Against Sexism">Rock Against Sexism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-determination" title="Self-determination">Self-determination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_integration" title="Social integration">Social integration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toleration" title="Toleration">Toleration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transgender_rights_movement" title="Transgender rights movement">Transgender rights movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_suffrage" title="Universal suffrage">Universal suffrage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_rights" title="Women's rights">Women's rights</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;padding:0.26em 0; line-height:1.5em; background:transparent;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allophilia" title="Allophilia">Allophilia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alterity" title="Alterity">Alterity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amatonormativity" title="Amatonormativity">Amatonormativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bias" title="Bias">Bias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cisnormativity" title="Cisnormativity">Cisnormativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_liberties" title="Civil liberties">Civil liberties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criminalization_of_homosexuality" title="Criminalization of homosexuality">Criminalization of homosexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dehumanization" title="Dehumanization">Dehumanization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diseases_of_despair" class="mw-redirect" title="Diseases of despair">Diseases of despair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diversity_(politics)" title="Diversity (politics)">Diversity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Multiculturalism" title="Multiculturalism">Multiculturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurodiversity" title="Neurodiversity">Neurodiversity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_penalty" title="Ethnic penalty">Ethnic penalty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Figleaf_(linguistics)" title="Figleaf (linguistics)">Figleaf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender-blind" title="Gender-blind">Gender-blind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heteronormativity" title="Heteronormativity">Heteronormativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_eugenics" title="History of eugenics">Historical eugenics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internalized_oppression" title="Internalized oppression">Internalized oppression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intersectionality" title="Intersectionality">Intersectionality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mad_pride" title="Mad pride">Mad pride</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Masculism" title="Masculism">Masculism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_model_of_disability" title="Medical model of disability">Medical model of disability</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Medical_model_of_autism" class="mw-redirect" title="Medical model of autism">autism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Net_bias" title="Net bias">Net bias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonperson_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Nonperson (disambiguation)">Nonperson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oikophobia" title="Oikophobia">Oikophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oppression" title="Oppression">Oppression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Police_brutality" title="Police brutality">Police brutality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Respect" title="Respect">Respect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polyculturalism" title="Polyculturalism">Polyculturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_distance" title="Power distance">Power distance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prejudice" title="Prejudice">Prejudice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prisoner_abuse" title="Prisoner abuse">Prisoner abuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_bias_in_criminal_news_in_the_United_States" title="Racial bias in criminal news in the United States">Racial bias in criminal news in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_by_country" title="Racism by country">Racism by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_color_blindness" title="Racial color blindness">Racial color blindness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_intolerance" title="Religious intolerance">Religious intolerance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second-generation_gender_bias" title="Second-generation gender bias">Second-generation gender bias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Snob" title="Snob">Snobbery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_equity" title="Social equity">Social equity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_exclusion" title="Social exclusion">Social exclusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_identity_threat" title="Social identity threat">Social identity threat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_model_of_disability" title="Social model of disability">Social model of disability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_privilege" title="Social privilege">Social privilege</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_privilege" title="Christian privilege">Christian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Male_privilege" title="Male privilege">male</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_privilege" title="White privilege">white</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_stigma" title="Social stigma">Social stigma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speciesism" title="Speciesism">Speciesism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stereotype" title="Stereotype">Stereotype</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stereotype_threat" title="Stereotype threat">threat</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_talk_(racism_in_the_United_States)" title="The talk (racism in the United States)">The talk</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight: bold;"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/20px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/40px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Discrimination" title="Category:Discrimination">Category</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/20px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/40px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Prejudice_and_discrimination" title="Category:Prejudice and discrimination">Commons</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Gender_and_sexual_identities174" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Gender_and_sexual_identities" title="Template:Gender and sexual identities"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Gender_and_sexual_identities" title="Template talk:Gender and sexual identities"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Gender_and_sexual_identities" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Gender and sexual identities"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Gender_and_sexual_identities174" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Gender_identity" title="Gender identity">Gender</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sexual_identity" title="Sexual identity">sexual</a> identities</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Gender_identity" title="Gender identity">Gender identities</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.0em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Gender" title="Gender">Genders</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Man" title="Man">Man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woman" title="Woman">Woman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Male" title="Male">Male</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Female" title="Female">Female</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Androgyny#Gender_identity" title="Androgyny">Androgyne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boi_(slang)" title="Boi (slang)">Boi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cisgender" title="Cisgender">Cisgender</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross-dressing" title="Cross-dressing">Cross-dresser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Femboy" title="Femboy">Femboy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_bender" title="Gender bender">Gender bender</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_fluidity" title="Gender fluidity">Gender fluidity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_neutrality" title="Gender neutrality">Gender neutrality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_variance" class="mw-redirect" title="Gender variance">Gender variance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Masculine_of_center" title="Masculine of center">Masculine of center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-binary_gender" title="Non-binary gender">Non-binary / genderqueer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transgender" title="Transgender">Transgender</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Akava%27ine" title="Akava'ine">Akava'ine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trans_man" title="Trans man">Trans man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trans_woman" title="Trans woman">Trans woman</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fakaleit%C4%AB" title="Fakaleitī">Fakaleitī</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mak_nyah" title="Mak nyah">Mak nyah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rae-rae" title="Rae-rae">Rae-rae</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transsexual" title="Transsexual">Transsexual</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.0em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Third_gender" title="Third gender">Third genders</a> and sexes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Androgynos" title="Androgynos">Androgynos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apwint" title="Apwint">Apwint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bakla" title="Bakla">Bakla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Binabinaaine" title="Binabinaaine">Binabinaaine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_in_Bugis_society" title="Gender in Bugis society">Bugis genders</a> <ul><li>Bissu</li> <li>Calabai</li> <li>Calalai</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chibados" title="Chibados">Chibados</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enaree" title="Enaree">Enaree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eunuch" title="Eunuch">Eunuch</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Galli" title="Galli">Galli</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fa%27afafine" class="mw-redirect" title="Fa'afafine">Fa'afafine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fakafifine" title="Fakafifine">Fakafifine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Femminiello" title="Femminiello">Femminiello</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G%C3%BCevedoce" title="Güevedoce">Güevedoce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hijra_(South_Asia)" title="Hijra (South Asia)">Hijra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kathoey" title="Kathoey">Kathoey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K%C3%B6%C3%A7ek" title="Köçek">Köçek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koekchuch" title="Koekchuch">Koekchuch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lhamana" title="Lhamana">Lhamana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%C4%81h%C5%AB" title="Māhū">Māhū</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mudoko_dako" title="Mudoko dako">Mudoko dako</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mukhannath" title="Mukhannath">Mukhannath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muxe" title="Muxe">Muxe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/N%C3%A1dleehi" title="Nádleehi">Nádleehi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nullo_(body_modification)" class="mw-redirect" title="Nullo (body modification)">Nullo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palopa" title="Palopa">Palopa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sipiniq" title="Sipiniq">Sipiniq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balkan_sworn_virgins" title="Balkan sworn virgins">Sworn virgin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Travesti_(gender_identity)" title="Travesti (gender identity)">Travesti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tumtum_(Judaism)" title="Tumtum (Judaism)">Tumtum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Two-spirit" title="Two-spirit">Two-spirit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vakasalewalewa" title="Vakasalewalewa">Vakasalewalewa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Winkte" title="Winkte">Winkte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/X-gender" title="X-gender">X-gender</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sexual_identity" title="Sexual identity">Sexual orientation identities</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.0em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Sexual_orientation" title="Sexual orientation">Sexual orientations</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asexuality" title="Asexuality">Asexual</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bisexuality" title="Bisexuality">Bisexual</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heterosexuality" title="Heterosexuality">Heterosexual</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homosexuality" title="Homosexuality">Homosexual</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.0em;font-weight:normal;">Alternative labels</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Banjee" title="Banjee">Banjee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bi-curious" title="Bi-curious">Bi-curious</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ex-gay_movement" title="Ex-gay movement">Ex-gay</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ex-ex-gay" title="Ex-ex-gay">Ex-ex-gay</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Down-low_(sexual_slang)" title="Down-low (sexual slang)">Down-low</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gay" title="Gay">Gay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gay_men" title="Gay men">Gay men</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gray_asexuality" title="Gray asexuality">Gray asexual</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Demisexuality" title="Demisexuality">Demisexual</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heteroflexibility" title="Heteroflexibility">Heteroflexible</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khanith" title="Khanith">Khanith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lesbian" title="Lesbian">Lesbian women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-heterosexual" title="Non-heterosexual">Non-heterosexual</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pansexuality" title="Pansexuality">Pansexual</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polysexuality" class="mw-redirect" title="Polysexuality">Polysexual</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queer" title="Queer">Queer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Questioning_(sexuality_and_gender)" title="Questioning (sexuality and gender)">Questioning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Same_gender_loving" title="Same gender loving">Same gender loving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Takat%C4%81pui" title="Takatāpui">Takatāpui</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.0em;font-weight:normal;">Social aspects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sociosexuality" title="Sociosexuality">Sociosexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antisexualism" title="Antisexualism">Antisexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asociality" title="Asociality">Asociality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homosociality" title="Homosociality">Homosociality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heterosociality" title="Heterosociality">Heterosociality</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.0em;font-weight:normal;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Achillean" title="Achillean">Achillean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allosexuality" title="Allosexuality">Allosexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analloeroticism" title="Analloeroticism">Analloeroticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Androphilia_and_gynephilia" title="Androphilia and gynephilia">Androphilia and gynephilia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aromanticism" title="Aromanticism">Aromanticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attraction_to_transgender_people" title="Attraction to transgender people">Attraction to transgender people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kinsey_scale" title="Kinsey scale">Kinsey scale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monosexuality" title="Monosexuality">Monosexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plurisexuality" title="Plurisexuality">Plurisexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postgenderism" title="Postgenderism">Postgenderism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romantic_orientation" title="Romantic orientation">Romantic orientation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sapphism" title="Sapphism">Sapphism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;padding:0;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-gender_movement" title="Anti-gender movement">Anti-gender movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_non-binary_people" title="Discrimination against non-binary people">Discrimination against non-binary people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_transgender_men" title="Discrimination against transgender men">Discrimination against transgender men</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_assignment" title="Sex assignment">Gender assignment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_role" title="Gender role">Gender roles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_self-identification" title="Gender self-identification">Gender self-identification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Healthcare_and_the_LGBTQ_community" title="Healthcare and the LGBTQ community">Healthcare and the LGBTQ community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intersex" title="Intersex">Intersex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_recognition_of_non-binary_gender" title="Legal recognition of non-binary gender">Legal recognition of non-binary gender</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_status_of_transgender_people" title="Legal status of transgender people">Legal status of transgender people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mental_health_of_LGBTQ_people" title="Mental health of LGBTQ people">Mental health of LGBTQ people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queer_heterosexuality" title="Queer heterosexuality">Queer heterosexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_personal_identity" title="Right to personal identity">Right to personal identity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_as_a_biological_variable" title="Sex as a biological variable">Sex as a biological variable</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex%E2%80%93gender_distinction" title="Sex–gender distinction">Sex–gender distinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexuality_and_gender_identity-based_cultures" title="Sexuality and gender identity-based cultures">Sexuality and gender identity-based cultures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_construction_of_gender" title="Social construction of gender">Social construction of gender</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Split_attraction_model" title="Split attraction model">Split attraction model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suicide_among_LGBTQ_people" title="Suicide among LGBTQ people">Suicide among LGBTQ people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transgender_archaeology" title="Transgender archaeology">Transgender archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transgender_inequality" title="Transgender inequality">Transgender inequality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transmisogyny" title="Transmisogyny">Transmisogyny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transphobia" title="Transphobia">Transphobia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Feminism532" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Feminism" title="Template:Feminism"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Feminism" title="Template talk:Feminism"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Feminism" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Feminism"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Feminism532" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Feminism" title="Feminism">Feminism</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_feminism" title="History of feminism">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_feminism" title="Timeline of feminism">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First-wave_feminism" title="First-wave feminism">First-wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second-wave_feminism" title="Second-wave feminism">Second-wave</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_second-wave_feminism" title="Timeline of second-wave feminism">timeline</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third-wave_feminism" title="Third-wave feminism">Third-wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth-wave_feminism" title="Fourth-wave feminism">Fourth-wave</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Social</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bicycling_and_feminism" title="Bicycling and feminism">Bicycling and feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_history" title="Feminist history">Feminist history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_history" title="Women's history">Women's history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_women%27s_legal_rights_(other_than_voting)" title="Timeline of women's legal rights (other than voting)">Timeline of women's legal rights (other than voting)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage" title="Women's suffrage">Women's suffrage</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_women%27s_suffrage" title="Timeline of women's suffrage">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage_in_Australia" title="Women's suffrage in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage_in_Canada" title="Women's suffrage in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage_in_Japan" title="Women's suffrage in Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage_in_Kuwait" title="Women's suffrage in Kuwait">Kuwait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_first_women%27s_suffrage_in_majority-Muslim_countries" title="Timeline of first women's suffrage in majority-Muslim countries">Majority-Muslim countries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage_in_New_Zealand" title="Women's suffrage in New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage_in_Switzerland" title="Women's suffrage in Switzerland">Switzerland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Women's suffrage in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage_in_Wales" title="Women's suffrage in Wales">Wales</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage_in_the_United_States" title="Women's suffrage in the United States">United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_women%27s_suffrage_in_the_United_States" title="Timeline of women's suffrage in the United States">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_women%27s_suffrage_movement" title="African-American women's suffrage movement">African-American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage_in_states_of_the_United_States" title="Women's suffrage in states of the United States">States of</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage_in_Utah" title="Women's suffrage in Utah">Utah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage_in_Virginia" title="Women's suffrage in Virginia">Virginia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage_in_Wyoming" title="Women's suffrage in Wyoming">Wyoming</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Feminist_movements_and_ideologies" title="Feminist movements and ideologies">Movements and ideologies</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_feminism" title="Analytical feminism">Analytical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarcha-feminism" title="Anarcha-feminism">Anarchist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-abortion_feminism" title="Anti-abortion feminism">Anti-abortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fantifa" title="Fantifa">Anti-fascist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atheist_feminism" title="Atheist feminism">Atheist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carceral_feminism" title="Carceral feminism">Carceral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Choice_feminism" title="Choice feminism">Choice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservative_variants_of_feminism" title="Conservative variants of feminism">Conservative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_feminism" title="Cultural feminism">Cultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyberfeminism" title="Cyberfeminism">Cyber</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_HCI" title="Feminist HCI">HCI</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Difference_feminism" title="Difference feminism">Difference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecofeminism" title="Ecofeminism">Eco</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vegetarian_ecofeminism" title="Vegetarian ecofeminism">Vegetarian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equality_feminism" title="Equality feminism">Equality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugenic_feminism" title="Eugenic feminism">Eugenic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fat_feminism" title="Fat feminism">Fat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender-critical_feminism" title="Gender-critical feminism">Gender-critical or trans-exclusionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_feminism" title="Global feminism">Global</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hip_hop_feminism" class="mw-redirect" title="Hip hop feminism">Hip hop</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_activism_in_hip_hop" class="mw-redirect" title="Feminist activism in hip hop">Activism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Individualist_feminism" title="Individualist feminism">Individualist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labor_feminism" title="Labor feminism">Labor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lesbian_feminism" title="Lesbian feminism">Lesbian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_feminism" title="Liberal feminism">Liberal</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Equity_feminism" title="Equity feminism">Equity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lipstick_feminism" title="Lipstick feminism">Lipstick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Materialist_feminism" title="Materialist feminism">Materialist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maternal_feminism" title="Maternal feminism">Maternal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neofeminism" title="Neofeminism">Neo-</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_feminism" title="New feminism">New</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postfeminism" title="Postfeminism">Post-</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postcolonial_feminism" title="Postcolonial feminism">Postcolonial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postmodern_feminism" title="Postmodern feminism">Postmodern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-structural_feminism" title="Post-structural feminism">Post-structural</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/French_post-structuralist_feminism" class="mw-redirect" title="French post-structuralist feminism">French</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radical_feminism" title="Radical feminism">Radical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reactionary_feminism" title="Reactionary feminism">Reactionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_separatism" title="Feminist separatism">Separatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex-positive_feminism" title="Sex-positive feminism">Sex-positive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_feminism" title="Social feminism">Social</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialist_feminism" title="Socialist feminism">Socialist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marxist_feminism" title="Marxist feminism">Marxist</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standpoint_feminism" title="Standpoint feminism">Standpoint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_feminism" title="State feminism">State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transfeminism" title="Transfeminism">Trans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transnational_feminism" title="Transnational feminism">Transnational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victim_feminism" title="Victim feminism">Victim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Womanism" title="Womanism">Womanism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Africana_womanism" title="Africana womanism">Africana</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_liberation_movement" title="Women's liberation movement">Women's liberation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Feminist_theology" title="Feminist theology">Religious</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atheist_feminism" title="Atheist feminism">Atheist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_feminism" title="Buddhist feminism">Buddhist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_feminism" title="Christian feminism">Christian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mormon_feminism" title="Mormon feminism">Mormon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_feminism" title="New feminism">New</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Womanist_theology" title="Womanist theology">Womanist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asian_feminist_theology" title="Asian feminist theology">Asian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goddess_movement" title="Goddess movement">Neopagan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dianic_Wicca" title="Dianic Wicca">Dianic Wicca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reclaiming_(Neopaganism)" title="Reclaiming (Neopaganism)">Reclaiming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecofeminism#Spiritual_Ecofeminism/Cultural_Ecofeminism" title="Ecofeminism">Ecofeminist</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_India#Hindu_community" title="Feminism in India">Hindu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_feminism" title="Islamic feminism">Islamic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_feminism" title="Jewish feminism">Jewish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Orthodox_Jewish_feminism" title="Orthodox Jewish feminism">Orthodox</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sikh_feminism" title="Sikh feminism">Sikh</a></li></ul></div></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ethnic and racial</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_feminism" title="Black feminism">Black</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicana_feminism" title="Chicana feminism">Chicana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_feminism" title="Indigenous feminism">Indigenous</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jineology" title="Jineology">Kurdish (Jineology)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_feminism" title="Native American feminism">Native American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%A1mi_feminism" title="Sámi feminism">Sámi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_feminism" title="Jewish feminism">Jewish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mizrahi_feminism" title="Mizrahi feminism">Mizrahi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romani_feminism" title="Romani feminism">Romani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_feminism" title="White feminism">White</a></li> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antinaturalism_(politics)" title="Antinaturalism (politics)">Antinaturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Choice_feminism" title="Choice feminism">Choice feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_labor" title="Cognitive labor">Cognitive labor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Complementarianism" title="Complementarianism">Complementarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_literature" title="Feminist literature">Literature</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_children%27s_literature" title="Feminist children's literature">Children's literature</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diversity_(politics)" title="Diversity (politics)">Diversity (politics)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diversity,_equity,_and_inclusion" title="Diversity, equity, and inclusion">Diversity, equity, and inclusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_effects_on_society" title="Feminist effects on society">Effects on society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_and_equality" title="Feminism and equality">Equality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Female_education" title="Female education">Female education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Female_genital_mutilation" title="Female genital mutilation">Female genital mutilation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Femicide" title="Femicide">Femicide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Femonationalism" title="Femonationalism">Femonationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_culture" title="Feminism in culture">Feminism in culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_movement" title="Feminist movement">Feminist movement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_women%27s_suffrage_movement" title="African-American women's suffrage movement">African-American women's suffrage movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_art_movement" title="Feminist art movement">Art movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_activism_in_hip_hop" class="mw-redirect" title="Feminist activism in hip hop">In hip hop</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_views_on_striptease" title="Feminist views on striptease">Feminist stripper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equal_opportunity" title="Equal opportunity">Formal equality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_equality" title="Gender equality">Gender equality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_quota" title="Gender quota">Gender quota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Girl_power" title="Girl power">Girl power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Honor_killing" title="Honor killing">Honor killing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ideal_womanhood" title="Ideal womanhood">Ideal womanhood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invisible_labor" title="Invisible labor">Invisible labor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internalized_sexism" title="Internalized sexism">Internalized sexism</a></li> <li>International <a href="/wiki/International_Day_of_the_Girl_Child" title="International Day of the Girl Child">Girl's Day</a> and <a href="/wiki/International_Women%27s_Day" title="International Women's Day">Women's Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_language_reform" title="Feminist language reform">Language reform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_capitalism" title="Feminist capitalism">Feminist capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender-blind" title="Gender-blind">Gender-blind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Likeability_trap" title="Likeability trap">Likeability trap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Male_privilege" title="Male privilege">Male privilege</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matriarchal_religion" title="Matriarchal religion">Matriarchal religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_and_media" title="Feminism and media">Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Men_in_feminism" title="Men in feminism">Men in feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Misogyny" title="Misogyny">Misogyny</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Transmisogyny" title="Transmisogyny">Trans</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_views_on_the_Oedipus_complex" title="Feminist views on the Oedipus complex">Oedipus complex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antifeminism" title="Antifeminism">Opposition to feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pro-feminism" title="Pro-feminism">Pro-feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protofeminism" title="Protofeminism">Protofeminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Purplewashing" title="Purplewashing">Purplewashing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_and_racism" title="Feminism and racism">Racism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reproductive_justice" title="Reproductive justice">Reproductive justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_workers%27_rights" title="Sex workers' rights">Sex workers' rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_harassment" title="Sexual harassment">Sexual harassment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_objectification" title="Sexual objectification">Sexual objectification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Substantive_equality" title="Substantive equality">Substantive equality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toxic_masculinity" title="Toxic masculinity">Toxic masculinity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transmisogyny" title="Transmisogyny">Transmisogyny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triple_oppression" title="Triple oppression">Triple oppression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Violence_against_women" title="Violence against women">Violence against women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_on_women" title="War on women">War on women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_empowerment" title="Women's empowerment">Women's empowerment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women-only_space" title="Women-only space">Women-only space</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_health" title="Women's health">Women's health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_rights" title="Women's rights">Women's rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_the_workforce" title="Women in the workforce">Women in the workforce</a></li></ul></div></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Feminist_theory" title="Feminist theory">Theory</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/Complementarianism" title="Complementarianism">Complementarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_studies" title="Gender studies">Gender studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_mainstreaming" title="Gender mainstreaming">Gender mainstreaming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gynocentrism" title="Gynocentrism">Gynocentrism</a></li> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Matriarchy_in_feminist_thought" class="mw-redirect" title="Matriarchy in feminist thought">Matriarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_studies" title="Women's studies">Women's studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Men%27s_studies" title="Men's studies">Men's studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyriarchy" title="Kyriarchy">Kyriarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patriarchy" title="Patriarchy">Patriarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89criture_f%C3%A9minine" title="Écriture féminine">Écriture féminine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_economics" title="Feminist economics">Economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_post-structuralist_discourse_analysis" title="Feminist post-structuralist discourse analysis">Post-structuralist discourse analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_method" title="Feminist method">Method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_views_on_the_Oedipus_complex" title="Feminist views on the Oedipus complex">Oedipus complex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_political_theory" title="Feminist political theory">Political theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_theology" title="Feminist theology">Theology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thealogy" title="Thealogy">Thealogy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Womanist_theology" title="Womanist theology">Womanist</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_sexology" title="Feminist sexology">Sexology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_sociology" title="Feminist sociology">Sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_rhetoric" title="Feminist rhetoric">Rhetoric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_legal_theory" title="Feminist legal theory">Legal theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_art" title="Feminist art">Art</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_art_criticism" title="Feminist art criticism">Art criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_literary_criticism" title="Feminist literary criticism">Literary criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_film_theory" title="Feminist film theory">Film theory</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_biology" title="Feminist biology">Biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_political_ecology" title="Feminist political ecology">Political ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_and_modern_architecture" title="Feminism and modern architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_anthropology" title="Feminist anthropology">Anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_archaeology" title="Feminist archaeology">Archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_school_of_criminology" title="Feminist school of criminology">Criminology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_pathways_perspective" title="Feminist pathways perspective">Pathways perspective</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_geography" title="Feminist geography">Geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_pedagogy" title="Feminist pedagogy">Pedagogy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_philosophy" title="Feminist philosophy">Philosophy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_aesthetics" title="Feminist aesthetics">Aesthetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_empiricism" title="Feminist empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_epistemology" title="Feminist epistemology">Epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_ethics" title="Feminist ethics">Ethics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_justice_ethics" title="Feminist justice ethics">Justice ethics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_existentialism" title="Feminist existentialism">Existentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_metaphysics" title="Feminist metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_philosophy_of_science" title="Feminist philosophy of science">Science</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_pornography" title="Feminist pornography">Pornography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_psychology" title="Feminist psychology">Psychology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_therapy" title="Feminist therapy">Therapy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seriality_(gender_studies)" title="Seriality (gender studies)">Seriality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_international_relations" title="Feminism in international relations">International relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_existentialism" title="Feminist existentialism">Existentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_revisionist_mythology" title="Feminist revisionist mythology">Revisionist mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_technoscience" title="Feminist technoscience">Technoscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_science_fiction" title="Feminist science fiction">Science fiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_theory_in_composition_studies" title="Feminist theory in composition studies">Composition studies</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By country</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_feminism" title="African feminism">Africa</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" class="mw-redirect" title="Feminism in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Democratic Republic of the Congo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Egypt" title="Feminism in Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Ethiopia" class="mw-redirect" title="Feminism in Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Ghana" class="mw-redirect" title="Feminism in Ghana">Ghana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Mali" class="mw-redirect" title="Feminism in Mali">Mali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Nigeria" class="mw-redirect" title="Feminism in Nigeria">Nigeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Senegal" title="Feminism in Senegal">Senegal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_South_Africa" title="Feminism in South Africa">South Africa</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Albania" class="mw-redirect" title="Feminism in Albania">Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Australia" title="Feminism in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Bangladesh" title="Feminism in Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Canada" title="Feminism in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_China" title="Feminism in China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Denmark" title="Women in Denmark">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Finland" class="mw-redirect" title="Feminism in Finland">Finland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_France" title="Feminism in France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Germany" title="Feminism in Germany">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Greece" title="Feminism in Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Hong_Kong" class="mw-redirect" title="Feminism in Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_India" title="Feminism in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Indonesia" title="Feminism in Indonesia">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Iran" class="mw-redirect" title="Feminism in Iran">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Iraq" class="mw-redirect" title="Feminism in Iraq">Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_the_Republic_of_Ireland" title="Feminism in the Republic of Ireland">Republic of Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Israel" title="Feminism in Israel">Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Italy" title="Feminism in Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Japan" title="Feminism in Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Latin_America" title="Feminism in Latin America">Latin America</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Argentina" title="Feminism in Argentina">Argentina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Brazil" title="Feminism in Brazil">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Chile" title="Feminism in Chile">Chile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Haiti" class="mw-redirect" title="Feminism in Haiti">Haiti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Honduras" class="mw-redirect" title="Feminism in Honduras">Honduras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Mexico" title="Feminism in Mexico">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Paraguay" class="mw-redirect" title="Feminism in Paraguay">Paraguay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Trinidad_and_Tobago" title="Women in Trinidad and Tobago">Trinidad and Tobago</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Lebanon" title="Women in Lebanon">Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Malaysia" title="Feminism in Malaysia">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Nepal" title="Feminism in Nepal">Nepal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_the_Netherlands" title="Feminism in the Netherlands">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_New_Zealand" title="Feminism in New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Northern_Cyprus" class="mw-redirect" title="Feminism in Northern Cyprus">Northern Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Norway" title="Feminism in Norway">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Pakistan" title="Feminism in Pakistan">Pakistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_the_Philippines" class="mw-redirect" title="Feminism in the Philippines">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Poland" title="Feminism in Poland">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Russia" title="Feminism in Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Saudi_Arabia" title="Feminism in Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_South_Korea" title="Feminism in South Korea">South Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Sweden" title="Feminism in Sweden">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Syria" title="Women in Syria">Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Taiwan" title="Feminism in Taiwan">Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Thailand" title="Feminism in Thailand">Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Turkey" class="mw-redirect" title="Feminism in Turkey">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Vietnam" title="Women in Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Ukraine" title="Women in Ukraine">Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Feminism in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_the_United_States" title="Feminism in the United States">United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_women_in_the_United_States" title="History of women in the United States">History of women</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_feminists" title="List of feminists">People</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_feminist_art_critics" title="List of feminist art critics">Art critics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ecofeminist_authors" title="List of ecofeminist authors">Ecofeminist authors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_feminist_economists" title="List of feminist economists">Economists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Jewish_feminists" title="List of Jewish feminists">Jewish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Muslim_feminists" title="List of Muslim feminists">Muslim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_feminist_philosophers" title="List of feminist philosophers">Philosophers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_feminist_poets" title="List of feminist poets">Poets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_feminist_rhetoricians" title="List of feminist rhetoricians">Rhetoricians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_suffragists_and_suffragettes" title="List of suffragists and suffragettes">Suffragists and suffragettes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_women%27s_rights_activists" title="List of women's rights activists">Women's rights activists</a></li> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conservative_variants_of_feminism" title="Conservative variants of feminism">Conservative feminisms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_feminist_literature" title="List of feminist literature">Literature</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_American_feminist_literature" title="List of American feminist literature">American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_feminist_comic_books" title="List of feminist comic books">Comic books</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_feminist_parties" title="List of feminist parties">Parties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_women%27s_studies_journals" title="List of women's studies journals">Women's studies journals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SCUM_Manifesto" title="SCUM Manifesto">SCUM Manifesto</a> (1967)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_peacekeeping" title="Women in peacekeeping">Women in peacekeeping</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Feminism_symbol.svg/15px-Feminism_symbol.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" 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title="Portal:Society">Society</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Feminism_symbol.svg/19px-Feminism_symbol.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Feminism_symbol.svg/29px-Feminism_symbol.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Feminism_symbol.svg/38px-Feminism_symbol.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="16" data-file-height="16" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Feminism" title="Portal:Feminism">Feminism</a></li></ul></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" 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href="http://id.worldcat.org/fast/1114686/">FAST</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4116483-0">Germany</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85120678">United States</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb126475549">France</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb126475549">BnF data</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/01075698">Japan</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph116133&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" 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class="mw-portlet mw-portlet-dock-bottom emptyPortlet" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul> </ul> </div> <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-85bfcffb59-6dvrj","wgBackendResponseTime":406,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"3.141","walltime":"3.445","ppvisitednodes":{"value":26144,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":908713,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":17215,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":19,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":61,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":1288598,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":1,"limit":500},"timingprofile":["100.00% 2868.656 1 -total"," 55.28% 1585.904 1 Template:Reflist"," 14.06% 403.292 120 Template:Cite_web"," 12.35% 354.267 67 Template:Cite_book"," 11.29% 323.829 1 Template:Discrimination_sidebar"," 11.23% 322.203 1 Template:Sidebar_with_collapsible_lists"," 11.16% 320.051 12 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[\"CITEREFSchaefer2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchaefer2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchmid\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFScruton2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSears,_James_T.2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSelmeski2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSen1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSerano2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSfeir1957\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShapiro1985\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSharyn_Ann_Lenhart2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShrestha2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSolomon1985\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSpender1983\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStanford_Lehmberg2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStange,_Mary_ZeissCarol_K._OysterJane_E._Sloan2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSteinmetz,_Katy2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStevensonLindberg2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStrossen1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSullivan,_Barbara2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTan1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThe_U.S._Equal_Employment_Opportunity_Commission\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThomanWhiteYamawakiKoishi2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTorgan2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTrzcinskiHolst2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFUNESCO2019\"] = 1,\n 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episode\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 65,\n [\"Cite magazine\"] = 2,\n [\"Cite news\"] = 47,\n [\"Cite thesis\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 120,\n [\"Commons category\"] = 1,\n [\"Discrimination\"] = 1,\n [\"Discrimination sidebar\"] = 1,\n [\"Distinguish\"] = 1,\n [\"Div col\"] = 1,\n [\"Div col end\"] = 1,\n [\"Doi\"] = 1,\n [\"Em\"] = 1,\n [\"Feminism\"] = 1,\n [\"Free-content attribution\"] = 1,\n [\"Further\"] = 4,\n [\"Globalize\"] = 1,\n [\"ISBN\"] = 12,\n [\"ISBN?\"] = 5,\n [\"Main\"] = 12,\n [\"Nbsp\"] = 10,\n [\"Nowrap\"] = 3,\n [\"Page needed\"] = 14,\n [\"Portal bar\"] = 1,\n [\"Pp\"] = 1,\n [\"Quote box\"] = 1,\n [\"Redirect\"] = 2,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"Rp\"] = 6,\n [\"See also\"] = 7,\n [\"See also category\"] = 1,\n [\"Sexual identities\"] = 1,\n [\"Sfnp\"] = 1,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Subscription required\"] = 1,\n [\"Use American English\"] = 1,\n [\"Use mdy dates\"] = 1,\n [\"Webarchive\"] = 9,\n [\"Wikiquote\"] = 1,\n [\"Wiktionary inline\"] = 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