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</li> <li id="toc-Australia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Australia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Australia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Australia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Internment_of_German_aliens" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Internment_of_German_aliens"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.1</span> <span>Internment of German aliens</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Internment_of_German_aliens-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Economy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.2</span> <span>Economy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Economy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-New_Zealand" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#New_Zealand"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>New Zealand</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-New_Zealand-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-South_Africa" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#South_Africa"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>South Africa</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-South_Africa-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-India" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#India"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>India</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-India-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Belgium" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Belgium"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Belgium</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Belgium-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Belgium subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Belgium-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Belgian_Congo" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Belgian_Congo"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Belgian Congo</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Belgian_Congo-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-France" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#France"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>France</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-France-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Russia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Russia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Russia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Russia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Italy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Italy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Italy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Italy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-United_States" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_States"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>United States</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_States-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Germany" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Germany"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Germany</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Germany-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Germany subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Germany-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Political_revolution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Political_revolution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.1</span> <span>Political revolution</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Political_revolution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Austria-Hungary" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Austria-Hungary"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Austria-Hungary</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Austria-Hungary-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ottoman_Empire" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ottoman_Empire"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Ottoman Empire</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ottoman_Empire-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Balkans" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Balkans"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Balkans</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Balkans-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Balkans subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Balkans-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Serbia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Serbia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.1</span> <span>Serbia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Serbia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bulgaria" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bulgaria"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.2</span> <span>Bulgaria</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bulgaria-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Greece" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Greece"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.3</span> <span>Greece</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Greece-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Asia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Asia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>Asia</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Asia-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Asia subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Asia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-China" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#China"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13.1</span> <span>China</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-China-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Japan" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Japan"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13.2</span> <span>Japan</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Japan-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes_and_references" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes_and_references"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15</span> <span>Notes and references</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes_and_references-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">16</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Further reading subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Economics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">16.1</span> <span>Economics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Economics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Britain_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Britain_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">16.2</span> <span>Britain</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Britain_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Year_books" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Year_books"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">16.2.1</span> <span>Year books</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Year_books-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Historiography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Historiography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">16.2.2</span> <span>Historiography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Historiography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-British_Empire,_Dominions,_India" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#British_Empire,_Dominions,_India"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">16.2.3</span> <span>British Empire, Dominions, India</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-British_Empire,_Dominions,_India-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-France_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#France_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">16.3</span> <span>France</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-France_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Russia_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Russia_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">16.4</span> <span>Russia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Russia_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-U.S." class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#U.S."> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">16.5</span> <span>U.S.</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-U.S.-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_Allies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_Allies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">16.6</span> <span>Other Allies</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_Allies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Central_Powers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Central_Powers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">16.7</span> <span>Central Powers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Central_Powers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Historiography_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Historiography_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">16.8</span> <span>Historiography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Historiography_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Primary_sources_and_year_books" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Primary_sources_and_year_books"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">17</span> <span>Primary sources and year books</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Primary_sources_and_year_books-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">18</span> <span>External links</span> 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<div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%22Help_the_Red_Cross.%22_-_NARA_-_512661.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/%22Help_the_Red_Cross.%22_-_NARA_-_512661.jpg/220px-%22Help_the_Red_Cross.%22_-_NARA_-_512661.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="332" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/%22Help_the_Red_Cross.%22_-_NARA_-_512661.jpg/330px-%22Help_the_Red_Cross.%22_-_NARA_-_512661.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/%22Help_the_Red_Cross.%22_-_NARA_-_512661.jpg/440px-%22Help_the_Red_Cross.%22_-_NARA_-_512661.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1985" data-file-height="3000" /></a><figcaption>"Help the Red Cross". American poster by the <a href="/wiki/U.S._Food_Administration" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Food Administration">U.S. Food Administration</a>, circa 1917-1919.</figcaption></figure> <p>The <b>home front during World War I</b> covers the domestic, economic, social and political histories of countries involved in <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">that conflict</a>. It covers the mobilization of armed forces and war supplies, lives of others, but does not include the military history. For nonmilitary interactions among the major players see <a href="/wiki/Diplomatic_history_of_World_War_I" title="Diplomatic history of World War I">diplomatic history of World War I</a>. </p><p>About 10.9 million combatants and seven million civilians <a href="/wiki/World_War_I_casualties" title="World War I casualties">died during the entire war</a>, including many weakened by years of malnutrition; they fell in the worldwide <a href="/wiki/1918_flu_pandemic" class="mw-redirect" title="1918 flu pandemic">Spanish flu pandemic</a>, which struck late in 1918, just as the war was ending. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_I" title="Allies of World War I">Allies</a> had much more potential wealth that they could spend on the war. One estimate (using 1913 US dollars), is that the Allies spent $147 billion ($4.5tr in 2023 USD) on the war and the <a href="/wiki/Central_Powers" title="Central Powers">Central Powers</a> only $61 billion ($1.88tr in 2023 USD). Among the Allies, Britain and its Empire spent $47 billion and the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> $27 billion; among the Central Powers, Germany spent $45 billion.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Total war demanded the total mobilization of all the nation's resources for a common goal. Manpower had to be channeled into the front lines (all the powers except the United States and Britain had large trained reserves designed for just that). Behind the lines labor power had to be redirected away from less necessary activities that were luxuries during a total war. In particular, vast munitions industries had to be built up to provide shells, guns, warships, uniforms, airplanes, and a hundred other weapons, both old and new. Agriculture had to be mobilized as well, to provide food for both civilians and for soldiers (many of whom had been farmers and needed to be replaced by old men, boys and women) and for horses to move supplies. Transportation in general was a challenge, especially when Britain and Germany each tried to intercept merchant ships headed for the enemy. Finance was a special challenge. Germany financed the Central Powers. Britain financed the Allies until 1916, when it ran out of money and had to borrow from the United States. The US took over the financing of the Allies in 1917 with loans that it insisted be repaid after the war. The victorious Allies looked to defeated Germany in 1919 to pay "reparations" that would cover some of their costs. Above all, it was essential to conduct the mobilization in such a way that the short term confidence of the people was maintained, the long-term power of the political establishment was upheld, and the long-term economic health of the nation was preserved.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For more details on economics see <a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_World_War_I" title="Economic history of World War I">Economic history of World War I</a>. </p><p>World War I had a profound impact on woman suffrage across the belligerents. Women played a major role on the homefronts and many countries recognized their sacrifices with the vote during or shortly after the war, including the United States, Britain, Canada (except <a href="/wiki/Quebec_Province" class="mw-redirect" title="Quebec Province">Quebec</a>), Denmark, Austria, the Netherlands, Germany, Russia, Sweden and Ireland. France almost did so but stopped short.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Financial_costs">Financial costs</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Home_front_during_World_War_I&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Financial costs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_World_War_I" title="Economic history of World War I">Economic history of World War I</a></div> <p>The total direct cost of war, for all participants including those not listed here, was about $80 billion in 1913 US dollars. Since $1 billion in 1913 is approximately $46.32 billion in 2023 US dollars, the total cost comes to around $2.47 trillion in 2023 dollars. Direct cost is figured as actual expenditures during war minus normal prewar spending. It excludes postwar costs such as pensions, interest, and veteran hospitals. Loans to/from allies are not included in "direct cost". Repayment of loans after 1918 is not included.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The total direct cost of the war as a percent of wartime national income: </p> <ul><li><b>Allies</b>: Britain, 37%; France, 26%; Italy, 19%; Russia, 24%; United States, 16%.</li> <li><b>Central Powers</b>: Austria-Hungary, 24%; Germany, 32%; Turkey unknown.</li></ul> <p>The amounts listed below are presented in terms of 1913 US dollars, where $1 billion then equals about $25 billion in 2017.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>Britain had a direct war cost about $21.2 billion; it made loans to Allies and Dominions of $4.886 billion, and received loans from the United States of $2.909 billion.</li> <li>France had a direct war cost about $10.1 billion; it made loans to Allies of $1.104 billion, and received loans from Allies (United States and Britain) of $2.909 billion.</li> <li>Italy had a direct war cost about $4.5 billion; it received loans from Allies (United States and Britain) of $1.278 billion.</li> <li>The United States had a direct war cost about $12.3 billion; it made loans to Allies of $5.041 billion.</li> <li>Russia had a direct war cost about $7.7 billion; it received loans from Allies (United States and Britain) of $2.289 billion.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>The two governments agreed that financially Britain would support the weaker Allies and that France would take care of itself.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In August 1914, <a href="/wiki/Henry_Pomeroy_Davison" title="Henry Pomeroy Davison">Henry Pomeroy Davison</a>, a Morgan partner, traveled to London and made a deal with the <a href="/wiki/Bank_of_England" title="Bank of England">Bank of England</a> to make J.P. Morgan & Co. the sole underwriter of <a href="/wiki/War_bonds" class="mw-redirect" title="War bonds">war bonds</a> for Great Britain and France. The Bank of England became a fiscal agent of J.P. Morgan & Co., and <i>vice versa</i>. Over the course of the war, J.P. Morgan loaned about $1.5 billion (approximately $27 billion in today's dollars) to the Allies to fight against the Germans.<sup id="cite_ref-wolff_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wolff-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 63">: 63 </span></sup> Morgan also invested in the suppliers of war equipment to Britain and France, thus profiting from the financing and purchasing activities of the two European governments. </p><p>Britain made heavy loans to Tsarist Russia; the Lenin government after 1920 refused to honor them, causing long-term issues.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Britain">Britain</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Home_front_during_World_War_I&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Britain"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_Kingdom_during_World_War_I" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the United Kingdom during World War I">History of the United Kingdom during World War I</a> and <a href="/wiki/British_entry_into_World_War_I" title="British entry into World War I">British entry into World War I</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_United_Kingdom_home_front_during_World_War_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Timeline of the United Kingdom home front during World War I">Timeline of the United Kingdom home front during World War I</a></div> <p>At the outbreak of war, patriotic feelings spread throughout the country, and many of the class barriers of <a href="/wiki/Edwardian_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Edwardian England">Edwardian era</a> faded during the years of combat.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the Catholics in southern Ireland moved overnight to demands for complete immediate independence after the failed <a href="/wiki/Easter_Rebellion" class="mw-redirect" title="Easter Rebellion">Easter Rebellion</a> of 1916. Northern Ireland remained loyal to the crown. </p><p>In 1914 Britain had by far the largest and most efficient financial system in the world.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Roger Lloyd-Jones and M. J. Lewis argue: </p> <dl><dd>To prosecute industrial war required the mobilization of economic resources for the mass production of weapons and munitions, which necessarily entitled fundamental changes in the relationship between the state (the procurer), business (the provider), labor (the key productive input), and the military (the consumer). In this context, the industrial battlefields of France and Flanders intertwined with the home front that produced the materials to sustain a war over four long and bloody years.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl> <p>Economic sacrifices were made, however, in the name of defeating the enemy.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1915 Liberal politician <a href="/wiki/David_Lloyd_George" title="David Lloyd George">David Lloyd George</a> took charge of the newly created Ministry of Munitions. He dramatically increased the output of artillery shells—the main weapon actually used in battle. In 1916 he became secretary for war. Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/H._H._Asquith" title="H. H. Asquith">H. H. Asquith</a> was a disappointment; he formed a coalition government in 1915 but it was also ineffective. Asquith was replaced by Lloyd George in late 1916. He had a strong hand in the managing of every affair, making many decisions himself. Historians credit Lloyd George with providing the driving energy and organisation that won the War.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Although <a href="/wiki/German_strategic_bombing_during_World_War_I" class="mw-redirect" title="German strategic bombing during World War I">Germans were using Zeppelins to bomb the cities</a>, morale remained relatively high due in part to the propaganda churned out by the national newspapers.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With a severe shortage of skilled workers, industry redesigned work so that it could be done by unskilled men and women (termed the "dilution of labour") so that war-related industries grew rapidly. Lloyd George cut a deal with the trades unions—they approved the dilution (since it would be temporary) and threw their organizations into the war effort.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Historian <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Marwick" title="Arthur Marwick">Arthur Marwick</a> saw a radical transformation of British society, a deluge that swept away many old attitudes and brought in a more equalitarian society. He also saw the famous literary pessimism of the 1920s as misplaced, for there were major positive long-term consequences of the war. He pointed to new job opportunities and self-consciousness among workers that quickly built up the <a href="/wiki/Labour_Party_(United_Kingdom)" class="mw-redirect" title="Labour Party (United Kingdom)">Labour Party</a>, to the coming of partial woman suffrage, and an acceleration of social reform and state control of the British economy. He found a decline of deference toward the aristocracy and established authority in general, and a weakening among youth of traditional restraints on individual moral behavior. Marwick concluded that class differentials softened, national cohesion increased, and British society became more equal.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the conflict, the various elements of the British Left created the War Emergency Workers' National Committee, which played a crucial role in supporting the most vulnerable people on the Home Front during the war, and in ensuring the British Labour remained united in the years after the Armistice.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Scotland">Scotland</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Home_front_during_World_War_I&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Scotland"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Scotland played a major role in the British effort in the First World War.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It especially provided manpower, ships, machinery, food (particularly fish) and money, engaging with the conflict with some enthusiasm.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With a population of 4.8 million in 1911, Scotland sent 690,000 men to the war, of whom 74,000 died in combat or from disease, and 150,000 were seriously wounded.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Scottish urban centres, with their poverty and unemployment were favourite recruiting grounds of the regular British army, and <a href="/wiki/Dundee" title="Dundee">Dundee</a>, where the female dominated jute industry limited male employment had one of the highest proportion of reservists and serving soldiers than almost any other British city.<sup id="cite_ref-Lenman&Mackie1991_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lenman&Mackie1991-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Concern for their families' standard of living made men hesitate to enlist; voluntary enlistment rates went up after the government guaranteed a weekly stipend for life to the survivors of men who were killed or disabled.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After the introduction of conscription from January 1916 every part of the country was affected. Occasionally Scottish troops made up large proportions of the active combatants, and suffered corresponding loses, as at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Loos" title="Battle of Loos">Battle of Loos</a>, where there were three full Scots divisions and other Scottish units.<sup id="cite_ref-Lenman&Mackie1991_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lenman&Mackie1991-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus, although Scots were only 10 per cent of the British population, they made up 15 per cent of the national armed forces and eventually accounted for 20 per cent of the dead.<sup id="cite_ref-Buchanan2003p49_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Buchanan2003p49-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some areas, like the thinly populated Island of <a href="/wiki/Lewis_and_Harris" title="Lewis and Harris">Lewis and Harris</a> suffered some of the highest proportional losses of any part of Britain.<sup id="cite_ref-Lenman&Mackie1991_23-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lenman&Mackie1991-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Clydeside shipyards and the nearby engineering shops were the major centers of war industry in Scotland. In <a href="/wiki/Glasgow" title="Glasgow">Glasgow</a>, radical agitation led to industrial and political unrest that continued after the war ended.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In Glasgow, the heavy demand for munitions and warships strengthened union power. There emerged a radical movement called "<a href="/wiki/Red_Clydeside" title="Red Clydeside">Red Clydeside</a>" led by militant trades unionists. Formerly a Liberal Party stronghold, the industrial districts switched to Labour by 1922, with a base among the Irish Catholic working class districts. Women were especially active in solidarity on housing issues. However, the "Reds" operated within the Labour Party and had little influence in Parliament; the mood changed to passive despair by the late 1920s.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Politics">Politics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Home_front_during_World_War_I&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Politics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/David_Lloyd_George" title="David Lloyd George">David Lloyd George</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/David_Lloyd_George" title="David Lloyd George">David Lloyd George</a> became prime minister in December 1916 and immediately transformed the British war effort, taking firm control of both military and domestic policy.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In rapid succession in spring 1918 came a series of military and political crises.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Germans, having moved troops from the Eastern front and retrained them in new tactics, now had more soldiers on the Western Front than the Allies. Germany launched a full scale <a href="/wiki/German_spring_offensive" title="German spring offensive">Spring Offensive</a> (<a href="/wiki/Operation_Michael" title="Operation Michael">Operation Michael</a>), starting March 21 against the British and French lines, with the hope of victory on the battlefield before the American troops arrived in numbers. The Allied armies fell back 40 miles in confusion, and facing defeat, London realized it needed more troops to fight a mobile war. Lloyd George found a half million soldiers and rushed them to France, asked American President <a href="/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson" title="Woodrow Wilson">Woodrow Wilson</a> for immediate help, and agreed to the appointment of French General <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_Foch" title="Ferdinand Foch">Foch</a> as commander-in-chief on the Western Front so that Allied forces could be coordinated to handle the German offensive.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Despite strong warnings it was a bad idea, the War Cabinet <a href="/wiki/Conscription_Crisis_of_1918" title="Conscription Crisis of 1918">decided to impose conscription on Ireland</a>. The main reason was that labour in Britain demanded it as the price for cutting back on exemptions for certain workers. Labour wanted the principle established that no one was exempt, but it did not demand that the draft actually take place in Ireland. The proposal was enacted but never enforced. The Catholic bishops for the first time entered the fray and called for open resistance to a draft. Many Irish Catholics and nationalists moved into the intransigent <a href="/wiki/Sinn_F%C3%A9in" title="Sinn Féin">Sinn Féin</a> movement. This proved a decisive moment, marking the end of Irish willingness to stay inside the UK.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>When on May 7, 1918, a senior army general on active duty, Major-General Sir <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Barton_Maurice" class="mw-redirect" title="Frederick Barton Maurice">Frederick Maurice</a> went public with allegations that Lloyd George had lied to Parliament on military matters, <a href="/wiki/Maurice_Debate" title="Maurice Debate">a crisis was at hand</a>. The German spring offensive had made unexpected major gains, and a scapegoat was needed. Asquith, the Liberal leader in the House, took up the allegations and attacked Lloyd George (also a Liberal), which further split the Liberal Party. While Asquith's presentation was poorly done, Lloyd George vigorously defended his position, treating the debate as a vote of confidence. He won over the House with a powerful refutation of Maurice's allegations. The main results were to strengthen Lloyd George, weaken Asquith, end public criticism of overall strategy, and strengthen civilian control of the military.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Meanwhile, the German offensive stalled. By summer the Americans were sending 10,000 fresh men a day to the Western Front, a more rapid response made possible by leaving their equipment behind and using British and French munitions. The German army had used up its last reserves and was steadily shrinking in number and weakening in resolve. Victory came with <a href="/wiki/Armistice_of_11_November_1918" title="Armistice of 11 November 1918">the Armistice</a> on November 11, 1918.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Women">Women</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Home_front_during_World_War_I&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Women"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Prime Minister David Lloyd George was clear about how important the women were: </p> <dl><dd>It would have been utterly impossible for us to have waged a successful war had it not been for the skill and ardour, enthusiasm and industry which the women of this country have thrown into the war.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl> <p>The militant suffragette movement was suspended during the war, and at the time people credited the new patriotic roles women played as earning them the vote in 1918.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, British historians no longer emphasize the granting of woman suffrage as a reward for women's participation in war work. Pugh (1974) argues that enfranchising soldiers primarily and women secondarily was decided by senior politicians in 1916. In the absence of major women's groups demanding for equal suffrage, the government's conference recommended limited, age-restricted women's suffrage. The <a href="/wiki/Suffragettes" class="mw-redirect" title="Suffragettes">suffragettes</a> had been weakened, Pugh argues, by repeated failures before 1914 and by the disorganizing effects of war mobilization; therefore they quietly accepted these restrictions, which were approved in 1918 by a majority of the War Ministry and each political party in Parliament.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> More generally, Searle (2004) argues that the British debate was essentially over by the 1890s, and that granting the suffrage in 1918 was mostly a byproduct of giving the vote to male soldiers. Women in Britain finally achieved suffrage on the same terms as men in 1928.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="British_Empire">British Empire</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Home_front_during_World_War_I&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: British Empire"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The British Empire provided imports of food and raw material, worldwide network of naval bases, and a steady flow of soldiers and workers into Britain.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Canada">Canada</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Home_front_during_World_War_I&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Canada"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:154px;max-width:154px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:152px;max-width:152px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Enlist-canadaWW1-yiddish.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Yiddish World War I recruitment poster" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Enlist-canadaWW1-yiddish.jpg/150px-Enlist-canadaWW1-yiddish.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Enlist-canadaWW1-yiddish.jpg/225px-Enlist-canadaWW1-yiddish.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Enlist-canadaWW1-yiddish.jpg/300px-Enlist-canadaWW1-yiddish.jpg 2x" data-file-width="528" data-file-height="775" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:152px;max-width:152px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Jews_the_world_over_love_liberty_poster.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="English World War I recruitment poster" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/The_Jews_the_world_over_love_liberty_poster.jpg/150px-The_Jews_the_world_over_love_liberty_poster.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="230" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/The_Jews_the_world_over_love_liberty_poster.jpg/225px-The_Jews_the_world_over_love_liberty_poster.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/The_Jews_the_world_over_love_liberty_poster.jpg/300px-The_Jews_the_world_over_love_liberty_poster.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3296" data-file-height="5045" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">Yiddish (top) and English versions of World War I recruitment posters directed at Canadian Jews.</div></div></div></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:New_Names_Canadian_WW1_recruiting_poster.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/New_Names_Canadian_WW1_recruiting_poster.jpg/170px-New_Names_Canadian_WW1_recruiting_poster.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="266" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/New_Names_Canadian_WW1_recruiting_poster.jpg/255px-New_Names_Canadian_WW1_recruiting_poster.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/New_Names_Canadian_WW1_recruiting_poster.jpg/340px-New_Names_Canadian_WW1_recruiting_poster.jpg 2x" data-file-width="750" data-file-height="1172" /></a><figcaption>A Canadian recruiting poster featuring names of French battlefields (but an English text)</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Canada_in_the_World_Wars_and_Interwar_Years#World_War_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Canada in the World Wars and Interwar Years">Canada in the World Wars and Interwar Years § World War I</a></div> <p>The 620,000 men in service were most notable for combat in the trenches of the <a href="/wiki/Western_Front_(World_War_I)" title="Western Front (World War I)">Western Front</a>; there were 67,000 war dead and 173,000 wounded. This total does not include the 2,000 deaths and 9,000 injuries in December 1917 when <a href="/wiki/Halifax_Explosion" title="Halifax Explosion">a munitions ship exploded in Halifax</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nova_Scotia" title="Nova Scotia">Nova Scotia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Volunteering provided enough soldiers at first, but high casualties soon required conscription, which was strongly opposed by Francophones (French speakers, based mostly in <a href="/wiki/Quebec_Province" class="mw-redirect" title="Quebec Province">Quebec</a>). The <a href="/wiki/Conscription_Crisis_of_1917" title="Conscription Crisis of 1917">Conscription Crisis of 1917</a> saw the Liberal Party ripped apart, to the advantage of the <a href="/wiki/Conservative_Party_(Canada)" class="mw-redirect" title="Conservative Party (Canada)">Conservative</a>'s Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Robert_Borden" title="Robert Borden">Robert Borden</a>, who led a new <a href="/wiki/Unionist_Party_(Canada)" title="Unionist Party (Canada)">Unionist coalition</a> to a landslide victory in 1917.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Distrusting the loyalties of <a href="/wiki/Canadians_of_German_ethnicity" class="mw-redirect" title="Canadians of German ethnicity">Canadians of German ethnicity</a> and, especially, recent <a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_Canadian" class="mw-redirect" title="Ukrainian Canadian">Ukrainian Canadian</a> immigrants from <a href="/wiki/Austria-Hungary" title="Austria-Hungary">Austria-Hungary</a>, the government interned thousands of aliens.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The war validated Canada's new world role, in an almost-equal partnership with Britain in the <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Nations" title="Commonwealth of Nations">Commonwealth of Nations</a>. Arguing that Canada had become a true nation on the battlefields of Europe, Borden demanded and received a separate seat for Canada at the <a href="/wiki/Paris_Peace_Conference,_1919" class="mw-redirect" title="Paris Peace Conference, 1919">Paris Peace Conference of 1919</a>. Canada's military and civilian participation in the First World War strengthened a sense of British-Canadian nationhood among the Anglophones (English speakers). The Francophones (French speakers) supported the war at first, but pulled back and stood aloof after 1915 because of language disputes at home. Heroic memories centered around the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Vimy_Ridge" title="Battle of Vimy Ridge">Battle of Vimy Ridge</a> where the unified Canadian corps captured Vimy ridge, a position that the French and British armies had failed to capture and "<a href="/wiki/Canada%27s_Hundred_Days" title="Canada's Hundred Days">Canada's Hundred Days</a>" battles of 1918 which saw the <a href="/wiki/Canadian_Corps" title="Canadian Corps">Canadian Corps</a> of 100,000 defeat one fourth of the German Army on the Western Front.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Australia">Australia</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Home_front_during_World_War_I&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Australia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:SLNSW_75769_To_my_Dear_Friend_on_Active_Service_postcard_with_Kookaburra_and_text.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/SLNSW_75769_To_my_Dear_Friend_on_Active_Service_postcard_with_Kookaburra_and_text.jpg/330px-SLNSW_75769_To_my_Dear_Friend_on_Active_Service_postcard_with_Kookaburra_and_text.jpg" decoding="async" width="330" height="206" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/SLNSW_75769_To_my_Dear_Friend_on_Active_Service_postcard_with_Kookaburra_and_text.jpg/495px-SLNSW_75769_To_my_Dear_Friend_on_Active_Service_postcard_with_Kookaburra_and_text.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/SLNSW_75769_To_my_Dear_Friend_on_Active_Service_postcard_with_Kookaburra_and_text.jpg/660px-SLNSW_75769_To_my_Dear_Friend_on_Active_Service_postcard_with_Kookaburra_and_text.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1400" data-file-height="876" /></a><figcaption>An Australian <a href="/wiki/Kookaburra" title="Kookaburra">Kookaburra</a> active service postcard</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Billy_Hughes" title="Billy Hughes">Billy Hughes</a>, prime minister from October 1915, expanded the government's role in the economy, while dealing with intense debates over the issue of conscription.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>From a population of five million, 417,000 men enlisted; 330,000 went overseas to fight during the First World War. They were all volunteers, since the political battle for compulsory conscription failed. Some 58,000 died and 156,000 were wounded.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Gerhard Fischer argues that the government aggressively promoted economic, industrial, and social modernization in the war years.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, he says it came through exclusion and repression. He says the war turned a peaceful nation into "one that was violent, aggressive, angst- and conflict-ridden, torn apart by invisible front lines of sectarian division, ethnic conflict and socio-economic and political upheaval." The nation was fearful of enemy aliens—especially Germans, regardless of how closely they identified with Australia. The government interned 2,900 German-born men (40% of the total) and deported 700 of them after the war.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Irish nationalists and labor radicals were under suspicion as well. Racist hostility was high toward nonwhites, including Pacific Islanders, Chinese and Aborigines. The result, Fischer says, was a strengthening of conformity to imperial/British loyalties and an explicit preference for immigrants from the British Isles.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The major military event involved sending 40,000 ANZAC (Australia and New Zealand) soldiers in 1915 to seize the <a href="/wiki/Gallipoli_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Gallipoli Campaign">Gallipoli peninsula</a> near Constantinople to open an Allied route to Russia and weaken the Ottoman Empire. The campaign was a total failure militarily and 8,100 Australians died. However the memory was all-important, for it transformed the Australian mind and became an iconic element of the Australian identity and the founding moment of nationhood.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Internment_of_German_aliens">Internment of German aliens</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Home_front_during_World_War_I&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Internment of German aliens"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <i><a href="/wiki/War_Precautions_Act_1914" title="War Precautions Act 1914">War Precautions Act 1914</a></i> provided the Commonwealth government with wide-ranging powers for a period of up to six months after the duration of the war.<sup id="cite_ref-homefront_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-homefront-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It covered: the prevention of trade with hostile nations, issuing loans to pay for the war effort, the introduction of a national taxation scheme, the fixing of the prices of certain goods, the internment of people considered a danger to Australia, the compulsory purchase of strategic goods, and the censorship of the media.<sup id="cite_ref-homefront_52-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-homefront-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>At the outbreak of the war there were about 35,000 people who had been born in either Germany or Austria-Hungary living in Australia.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They had weak ties with Germany (and almost none to Austria) and many had enlisted in the Australian war effort. Nevertheless, fears ran high and internment camps were set up where those suspected of unpatriotic acts were sent. In total 4,500 people were interned under the provisions of the <i>War Precautions Act</i>, of which 700 were naturalised Australians and 70 Australian born. Following the end of the war, 6,150 were deported.<sup id="cite_ref-homefront2_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-homefront2-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Economy">Economy</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Home_front_during_World_War_I&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Economy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Australian_Honour_Flag.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Australian_Honour_Flag.svg/250px-Australian_Honour_Flag.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="136" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Australian_Honour_Flag.svg/375px-Australian_Honour_Flag.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Australian_Honour_Flag.svg/500px-Australian_Honour_Flag.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1320" data-file-height="720" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Australian_Honour_Flag" title="Australian Honour Flag">Australian Honour Flag</a>, awarded to subscribers of the Australian Government's 7th War Loan in 1918</figcaption></figure> <p>In 1914 the Australian economy was small but very nearly the most prosperous in the world per capita; it depended on the export of wool and mutton. London provided assurances that it would underwrite a large amount of the war risk insurance for shipping to allow trade amongst the Commonwealth nations to continue. London imposed controls so that no exports would wind up in German hands. The British government protected prices by buying Australian products, even though the shortage of shipping meant that there was no chance that they would ever receive them.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On the whole, Australian commerce was expanded due to the war, although the cost of the war was quite considerable and the Australian government had to borrow considerably from overseas to fund the war effort. In terms of value, Australian exports rose almost 45 per cent, while the number of Australians employed in manufacturing industries increased over 11 per cent. Iron mining and steel manufacture grew enormously.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Inflation became a factor as the prices of <a href="/wiki/Consumer_goods" class="mw-redirect" title="Consumer goods">consumer goods</a> went up, while the cost of exports was deliberately kept lower than market value to prevent further inflationary pressures worldwide. As a result, the cost of living for many average Australians was increased.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The trade union movement, already powerful, grew rapidly, although the movement was split on the political question of conscription. It expelled the politicians, such as Hughes, who favoured conscription (which was never passed into law).<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The government sought to stabilize wages, much to the anger of unionists. The average weekly wage during the war was increased by between 8 and 12 per cent, it was not enough to keep up with inflation. Angry workers launched a wave of strikes against both the wage freeze and the conscription proposal. Nevertheless, the result was very disruptive and it has been estimated that between 1914 and 1918 there were 1,945 industrial disputes, resulting in 8,533,061 working days being lost and a £4,785,607 deficit in wages.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Overall, the war had a significantly negative impact on the Australian economy. Real aggregate <a href="/wiki/Gross_Domestic_Product" class="mw-redirect" title="Gross Domestic Product">Gross Domestic Product</a> (GDP) declined by 9.5 percent over the period 1914 to 1920, while the mobilization of personnel resulted in a six percent decline in civilian employment. Meanwhile, although population growth continued during the war years, it was only half that of the prewar rate. Per capita incomes also declined sharply, failing by 16 percent.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="New_Zealand">New Zealand</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Home_front_during_World_War_I&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: New Zealand"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The country remained an enthusiastic supporter of the Empire, enlisting 124,211 men and sending 100,444 to fight in World War I (see <a href="/wiki/New_Zealand_Expeditionary_Force" title="New Zealand Expeditionary Force">New Zealand Expeditionary Force</a>). Over 18,000 died in service. Conscription was introduced in mid 1916 and by the end of the war near 1 in four members of the NZEF was a conscript.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As in Australia, involvement in the Gallipoli campaign became an iconic touchstone in New Zealand memory of the war and was commonly connected to imaginings of collective identity. </p><p>The war divided the labour movement with numerous elements taking up roles in the war effort while others alleged the war was an imperial venture against the interests of the working class. <a href="/wiki/Labour_Party_(New_Zealand)" class="mw-redirect" title="Labour Party (New Zealand)">Labour</a> MPs frequently acted as critics of government policy during the war and opposition to conscription saw the modern Labour Party formed in 1916. Maori tribes that had been close to the government sent their young men to volunteer. The mobilisation of women for war work/service was relatively slight compared to more industrialised countries though some 640 women served as nurses with 500 going overseas.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>New Zealand forces captured <a href="/wiki/Western_Samoa" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Samoa">Western Samoa</a> from Germany in the early stages of the war, and New Zealand administered the country until Samoan Independence in 1962. However many Samoans greatly resented the administration, and blamed inflation and the catastrophic 1918 flu epidemic on New Zealand rule.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="South_Africa">South Africa</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Home_front_during_World_War_I&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: South Africa"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>South Africa had a military role in the war, fighting the Germans in East Africa and on the Western Front.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Public opinion in South Africa split along racial and ethnic lines. The British elements strongly supported the war and comprised the great majority of the 146,000 white soldiers. Nasson says, "for many enthusiastic English-speaking Union recruits, going to war was anticipated as an exciting adventure, egged on by the itch of making a manly mark upon a heroic cause."<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Likewise the Indian element (led by <a href="/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi" title="Mahatma Gandhi">Mahatma Gandhi</a>), generally supported the war effort. Afrikaners were split, with some like Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Louis_Botha" title="Louis Botha">Louis Botha</a> and General <a href="/wiki/Jan_Smuts" title="Jan Smuts">Jan Smuts</a> taking a prominent leadership role in the British war effort. Their pro-British position was rejected by many rural Afrikaners who favoured Germany and who launched the <a href="/wiki/Maritz_Rebellion" class="mw-redirect" title="Maritz Rebellion">Maritz Rebellion</a>, a small-scale open revolt against the government. The trade union movement was also divided. Many urban blacks supported the war, expecting it would raise their status in society, others said it was not relevant to the struggle for their rights. The Coloured element was generally supportive and many served in a Coloured Corps in East Africa and France, also hoping to better their lot after the war. Those blacks and Coloureds who supported the war were embittered when the postwar era saw no easing of white domination and restrictive conditions.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="India">India</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Home_front_during_World_War_I&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: India"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/India_in_World_War_I" class="mw-redirect" title="India in World War I">India in World War I</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gift_from_our_Indian_Empire_-_Calcutta_ambulance_cars,_1916_(c).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Gift_from_our_Indian_Empire_-_Calcutta_ambulance_cars%2C_1916_%28c%29.jpg/220px-Gift_from_our_Indian_Empire_-_Calcutta_ambulance_cars%2C_1916_%28c%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="153" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Gift_from_our_Indian_Empire_-_Calcutta_ambulance_cars%2C_1916_%28c%29.jpg/330px-Gift_from_our_Indian_Empire_-_Calcutta_ambulance_cars%2C_1916_%28c%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Gift_from_our_Indian_Empire_-_Calcutta_ambulance_cars%2C_1916_%28c%29.jpg/440px-Gift_from_our_Indian_Empire_-_Calcutta_ambulance_cars%2C_1916_%28c%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="960" data-file-height="668" /></a><figcaption>Ambulances from <a href="/wiki/Calcutta" class="mw-redirect" title="Calcutta">Calcutta</a>, <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a> donated to the war effort, 1916.</figcaption></figure> <p>The British controlled India (including modern <a href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bangladesh" title="Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a>) either directly through the <a href="/wiki/British_Raj" title="British Raj">British Raj</a> or indirectly through <a href="/wiki/Princely_state" title="Princely state">local princes</a>. The colonial government of India supported the war enthusiastically, and enlarged the <a href="/wiki/British_Indian_army" class="mw-redirect" title="British Indian army">British Indian army</a> by a factor of 500% to 1.4 million men. It sent 550,000 overseas, with 200,000 going as laborers to the Western Front and the rest to the Middle East theatre. Only a few hundred were allowed to become officers, but there were some 100,000 casualties. The main fighting of the latter group was in Mesopotamia (modern <a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a>), where large numbers were killed and captured in the initial stages of the <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamian_campaign" title="Mesopotamian campaign">Mesopotamian campaign</a>, most infamously during the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Kut" title="Siege of Kut">Siege of Kut</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Indian contingent was entirely funded by the Indian taxpayers (who had no vote and no voice in the matter).<sup id="cite_ref-online_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-online-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Although Germany and the Ottoman Empire tried to incite anti-British subversion with the help of Indian freedom fighters, such as <a href="/wiki/Rash_Bihari_Bose" class="mw-redirect" title="Rash Bihari Bose">Rash Bihari Bose</a> or <a href="/wiki/Bagha_Jatin" title="Bagha Jatin">Bagha Jatin</a>, they had virtually no success, apart from a localized <a href="/wiki/1915_Singapore_Mutiny" title="1915 Singapore Mutiny">1915 Singapore Mutiny</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which was a part of the <a href="/wiki/Ghadar_Mutiny" title="Ghadar Mutiny">Gadar conspiracy</a>. The small Indian industrial base expanded dramatically to provide most of the supplies and munitions for the Middle East theatre.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Indian nationalists became well organized for the first time during the war, and were stunned when they received little in the way of self-government in the aftermath of victory. </p><p>In 1918, India <a href="/wiki/1918_flu_pandemic_in_India" title="1918 flu pandemic in India">experienced an influenza epidemic</a> and severe food shortages. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Belgium">Belgium</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Home_front_during_World_War_I&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Belgium"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Belgium_in_World_War_I" title="Belgium in World War I">Belgium in World War I</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rape_of_Belgium" title="Rape of Belgium">Rape of Belgium</a></div> <p>Nearly all of Belgium was occupied by the Germans, but the government and army escaped and fought the war on a narrow slice of the Western Front. The German invaders treated any resistance—such as sabotaging rail lines—as illegal and immoral, and shot the offenders and burned buildings in retaliation. The German army executed over 6,500 French and Belgian civilians between August and November 1914, usually in near-random large-scale shootings of civilians ordered by junior German officers. The German Army destroyed 15,000-20,000 buildings—most famously the university library at <a href="/wiki/Leuven" title="Leuven">Louvain</a> (Leuven)—and generated a refugee wave of over a million people. Over half the German regiments in Belgium were involved in major incidents.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thousands of workers were shipped to Germany to work in factories. British propaganda dramatizing the <a href="/wiki/Rape_of_Belgium" title="Rape of Belgium">Rape of Belgium</a> attracted much attention in the US, while Berlin said it was legal and necessary because of the threat of "franc-tireurs" (guerrillas) like those in <a href="/wiki/Franco-Prussian_War" title="Franco-Prussian War">France in 1870</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The British and French magnified the reports and disseminated them at home and in the US, where they played a major role in dissolving support for Germany.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Germans left Belgium stripped and barren. They shipped machinery to Germany while destroying factories.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After the atrocities of the first few weeks, German civil servants took control and were generally correct, albeit strict and severe. There was no violent resistance movement, but there was a large-scale spontaneous passive resistance of a refusal to work for the benefit of German victory. Belgium was heavily industrialized; while farms operated and small shops stayed open, most large establishments shut down or drastically reduced their output. The faculty closed the universities; publishers shut down most newspapers. Most Belgians "turned the four war years into a long and extremely dull vacation", says Kiossmann.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Neutrals led by the United States set up the Commission for Relief in Belgium, headed by American engineer <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Hoover" title="Herbert Hoover">Herbert Hoover</a>. It shipped in large quantities of food and medical supplies, which it tried to reserve for civilians and keep out of the hands of the Germans.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many businesses collaborated with the Germans, and some women cohabitated with their men. They were treated roughly in a wave of popular violence in November and December 1918. The government set up judicial proceedings to punish the collaborators.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1919 the <a href="/wiki/Albert_I_of_Belgium" title="Albert I of Belgium">king</a> organized a new ministry and introduced universal male suffrage. The Socialists—mostly poor workers—benefited more than the more middle class Catholics and Liberals. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Belgian_Congo">Belgian Congo</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Home_front_during_World_War_I&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Belgian Congo"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Rubber had long been the main export; production levels held up but its importance fell from 77% of exports (by value) to only 15%. New resources were opened, especially copper mining in <a href="/wiki/Katanga_province" class="mw-redirect" title="Katanga province">Katanga province</a>. The British-owned Union Miniere company dominated the copper industry; it used a direct rail line to the sea at Beira. The war caused a heavy demand for copper, production soared from 997 tons in 1911 to 27,000 tons in 1917, then fell off to 19,000 tons in 1920. Smelters operated at <a href="/wiki/Lubumbashi" title="Lubumbashi">Lubumbashi</a>; before the war copper was sold to Germany; the British purchased all the wartime output, with the revenues going to the Belgian government in exile. Diamond and gold mining expanded during the war. The British firm of Lever Brothers greatly expanded the palm oil business during the war, and there was an increased output of cocoa, rice and cotton. New rail and steamship lines opened to handle the expanded export traffic.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="France">France</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Home_front_during_World_War_I&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: France"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/French_entry_into_World_War_I" title="French entry into World War I">French entry into World War I</a> and <a href="/wiki/French_Third_Republic#First_World_War" title="French Third Republic">French Third Republic § First World War</a></div> <p>Many French intellectuals welcomed the war to avenge the humiliation of defeat and loss of territory to Germany following the <a href="/wiki/Franco-Prussian_War" title="Franco-Prussian War">Franco-Prussian War</a> of 1871. Only one major figure, novelist <a href="/wiki/Romain_Rolland" title="Romain Rolland">Romain Rolland</a> retained his pacifist internationalist values; he moved to Switzerland.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After Socialist leader <a href="/wiki/Jean_Jaur%C3%A8s" title="Jean Jaurès">Jean Jaurès</a>, a pacifist, was assassinated at the start of the war, the French socialist movement abandoned its antimilitarist positions and joined the national war effort. Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Rene_Viviani" class="mw-redirect" title="Rene Viviani">Rene Viviani</a> called for unity—for a "<a href="/wiki/Union_sacr%C3%A9e" class="mw-redirect" title="Union sacrée">Union sacrée</a>" ("Sacred Union"); France had few dissenters.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>However, <a href="/wiki/War-weariness" title="War-weariness">war-weariness</a> was a major factor by 1917, even reaching the army, as soldiers were reluctant to attack—many threatened to mutiny—saying it was best to wait for the arrival of millions of Americans. The soldiers were protesting not just the futility of frontal assaults in the face of German machine guns but also degraded conditions at the front lines and home, especially infrequent leaves, poor food, the use of African and Asian colonials on the home front, and concerns about the welfare of their wives and children.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The industrial economy was badly hurt by the German invasion of major industrial areas in the northeast. While the occupied area in 1913 contained only 14% of France's industrial workers, it produced 58% of the steel, and 40% of the coal.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Considerable relief came with the influx of American food, money and raw materials in 1917.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The arrival of over a million American soldiers in 1918 brought heavy spending on food and construction materials. Labor shortages were in part alleviated by the use of volunteer and slave labor from the colonies.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The war damages amounted to about 113% of the GDP of 1913, chiefly the destruction of productive capital and housing. The national debt rose from 66% of GDP in 1913 to 170% in 1919, reflecting the heavy use of bond issues to pay for the war. Inflation was severe, with the franc losing over half its value against the British pound.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The World War ended a golden era for the press. Their younger staff members were drafted and male replacements could not be found (women were not considered). Rail transportation was rationed and less paper and ink came in, and fewer copies could be shipped out. Inflation raised the price of newsprint, which was always in short supply. The cover price went up, circulation fell and many of the 242 dailies published outside Paris closed down. The government set up the Interministerial Press Commission to closely supervise newspapers. A separate agency imposed tight censorship that led to blank spaces where news reports or editorials were disallowed. The dailies sometimes were limited to only two pages instead of the usual four, leading one satirical paper to try to report the war news in the same spirit: </p> <dl><dd>War News. A half-zeppelin threw half its bombs on half-time combatants, resulting in one-quarter damaged. The zeppelin, halfways-attacked by a portion of half-anti aircraft guns, was half destroyed."<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl> <p><a href="/wiki/Georges_Clemenceau" title="Georges Clemenceau">Georges Clemenceau</a> became prime minister in November 1917, a time of defeatism and acrimony. Italy was on the defensive, Russia had surrendered. Civilians were angry, as rations fell short and the threat of German air raids grew. Clemenceau realized his priority was to restore civilian morale. He arrested <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Caillaux" title="Joseph Caillaux">Joseph Caillaux</a>, a former French prime minister, for openly advocating peace negotiations. He won all-party support to fight to victory calling for "la guerre jusqu'au bout" (war until the end). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Russia">Russia</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Home_front_during_World_War_I&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Russia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Russian_entry_into_World_War_I" title="Russian entry into World War I">Russian entry into World War I</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_Russia_(1892%E2%80%931917)" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Russia (1892–1917)">History of Russia (1892–1917)</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Russian_Revolution" title="Russian Revolution">Russian Revolution</a></div> <p>Tsarist Russia was being torn apart in 1914 and was not prepared to fight a modern war.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The industrial sector was small, finances were poor, the rural areas could barely feed themselves.<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Repeated military failures and bureaucratic ineptitude soon turned large segments of the population against the government. Control of the <a href="/wiki/Baltic_Sea" title="Baltic Sea">Baltic Sea</a> by the German fleet, and of the <a href="/wiki/Black_Sea" title="Black Sea">Black Sea</a> by combined German and Ottoman forces prevented Russia from importing supplies or exporting goods. By the middle of 1915 the impact of the war was demoralizing. Food and fuel supplies grew scarce, war casualties kept climbing and inflation was mounting. Strikes increased among low-paid factory workers, and the peasants, who wanted land reforms, were restless. Meanwhile, elite distrust of the incompetent decision making at the highest levels was deepened when a semiliterate mystic, <a href="/wiki/Grigory_Rasputin" class="mw-redirect" title="Grigory Rasputin">Grigory Rasputin</a>, gained enormous influence over the Tsar and his wife until he was assassinated in 1916. Major strikes broke out early in 1917 and the army sided with the strikers in the <a href="/wiki/February_Revolution" title="February Revolution">February Revolution</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Nicholas_II_of_Russia" class="mw-redirect" title="Nicholas II of Russia">tsar</a> abdicated. The liberal reformer <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Kerensky" title="Alexander Kerensky">Alexander Kerensky</a> came to power in July, but in the <a href="/wiki/October_Revolution" title="October Revolution">October Revolution</a> <a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin" title="Vladimir Lenin">Lenin</a> and the Bolsheviks took control. In early 1918 they signed the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Brest-Litovsk" title="Treaty of Brest-Litovsk">Treaty of Brest-Litovsk</a> that made Germany dominant in Eastern Europe, while Russia plunged into years of <a href="/wiki/Russian_Civil_War" title="Russian Civil War">civil war</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While the central bureaucracy was overwhelmed and under-led, Fallows shows that localities sprang into action motivated by patriotism, pragmatism, economic self-interest, and partisan politics. Food distribution was the main role of the largest network, called the "Union of Zemstvos." It also set up hospitals and refugee stations.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Italy">Italy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Home_front_during_World_War_I&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Italy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/History_of_Italy#First_World_War" title="History of Italy">History of Italy § First World War</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Italy_in_World_War_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Italy in World War I">Italy in World War I</a></div> <p>Italy decided not to honor its <a href="/wiki/Triple_Alliance_(1882)" title="Triple Alliance (1882)">Triple Alliance</a> with Germany and Austria, and initially remained neutral. Public opinion in Italy was sharply divided, with Catholics and socialists calling for peace. However nationalists saw their opportunity to gain their "irredenta" – that is, the border regions that were controlled by Austria. The nationalists won out, and in April 1915, the Italian government secretly agreed to the <a href="/wiki/London_Pact" class="mw-redirect" title="London Pact">London Pact</a> in which Britain and France promised that if Italy would declare war on Austria, it would receive its territorial rewards. The Italian army of 875,000 men was poorly led and lacked heavy artillery and machine guns. The industrial base was too small to provide adequate amounts of modern equipment, and the old-fashioned rural base did not produce much of a food surplus.<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The war stalemated with a dozen indecisive battles on a very narrow front along the <a href="/wiki/Battles_of_the_Isonzo" title="Battles of the Isonzo">Isonzo River</a>, where the Austrians held the high ground. In 1916, Italy declared war on Germany, which provided significant aid to the Austrians. Some 650,000 Italian soldiers died and 950,000 were wounded, while the economy required large-scale Allied funding to survive.<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Before the war the government had ignored labor issues, but now it had to intervene to mobilize war production. With the main working-class Socialist party reluctant to support the war effort, strikes were frequent and cooperation was minimal, especially in the Socialist strongholds of <a href="/wiki/Piedmont" title="Piedmont">Piedmont</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lombardy" title="Lombardy">Lombardy</a>. The government imposed high wage scales, as well as collective bargaining and insurance schemes.<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many large firms expanded dramatically. For example, the workforce at the Ansaldo munitions company grew from 6,000 to 110,000 workers as it manufactured 10,900 artillery pieces, 3,800 warplanes, 95 warships and 10 million artillery shells. At Fiat the workforce grew from 4,000 to 40,000. Inflation doubled the cost of living. Industrial wages kept pace but not wages for farm workers. Discontent was high in rural areas since so many men were taken for service, industrial jobs were unavailable, wages grew slowly and inflation was just as bad.<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Italy blocked serious peace negotiations, staying in the war primarily to gain new territory. The <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Saint-Germain-en-Laye_(1919)" title="Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye (1919)">Treaty of St. Germain</a> awarded the victorious Italian nation the Southern half of the <a href="/wiki/County_of_Tyrol" title="County of Tyrol">County of Tyrol</a>, <a href="/wiki/Trieste" title="Trieste">Trieste</a>, <a href="/wiki/Istria" title="Istria">Istria</a>, and the city of <a href="/wiki/Zadar" title="Zadar">Zadar</a>. Italy did not receive other territories promised by the Pact of London, so this victory was considered "<a href="/wiki/Mutilated_victory" title="Mutilated victory">mutilated</a>". In 1922 Italy formally annexed the <a href="/wiki/Dodecanese" title="Dodecanese">Dodecanese</a> (<i>Possedimenti Italiani dell'Egeo</i>), that she had occupied during the previous war with Turkey. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="United_States">United States</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Home_front_during_World_War_I&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: United States"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/United_States_home_front_during_World_War_I" title="United States home front during World War I">United States home front during World War I</a> and <a href="/wiki/American_entry_into_World_War_I" title="American entry into World War I">American entry into World War I</a></div> <p>President <a href="/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson" title="Woodrow Wilson">Woodrow Wilson</a> took full control of foreign policy, declaring neutrality but warning Germany that the resumption of <a href="/wiki/Unrestricted_submarine_warfare" title="Unrestricted submarine warfare">unrestricted submarine warfare</a> against American ships would mean war. Wilson's mediation efforts failed; likewise, the peace efforts sponsored by industrialist <a href="/wiki/Henry_Ford" title="Henry Ford">Henry Ford</a> went nowhere. Germany decided to take the risk and try to win by cutting off Britain; the US declared war in April 1917. America had the largest industrial, financial and agricultural base of any of the great powers, but it took 12–18 months to fully reorient it to the war effort.<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> American money, food and munitions flowed freely to Europe from spring 1917, but troops arrived slowly. The US Army in 1917 was small and poorly equipped. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:I_Want_You_for_The_Navy_(12236440355).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/I_Want_You_for_The_Navy_%2812236440355%29.jpg/170px-I_Want_You_for_The_Navy_%2812236440355%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="271" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/I_Want_You_for_The_Navy_%2812236440355%29.jpg/255px-I_Want_You_for_The_Navy_%2812236440355%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/I_Want_You_for_The_Navy_%2812236440355%29.jpg/340px-I_Want_You_for_The_Navy_%2812236440355%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1002" data-file-height="1600" /></a><figcaption>Navy poster by <a href="/wiki/Howard_Chandler_Christy" title="Howard Chandler Christy">Howard Chandler Christy</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The draft began in spring 1917 but volunteers were also accepted. Four million men and thousands of women joined the services for the duration.<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By summer 1918 American soldiers under General <a href="/wiki/John_J._Pershing" title="John J. Pershing">John J. Pershing</a> arrived in France at the rate of 10,000 a day, while Germany was unable to replace its losses.<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The result was an Allied victory in November 1918. </p><p>Propaganda campaigns directed by the government shaped the public mood toward patriotism and voluntary purchases of war bonds. The <a href="/wiki/Committee_on_Public_Information" title="Committee on Public Information">Committee on Public Information</a> (CPI) controlled war information and provided pro-war propaganda, with the assistance of the private <a href="/wiki/American_Protective_League" title="American Protective League">American Protective League</a> and tens of thousands of local speakers. The <a href="/wiki/Sedition_Act_of_1918" title="Sedition Act of 1918">Sedition Act of 1918</a> criminalized any expression of opinion that used "disloyal, profane, scurrilous or abusive language" about the US government, flag or armed forces. The most prominent opponents of the war were <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Workers_of_the_World" title="Industrial Workers of the World">Wobblies</a> and <a href="/wiki/Socialist_Party_of_America" title="Socialist Party of America">Socialists</a>, many of whom were convicted of deliberately impeding the war effort and were sentenced to prison, including the Socialist presidential candidate <a href="/wiki/Eugene_Debs" class="mw-redirect" title="Eugene Debs">Eugene Debs</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Woodrow Wilson played the central role in defining the Allied war aims in 1917–1918 (although the US never officially joined the Allies). He demanded Germany depose the <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_II_of_Germany" class="mw-redirect" title="Wilhelm II of Germany">Kaiser</a> and accept the terms of his <a href="/wiki/Fourteen_Points" title="Fourteen Points">Fourteen Points</a>. Wilson dominated the <a href="/wiki/Paris_Peace_Conference,_1919" class="mw-redirect" title="Paris Peace Conference, 1919">1919 Paris Peace Conference</a> but Germany was treated harshly by the Allies in the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Versailles" title="Treaty of Versailles">Treaty of Versailles</a> (1919) as Wilson put all his hopes in the new <a href="/wiki/League_of_Nations" title="League of Nations">League of Nations</a>. Wilson refused to compromise with <a href="/wiki/United_States_Senate" title="United States Senate">Senate</a> <a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_(USA)" class="mw-redirect" title="Republican Party (USA)">Republicans</a> over the issue of Congressional power to declare war, and the Senate rejected the Treaty and the League.<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Germany">Germany</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Home_front_during_World_War_I&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Germany"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/History_of_Germany_during_World_War_I" title="History of Germany during World War I">History of Germany during World War I</a> and <a href="/wiki/German_entry_into_World_War_I" title="German entry into World War I">German entry into World War I</a></div> <p>By 1915 the British naval blockade had cut off food imports and conditions deteriorated rapidly on the home front, with severe food shortages reported in all urban areas. The causes included the transfer of so many farmers and food workers into the military, combined with the overburdened railroad system, a shortage of coal, and the <a href="/wiki/Blockade_of_Germany_(1914%E2%80%931919)" title="Blockade of Germany (1914–1919)">British blockade</a> that cut off imports from abroad.<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The winter of 1916–1917 was known as the "turnip winter" (<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steckr%C3%BCbenwinter" class="extiw" title="de:Steckrübenwinter">de:Steckrübenwinter</a>), because that vegetable, which was usually fed to livestock, was used by people as a substitute for potatoes and meat, which were increasingly scarce. Thousands of <a href="/wiki/Soup_kitchen" title="Soup kitchen">soup kitchens</a> were opened to feed the hungry people, who grumbled that the farmers were keeping the food for themselves. Even <a href="/wiki/German_Army_(German_Empire)" class="mw-redirect" title="German Army (German Empire)">the army</a> had to cut the rations for soldiers.<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Compared to peacetime, about 474,000 additional civilians died, chiefly because malnutrition had weakened the body.<sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to historian <a href="/wiki/William_H._McNeill_(historian)" class="mw-redirect" title="William H. McNeill (historian)">William H. MacNeil</a>: </p> <dl><dd>By 1917, after three years of war, the various groups and bureaucratic hierarchies which had been operating more or less independently of one another in peacetime (and not infrequently had worked at cross purposes) were subordinated to one (and perhaps the most effective) of their number: the General Staff. Military officers controlled civilian government officials, the staffs of banks, cartels, firms, and factories, engineers and scientists, workingmen, farmers-indeed almost every element in German society; and all efforts were directed in theory and in large degree also in practice to forwarding the war effort.<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl> <p>Morale of both civilians and soldiers continued to sink, but using the slogan of "sharing scarcity", the German bureaucracy ran an efficient rationing system nevertheless.<sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Political_revolution">Political revolution</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Home_front_during_World_War_I&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Political revolution"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The end of October 1918 saw the outbreak of the <a href="/wiki/German_Revolution_of_1918%E2%80%9319" class="mw-redirect" title="German Revolution of 1918–19">German Revolution of 1918–19</a> as units of the German Navy refused to set sail for a last, large-scale operation in a war which they saw as good as lost (→<a href="/wiki/Kiel_mutiny" title="Kiel mutiny">Kiel mutiny</a>). By 3 November, the revolt had spread to other cities and states of the country, in many of which <a href="/wiki/German_workers%27_and_soldiers%27_councils_1918%E2%80%931919" title="German workers' and soldiers' councils 1918–1919">workers' and soldiers' councils</a> were established (→ <a href="/wiki/German_Revolution_of_1918%E2%80%9319" class="mw-redirect" title="German Revolution of 1918–19">German Revolution of 1918–19</a>). Meanwhile, <a href="/wiki/Paul_von_Hindenburg" title="Paul von Hindenburg">Hindenburg</a> and the senior commanders had lost confidence in Kaiser <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_II" title="Wilhelm II">Wilhelm II</a> and his government. </p><p>The Kaiser and all German ruling princes abdicated. On 9 November 1918, the Social Democrat <a href="/wiki/Philipp_Scheidemann" title="Philipp Scheidemann">Philipp Scheidemann</a> (1865-1939) proclaimed a <a href="/wiki/Weimar_Republic" title="Weimar Republic">Republic</a>. On 11 November, <a href="/wiki/Armistice_with_Germany_(Compi%C3%A8gne)" class="mw-redirect" title="Armistice with Germany (Compiègne)">the armistice</a> ended the war with a total defeat for Germany.<sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_the_Rhineland" title="Occupation of the Rhineland">Rhineland was occupied</a> by the Allies (until 1923/1930). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Austria-Hungary">Austria-Hungary</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Home_front_during_World_War_I&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Austria-Hungary"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Austro-Hungarian_entry_into_World_War_I" title="Austro-Hungarian entry into World War I">Austro-Hungarian entry into World War I</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hungary_in_World_War_I" title="Hungary in World War I">Hungary in World War I</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Austria-Hungary#World_War_I" title="Austria-Hungary">Austria-Hungary § World War I</a></div> <p>The heavily rural Empire did have a small industrial base, but its major contribution was manpower and food.<sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nevertheless, Austria-Hungary was more urbanized (25%)<sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> than its actual opponents in the First World War, like the Russian Empire (13.4%),<sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Serbia (13.2%)<sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or Romania (18.8%).<sup id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Furthermore, the Austro-Hungarian Empire had also a more industrialized economy<sup id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and higher GDP per capita<sup id="cite_ref-114" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> than the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Italy" title="Kingdom of Italy">Kingdom of Italy</a>, which was economically the far most developed actual opponent of the Empire. On the home front, food grew scarcer and scarcer, as did heating fuel. The hog population fell 90 percent, as the dwindling supplies of ham and bacon were consumed by the Army. Hungary, with its heavy agricultural base, was somewhat better fed. Morale fell every year, and the diverse nationalities gave up on the Empire and looked for ways to establish their own nation states.<sup id="cite_ref-115" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Inflation soared, from an index of 129 in 1914 to 1589 in 1918, wiping out the cash savings of the middle-class. In terms of war damage to the economy, the war used up about 20 percent of the GDP. The dead soldiers amounted to about four percent of the 1914 labor force, and the wounded ones to another six percent. Compared all the major countries in the war, Austria's death and casualty rate was toward the high-end.<sup id="cite_ref-116" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Whereas the German army realized it needed close cooperation from the home front, Habsburg officers saw themselves as entirely separate from the civilian world, and superior to it. When they occupied productive areas, such as Romania, they seized food stocks and other supplies for their own purposes, and blocked any shipments intended for civilians back in the Austro-Hungarian Empire. The result was that the officers lived well, as the civilians began to starve. Vienna even transferred training units to Serbia and Poland for the sole purpose of feeding them. In all, the Army obtained about 15 percent of its cereal needs from occupied territories.<sup id="cite_ref-117" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ottoman_Empire">Ottoman Empire</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Home_front_during_World_War_I&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Ottoman Empire"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#World_War_I_(1914–1918)" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire § World War I (1914–1918)</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Armenian_genocide" title="Armenian genocide">Armenian genocide</a></div> <p>The Ottoman Empire had long been the "sick man of Europe" and by 1914 it had been driven out of nearly all of Europe, and had lost its influence in North Africa. It still controlled 23 million people, of whom 17 million were in modern-day Turkey, three million in Syria, Lebanon and Palestine, and 2.5 million in Mesopotamia (modern-day Iraq). Another 5.5 million people were under nominal Ottoman rule in the <a href="/wiki/Arabian_Peninsula" title="Arabian Peninsula">Arabian Peninsula</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-118" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A faction of the <a href="/wiki/Young_Turks" title="Young Turks">Young Turk</a> movement, the <a href="/wiki/Committee_of_Union_and_Progress" title="Committee of Union and Progress">Committee of Union and Progress</a>, turned the Ottoman Empire into a one-party-state after a <a href="/wiki/1913_Ottoman_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1913 Ottoman coup d'état">coup in 1913</a>; they mobilized the country's society for war, employing numerous political and economic reforms. The Unionists, through its <a href="/w/index.php?title=Committee_of_National_Defense_(Ottoman_Empire)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Committee of National Defense (Ottoman Empire) (page does not exist)">Committee of National Defense</a>, fostered <a href="/wiki/Pan-Turkism" title="Pan-Turkism">pan-Turkish nationalism</a> based in <a href="/wiki/Anatolia" title="Anatolia">Anatolia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-119" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Young Turks created new organizations, such as the <a href="/wiki/Turkish_Red_Crescent" title="Turkish Red Crescent">Ottoman Red Crescent Society</a>, the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ottoman_Navy_League&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ottoman Navy League (page does not exist)">Ottoman Navy League</a>, and the Committee of National Defense, to extend their political influence to the middle class, to mobilize support for the war effort and to construct a <a href="/wiki/Turkish_people" title="Turkish people">Turkish</a> identity.<sup id="cite_ref-120" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When the war broke out the sultan, in his capacity, as <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Caliphate" title="Ottoman Caliphate">caliph</a>, issued a <a href="/wiki/Jihad" title="Jihad">jihad</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-121" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> calling all Muslims in Egypt, India and other Allied territories to revolt against their Christian rulers. Very few listened.<sup id="cite_ref-122" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Meanwhile, many Arabs turned against the Turks and rose in rebellion in the <a href="/wiki/Arab_Revolt" title="Arab Revolt">Arab Revolt</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-123" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Reacting to fears that the <a href="/wiki/Armenian_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Armenian people">Armenians</a> could be a potential fifth column for the Russian army, the CUP forcibly evacuated the Armenians from eastern Anatolia, regardless of the 600,000 or more lives lost in the <a href="/wiki/Armenian_genocide" title="Armenian genocide">Armenian genocide</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-124" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In October 1918, as the Allied powers were gaining ground on <a href="/wiki/Macedonian_front" title="Macedonian front">Macedonian</a> and Palestine Fronts, the <a href="/wiki/Three_Pashas" title="Three Pashas">Three Pashas</a>, the ruling Unionist triumvirate fled into exile. The <a href="/wiki/Armistice_of_Mudros" title="Armistice of Mudros">Armistice of Mudros</a> ended World War I between the Allied powers and the Ottoman Empire, however the Turks would again see themselves in the battlefield with the Allies in the <a href="/wiki/Turkish_War_of_Independence" title="Turkish War of Independence">Turkish War of Independence</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Balkans">Balkans</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Home_front_during_World_War_I&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Balkans"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Serbia">Serbia</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Home_front_during_World_War_I&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Serbia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Despite its small size and population of 4.6 million, Serbia had the most effective manpower mobilization of the war, and had a highly professional officer corps. It called 350,000 men to arms, of whom 185,000 were in combat units.<sup id="cite_ref-125" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nevertheless, the casualties and expenditure of munitions in the Balkan Wars left Serbia depleted and dependent on France for supplies. Austria invaded twice in 1914 and was turned back after both armies suffered very heavy losses. Many captured Austrian soldiers were Slavic and joined the Serbian cause. The year 1915 was peaceful in the sense there was no military action, but food supplies were dangerously low and a series of deadly epidemics hit, especially <a href="/wiki/Typhus" title="Typhus">typhus</a>. The death toll from epidemics was about 100,000 civilians, 35,000 soldiers, and 30,000 prisoners of war.<sup id="cite_ref-126" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In late 1915, however, German generals were given control and invaded Serbia with Austrian and Bulgarian forces. The Serbian army hastily retreated west but only 70,000 made it through, and Serbia became an occupied land. Disease was rampant, but the Austrians were pragmatic and paid well for food supplies, so conditions were not harsh. Instead Austria tried to depoliticize Serbia, to minimize violence, and to integrate the country into the Empire. Nevertheless, Serbian nationalism remained defiant and many young men slipped out to help rebuild the Serbian army in exile.<sup id="cite_ref-127" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>France proved an invaluable ally during the war and its armies, together with reorganized Serbian units, moved up from Greece in 1918 and liberated Serbia, <a href="/wiki/Montenegro" title="Montenegro">Montenegro</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Vojvodina" title="Vojvodina">Vojvodina</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-128" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The war ended the very heavy death toll, which saw 615,000 of Serbia's 707,000 soldiers killed, along with 600,000 civilian dead. The death toll in Montenegro was also high.<sup id="cite_ref-129" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Serbia achieved its political goals by forming the new <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Yugoslavia" title="Kingdom of Yugoslavia">Kingdom of the Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes</a> (later Yugoslavia) in 1918. It proved more difficult to create the new-model "Yugoslav" as an exemplar of a united nation containing diverse ethnicities, languages and religions. For example, Montenegro was included but, fearful of losing its own cultural traditions, there was a revolt there that the Serbian army crushed.<sup id="cite_ref-130" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bulgaria">Bulgaria</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Home_front_during_World_War_I&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Bulgaria"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Bulgaria_during_World_War_I" title="Bulgaria during World War I">Bulgaria during World War I</a></div> <p>Bulgaria, a poor rural nation of 4.5 million people, sought to acquire <a href="/wiki/Macedonia_(region)" title="Macedonia (region)">Macedonia</a>, but when it tried it suffered defeat in 1913 in the <a href="/wiki/Second_Balkan_War" title="Second Balkan War">Second Balkan War</a>. In the First World War Bulgaria at first stayed neutral. However its leaders still hoped to acquire Macedonia, which was controlled by an Ally, Serbia. In 1915, joining the Central Powers seemed the best route.<sup id="cite_ref-131" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>131<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Bulgaria mobilized a very large army of 800,000 men, using equipment supplied by Germany. The Bulgarian-German-Austrian invasion of Serbia in 1915 provided a quick victory, but by the end of that year Bulgaria was also fighting the British and French—as well as the Romanians in 1916 and the Greeks in 1917. Bulgaria was ill-prepared for a long war; the absence of so many soldiers sharply reduced agricultural output. Much of its best food was smuggled out to feed lucrative black-markets elsewhere. By 1918 the soldiers were not only short of basic equipment like boots, but they were being fed mostly corn bread with a little meat. Germany increasingly took control, and Bulgarian relations with its ally the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> soured. The Allied offensive in September 1918 destroyed the remnants of Bulgarian military power and civilian morale. Troops mutinied and peasants <a href="/wiki/Aleksandar_Stamboliyski" title="Aleksandar Stamboliyski">revolted</a>, demanding peace. By that month's end Bulgaria signed an armistice, giving up its conquests and its military hardware. <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_I_of_Bulgaria" title="Ferdinand I of Bulgaria">The Bulgarian Czar</a> abdicated and Bulgaria's war ended. The <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Neuilly-sur-Seine" title="Treaty of Neuilly-sur-Seine">Treaty of Neuilly-sur-Seine</a> in 1919 stripped Bulgaria of its conquests, reduced its army to 20,000 men, and demanded reparations of £100 million.<sup id="cite_ref-132" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-132"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Greece">Greece</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Home_front_during_World_War_I&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Greece"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Greece had been exhausted by the Balkan wars and sought to remain neutral, but its strategic position as the gateway to the Balkans made that impossible.<sup id="cite_ref-133" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-133"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>133<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the <a href="/wiki/National_Schism" title="National Schism">National Schism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Constantine_I_of_Greece" title="Constantine I of Greece">King Constantine I</a>, a traditionalist who had German ties, battled with his modernizing liberal Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Eleftherios_Venizelos" title="Eleftherios Venizelos">Eleftherios Venizelos</a>, who was sympathetic to the Allies.<sup id="cite_ref-134" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-134"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>134<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Venizélos with Allied support, set up the short-lived Greek "state" of Salonica, from October 1916 to June 1917. An Allied blockade forced the <a href="/wiki/Noemvriana" title="Noemvriana">king to abdicate in June 1917</a>. Venizélos was now in full control and Greece sided with the Allies and declared war. Greece served as a staging base for large numbers of French, Serbian and other Allied units. By war's end the Greek army numbered 300,000 and had about 5,000 casualties. The schism between modernizers and traditionalists did not heal and for decades was the polarizing factor in Greek politics. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Asia">Asia</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Home_front_during_World_War_I&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Asia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="China">China</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Home_front_during_World_War_I&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: China"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Republic_of_China" title="History of the Republic of China">History of the Republic of China</a></div> <p>The warlord <a href="/wiki/Duan_Qirui" title="Duan Qirui">Duan Qirui</a> was the most powerful leader in China. He dissolved the parliament and declared war on Germany and Austria-Hungary on August 13, 1917. Enemy nationals were detained and their assets seized. Around 175,000 Chinese workers volunteered for well-paid positions in the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Labour_Corps" title="Chinese Labour Corps">labor battalions</a> that served the Allies behind the lines in France, and Africa and on supply ships. Some 10,000 died, including over 500 on ships sunk by <a href="/wiki/U-boat" title="U-boat">U-boats</a>. No soldiers were sent overseas.<sup id="cite_ref-135" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-135"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>135<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-online_69-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-online-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Japan">Japan</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Home_front_during_World_War_I&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Japan"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Japanese_entry_into_World_War_I" title="Japanese entry into World War I">Japanese entry into World War I</a> and <a href="/wiki/Japan_during_World_War_I" title="Japan during World War I">Japan during World War I</a></div> <p>Japan's military seized German possessions in the Pacific and East Asia, but there was no large-scale mobilization of the economy.<sup id="cite_ref-136" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-136"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>136<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Foreign minister <a href="/wiki/Kato_Takaaki" class="mw-redirect" title="Kato Takaaki">Kato Takaaki</a> and Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Okuma_Shigenobu" class="mw-redirect" title="Okuma Shigenobu">Okuma Shigenobu</a> wanted to use the opportunity to expand Japanese influence in China. They enlisted <a href="/wiki/Sun_Yat-sen" title="Sun Yat-sen">Sun Yat-sen</a> (1866–1925), then in exile in Japan, but they had little success.<sup id="cite_ref-137" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-137"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>137<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Navy" title="Imperial Japanese Navy">Imperial Navy</a>, a nearly autonomous bureaucratic institution, made its own decision to undertake expansion in the Pacific. It captured Germany's Micronesian territories north of the equator, and ruled the islands until 1921. The operation gave the navy a rationale for enlarging its budget to double the army budget and expanding the fleet. The Navy thus gained significant political influence over national and international affairs.<sup id="cite_ref-138" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-138"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>138<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Inflation caused rice prices to quadruple, leading to small-scale riots all across the country in 1918. The government made thousands of arrests and prevented the newspapers from reporting the riots. Some 250,000 people died in the <a href="/wiki/1918_flu_pandemic" class="mw-redirect" title="1918 flu pandemic">Spanish flu</a> epidemic in late 1918. The death rate was much lower than other major countries because some immunity had developed from a mild outbreak earlier; public health officials successfully warned people to avoid contact; and the use of inoculation, herbals, masks, and gargling.<sup id="cite_ref-139" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-139"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>139<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Home_front_during_World_War_I&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diplomatic_history_of_World_War_I" title="Diplomatic history of World War I">Diplomatic history of World War I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_World_War_I" title="Economic history of World War I">Economic history of World War I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propaganda_in_World_War_I" title="Propaganda in World War I">Propaganda in World War I</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/British_propaganda_during_World_War_I" title="British propaganda during World War I">British propaganda during World War I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_propaganda_during_World_War_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian propaganda during World War I">Italian propaganda during World War I</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opposition_to_World_War_I" title="Opposition to World War I">Opposition to World War I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_I_casualties" title="World War I casualties">World War I casualties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_I_in_popular_culture" title="World War I in popular culture">World War I in popular culture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/World_War_I_in_literature" title="World War I in literature">World War I in literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fiction_based_on_World_War_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Fiction based on World War I">Fiction based on World War I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_women%27s_literature_of_World_War_I" title="British women's literature of World War I">British women's literature of World War I</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes_and_references">Notes and references</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Home_front_during_World_War_I&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Notes and references"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-columns-2"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">H.E. Fisk, <i>The Inter-Allied Debts</i> (1924) pp 13 & 325 reprinted in Horst Menderhausen, <i>The Economics of War</i> (1943 edition), appendix table II</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hardach, <i>First World War: 1914–1918</i> (1981)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFPalm2013" class="citation journal cs1">Palm, Trineke (March 2013). "Embedded in social cleavages: an explanation of the variation in timing of women's suffrage". <i><a href="/wiki/Scandinavian_Political_Studies" title="Scandinavian Political Studies">Scandinavian Political Studies</a></i>. <b>36</b> (1): 1–22. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1467-9477.2012.00294.x">10.1111/j.1467-9477.2012.00294.x</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Scandinavian+Political+Studies&rft.atitle=Embedded+in+social+cleavages%3A+an+explanation+of+the+variation+in+timing+of+women%27s+suffrage&rft.volume=36&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=1-22&rft.date=2013-03&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1467-9477.2012.00294.x&rft.aulast=Palm&rft.aufirst=Trineke&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHome+front+during+World+War+I" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Harvey Fisk, <i>The Inter-Ally Debts: An Analysis of War and Post-War Public Finance, 1914-1923</i> (1924) pp 1, 21-37<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="Please supply an ISBN for this book.">ISBN missing</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Fisk, <i>The Inter-Ally Debts</i> pp 21-37.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Peter Gatrell, <i>Russia's First World War: A Social and Economic History</i> (2005) pp 132-53</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Martin Horn, <i>Britain, France, and the financing of the First World War</i> (2002) ch 1.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-wolff-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-wolff_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGeoffrey_Wolff2003" class="citation book cs1">Geoffrey Wolff (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=RpVaAAAAMAAJ"><i>Black Sun: The Brief Transit and Violent Eclipse of Harry Crosby</i></a>. New York Review of Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59017-066-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-59017-066-3"><bdi>978-1-59017-066-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Black+Sun%3A+The+Brief+Transit+and+Violent+Eclipse+of+Harry+Crosby&rft.pub=New+York+Review+of+Books&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-1-59017-066-3&rft.au=Geoffrey+Wolff&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DRpVaAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHome+front+during+World+War+I" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jennifer Siegel, <i>For Peace and Money: French and British Finance in the Service of Tsars and Commissars</i> (Oxford UP, 2014).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">National Archives <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/pathways/firstworldwar/britain/war_changing.htm">"The war and the changing face of British society"</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Christopher Godden, "The Business of War: Reflections on Recent Contributions to the Economic and Business Histories of the First World War." <i>Œconomia. History, Methodology, Philosophy</i> 6#4 (2016): 549-556. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://oeconomia.revues.org/2519">online</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Roger Lloyd-Jones and M. J. Lewis, <i>Arming the Western Front: War, Business and the State in Britain, 1900–1920</i> (Routledge, 2016), p 1.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Stephen Broadberry and Peter Howlett, "The United Kingdom during World War I: business as usual?" in Broadberry and Harrison, eds. <i>The Economics of World War I</i> (2005) ch 7</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">A.J.P. Taylor, <i>English History, 1914–1945</i> (1965) pp. 34–5, 54, 58, 73–76</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ian F. W. Beckett, <i>The Great war</i> (2nd ed. 2007) pp 394–395</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Beckett (2007), pp. 341, 455</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Arthur Marwick, <i>The Deluge: British Society and the First World War</i> (1965)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">David Swift, "The War Emergency: Workers' National Committee." <i>History Workshop Journal</i> 81 (2016): 84-105. <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://doi.org/10.1093/hwj/dbv041">[1]</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">C. M. M. Macdonald and E. W. McFarland, eds, <i>Scotland and the Great War</i> (Edinburgh: Tuckwell Press, 1999)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">D. Daniel, "Measures of enthusiasm: new avenues in quantifying variations in voluntary enlistment in Scotland, August 1914-December 1915", <i>Local Population Studies,</i> Spring 2005, Issue 74, pp. 16–35.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">I. F. W. Beckett and K. R. Simpson, eds. <i>A Nation in Arms: a Social Study of the British Army in the First World War</i> (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1985) p. 11.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">R. A. Houston and W. W. Knox, eds, <i>The New Penguin History of Scotland</i> (London: Penguin, 2001), p. 426.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lenman&Mackie1991-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lenman&Mackie1991_23-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lenman&Mackie1991_23-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lenman&Mackie1991_23-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">B. Lenman and J., Mackie, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_cvp_njNb2sC&dq=martial+races+scotland+%22first+world+war%22&pg=PT457"><i>A History of Scotland</i></a> (London: Penguin, 1991)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">D. Coetzee, "A life and death decision: the influence of trends in fertility, nuptiality and family economies on voluntary enlistment in Scotland, August 1914 to December 1915", <i>Family and Community History</i>, Nov 2005, vol. 8 (2), pp. 77–89.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Buchanan2003p49-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Buchanan2003p49_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">J. Buchanan, <i>Scotland</i> (Langenscheidt, 3rd edn., 2003), p. 49.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bruce Lenman, <i>An Economic History of Modern Scotland: 1660–1976</i> (1977) pp 206–14</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Iain McLean, <i>The Legend of Red Clydeside</i> (1983)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">John Grigg, <i>Lloyd George: War Leader 1916–1918</i> (2002) vol 4 pp 1–30</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">A. J. P. Taylor, <i>English History, 1914–1945</i> (1965) pp 73–99</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">A. J. P. Taylor, <i>English History, 1914–1945</i> (1965) pp 100–106</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">John Grigg, <i>Lloyd George: War Leader 1916–1918</i> (2002) vol 4 pp 478–83</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Alan J. Ward, "Lloyd George and the 1918 Irish Conscription Crisis," <i>Historical Journal</i> (1974) 17#1 pp. 107–129 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2638335">in JSTOR</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Grigg, <i>Lloyd George</i> vol 4 pp 465–88</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">John Gooch, "The Maurice Debate 1918," <i>Journal of Contemporary History</i> (1968) 3#4 pp. 211–228 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/259859">in JSTOR</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">John Grigg, <i>Lloyd George: War leader, 1916–1918</i> (London: Penguin, 2002), pp 489–512</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">A. J. P. Taylor, <i>English History, 1914–1945</i> (1965) pp 108–11</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBob_Whitfield2001" class="citation book cs1">Bob Whitfield (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=a-Rd0iLobaEC&pg=PA167"><i>The Extension of the Franchise, 1832-1931</i></a>. Heinemann. p. 167. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780435327170" title="Special:BookSources/9780435327170"><bdi>9780435327170</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Extension+of+the+Franchise%2C+1832-1931&rft.pages=167&rft.pub=Heinemann&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=9780435327170&rft.au=Bob+Whitfield&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Da-Rd0iLobaEC%26pg%3DPA167&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHome+front+during+World+War+I" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Taylor, <i>English History, 1914–1945</i> (1965) p. 29, 94</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Martin D. Pugh, "Politicians and the Woman's Vote 1914–1918," <i>History,</i> (1974), Vol. 59 Issue 197, pp 358–374</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">G.R. Searle, <i>A New England? Peace and war, 1886–1918</i> (2004) p 791</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ashley Jackson, "The British Empire and the First World War"<i>BBC History Magazine</i> 9#11 (2008) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://britishempireatwardotorg.files.wordpress.com/2012/09/bbc-history-magazine2.pdf">online</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">War Office, <i>Statistics of the Military Effort of the British Empire During the Great War 1914–1920</i> (London, 1922) p. 237</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Robert Craig Brown and Ramsay Cook, <i>Canada, 1896–1921 A Nation Transformed</i> (1974) ch 13</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Frances Swyripa and John Herd Thompson, eds. <i>Loyalties in Conflict: Ukrainians in Canada During the Great War</i> (1983)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jacqueline Hucker, "'Battle and Burial': Recapturing the Cultural Meaning of Canada's National Memorial on Vimy Ridge," <i>Public Historian,</i> (Feb 2009) 31#1 pp 89–109</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kosmas Tsokhas, "The Forgotten Economy and Australia's Involvement in the Great War," <i>Diplomacy & Statecraft</i> (1993) 4#2 331-357</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.awm.gov.au/atwar/ww1.asp">"First World War 1914–18" from Australian War Memorial</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120215170018/http://www.awm.gov.au/atwar/ww1.asp">Archived</a> 2012-02-15 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gerhard Fischer, "'Negative integration' and an Australian road to modernity: Interpreting the Australian homefront experience in World War I," <i>Australian Historical Studies,</i> (April 1995) 26#104 pp 452–76</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Graeme Davidson et al., <i>The Oxford Companion to Australian History</i> (2nd ed. 2001) p 283–4</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Fischer, "'Negative integration' and an Australian road to modernity" p. 452 for quote</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Joan Beaumont, <i>Australia's War 1914–18</i> (1995)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-homefront-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-homefront_52-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-homefront_52-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20010415012538/http://www.anzacday.org.au/history/ww1/homefront/powers.html">"Home front Powers 1914–1918"</a>. anzacday.org. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.anzacday.org.au/history/ww1/homefront/powers.html">the original</a> on 15 April 2001<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 May</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Home+front+Powers+1914%E2%80%931918&rft.pub=anzacday.org&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.anzacday.org.au%2Fhistory%2Fww1%2Fhomefront%2Fpowers.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHome+front+during+World+War+I" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ernest Scott, <i>Australia During the War</i> (7th ed. 1941) p 105 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.awm.gov.au/histories/first_world_war/volume.asp?levelID=67897">online</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130704190307/http://www.awm.gov.au/histories/first_world_war/volume.asp?levelID=67897">Archived</a> 2013-07-04 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-homefront2-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-homefront2_54-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20010415020511/http://www.anzacday.org.au/history/ww1/homefront/enemy.html">"Internment in Australia during WWI"</a>. anzacday.org. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.anzacday.org.au/history/ww1/homefront/enemy.html">the original</a> on 15 April 2001<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 May</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Internment+in+Australia+during+WWI&rft.pub=anzacday.org&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.anzacday.org.au%2Fhistory%2Fww1%2Fhomefront%2Fenemy.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHome+front+during+World+War+I" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Scott, <i>Australia During the War</i> (1941) p. 516–18, 539.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Russel Ward, <i>A nation for a continent: The history of Australia, 1901–1975</i> (1977) p 110</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Scott, <i>Australia During the War</i> (1941) pp. 549, 563</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Stuart Macintyre, <i>The Oxford History of Australia: Volume 4: 1901–42, the Succeeding Age</i> (1987) pp 163–75</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Scott, <i>Australia During the War</i> (1941) pp. 663–65</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Russel Ward, <i>A nation for a continent: The history of Australia, 1901–1975</i> (1977) p 110–11</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ian W. McLean, <i>Why Australia Prospered: The Shifting Sources of Economic Growth</i> (2013), pp. 147–148.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Steven Loveridge, <i>Calls to Arms: New Zealand Society and Commitment to the Great War</i> (Wellington: Victoria University Press, 2014) p.26</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gwen Parsons, "The New Zealand Home Front during World War One and World War Two," <i>History Compass</i> (2013) 11#6 pp 419–428</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hermann Hiery, "West Samoans between Germany and New Zealand 1914–1921," <i>War and Society</i> (1992) 10#1 pp 53–80.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bill Nasson, <i>Springboks on the Somme: South Africa in the Great War, 1914–1918</i> (2007); Anne Samson, <i>Britain, South Africa and the East Africa Campaign, 1914–1918: The Union Comes of Age</i> (2006)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Nasson, <i>Springboks on the Somme</i> ch 8</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bill Nasson, "A Great Divide: Popular Responses to the Great War in South Africa," <i>War & Society</i> (1994) 12#1 pp 47–64</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Tucker, <i>European Powers,</i> pp 353–4</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-online-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-online_69-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-online_69-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Xu Guoqi. <i>Asia and the Great War – A Shared History</i> (Oxford UP) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://oxford-universitypressscholarship-com/view/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199658190.001.0001/acprof-9780199658190?rskey=rZxsjk&result=1">online</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged October 2022">permanent dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hew Strachan, <i>The First World War</i> (2001) 1:791-814</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">David Stevenson, <i>With Our Backs to the Wall</i> (2011) pp 257–8, 381</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">John Horne and Alan Kramer, <i>German Atrocities, 1914: A History of Denial</i> (Yale U.P. 2001) ch 1-2, esp. p. 76</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Horne and Kramer, <i>German Atrocities, 1914: A History of Denial</i> ch 3-4 show there were no "franc-tireurs" in Belgium.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Horne and Kramer, <i>German Atrocities, 1914: A History of Denial</i> ch 5-8</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">E.H. Kossmann. <i>The Low Countries</i> (1978), p 523–35</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kossmann, p 525</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Johan den Hertog, "The Commission for Relief in Belgium and the Political Diplomatic History of the First World War," <i>Diplomacy and Statecraft,</i> (Dec 2010) 21#4 pp 593–613,</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Laurence van Ypersele and Xavier Rousseaux, "Leaving the War: Popular Violence and Judicial Repression of 'unpatriotic' behaviour in Belgium (1918–1921)," <i>European Review of History</i> (Spring 2005) 12#3 pp 3–22</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCana1922" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Cana, Frank Richardson (1922). <span class="cs1-ws-icon" title="s:1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Belgian Congo"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1922_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Belgian_Congo">"Belgian Congo" </a></span>. In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica" title="Encyclopædia Britannica">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i>. Vol. 30 (12th ed.). London & New York: The Encyclopædia Britannica Company. p. 429.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Belgian+Congo&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.place=London+%26+New+York&rft.pages=429&rft.edition=12th&rft.pub=The+Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica+Company&rft.date=1922&rft.aulast=Cana&rft.aufirst=Frank+Richardson&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHome+front+during+World+War+I" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Martha Hanna, <i>The mobilization of intellect: French scholars and writers during the Great War</i> (Harvard University Press, 1996)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Elizabeth Greenhalgh, "Writing about France's Great War." (2005): 601-612. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/30036345">in JSTOR</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Leonard V. Smith, "War and 'Politics': The French Army Mutinies of 1917," <i>War in History,</i> (April 1995) 2#2 pp 180–201</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gerd Hardach, <i>The First World War: 1914–1918</i> (1977) pp 87–88</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Pierre-Cyrille Hautcoeur, "Was the Great War a watershed? The economics of World War I in France," in Broadberry and Harrison, eds. <i>The Economics of World War I</i> (2005) ch 6</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">John Horne, "Immigrant Workers in France during World War I." <i>French Historical Studies</i> 14.1 (1985): 57-88. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/286414">online</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Paul Beaudry and Franck Portier, "The French depression in the 1930s." <i>Review of Economic Dynamics</i>(2002) 5#1 pp: 73-99.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Collins, "The Business of Journalism in Provincial France during World War I," (2001)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hans Rogger, "Russia in 1914," <i>Journal of Contemporary History</i> (1966) 1#4 pp. 95–119 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/259893">in JSTOR</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Peter Gatrell, "Poor Russia, poor show: mobilising a backward economy for war, 1914–1917," in Broadberry and Harrison, eds. <i>The Economics of World War I</i> (2005) ch. 8</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">John M. Thompson, <i>Revolutionary Russia, 1917</i> (1989)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Thomas Fallows, "Politics and the War Effort in Russia: The Union of Zemstvos and the Organization of the Food Supply, 1914–1916," <i>Slavic Review</i> (1978) 37#1 pp. 70–90 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2494907">in JSTOR</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Francesco Galassi and Mark Harrison, "Italy at war, 1915–1918," in Broadberry and Harrison, eds. <i>The Economics of World War I</i> (2005) ch. 9</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Thomas Nelson Page, <i>Italy and the world war</i> (1992) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/italyandworldwa00pagegoog">online at Google</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Luigi Tomassini, "Industrial Mobilization and the labor market in Italy during the First World War," <i>Social History,</i> (Jan 1991), 16#1 pp 59–87</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Tucker, <i>European Powers in the First World War,</i> p 375–76</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hugh Rockoff, "Until it's over, over there: the US economy in World War I," in Broadberry and Harrison, eds. <i>The Economics of World War I</i> (2005) ch 10</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">John W. Chambers, II, <i>To Raise an Army: The Draft Comes to Modern America</i> (1987)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Edward M. Coffman, <i>The War to End All Wars: The American Military Experience in World War I</i> (1998)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ronald Schaffer, <i>The United States in World War I</i> (1978)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">John Milton Cooper, <i>Breaking the Heart of the World: Woodrow Wilson and the Fight for the League of Nations</i> (2001)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Albrecht Ritschl, "The pity of peace: Germany's economy at war, 1914–1918 and beyond," in Broadberry and Harrison, eds. <i>The Economics of World War I</i> (2005) ch 2</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Roger Chickering, <i>Imperial Germany and the Great War, 1914–1918</i> (2004) p. 141–42</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">N.P. Howard, "The Social and Political Consequences of the Allied Food Blockade of Germany, 1918–19," <i>German History</i> (1993) 11#2 pp 161–88 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://libcom.org/files/blockade%20Germany_0.pdf">online</a> table p 166, with 271,000 excess deaths in 1918 and 71,000 in 1919.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">William H. McNeill, <i>The Rise of the West</i> (1991 edition) p. 742.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Keith Allen, "Sharing scarcity: Bread rationing and the First World War in Berlin, 1914–1923," <a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Social_History" title="Journal of Social History">Journal of Social History</a>, (Winter 1998) 32#2 pp 371–93 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3789666">in JSTOR</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">A. J. Ryder, <i>The German Revolution of 1918: A Study of German Socialism in War and Revolt</i> (1st ed. 1967 / 2008)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Max-Stephan Schulze, "Austria-Hungary's economy in World War I," in Stephen Broadberry and Mark Harrison, eds. <i>The Economics of World War I</i> (2005) ch 3 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180929034223/https://www.library6.com/books/523600.pdf#page=95">online</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Robert A. Kann, et al. eds. <i>The Habsburg Empire in World War I: Essays on the Intellectual, Military, Political and Economic Aspects of the Habsburg War Effort</i> (1977)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMowat,_C.L.1968" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/C._L._Mowat" title="C. L. Mowat">Mowat, C.L.</a> (1968). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LLg8AAAAIAAJ&q=%22urban+population%22++%22austria-hungary%22"><i>The New Cambridge Modern History. volume xii</i></a>. (CUP Archive)London: Cambridge University Press. p. 479. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521045513" title="Special:BookSources/978-0521045513"><bdi>978-0521045513</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+New+Cambridge+Modern+History.+volume+xii&rft.pages=479&rft.pub=%28CUP+Archive%29London%3A+Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1968&rft.isbn=978-0521045513&rft.au=Mowat%2C+C.L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DLLg8AAAAIAAJ%26q%3D%2522urban%2Bpopulation%2522%2B%2B%2522austria-hungary%2522&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHome+front+during+World+War+I" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAndreas_Kappeler2014" class="citation book cs1">Andreas Kappeler (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=JZ9eBAAAQBAJ&q=%22russian+empire%22+urbanization"><i>The Russian Empire: A Multi-ethnic History</i></a>. Routledge. p. 287. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781317568100" title="Special:BookSources/9781317568100"><bdi>9781317568100</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Russian+Empire%3A+A+Multi-ethnic+History&rft.pages=287&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=9781317568100&rft.au=Andreas+Kappeler&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJZ9eBAAAQBAJ%26q%3D%2522russian%2Bempire%2522%2Burbanization&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHome+front+during+World+War+I" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSima_M._Cirkovic2008" class="citation book cs1">Sima M. Cirkovic (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2Wc-DWRzoeIC&q=serbia+%22city+dwellers%22+1910"><i>The Serbs Volume 10 of The Peoples of Europe</i></a>. John Wiley & Sons. p. 235. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781405142915" title="Special:BookSources/9781405142915"><bdi>9781405142915</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Serbs+Volume+10+of+The+Peoples+of+Europe&rft.pages=235&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=9781405142915&rft.au=Sima+M.+Cirkovic&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D2Wc-DWRzoeIC%26q%3Dserbia%2B%2522city%2Bdwellers%2522%2B1910&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHome+front+during+World+War+I" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarius_Rotar2013" class="citation book cs1">Marius Rotar (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fbgwBwAAQBAJ&q=%22kingdom+of+romania%22+rural"><i>History of Modern Cremation in Romania</i></a>. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. p. 24. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781443845427" title="Special:BookSources/9781443845427"><bdi>9781443845427</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+Modern+Cremation+in+Romania&rft.pages=24&rft.pub=Cambridge+Scholars+Publishing&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=9781443845427&rft.au=Marius+Rotar&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DfbgwBwAAQBAJ%26q%3D%2522kingdom%2Bof%2Bromania%2522%2Brural&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHome+front+during+World+War+I" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-113"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStephen_BroadberryKevin_H._O'Rourke2010" class="citation book cs1">Stephen Broadberry; Kevin H. O'Rourke (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YHk0z-ujS3AC"><i>The Cambridge Economic History of Modern Europe: Volume 2, 1870 to the Present</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 70. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781139489515" title="Special:BookSources/9781139489515"><bdi>9781139489515</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151015202359/https://books.google.com/books?id=YHk0z-ujS3AC&;pg=PA70">Archived</a> from the original on 15 October 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 September</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Economic+History+of+Modern+Europe%3A+Volume+2%2C+1870+to+the+Present&rft.pages=70&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=9781139489515&rft.au=Stephen+Broadberry&rft.au=Kevin+H.+O%27Rourke&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DYHk0z-ujS3AC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHome+front+during+World+War+I" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-114"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavid_Stevenson2011" class="citation book cs1">David Stevenson (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DKn2zqoTPqQC&q=It+was+evenly+matched+against+Austria-Hungary"><i>With Our Backs to the Wall: Victory and Defeat in 1918</i></a>. Harvard University Press. p. 399. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780674063198" title="Special:BookSources/9780674063198"><bdi>9780674063198</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=With+Our+Backs+to+the+Wall%3A+Victory+and+Defeat+in+1918&rft.pages=399&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=9780674063198&rft.au=David+Stevenson&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DDKn2zqoTPqQC%26q%3DIt%2Bwas%2Bevenly%2Bmatched%2Bagainst%2BAustria-Hungary&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHome+front+during+World+War+I" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-115"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Maureen Healy, <i>Vienna and the Fall of the Habsburg Empire: Total War and Everyday Life in World War I</i> (2007)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-116"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Schulze, "Austria-Hungary's economy in World War I,"</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-117"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Watson, <i>Ring of Steel</i> p 396-97</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Şevket Pamuk, "The Ottoman Economy in World War I" in Stephen Broadberry and Mark Harrison, eds. <i>The Economics of World War I</i> (2005) ch 4, esp. p 112</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-119"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Feroz Ahmad, "War and Society under the Young Turks, 1908–18," <i>Review: A Journal of the Fernand Braudel Center,</i> (1988) 11#2 pp 265–286</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-120"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Nadi˙r Özbek, "Defining the public sphere during the late Ottoman Empire: War, mass mobilization and the young Turk regime (1908–18)," <i>Middle Eastern Studies,</i> (Sept 2007) 43#5 pp 795–809</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-121"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">see <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=WC_2AtmBOpEC&dq=sultan+jihad+1914+ottoman+intitle:classical+inauthor:Peters&pg=PA55">text of jihad</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-122"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mustafa Aksakal, "'Holy War Made in Germany'? Ottoman Origins of the 1914 Jihad," <i>War in History</i> (April 2011) 18#2 pp 184–199</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-123"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hasan Kayali, <i>Arabs and Young Turks: Ottomanism, Arabism, and Islamism in the Ottoman Empire, 1908–1918</i> (1997) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/40241096">in JSTOR</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ronald Grigor Suny, "Truth in Telling: Reconciling Realities in the Genocide of the Ottoman Armenians," <i>American Historical Review</i> (2009) 114#4 pp. 930–946 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/ahr.114.4.930">in JSTOR</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-125"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Stevenson, <i>Cataclysm</i> p 59</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-126"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Dragan Zivojinovic, "Serbia and Montenegro: The Home Front" in Béla K. Király, ed. <i>East Central European society in World War I</i> (1985) pp 253–59 esp p 243</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-127"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jonathan E. Gumz, <i>The Resurrection and Collapse of Empire in Habsburg Serbia, 1914–1918</i> (2009)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-128"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Andrej Mitrovic, <i>Serbia's Great War 1914–1918</i> (2007)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-129"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Zivojinovic, "Serbia and Montenegro: The Home Front" p 256</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-130"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Zdenko Zlatar, "Nationalism in Serbia (1804–1918)," <i>Canadian Review of Studies in Nationalism</i> (1979) Vol. 6, pp 100–113</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-131"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Tucker, <i>The European powers in the First World War</i> (1996). pp 149–52</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-132"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-132">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> Richard C. Hall, "Bulgaria in the First World War," <i>Historian,</i> (Summer 2011) 73#2 pp 300–315 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1540-6563.2011.00293.x/abstract">online</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-133"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-133">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">George B. Leontaritis, <i>Greece and the First World War</i> (1990)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-134"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-134">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mark Mazower, "The Messiah and the Bourgeoisie: Venizelos and Politics in Greece, 1909–1912," <i>Historical Journal</i> (1992) 35#4 pp. 885–904 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2639443">in JSTOR</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-135"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-135">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Guoqi Xu, <i>China and the Great War: China's Pursuit of a New National Identity and Internationalization</i> (2011)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-136"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-136">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Frederick R. Dickinson, <i>War and National Reinvention: Japan in the Great War, 1914–1919</i> (1999)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-137"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-137">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Albert A. Altman and Harold Z. Schiffrin, "Sun Yat-Sen and the Japanese, 1914–16," <i>Modern Asian Studies,</i> (July 1972) 6#4 pp 385–400</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-138"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-138">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">J.C. Schencking, "Bureaucratic Politics, Military Budgets and Japan's Southern Advance: The Imperial Navy's Seizure of German Micronesia in the First World War," <i>War in History,</i> (July 1998) 5#3 pp 308–326</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-139"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-139">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Geoffrey W. Rice and Edwina Palmer, "Pandemic influenza in Japan, 1918–19: Mortality patterns and official responses," <i>Journal of Japanese Studies,</i> (Summer 1993) 19#2 pp 389–420</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Home_front_during_World_War_I&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><i>Encyclopædia Britannica</i> (12th ed. 1922) comprises the 11th edition plus three new volumes 30-31-32 that cover events since 1911 with very thorough coverage of the war as well as every country and colony. <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1922_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica" class="extiw" title="s:1922 Encyclopædia Britannica">v. 30-31-32 partly online and list of article titles</a> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=CMYUAAAAQAAJ">full text of vol 30 ABBE to ENGLISH HISTORY online free</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:1922_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_scans">scans of each page of vol 30-31-32</a></li></ul></li> <li><i>The Cambridge History of the First World War Volume 3: Civil Society</i> (2014) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://universitypublishingonline.org/cambridge/histories/subject_title_list.jsf?subjectCode=15&heading=Warfare&tSort=title+closed&aSort=author+default_list&ySort=year+default_list">online</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160820160141/http://universitypublishingonline.org/cambridge/histories/subject_title_list.jsf?subjectCode=15&heading=Warfare&tSort=title+closed&aSort=author+default_list&ySort=year+default_list">Archived</a> 2016-08-20 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li>Fisk, H.E. <i>The Inter-Ally Debts: An Analysis of War and Post-War Public Finance, 1914-1923</i> (1924)<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="Please supply an ISBN for this book.">ISBN missing</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li>Godden, Christopher. "The Business of War: Reflections on Recent Contributions to the Economic and Business Histories of the First World War." <i>Œconomia. History, Methodology, Philosophy</i> 6#4 (2016): 549-556. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://oeconomia.revues.org/2519">online</a></li> <li>Grayzel, Susan. <i>Women and the First World War</i> (2002), worldwide coverage</li> <li>Herwig, Holger H., and Neil M. Heyman, eds. <i>Biographical Dictionary of World War I</i> (Greenwood, 1982); includes prime ministers and main civilian leaders.</li> <li>Higham, Robin and Dennis E. Showalter, eds. <i>Researching World War I: A Handbook</i> (2003), 475pp; highly detailed historiography, stressing military themes; annotates over 1000 books—mostly military but many on the homefront<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="Please supply an ISBN for this book.">ISBN missing</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li>Horne, John N., ed. <i>A Companion to World War I</i> (2010), 38 essays by leading scholars covering all facets of the war <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/1119968704/">excerpt and text search</a></li> <li>Horne, John N. <i>State, Society and Mobilization in Europe during the First World War</i> (2002)</li> <li>Proctor, Tammy M. <i>Civilians in a World at War, 1914–1918</i> (2010) 410pp; global coverage <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/081476715X/">excerpt and text search</a></li> <li>Stevenson, David. <i>Cataclysm: The First World War as Political Tragedy</i> (2005) 625pp; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/0465081851/">excerpt and text search</a></li> <li>Stevenson, David. <i>With Our Backs to the Wall: Victory and Defeat in 1918</i> (2011) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/0674062264/">excerpt and text search</a> covers both the homefront and the battlefields for the major powers</li> <li>Strachen, Hew. <i>The First World War</i> (vol 1, 2005) 1225pp; covers the battlefields and chief home fronts in 1914–1917 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/0199261911/">excerpt and text search</a></li> <li>Tucker, Spencer, ed. <i>European Powers in the First World War: An Encyclopedia</i> (1999) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/081533351X/">excerpt and text search</a></li> <li>Tucker, Spencer, ed. <i>The Encyclopedia of World War I: A Political, Social, and Military History</i> (5 vol 2005); the most detailed reference source; articles by specialists cover all aspects of the war <ul><li>Tucker, Spencer C., ed. <i>World War I: A Student Encyclopedia.</i> 4 vol. ABC-CLIO, 2006. 2454 pp.</li></ul></li> <li>Winter, J. M. <i>The Experience of World War I</i> (2006) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/1904594719/">excerpt and text search</a></li> <li>Winter, Jay, and Jean-Louis Robert, eds. <i>Capital Cities at War: Paris, London, Berlin 1914–1919</i> (2 vol. 1999, 2007), 30 chapters 1200pp; comprehensive coverage by scholars <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/052166814X/">vol 1 excerpt</a>; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/0521870437/">vol 2 excerpt and text search</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Economics">Economics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Home_front_during_World_War_I&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Economics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_World_War_I#Further_reading" title="Economic history of World War I">Economic history of World War I § Further reading</a></div> <ul><li>Broadberry, Stephen, and Mark Harrison, eds. <i>The Economics of World War I</i> (2005) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-85212-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-85212-9">0-521-85212-9</a>. Covers France, Britain, USA, Russia, Italy, Germany, Austria-Hungary, the Ottoman Empire, and the Netherlands, 362pp; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/0521852129/">excerpt and text search</a>; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www2.warwick.ac.uk/fac/soc/economics/staff/mharrison/public/ww1_orgill.pdf">online review</a></li> <li>Grayzel, Susan. <i>Women and the First World War</i> (2002), worldwide coverage</li> <li>Stevenson, David. <i>With Our Backs to the Wall: Victory and Defeat in 1918</i> (2011) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/0674062264/">excerpt and text search</a>, pp 350–438, covers major countries</li> <li>Hardach, Gerd. <i>The First World War 1914–1918</i> (1977), economic history of major powers</li> <li>Thorp, William Long. <i>Business Annals: United States, England, France, Germany, Austria, Russia, Sweden Netherlands, Italy, Argentina, Brazil, Canada, South Africa, Australia, India, Japan, China</i> (1926) capsule summary of conditions in each country for each quarter-year 1790–1925</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Britain_2">Britain</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Home_front_during_World_War_I&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Britain"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Butler, Simon. <i>The War Horses: The Tragic Fate of a Million Horses Sacrificed in the First World War</i> (2011)</li> <li>Cassar, George. <i>Lloyd George at War, 1916–1918</i> (2009) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/1843317931#noop">excerpt and text search</a></li> <li>Cooksley, Peter. <i>The Home Front: Civilian Life in World War One</i> (2006)</li> <li>Dewey, P. E. "Food Production and Policy in the United Kingdom, 1914–1918," <i>Transactions of the Royal Historical Society</i> (1980). v. 30, pp 71–89. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3679003">in JSTOR</a></li> <li>Doyle, Peter. <i>First World War Britain: 1914–1919</i> (2012)</li> <li>Fairlie, John A. <i>British War Administration</i> (1919) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KBYhAAAAMAAJ">online edition</a></li> <li>Ferguson, Niall <i>The Pity of War</i> (1999), 563pp; cultural and economic themes<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="Please supply an ISBN for this book.">ISBN missing</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li>French, David. <i>The Strategy of the Lloyd George Coalition, 1916–1918</i> Oxford University Press, 1995</li> <li>Fry, Michael. "Political Change in Britain, August 1914 to December 1916: Lloyd George Replaces Asquith: The Issues Underlying the Drama," <i>Historical Journal</i> (1988) 31#3 pp. 609–627 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2639759">in JSTOR</a></li> <li>Goebel, Stefan and White, Jerry. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/03058034.2016.1216758">'London and the First World War'</a>. London Journal 41:3 (2016), 1–20.</li> <li>Gregory, Adrian. <i>The Last Great War: British Society and the First World War</i> (2009) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/0521450373/">excerpt and text search</a></li> <li>Grigg, John. <i>Lloyd George: war leader, 1916–1918</i> (2002)</li> <li>Havighurst, Alfred F. <i>Twentieth-Century Britain.</i> 1966. standard survey<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="Please supply an ISBN for this book.">ISBN missing</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li>Hazlehurst, Cameron. "Asquith as Prime Minister, 1908–1916," <i>The English Historical Review</i> Vol. 85, No. 336 (Jul. 1970), pp. 502–531 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/563193">in JSTOR</a></li> <li>Johnson, Matthew. "The Liberal War Committee and the Liberal Advocacy of Conscription in Britain, 1914–1916," <i>Historical Journal,</i> Vol. 51, No. 2 (June, 2008), pp. 399–420 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/20175167">in JSTOR</a></li> <li>Little, John Gordon. "H. H. Asquith and Britain's Manpower Problem, 1914–1915." <i>History</i> 1997 82(267): 397–409. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/search?fq=x0:jrnl&q=n2:0018-2648">0018-2648</a>; admits the problem was bad but exonerates Asquith Fulltext: in Ebsco</li> <li>Marwick, Arthur. <i>The Deluge: British Society and the First World War</i>, (1965)</li> <li>Matthew, H. C. G. "Asquith, Herbert Henry, first earl of Oxford and Asquith (1852–1928)", <i>Oxford Dictionary of National Biography,</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/30483,">online</a></li> <li>Offer, Avner. <i>The First World War: An Agrarian Interpretation</i> (1991), on food supply of Britain and Germany</li> <li>Paddock, Troy R. E. <i>A call to arms: propaganda, public opinion, and newspapers in the Great War</i> (2004)</li> <li>Silbey, David. <i>The British Working Class and Enthusiasm for War, 1914–1916</i> (2005)<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="Please supply an ISBN for this book.">ISBN missing</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li>Simmonds, Alan G. V. <i>Britain and World War One</i> (2011) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/0415455391/">excerpt and text search</a></li> <li>Storey, Neil R. <i>Women in the First World War</i> (2010)</li> <li>Swift, David. "The War Emergency: Workers' National Committee." <i>History Workshop Journal</i> 81 (2016): 84-105. <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://doi.org/10.1093/hwj/dbv041">[2]</a></li> <li>Swift, David. <i>For Class and Country: the Patriotic Left and the First World War</i> (2017)</li> <li>Taylor, A.J.P. <i>English History: 1914–1945</i> (1965) pp 1–119</li> <li>Turner, John, ed. <i>Britain and the First World War</i> (1988).</li> <li>Williams, John. <i>The Home Fronts: Britain, France and Germany 1914-1918</i> (1972) Britain: pp 49–71, 111-33, 178-98 and 246-60.</li> <li>Wilson, Trevor. <i>The Myriad Faces of War: Britain and the Great War 1914–1918</i> (1989) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/0745606458/">excerpt and text search</a> 864pp; covers both the homefront and the battlefields</li> <li>Winter, Jay, and Jean-Louis Robert, eds. <i>Capital Cities at War: Paris, London, Berlin 1914–1919</i> (2 vol. 1999, 2007), 30 chapters 1200pp; comprehensive coverage by scholars <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/052166814X/">vol 1 excerpt</a>; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/0521870437/">vol 2 excerpt and text search</a></li> <li>Whetham, Edith H. <i>The Agrarian History of England and Wales: Volume VIII: 1914-39</i> (Cambridge University Press, 1978), pp 70–123</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Year_books">Year books</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Home_front_during_World_War_I&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Year books"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.156681"><i>Annual Register 1915</i></a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.156839"><i>Annual Register 1916</i></a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.13281"><i>Annual Register 1917</i></a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.79549"><i>Annual Register 1918</i></a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.79555"><i>Annual Register 1919</i></a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Historiography">Historiography</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Home_front_during_World_War_I&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Historiography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Holbrook, Carolyn, and Nathan Wise. "In the Shadow of Anzac: Labour Historiography of the First World War in Australia." <i>History Compass</i> 14.7 (2016): 314-325. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/hic3.12320/full">link</a></li> <li>Offer, Avner. <i>The First World War: An Agrarian Interpretation</i> (1991), on food supply of Britain and the Empire, and Germany</li> <li>War Office. <i>Statistics of the Military Effort of the British Empire During the Great War 1914–1920</i> (London, 1922), 880pp <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.vlib.us/wwi/resources/britishwwi.html">online edition</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="British_Empire,_Dominions,_India"><span id="British_Empire.2C_Dominions.2C_India"></span>British Empire, Dominions, India</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Home_front_during_World_War_I&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: British Empire, Dominions, India"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_Canadian_history#First_World_War_homefront" title="Bibliography of Canadian history">Bibliography of Canadian history § First World War homefront</a></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Joan_Beaumont" title="Joan Beaumont">Beaumont, Joan</a>. <i>Australia's War, 1914–1918</i> (1995).</li> <li>Condliffe, J. B. " New Zealand during the War," <i>Economic Journal</i> (1919) 29#114 pp. 167–185 in JSTOR, free, economic mobilisation</li> <li>Crawford, John, and Ian McGibbon, eds. <i>New Zealand's Great War: New Zealand, the Allies and the First World War</i> (2008)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKeith,_Arthur_Berriedale1921" class="citation book cs1">Keith, Arthur Berriedale (1921). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.37399"><i>War government of the British dominions</i></a>. Clarendon Press. <q>Australia.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=War+government+of+the+British+dominions&rft.pub=Clarendon+Press&rft.date=1921&rft.au=Keith%2C+Arthur+Berriedale&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fin.ernet.dli.2015.37399&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHome+front+during+World+War+I" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Brown R. C., and Ramsay Cook. <i>Canada, 1896–1921 A Nation Transformed</i>. (1974), a standard survey</li> <li>Grundlingh, Albert M. <i>Fighting their own war: South African blacks and the First World War</i> (Ravan Press of South Africa, 1987).</li></ul> <ul><li>Loveridge, Steven, <i>Calls to Arms: New Zealand Society and Commitment to the Great War</i> (2014)</li> <li>Macintyre, Stuart. <i>The Oxford History of Australia: Volume 4: 1901–42, the Succeeding Age</i> (1993)</li> <li>MacKenzie, David, ed. <i>Canada and the First World War</i> (2005) 16 essays by leading scholars <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/0802084451/">excerpt and text search</a></li> <li>Marti, Steve. <i>For Home and Empire: Voluntary Mobilization in Australia, Canada, and New Zealand during the First World War</i> (2020) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/Home-Empire-Voluntary-Mobilization-Australia/dp/0774861215/">excerpt</a></li></ul> <ul><li>Morton, Desmond, and Jack Granatstein. <i>Marching to Armageddon: Canadians and the Great War 1914–1919</i> (1989)</li> <li>Nasson, Bill. <i>Springboks on the Somme: South Africa in the Great War, 1914–1918</i> (Johannesburg and New York, Penguin, 2007)</li> <li>Parsons, Gwen. "The New Zealand Home Front during World War One and World War Two." <i>History Compass</i> 11.6 (2013): 419-428.</li> <li>Samson, Anne. <i>Britain, South Africa and the East Africa Campaign, 1914–1918: The Union Comes of Age</i> (2006) 262pp</li> <li>Shaw, Amy. "Expanding the Narrative: A First World War with Women, Children, and Grief," <i>Canadian Historical Review</i> (2014) 95#3 pp 398–406. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.utpjournals.press/doi/abs/10.3138/chr.95.3.398?journalCode=chr">online</a></li> <li>Tinker, Hugh. "India in the First World War and after." <i>Journal of contemporary history</i> 3.4 (1968): 89-107. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/259853">in JSTOR</a></li> <li>Winegard, Timothy C. <i>Indigenous Peoples of the British Dominions and the First World War</i> (2012) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/110701493X/">excerpt and text search</a>, covers Canada, Australia, Newfoundland, New Zealand and South Africa</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="France_2">France</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Home_front_during_World_War_I&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: France"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Audoin-Rouzeau, Stéphane, and Annette Becker. <i>14-18: Understanding the Great War</i> (2003) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/0809046431/">excerpt and text search</a></li> <li>Becker, Jean Jacques. <i>The Great War and the French People</i> (1986)</li> <li>Cabanes Bruno. <i>August 1914: France, the Great War, and a Month That Changed the World Forever</i> (2016) argues that the extremely high casualty rate in very first month of fighting permanently transformed France.</li> <li>Darrow, Margaret H. <i>French Women and the First World War: War Stories of the Home Front</i> (Berg, 2000)<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="Please supply an ISBN for this book.">ISBN missing</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li>Fridenson, Patrick. <i>The French home front, 1914–1918</i> (1992)</li> <li>Grayzel, Susan R. <i>Women's identities at war: gender, motherhood, and politics in Britain and France during the First World War</i> (1999).</li> <li>Greenhalgh, Elizabeth. "Writing about France's Great War." (2005): 601-612. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/30036345">in JSTOR</a></li> <li>McPhail, Helen. <i>The Long Silence: The Tragedy of Occupied France in World War I</i> (2014)</li> <li>Smith, Leonard V. et al. <i>France and the Great War</i> (2003) 222pp; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/0521666317/">excerpt and text search</a></li> <li>Williams, John. <i>The Other Battleground The Home Fronts: Britain, France and Germany 1914-1918</i> (1972) pp 72–89, 134-47, 199-223, 261-72.</li> <li>Winter, Jay, and Jean-Louis Robert, eds. <i>Capital Cities at War: Paris, London, Berlin 1914–1919</i> (2 vol. 1999, 2007), 30 chapters 1200pp; comprehensive coverage by scholars <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/052166814X/">vol 1 excerpt</a>; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/0521870437/">vol 2 excerpt and text search</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Russia_2">Russia</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Home_front_during_World_War_I&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Russia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Badcock, Sarah. "The Russian Revolution: Broadening Understandings of 1917." <i>History Compass</i> 6.1 (2008): 243-262. Historiography <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/download/34171084/published_final.pdf">online</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged July 2022">dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup></li> <li>Gatrell, Peter. <i>Russia's First World War: A Social and Economic History</i> (2005).</li> <li>Gatrell, Peter. "Tsarist Russia at War: The View from Above, 1914–February 1917" <i>Journal of Modern History</i> 87#4 (2015) 668-700 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/16169047/Tsarist_Russia_at_War_the_View_from_Above_1914-February_1917">online</a></li> <li>Gaudin, Corinne. "Rural Echoes of World War I: War Talk in the Russian Village." <i>Jahrbücher für Geschichte Osteuropas</i> (2008): 391-414. in English.</li> <li>Jahn, Hubertus F. <i>Patriotic Culture in Russia During World War I</i> (1998)</li> <li>Lincoln, W. Bruce. <i>Passage through Armageddon: the Russians in war and revolution, 1914-1918</i> (1986)</li> <li>Sanborn, Joshua A. <i>Imperial Apocalypse: The Great War and the Destruction of the Russian Empire</i> (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/Imperial-Apocalypse-Destruction-Russian-Greater/dp/0199642052/">excerpt</a></li> <li>Sanborn, Joshua A. <i>Drafting the Russian Nation: Military Conscription, Total War, and Mass Politics, 1905-1925</i> (2003)</li> <li>Sanborn, Joshua A. "The Mobilization of 1914 and the Question of the Russian Nation: A Reexamination," <i>Slavic Review</i> 59#2 (2000), pp. 267–289 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2697051">in JSTOR</a></li> <li>Wade, Rex A. <i>The Russian Revolution, 1917</i> (Cambridge UP, 2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://media.8ch.net/freedu/src/1433821130025-0.pdf">excerpt</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged October 2022">permanent dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup></li> <li>Wood, Alan. <i>The Origins of the Russian Revolution, 1861–1917</i> (Routledge, 2004)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="U.S.">U.S.</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Home_front_during_World_War_I&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: U.S."><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Bassett, John Spencer. <i>Our War with Germany: A History</i> (1919) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ourwarwithgerma00bassgoog">online edition</a></li> <li>Chambers, John W., II. <i>To Raise an Army: The Draft Comes to Modern America</i> (1987)</li> <li>Keene, Jennifer D. "Remembering the 'Forgotten War': American Historiography on World War I." <i>Historian</i> 78#3 (2016): 439-468.</li> <li>Kennedy, David M. <i>Over Here: The First World War and American Society</i> (1982), covers politics & economics & society<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="Please supply an ISBN for this book.">ISBN missing</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li>Koistinen, Paul. <i>Mobilizing for Modern War: The Political Economy of American Warfare, 1865–1919</i> (1997)</li> <li>May, Ernest R. <i>The World War and American isolation, 1914–1917</i> (1959) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hdl.handle.net/2027/heb.00283">online at ACLS e-books</a></li> <li>Scott, Emmett Jay. <i>Scott's Official History of the American Negro in the World War</i> (1919) 511 pages <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=obUHAAAAIAAJ">online edition</a></li> <li>Slosson, Preston William. <i>The Great Crusade and after, 1914–1928</i> (1930). social history<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="Please supply an ISBN for this book.">ISBN missing</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li>Titus, James, ed. <i>The Home Front and War in the Twentieth Century: The American Experience in Comparative Perspective</i> (1984) essays by scholars. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://media.defense.gov/2010/Sep/27/2001329738/-1/-1/0/AFD-100927-031.pdf">online free</a></li> <li>Venzon, Anne ed. <i>The United States in the First World War: An Encyclopedia</i> (1995)</li> <li>Young, Ernest William. <i>The Wilson Administration and the Great War</i> (1922) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/wilsonadministr00youngoog">online edition</a></li> <li>Zieger, Robert H. <i>America's Great War: World War I and the American Experience</i> (2000). 272 pp.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_Allies">Other Allies</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Home_front_during_World_War_I&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Other Allies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>De Grand, Alexander. <i>Giovanni Giolitti and Liberal Italy from the Challenge of Mass Politics to the Rise of Fascism, 1882–1922</i> (2001)</li> <li>Dickinson, Frederick R. <i>War and National Reinvention: Japan in the Great War, 1914–1919</i> (2001) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/0674005074/">excerpt and text search</a></li> <li>Krippner, Monica. <i>The Quality of Mercy: Women at War Serbia 1915–18</i> (1980)</li> <li>Mitrovic, Andrej. <i>Serbia's Great War 1914–1918</i> (2007) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/1557534764/">excerpt and text search</a></li> <li>Page, Thomas Nelson. <i>Italy and the world war</i> (1992) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/italyandworldwa00pagegoog">online at Google</a></li> <li>Xu, Guoqi. <i>China and the Great War: China's Pursuit of a New National Identity and Internationalization</i> (2011)</li> <li>Xu, Guoqi. <i>Asia and the Great War – A Shared History</i> (Oxford UP, 2016) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://oxford-universitypressscholarship-com/view/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199658190.001.0001/acprof-9780199658190?rskey=rZxsjk&result=1">online</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged October 2022">permanent dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Central_Powers">Central Powers</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Home_front_during_World_War_I&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: Central Powers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Akın, Yiğit. <i>When the War Came Home: The Ottomans' Great War and the Devastation of an Empire</i> (Stanford University Press, 2018)</li> <li>Bloxham, Donald. <i>The Great Game of Genocide: Imperialism, Nationalism, and the Destruction of the Ottoman Armenians</i> (Oxford University Press, 2005)</li> <li>Chickering, R. <i>Imperial Germany and the Great War, 1914–1918</i> (1998)</li> <li>Daniel, Ute. <i>The war from within: German working-class women in the First World War</i> (1997).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belinda_Joy_Davis" class="mw-redirect" title="Belinda Joy Davis">Davis, Belinda Joy</a>. <i>Home Fires Burning: Food, Politics, and Everyday Life in World War I Berlin</i> (2000) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/0807825263/">excerpt and text search</a></li> <li>Feldman, Gerald D. <i>Army, industry, and labor in Germany, 1914–1918</i> (1966)</li> <li>Healy, Maureen. <i>Vienna and the Fall of the Habsburg Empire: Total War and Everyday Life in World War I</i> (2007)</li> <li>Herwig, Holger H. <i>The First World War: Germany and Austria-Hungary 1914–1918</i> (2009)</li> <li>Howard, N.P. "The Social and Political Consequences of the Allied Food Blockade of Germany, 1918–19," <i>German History</i> (1993) 11#2 pp 161–88 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://libcom.org/files/blockade%20Germany_0.pdf">online</a></li> <li>Kann, Robert A. et al., eds. <i>The Habsburg Empire in World War I: Essays on the Intellectual, Military, Political and Economic Aspects of the Habsburg War Effort</i> (1977) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/habsburgempirein00kann">online borrowing copy</a></li> <li>Kocka, Jürgen. <i>Facing total war: German society, 1914–1918</i> (1984). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=acls;idno=heb01301">online at ACLS e-books</a></li> <li>Lutz, Ralph Haswell, ed. <i>Fall of the German Empire, 1914–1918</i> (2 vol 1932). 868pp <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://academic.oup.com/ahr/article-abstract/39/1/130/26876/Fall-of-the-German-Empire-1914-1918-Selected-and?redirectedFrom=fulltext">online review</a>, primary sources</li> <li>McCarthy, Justin. <i>The Ottoman Peoples and the End of Empire</i> (2001).</li> <li>Offer, Avner. <i>The First World War: An Agrarian Interpretation</i> (1991), on food supply of Britain and Germany</li> <li>Osborne, Eric. <i>Britain's Economic Blockade of Germany, 1914–1919</i> (2004)</li> <li>Verhey, Jeffrey. <i>The Spirit of 1914. Militarism, Myth and Mobilization in Germany</i> (Cambridge University Press 2000)</li> <li>Watson, Alexander. <i>Ring of Steel: Germany and Austria-Hungary in World War I</i> (2014)</li> <li>Welch, David. <i>Germany, Propaganda and Total War, 1914–1918</i> (2003)</li> <li>Williams, John. <i>The Other Battleground The Home Fronts: Britain, France and Germany 1914-1918</i> (1972) Germany on pp 89–108, 148-74, 223-42, 273-87.</li> <li>Winter, Jay, and Jean-Louis Robert, eds. <i>Capital Cities at War: Paris, London, Berlin 1914–1919</i> (2 vol. 1999, 2007), 30 chapters 1200pp; comprehensive coverage by scholars <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/052166814X/">vol 1 excerpt</a>; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/0521870437/">vol 2 excerpt and text search</a></li> <li>Ziemann, Benjamin. <i>War Experiences in Rural Germany, 1914–1923</i> (Berg, 2007)<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="Please supply an ISBN for this book.">ISBN missing</span></a></i>]</sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Historiography_2">Historiography</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Home_front_during_World_War_I&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: Historiography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Rietzler, Katharina. "The war as history: Writing the economic and social history of the First World War." <i>Diplomatic History</i> 38.4 (2014): 826-839.</li> <li>Winter, Jay and Antoine Prost. <i>The Great War in History: Debates and Controversies, 1914 to the Present</i> (2005)</li> <li>Winter, Jay M. "Catastrophe and Culture: Recent Trends in the Historiography of the First World War," <i>Journal of Modern History</i> (1992) 64#3 525-532 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2124597">in JSTOR</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Primary_sources_and_year_books">Primary sources and year books</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Home_front_during_World_War_I&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: Primary sources and year books"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Gooch, G. P. <i>Recent Revelations Of European Diplomancy</i> (1940), 475pp summarizes published memoirs by main participants</li> <li>Marwick, Arthur, and W. Simpson, eds. <i>War, Peace and Social Change - Europe 1900-1955 - Documents I: 1900–1929</i> (1990)</li> <li>Pollard, Sidney and Colin Holmes, eds. <i>Documents of European Economic History Volume 3 The End of the Old Europe 1914–1939</i> (1973) pp 1–89; 33 short excerpts</li> <li>Shevin-Coetzee, Marilyn, and Frans Coetzee, eds. <i>World War One and European Society</i> (1995).</li> <li>Shevin-Coetzee, Marilyn, and Frans Coetzee, eds. <i>World War I: A History in Documents</i> (2002)<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="Please supply an ISBN for this book.">ISBN missing</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/NewInternationalYearBookFor1913"><i>New International Year Book 1913</i> (1914)</a> Comprehensive coverage of world affairs; strong on economics; 867pp</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/NewInternationalYearBookFor1914"><i>New International Year Book 1914</i> (1915)</a>, 913pp</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/NewInternationalYearBookFor1915"><i>New International Year Book 1915</i> (1916)</a>, 791pp</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/NewInternationalYearBookFor1916"><i>New International Year Book 1916</i> (1917)</a>, 938pp</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/NewInternationalYearBookFor1917"><i>New International Year Book 1917</i> (1918)</a>, 904 pp</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/NewInternationalYearBookFor1918"><i>New International Year Book 1918</i> (1919)</a>, 904 pp</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/NewInternationalYearBookFor1919"><i>New International Year Book 1919</i> (1920)</a>, 744pp</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/NewInternationalYearBookFor1920"><i>New International Year Book 1920</i> (1921)</a>, 844 pp</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/NewInternationalYearBookFor1921"><i>New International Year Book 1921</i> (1922)</a>, 848 pp</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Home_front_during_World_War_I&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/themes/home_front/">Home Front</a>, in: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/home/">1914-1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wwi.lib.byu.edu/index.php/Links_to_Other_WWI_Sites#Home_Front">Links to other sites, by county</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://britishempireatwar.org/">"The British Empire at War Research Group"</a>, Comprehensive coverage of the British Empire during First and Second World Wars.</li> <li>Matteo Ermacora: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/article/civilian_morale/">Civilian Morale</a>, in: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/home.html/">1914-1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War</a>.</li> <li>Lawrence Sondhaus: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/article/civilian_and_military_power/">Civilian and Military Power</a>, in: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/home.html/">1914-1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War</a>.</li> <li>Nancy Gentile Ford: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/article/civilian_and_military_power_usa/">Civilian and Military Power (USA)</a>, in: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/home.html/">1914-1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War</a>.</li> <li>John Paul Newman: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/article/civilian_and_military_power_south_east_europe/">Civilian and Military Power (South-East-Europe)</a>, in: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/home.html/">1914-1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War</a>.</li> <li>Nazan Maksudyan: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/article/civilian_and_military_power_ottoman_empire/">Civilian and Military Power (Ottoman Empire)</a>, in: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/home.html/">1914-1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War</a>.</li> <li>Melvin Baker: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/article/civilian_and_military_power_newfoundland/">Civilian and Military Power (Newfoundland)</a>, in: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/home.html/">1914-1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War</a>.</li> <li>Frederick R. Dickinson: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/article/civilian_and_military_power_japan/">Civilian and Military Power (Japan)</a>, in: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/home.html/">1914-1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War</a>.</li> <li>Marco Mondini: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/article/civilian_and_military_power_italy/">Civilian and Military Power (Italy)</a>, in: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/home.html/">1914-1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War</a>.</li> <li>Matthew Johnson: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/article/civilian_and_military_power_great_britain_and_ireland/">Civilian and Military Power (Great Britain and Ireland)</a>, in: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/home.html/">1914-1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War</a>.</li> <li>Michaël Bourlet: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/article/civilian_and_military_power_france/">Civilian and Military Power (France)</a>, in: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/home.html/">1914-1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War</a>.</li> <li>Lin-Chun Wu: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/article/civilian_and_military_power_china/">Civilian and Military Power (China)</a>, in: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/home.html/">1914-1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War</a>.</li> <li>John Connor: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/article/civilian_and_military_power_australia/">Civilian and Military Power (Australia)</a>, in: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/home.html/">1914-1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War</a>.</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · 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id="History_of_World_War_I_by_region_and_country" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">History of <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a> by region and country</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Africa</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/German_campaign_in_Angola" title="German campaign in Angola">Angola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_African_campaign_(World_War_I)" title="East African campaign (World War I)">East Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinai_and_Palestine_campaign" title="Sinai and Palestine campaign">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopia_in_World_War_I" title="Ethiopia in World War I">Ethiopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberia_in_World_War_I" title="Liberia in World War I">Liberia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zaian_War" title="Zaian War">Morocco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_African_Overseas_Expeditionary_Force" title="South African Overseas Expeditionary Force">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_West_Africa_campaign" title="South West Africa campaign">South West Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Rhodesia_in_World_War_I" title="Southern Rhodesia in World War I">Southern Rhodesia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Americas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brazil_during_World_War_I" title="Brazil during World War I">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canada_in_World_War_I" title="Canada in World War I">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_in_World_War_I" title="United States in World War I">United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venezuela_during_World_War_I" title="Venezuela during World War I">Venezuela</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Asia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Caucasus_campaign" title="Caucasus campaign">Caucasus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/China_during_World_War_I" title="China during World War I">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hong_Kong_during_World_War_I" title="Hong Kong during World War I">Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Army_during_World_War_I" title="Indian Army during World War I">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_campaign_(World_War_I)" title="Persian campaign (World War I)">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamian_campaign" title="Mesopotamian campaign">Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japan_during_World_War_I" title="Japan during World War I">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire_in_World_War_I" title="Ottoman Empire in World War I">Ottoman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinai_and_Palestine_campaign" title="Sinai and Palestine campaign">Palestine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siam_in_World_War_I" title="Siam in World War I">Siam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Vietnam_during_World_War_I" title="History of Vietnam during World War I">Vietnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Arabia_during_World_War_I" title="South Arabia during World War I">Yemen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Europe</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/World_War_I_in_Albania" title="World War I in Albania">Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Austria-Hungary_during_World_War_I" title="History of Austria-Hungary during World War I">Austria-Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belgium_in_World_War_I" title="Belgium in World War I">Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulgaria_during_World_War_I" title="Bulgaria during World War I">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Croatia_during_World_War_I" title="Croatia during World War I">Croatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denmark_during_World_War_I" title="Denmark during World War I">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_occupation_of_Estonia_during_World_War_I" title="German occupation of Estonia during World War I">Estonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Army_in_World_War_I" title="French Army in World War I">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Germany_during_World_War_I" title="History of Germany during World War I">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greece_during_World_War_I" title="Greece during World War I">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungary_in_World_War_I" title="Hungary in World War I">Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ireland_and_World_War_I" title="Ireland and World War I">Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Italy_during_World_War_I" title="Military history of Italy during World War I">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liechtenstein_in_World_War_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Liechtenstein in World War I">Liechtenstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_occupation_of_Luxembourg_during_World_War_I" title="German occupation of Luxembourg during World War I">Luxembourg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Netherlands_in_World_War_I" title="Netherlands in World War I">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norway_in_World_War_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Norway in World War I">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire_in_World_War_I" title="Ottoman Empire in World War I">Ottoman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Poland_during_World_War_I" title="History of Poland during World War I">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portugal_during_World_War_I" title="Portugal during World War I">Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romania_in_World_War_I" title="Romania in World War I">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russia_in_the_First_World_War" title="Russia in the First World War">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serbian_campaign" title="Serbian campaign">Serbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spain_during_World_War_I" title="Spain during World War I">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sweden_during_World_War_I" title="Sweden during World War I">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Switzerland_during_the_World_Wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Switzerland during the World Wars">Switzerland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ukraine_during_World_War_I" title="Ukraine during World War I">Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_Kingdom_during_the_First_World_War" title="History of the United Kingdom during the First World War">United Kingdom</a> (<a href="/wiki/Wales_in_the_World_Wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Wales in the World Wars">Wales</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ireland_and_World_War_I" title="Ireland and World War I">Ireland</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Oceania</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Australia_during_World_War_I" title="Military history of Australia during World War I">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_New_Zealand_during_World_War_I" title="Military history of New Zealand during World War I">New Zealand</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="World_War_I" style=";wide;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:World_War_I" title="Template:World War I"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:inherit">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:World_War_I" title="Template talk:World War I"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:inherit">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:World_War_I" title="Special:EditPage/Template:World War I"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:inherit">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="World_War_I" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_World_War_I" title="Outline of World War I">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_military_engagements_of_World_War_I" title="List of military engagements of World War I">Military engagements</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aftermath_of_World_War_I" title="Aftermath of World War I">Aftermath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_World_War_I" title="Economic history of World War I">Economic history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Role_of_geography_in_World_War_I" title="Role of geography in World War I">Geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_World_War_I" title="Historiography of World War I">Historiography</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Home fronts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_I_memorials" title="World War I memorials">Memorials</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opposition_to_World_War_I" title="Opposition to World War I">Opposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_I_in_popular_culture" title="World War I in popular culture">Popular culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propaganda_in_World_War_I" title="Propaganda in World War I">Propaganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_World_War_I_puppet_states" title="List of World War I puppet states">Puppet states</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technology_during_World_War_I" title="Technology during World War I">Technology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;text-align:left;">Theatres</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/European_theatre_of_World_War_I" title="European theatre of World War I">European</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Balkans_theatre" title="Balkans theatre">Balkans</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Serbian_campaign" title="Serbian campaign">Serbia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Front_(World_War_I)" title="Western Front (World War I)">Western Front</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Front_(World_War_I)" title="Eastern Front (World War I)">Eastern Front</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Romania_in_World_War_I" title="Romania in World War I">Romania</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_front_(World_War_I)" title="Italian front (World War I)">Italian Front</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Middle_Eastern_theatre_of_World_War_I" title="Middle Eastern theatre of World War I">Middle Eastern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gallipoli_campaign" title="Gallipoli campaign">Gallipoli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinai_and_Palestine_campaign" title="Sinai and Palestine campaign">Sinai and Palestine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caucasus_campaign" title="Caucasus campaign">Caucasus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_campaign_(World_War_I)" title="Persian campaign (World War I)">Persia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamian_campaign" title="Mesopotamian campaign">Mesopotamia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Revolt" title="Arab Revolt">Hejaz & Levant</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/African_theatre_of_World_War_I" title="African theatre of World War I">African</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/South_West_Africa_campaign" title="South West Africa campaign">South West</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_African_campaign_(World_War_I)" title="East African campaign (World War I)">East</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kamerun_campaign" title="Kamerun campaign">Kamerun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Togoland_campaign" title="Togoland campaign">Togoland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_operations_in_North_Africa_during_World_War_I" title="Military operations in North Africa during World War I">North</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Asian_and_Pacific_theatre_of_World_War_I" title="Asian and Pacific theatre of World War I">Asian and Pacific</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Tsingtao" title="Siege of Tsingtao">Tsingtao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_German_Samoa" title="Occupation of German Samoa">German Samoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australian_occupation_of_German_New_Guinea" class="mw-redirect" title="Australian occupation of German New Guinea">German New Guinea</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Naval_warfare_of_World_War_I" title="Naval warfare of World War I">Naval warfare</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/U-boat_campaign" title="U-boat campaign">U-boat campaign</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_U-boat_campaign_of_World_War_I" title="Atlantic U-boat campaign of World War I">North Atlantic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naval_warfare_in_the_Mediterranean_during_World_War_I" title="Naval warfare in the Mediterranean during World War I">Mediterranean</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;text-align:left;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Principal<br />participants</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_I" title="Allies of World War I">Entente Powers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allied_leaders_of_World_War_I" title="Allied leaders of World War I">Leaders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belgium_in_World_War_I" title="Belgium in World War I">Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brazil_during_World_War_I" title="Brazil during World War I">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/China_during_World_War_I" title="China during World War I">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Army_in_World_War_I" title="French Army in World War I">France</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/French_colonial_empire" title="French colonial empire">French Empire</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greece_during_World_War_I" title="Greece during World War I">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Hejaz" title="Kingdom of Hejaz">Hejaz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Italy_during_World_War_I" title="Military history of Italy during World War I">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japan_during_World_War_I" title="Japan during World War I">Japan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Japan" title="Empire of Japan">Empire of Japan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Montenegro#World_War_I" title="History of Montenegro">Montenegro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portugal_during_World_War_I" title="Portugal during World War I">Portuguese Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romania_in_World_War_I" title="Romania in World War I">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russia_in_the_First_World_War" title="Russia in the First World War">Russia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Russia_(1894%E2%80%931917)#Russia_at_war,_1914–1916" title="History of Russia (1894–1917)">Russian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Republic" title="Russian Republic">Russian Republic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Serbia#Serbia_in_World_War_I_(1914–1918)" title="History of Serbia">Serbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siam_in_World_War_I" title="Siam in World War I">Siam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_Kingdom_during_the_First_World_War" title="History of the United Kingdom during the First World War">United Kingdom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British Empire</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_in_World_War_I" title="United States in World War I">United States</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Central_Powers" title="Central Powers">Central Powers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Leaders_of_the_Central_Powers_of_World_War_I" title="Leaders of the Central Powers of World War I">Leaders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Austria-Hungary_during_World_War_I" title="History of Austria-Hungary during World War I">Austria-Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire_in_World_War_I" title="Ottoman Empire in World War I">Ottoman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulgaria_during_World_War_I" title="Bulgaria during World War I">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Senussi_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Senussi Campaign">Senussi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritz_Rebellion" class="mw-redirect" title="Maritz Rebellion">South African Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_Darfur" title="Invasion of Darfur">Darfur</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_World_War_I" title="Timeline of World War I">Timeline</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;">Pre-War conflicts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Franco-Prussian_War" title="Franco-Prussian War">Franco-Prussian War</a> (1870–71)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scramble_for_Africa" title="Scramble for Africa">Scramble for Africa</a> (1880–1914)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russo-Japanese_War" title="Russo-Japanese War">Russo-Japanese War</a> (1905)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Moroccan_Crisis" title="First Moroccan Crisis">Tangier Crisis</a> (1905–06)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bosnian_Crisis" title="Bosnian Crisis">Bosnian Crisis</a> (1908–09)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agadir_Crisis" title="Agadir Crisis">Agadir Crisis</a> (1911)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italo-Turkish_War" title="Italo-Turkish War">Italo-Turkish War</a> (1911–12)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Balkan_War" title="First Balkan War">First Balkan War</a> (1912–13)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Balkan_War" title="Second Balkan War">Second Balkan War</a> (1913)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;">Prelude</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Causes_of_World_War_I" title="Causes of World War I">Origins</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_causes_of_World_War_I" title="Historiography of the causes of World War I">Historiography</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_Archduke_Franz_Ferdinand" title="Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand">Sarajevo assassination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Serb_riots_in_Sarajevo" title="Anti-Serb riots in Sarajevo">Anti-Serb riots in Sarajevo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/July_Crisis" title="July Crisis">July Crisis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;">1914</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/German_invasion_of_Belgium_(1914)" title="German invasion of Belgium (1914)">German invasion of Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Frontiers" title="Battle of the Frontiers">Battle of the Frontiers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cer" title="Battle of Cer">Battle of Cer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Galicia" title="Battle of Galicia">Battle of Galicia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_invasion_of_East_Prussia_(1914)" title="Russian invasion of East Prussia (1914)">Russian invasion of East Prussia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tannenberg" title="Battle of Tannenberg">Battle of Tannenberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Tsingtao" title="Siege of Tsingtao">Siege of Tsingtao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Battle_of_the_Masurian_Lakes" title="First Battle of the Masurian Lakes">First Battle of the Masurian Lakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Grand_Couronn%C3%A9" title="Battle of Grand Couronné">Battle of Grand Couronné</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Battle_of_the_Marne" title="First Battle of the Marne">First Battle of the Marne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Przemy%C5%9Bl" title="Siege of Przemyśl">Siege of Przemyśl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Race_to_the_Sea" title="Race to the Sea">Race to the Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Battle_of_Ypres" title="First Battle of Ypres">First Battle of Ypres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Sea_raid" title="Black Sea raid">Black Sea raid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kolubara" title="Battle of Kolubara">Battle of Kolubara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Sarikamish" title="Battle of Sarikamish">Battle of Sarikamish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christmas_truce" title="Christmas truce">Christmas truce</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;">1915</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Second_Battle_of_the_Masurian_Lakes" title="Second Battle of the Masurian Lakes">Second Battle of the Masurian Lakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_%C5%81om%C5%BCa" title="Battle of Łomża">Battle of Łomża</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Battle_of_Ypres" title="Second Battle of Ypres">Second Battle of Ypres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinking_of_the_RMS_Lusitania" title="Sinking of the RMS Lusitania">Sinking of the RMS <i>Lusitania</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gallipoli_campaign" title="Gallipoli campaign">Battle of Gallipoli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Battle_of_Artois" title="Second Battle of Artois">Second Battle of Artois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battles_of_the_Isonzo" title="Battles of the Isonzo">Battles of the Isonzo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gorlice%E2%80%93Tarn%C3%B3w_offensive" title="Gorlice–Tarnów offensive">Gorlice–Tarnów offensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Retreat_(Russia)" title="Great Retreat (Russia)">Great Retreat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bug%E2%80%93Narew_Offensive" title="Bug–Narew Offensive">Bug-Narew Offensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Novogeorgievsk" title="Siege of Novogeorgievsk">Siege of Novogeorgievsk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vistula%E2%80%93Bug_offensive" title="Vistula–Bug offensive">Vistula–Bug offensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Battle_of_Champagne" title="Second Battle of Champagne">Second Battle of Champagne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kosovo_offensive_(1915)" title="Kosovo offensive (1915)">Kosovo offensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Kut" title="Siege of Kut">Siege of Kut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Loos" title="Battle of Loos">Battle of Loos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Robat_Karim" title="Battle of Robat Karim">Battle of Robat Karim</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;">1916</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Erzurum_offensive" title="Erzurum offensive">Erzurum offensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Verdun" title="Battle of Verdun">Battle of Verdun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lake_Naroch_offensive" title="Lake Naroch offensive">Lake Naroch offensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Asiago" title="Battle of Asiago">Battle of Asiago</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Jutland" title="Battle of Jutland">Battle of Jutland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Somme" title="Battle of the Somme">Battle of the Somme</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_day_on_the_Somme" title="First day on the Somme">first day</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brusilov_offensive" title="Brusilov offensive">Brusilov offensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baranovichi_offensive" title="Baranovichi offensive">Baranovichi offensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Romani" title="Battle of Romani">Battle of Romani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monastir_offensive" title="Monastir offensive">Monastir offensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Transylvania" title="Battle of Transylvania">Battle of Transylvania</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_World_War_I_(1917%E2%80%931918)" title="Timeline of World War I (1917–1918)">1917</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Baghdad_(1917)" title="Fall of Baghdad (1917)">Capture of Baghdad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/February_Revolution" title="February Revolution">February Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zimmermann_telegram" title="Zimmermann telegram">Zimmermann telegram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Arras_(1917)" title="Battle of Arras (1917)">Second battle of Arras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_battle_of_the_Aisne" class="mw-redirect" title="Second battle of the Aisne">Second battle of the Aisne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kerensky_offensive" title="Kerensky offensive">Kerensky offensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_M%C4%83r%C4%83%C8%99ti" title="Battle of Mărăști">Battle of Mărăști</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Passchendaele" title="Battle of Passchendaele">Third Battle of Ypres (Passchendaele)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_M%C4%83r%C4%83%C8%99e%C8%99ti" title="Battle of Mărășești">Battle of Mărășești</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Battle_of_Oituz" title="Third Battle of Oituz">Third Battle of Oituz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Caporetto" title="Battle of Caporetto">Battle of Caporetto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Palestine_offensive" title="Southern Palestine offensive">Southern Palestine offensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/October_Revolution" title="October Revolution">October Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_La_Malmaison" title="Battle of La Malmaison">Battle of La Malmaison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cambrai_(1917)" title="Battle of Cambrai (1917)">Battle of Cambrai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armistice_of_Foc%C8%99ani" title="Armistice of Focșani">Armistice of Focșani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armistice_between_Russia_and_the_Central_Powers" title="Armistice between Russia and the Central Powers">Armistice between Russia and the Central Powers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_World_War_I_(1917%E2%80%931918)" title="Timeline of World War I (1917–1918)">1918</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Faustschlag" title="Operation Faustschlag">Operation Faustschlag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Brest-Litovsk" title="Treaty of Brest-Litovsk">Treaty of Brest-Litovsk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_spring_offensive" title="German spring offensive">German spring offensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zeebrugge_Raid" title="Zeebrugge Raid">Zeebrugge Raid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Bucharest_(1918)" title="Treaty of Bucharest (1918)">Treaty of Bucharest of 1918</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Goychay" title="Battle of Goychay">Battle of Goychay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Battle_of_the_Piave_River" title="Second Battle of the Piave River">Second Battle of the Piave River</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Battle_of_the_Marne" title="Second Battle of the Marne">Second Battle of the Marne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hundred_Days_Offensive" title="Hundred Days Offensive">Hundred Days Offensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vardar_offensive" title="Vardar offensive">Vardar offensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Megiddo_(1918)" title="Battle of Megiddo (1918)">Battle of Megiddo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Transjordan_attack" title="Third Transjordan attack">Third Transjordan attack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meuse%E2%80%93Argonne_offensive" title="Meuse–Argonne offensive">Meuse–Argonne offensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Vittorio_Veneto" title="Battle of Vittorio Veneto">Battle of Vittorio Veneto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armistice_of_Salonica" title="Armistice of Salonica">Armistice of Salonica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armistice_of_Mudros" title="Armistice of Mudros">Armistice of Mudros</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armistice_of_Villa_Giusti" title="Armistice of Villa Giusti">Armistice of Villa Giusti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Romanian_campaign_of_World_War_I" title="Second Romanian campaign of World War I">Second Romanian campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armistice_of_11_November_1918" title="Armistice of 11 November 1918">Armistice with Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bollettino_della_Vittoria_Navale" title="Bollettino della Vittoria Navale">Naval Victory Bulletin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armistice_of_Belgrade" title="Armistice of Belgrade">Armistice of Belgrade</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;">Co-belligerent conflicts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Somaliland_campaign" title="Somaliland campaign">Somaliland campaign</a> (1900–1920)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mexican_Revolution" title="Mexican Revolution">Mexican Revolution</a> (1910–1920)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritz_rebellion" title="Maritz rebellion">Maritz rebellion</a> (1914–15)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muscat_rebellion" title="Muscat rebellion">Muscat rebellion</a> (1913–1920)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zaian_War" title="Zaian War">Zaian War</a> (1914–1921)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurdish_rebellions_during_World_War_I" title="Kurdish rebellions during World War I">Kurdish rebellions</a> (1914–1917)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ovambo_Uprising" title="Ovambo Uprising">Ovambo Uprising</a> (1914–1917)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kelantan_rebellion" title="Kelantan rebellion">Kelantan rebellion</a> (1915)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Senussi_campaign" title="Senussi campaign">Senussi campaign</a> (1915–1917)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volta-Bani_War" title="Volta-Bani War">Volta-Bani War</a> (1915–1917)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Protection_War" title="National Protection War">National Protection War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Revolt" title="Arab Revolt">Arab Revolt</a> (1916–1918)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Asian_revolt_of_1916" title="Central Asian revolt of 1916">Central Asian Revolt</a> (1916–17)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_Darfur" title="Invasion of Darfur">Invasion of Darfur</a> (1916)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Easter_Rising" title="Easter Rising">Easter Rising</a> (1916)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaocen_revolt" title="Kaocen revolt">Kaocen revolt</a> (1916–17)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Revolution" title="Russian Revolution">Russian Revolution</a> (1917)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finnish_Civil_War" title="Finnish Civil War">Finnish Civil War</a> (1918)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;">Post-War conflicts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Civil_War" title="Russian Civil War">Russian Civil War</a> (1917–1921)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian%E2%80%93Soviet_War" title="Ukrainian–Soviet War">Ukrainian–Soviet War</a> (1917–1921)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenian%E2%80%93Azerbaijani_war_(1918%E2%80%931920)" title="Armenian–Azerbaijani war (1918–1920)">Armenian–Azerbaijani War</a> (1918–1920)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armeno-Georgian_War" title="Armeno-Georgian War">Armeno-Georgian War</a> (1918)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_Revolution_of_1918%E2%80%931919" class="mw-redirect" title="German Revolution of 1918–1919">German Revolution</a> (1918–19)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutions_and_interventions_in_Hungary_(1918%E2%80%931920)" title="Revolutions and interventions in Hungary (1918–1920)">Revolutions and interventions in Hungary</a> (1918–1920)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungarian%E2%80%93Romanian_War" title="Hungarian–Romanian War">Hungarian–Romanian War</a> (1918–19)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greater_Poland_uprising_(1918%E2%80%931919)" title="Greater Poland uprising (1918–1919)">Greater Poland Uprising</a> (1918–19)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Estonian_War_of_Independence" title="Estonian War of Independence">Estonian War of Independence</a> (1918–1920)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latvian_War_of_Independence" title="Latvian War of Independence">Latvian War of Independence</a> (1918–1920)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_Wars_of_Independence" title="Lithuanian Wars of Independence">Lithuanian Wars of Independence</a> (1918–1920)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Ukrainian_War" title="Polish–Ukrainian War">Polish–Ukrainian War</a> (1918–19)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Anglo-Afghan_War" title="Third Anglo-Afghan War">Third Anglo-Afghan War</a> (1919)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1919_Egyptian_revolution" title="1919 Egyptian revolution">Egyptian Revolution</a> (1919)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_War" title="Polish–Lithuanian War">Polish–Lithuanian War</a> (1919–1920)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Soviet_War" title="Polish–Soviet War">Polish–Soviet War</a> (1919–1921)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_War_of_Independence" title="Irish War of Independence">Irish War of Independence</a> (1919–1921)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_War_of_Independence" title="Turkish War of Independence">Turkish War of Independence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_during_the_Turkish_War_of_Independence" title="United Kingdom during the Turkish War of Independence">Anglo-Turkish War</a> (1918–1923)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franco-Turkish_War" title="Franco-Turkish War">Franco-Turkish War</a> (1918–1921)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greco-Turkish_War_(1919%E2%80%931922)" title="Greco-Turkish War (1919–1922)">Greco-Turkish War</a> (1919–1922)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkish%E2%80%93Armenian_War" title="Turkish–Armenian War">Turkish–Armenian War</a> (1920)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Revolt" title="Iraqi Revolt">Iraqi Revolt</a> (1920)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vlora_War" title="Vlora War">Vlora War</a> (1920)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franco-Syrian_War" title="Franco-Syrian War">Franco-Syrian War</a> (1920)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Army_invasion_of_Georgia" title="Red Army invasion of Georgia">Soviet–Georgian War</a> (1921)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;text-align:left;">Aspects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;">Warfare</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aviation_in_World_War_I" title="Aviation in World War I">Aviation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Strategic_bombing_during_World_War_I" title="Strategic bombing during World War I">Strategic bombing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_weapons_in_World_War_I" title="Chemical weapons in World War I">Chemical weapons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_I_cryptography" title="World War I cryptography">Cryptography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horses_in_World_War_I" title="Horses in World War I">Horses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logistics_in_World_War_I" title="Logistics in World War I">Logistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naval_warfare_of_World_War_I" title="Naval warfare of World War I">Naval warfare</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Convoys_in_World_War_I" title="Convoys in World War I">Convoy system</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trench_warfare" title="Trench warfare">Trench warfare</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th id="Conscription" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;">Conscription</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/World_War_I_conscription_in_Australia" title="World War I conscription in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conscription_Crisis_of_1917" title="Conscription Crisis of 1917">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seferberlik" title="Seferberlik">Ottoman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recruitment_to_the_British_Army_during_World_War_I" title="Recruitment to the British Army during World War I">United Kingdom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conscription_Crisis_of_1918" title="Conscription Crisis of 1918">Ireland</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selective_Service_Act_of_1917" title="Selective Service Act of 1917">United States</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/World_War_I_casualties" title="World War I casualties">Casualties</a> /<br />Civilian impact</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>British casualties <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_British_parliamentarians_who_died_in_the_First_World_War" title="List of British parliamentarians who died in the First World War">Parliamentarians</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_casualties_of_World_War_I" title="Ottoman casualties of World War I">Ottoman casualties</a></li> <li>Sports <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_international_rugby_union_players_killed_in_World_War_I" title="List of international rugby union players killed in World War I">Rugby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Olympians_killed_in_World_War_I" title="List of Olympians killed in World War I">Olympians</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;">Disease</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1899%E2%80%931923_cholera_pandemic" title="1899–1923 cholera pandemic">1899–1923 cholera pandemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1915_typhus_and_relapsing_fever_epidemic_in_Serbia" title="1915 typhus and relapsing fever epidemic in Serbia">1915 typhus epidemic in Serbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_flu" title="Spanish flu">Spanish flu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;">Occupations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Austro-Hungarian_occupation_of_Serbia" title="Austro-Hungarian occupation of Serbia">Austro-Hungarian occupation of Serbia</a></li> <li>Bulgarian occupations <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bulgarian_occupation_of_Albania" title="Bulgarian occupation of Albania">Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulgarian_occupation_of_Serbia_(World_War_I)" title="Bulgarian occupation of Serbia (World War I)">Serbia</a></li></ul></li> <li>German occupations <ul><li><a href="/wiki/German_occupation_of_Belgium_during_World_War_I" title="German occupation of Belgium during World War I">Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_occupation_of_Luxembourg_during_World_War_I" title="German occupation of Luxembourg during World War I">Luxembourg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_occupation_of_north-east_France_during_World_War_I" title="German occupation of north-east France during World War I">Northeast France</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ober_Ost" title="Ober Ost">Ober Ost</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupied_Enemy_Territory_Administration" title="Occupied Enemy Territory Administration">Occupied Enemy Territory Administration</a></li> <li>Russian occupations <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Russian_occupation_of_Eastern_Galicia_(1914%E2%80%931915)" title="Russian occupation of Eastern Galicia (1914–1915)">Eastern Galicia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_Western_Armenia" title="Occupation of Western Armenia">Western Armenia</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Prisoners_of_war_in_World_War_I" title="Prisoners of war in World War I">POWs</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Germans <ul><li><a href="/wiki/German_prisoners_of_war_in_the_United_States" title="German prisoners of war in the United States">in the United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_prisoners_of_war_in_World_War_I" title="Italian prisoners of war in World War I">Italians</a></li> <li>POW locations <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_World_War_I_prisoner-of-war_camps_in_Canada" title="List of World War I prisoner-of-war camps in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_I_prisoners_of_war_in_Germany" title="World War I prisoners of war in Germany">Germany</a> / <a href="/wiki/German_prisoner-of-war_camps_in_World_War_I" title="German prisoner-of-war camps in World War I">camps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prisoner_of_war_camps_in_Switzerland_during_World_War_I" title="Prisoner of war camps in Switzerland during World War I">Switzerland</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Refugees_of_World_War_I" title="Refugees of World War I">Refugees</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Belgian refugees <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Belgian_refugees_in_the_Netherlands_during_the_First_World_War" title="Belgian refugees in the Netherlands during the First World War">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belgian_refugees_in_Britain_during_the_First_World_War" title="Belgian refugees in Britain during the First World War">United Kingdom</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/War_crimes_in_World_War_I" title="War crimes in World War I">War crimes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Allied blockades <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blockade_of_the_Eastern_Mediterranean" title="Blockade of the Eastern Mediterranean">Eastern Mediterranean</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Famine_of_Mount_Lebanon" title="Great Famine of Mount Lebanon">Mount Lebanon famine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blockade_of_Germany_(1914%E2%80%931919)" title="Blockade of Germany (1914–1919)">Germany</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deportations_from_East_Prussia_during_World_War_I" title="Deportations from East Prussia during World War I">Deportations from East Prussia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Destruction_of_Kalisz" title="Destruction of Kalisz">Destruction of Kalisz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sack_of_Dinant" title="Sack of Dinant">Sack of Dinant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_Ottoman_genocides" title="Late Ottoman genocides">Late Ottoman genocides</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_genocide" title="Armenian genocide">Armenian genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sayfo" title="Sayfo">Assyrian genocide (Sayfo)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_genocide" title="Greek genocide">Pontic Greek genocide</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rape_of_Belgium" title="Rape of Belgium">Rape of Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Asian_revolt_of_1916" title="Central Asian revolt of 1916">Urkun (Kyrgyzstan)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Massacres_of_Albanians_in_World_War_I" title="Massacres of Albanians in World War I">Massacres of Albanians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_Canadian_internment" title="Ukrainian Canadian internment">Ukrainian Canadian internment</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Diplomatic_history_of_World_War_I" title="Diplomatic history of World War I">Diplomacy</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;">Entry into the war</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Austro-Hungarian_entry_into_World_War_I" title="Austro-Hungarian entry into World War I">Austria-Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_entry_into_World_War_I" title="French entry into World War I">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_entry_into_World_War_I" title="German entry into World War I">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_entry_into_World_War_I" title="Italian entry into World War I">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_entry_into_World_War_I" title="Japanese entry into World War I">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_entry_into_World_War_I" title="Ottoman entry into World War I">Ottoman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_entry_into_World_War_I" title="Russian entry into World War I">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_entry_into_World_War_I" title="British entry into World War I">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_entry_into_World_War_I" title="American entry into World War I">United States</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Declarations_of_war_during_World_War_I" title="Declarations of war during World War I">Declarations of war</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/To_my_peoples" title="To my peoples">Austria-Hungary against Serbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_declaration_of_war_upon_Germany_(1914)" title="United Kingdom declaration of war upon Germany (1914)">UK against Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire_in_World_War_I#Declaration_of_jihad" title="Ottoman Empire in World War I">Ottomans against the Triple Entente</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_declaration_of_war_on_Germany_(1917)" title="United States declaration of war on Germany (1917)">USA against Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_declaration_of_war_on_Austria-Hungary" title="United States declaration of war on Austria-Hungary">USA against Austria-Hungary</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;">Agreements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constantinople_Agreement" title="Constantinople Agreement">Constantinople Agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_London_(1915)" title="Treaty of London (1915)">Treaty of London</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Damascus_Protocol" title="Damascus Protocol">Damascus Protocol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulgaria%E2%80%93Germany_treaty_(1915)" title="Bulgaria–Germany treaty (1915)">Bulgaria–Germany treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Darin" title="Treaty of Darin">Treaty of Darin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sykes%E2%80%93Picot_Agreement" title="Sykes–Picot Agreement">Sykes–Picot Agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sazonov%E2%80%93Pal%C3%A9ologue_Agreement" title="Sazonov–Paléologue Agreement">Sazonov–Paléologue Agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paris_Economy_Pact" title="Paris Economy Pact">Paris Economy Pact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Bucharest_(1916)" title="Treaty of Bucharest (1916)">Treaty of Bucharest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agreement_of_Saint-Jean-de-Maurienne" title="Agreement of Saint-Jean-de-Maurienne">Agreement of Saint-Jean-de-Maurienne</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Peace treaties</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Modus_vivendi_of_Acroma" title="Modus vivendi of Acroma">Modus vivendi of Acroma</a></li> <li>Treaties of Brest-Litovsk <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Brest-Litovsk" title="Treaty of Brest-Litovsk">Russia–Central Powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Brest-Litovsk_(Ukraine%E2%80%93Central_Powers)" title="Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (Ukraine–Central Powers)">Ukraine–Central Powers</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Bucharest_(1918)" title="Treaty of Bucharest (1918)">Treaty of Bucharest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paris_Peace_Conference_(1919%E2%80%931920)" title="Paris Peace Conference (1919–1920)">Paris Peace Conference</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Versailles" title="Treaty of Versailles">Treaty of Versailles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Saint-Germain-en-Laye_(1919)" title="Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye (1919)">Treaty of St. Germain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Neuilly-sur-Seine" title="Treaty of Neuilly-sur-Seine">Treaty of Neuilly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Trianon" title="Treaty of Trianon">Treaty of Trianon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_S%C3%A8vres" title="Treaty of Sèvres">Treaty of Sèvres</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Lausanne" title="Treaty of Lausanne">Treaty of Lausanne</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Arrest_of_a_Suspect_in_Sarajevo" title="Arrest of a Suspect in Sarajevo">Arrest of a Suspect in Sarajevo</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutilated_victory" title="Mutilated victory">Mutilated victory</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Golden_Virgin" title="The Golden Virgin">The Golden Virgin</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/They_shall_not_pass" title="They shall not pass">They shall not pass</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:World_War_I" title="Category:World War I">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" 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