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class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Swiss_hosts_POW_invalided_out_of_military_service_from_Entente_and_Central_Powers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Swiss_hosts_POW_invalided_out_of_military_service_from_Entente_and_Central_Powers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Swiss hosts POW invalided out of military service from Entente and Central Powers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Swiss_hosts_POW_invalided_out_of_military_service_from_Entente_and_Central_Powers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Swiss_independence_during_the_interwar_period" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Swiss_independence_during_the_interwar_period"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Swiss independence during the interwar period</span> </div> </a> <ul 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id="toc-Prosecutions_for_collaboration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-German_violations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#German_violations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>German violations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-German_violations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Allied_bombings_and_violations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Allied_bombings_and_violations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Allied bombings and violations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Allied_bombings_and_violations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Jewish_refugees" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Jewish_refugees"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Jewish refugees</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Jewish_refugees-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Protecting_Power_mandates" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Protecting_Power_mandates"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Protecting Power mandates</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Protecting_Power_mandates-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Service_of_Intellectual_Assistance_to_Prisoners_of_War_(SIAP)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Service_of_Intellectual_Assistance_to_Prisoners_of_War_(SIAP)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6</span> <span>Service of Intellectual Assistance to Prisoners of War (SIAP)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Service_of_Intellectual_Assistance_to_Prisoners_of_War_(SIAP)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Financial_relationships_with_Nazi_Germany" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Financial_relationships_with_Nazi_Germany"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Financial relationships with Nazi Germany</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Financial_relationships_with_Nazi_Germany-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span 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Available in 15 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-15" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">15 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schweiz_im_Zweiten_Weltkrieg" title="Schweiz im Zweiten Weltkrieg – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Schweiz im Zweiten Weltkrieg" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%88%D9%8A%D8%B3%D8%B1%D8%A7_%D9%81%D9%8A_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D8%B1%D8%A8%D9%8A%D9%86_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D9%8A%D8%AA%D9%8A%D9%86" title="سويسرا في الحربين العالميتين – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="سويسرا في الحربين العالميتين" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%A0v%C3%BDcarsko_za_druh%C3%A9_sv%C4%9Btov%C3%A9_v%C3%A1lky" title="Švýcarsko za druhé světové války – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Švýcarsko za druhé světové války" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schweiz_im_Zweiten_Weltkrieg" title="Schweiz im Zweiten Weltkrieg – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Schweiz im Zweiten Weltkrieg" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suiza_durante_las_guerras_mundiales" title="Suiza durante las guerras mundiales – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Suiza durante las guerras mundiales" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Histoire_de_la_Suisse_pendant_la_Seconde_Guerre_mondiale" title="Histoire de la Suisse pendant la Seconde Guerre mondiale – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Histoire de la Suisse pendant la Seconde Guerre mondiale" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xh mw-list-item"><a href="https://xh.wikipedia.org/wiki/ESwitzerland_ngexesha_leMfazwe_Yehlabathi" title="ESwitzerland ngexesha leMfazwe Yehlabathi – Xhosa" lang="xh" hreflang="xh" data-title="ESwitzerland ngexesha leMfazwe Yehlabathi" data-language-autonym="IsiXhosa" data-language-local-name="Xhosa" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>IsiXhosa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A9%D7%95%D7%95%D7%99%D7%99%D7%A5_%D7%91%D7%9E%D7%9C%D7%97%D7%9E%D7%95%D7%AA_%D7%94%D7%A2%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%9D" title="שווייץ במלחמות העולם – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="שווייץ במלחמות העולם" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%A0veicarija_pasaulini%C5%B3_kar%C5%B3_metais" title="Šveicarija pasaulinių karų metais – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Šveicarija pasaulinių karų metais" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zwitserland_tijdens_de_Tweede_Wereldoorlog" title="Zwitserland tijdens de Tweede Wereldoorlog – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Zwitserland tijdens de Tweede Wereldoorlog" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jahon_urushlari_davrida_Shveytsariya" title="Jahon urushlari davrida Shveytsariya – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Jahon urushlari davrida Shveytsariya" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Su%C3%AD%C3%A7a_durante_as_Guerras_Mundiais" title="Suíça durante as Guerras Mundiais – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Suíça durante as Guerras Mundiais" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A8%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%B9%D1%86%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%B2_%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%B4%D1%8B_%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%8B%D1%85_%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B9%D0%BD" title="Швейцария в годы мировых войн – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Швейцария в годы мировых войн" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A8%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%B9%D1%86%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%96%D1%8F_%D0%B2_%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D1%81%D0%B2%D1%96%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%85_%D0%B2%D1%96%D0%B9%D0%BD" title="Швейцарія в роки світових війн – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Швейцарія в роки світових війн" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%85%A9%E6%AC%A1%E4%B8%96%E7%95%8C%E5%A4%A7%E6%88%B0%E6%9C%9F%E9%96%93%E7%9A%84%E7%91%9E%E5%A3%AB" title="兩次世界大戰期間的瑞士 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="兩次世界大戰期間的瑞士" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q671914#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Switzerland_during_the_world_wars" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c"><span>Article</span></a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Talk:Switzerland_during_the_world_wars" rel="discussion" 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a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar nomobile vcard plainlist"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><div class="sidebar-pretitle" style="margin: -0.2em 0; font-size:69%; font-weight:normal;">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_Switzerland" title="Category:History of Switzerland">a series</a> on the</div></th> </tr><tr> <th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style=""><a href="/wiki/History_of_Switzerland" title="History of Switzerland">History of <span class="fn org label">Switzerland</span></a></th> </tr><tr><td style="padding-bottom: 0.4em; border-bottom: 1px solid #ccc;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Faden,_William_%E2%80%94_Map_of_Switzerland_1799.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Nouvelle carte de la Suisse dans laquelle sont exactement distingues les treize cantons, leurs allies, et leurs sujets."><img alt="Nouvelle carte de la Suisse dans laquelle sont exactement distingues les treize cantons, leurs allies, et leurs sujets." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Faden%2C_William_%E2%80%94_Map_of_Switzerland_1799.jpg/150px-Faden%2C_William_%E2%80%94_Map_of_Switzerland_1799.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="113" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Faden%2C_William_%E2%80%94_Map_of_Switzerland_1799.jpg/225px-Faden%2C_William_%E2%80%94_Map_of_Switzerland_1799.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Faden%2C_William_%E2%80%94_Map_of_Switzerland_1799.jpg/300px-Faden%2C_William_%E2%80%94_Map_of_Switzerland_1799.jpg 2x" data-file-width="10159" data-file-height="7685" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#eee"> <a href="/wiki/Early_history_of_Switzerland" title="Early history of Switzerland">Early history</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_history_of_Switzerland#Prehistory" title="Early history of Switzerland">Prehistory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Switzerland_in_the_Roman_era" title="Switzerland in the Roman era">Roman era</a> (200 BC – AD 400)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alamannia" title="Alamannia">Alemannia</a> · <a href="/wiki/Burgundian_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Burgundian Kingdom">Burgundy</a> (400–900)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Swabia" title="Duchy of Swabia">Swabia</a> · <a href="/wiki/Upper_Burgundy" title="Upper Burgundy">Burgundy</a> (900–1300)</li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#eee"> <a href="/wiki/Old_Swiss_Confederacy" title="Old Swiss Confederacy">Old Swiss Confederacy</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Growth_of_the_Old_Swiss_Confederacy" title="Growth of the Old Swiss Confederacy">Growth</a> (1291–1516)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformation_in_Switzerland" title="Reformation in Switzerland">Reformation</a> (1516–1648)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Modern_Switzerland" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Modern Switzerland">Ancien Régime</a> (1648–1798)</li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#eee"> Transitional period</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Switzerland_in_the_Napoleonic_era" title="Switzerland in the Napoleonic era">Napoleonic era</a> (1798–1814)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restoration_and_Regeneration_in_Switzerland#Restoration" title="Restoration and Regeneration in Switzerland">Restoration</a> (1814–1830)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restoration_and_Regeneration_in_Switzerland#Regeneration" title="Restoration and Regeneration in Switzerland">Regeneration</a> (1830–1847)</li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#eee"> <a href="/wiki/Modern_history_of_Switzerland" title="Modern history of Switzerland">Modern history</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Switzerland_as_a_federal_state" title="Switzerland as a federal state">Federal state</a> (1848)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Switzerland_during_the_World_Wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Switzerland during the World Wars">World Wars</a> (1914–1945)</li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#eee"> <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Swiss_history" title="Timeline of Swiss history">Timeline</a></th></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#eee"> Topical</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_immigration_to_Switzerland" class="mw-redirect" title="History of immigration to Switzerland">Immigration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Switzerland" title="History of the Jews in Switzerland">Swiss Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_history_in_Switzerland" title="LGBT history in Switzerland">LGBT history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Switzerland" title="Military history of Switzerland">Military history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enlargement_of_Switzerland" class="mw-redirect" title="Enlargement of Switzerland">Territorial development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_Switzerland" title="Historiography of Switzerland">Historiography</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="border-top:#aaa 1px solid; border-bottom:#aaa 1px solid;"> <span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Switzerland.svg/16px-Flag_of_Switzerland.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Switzerland.svg/24px-Flag_of_Switzerland.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Switzerland.svg/32px-Flag_of_Switzerland.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Switzerland" title="Portal:Switzerland">Switzerland portal</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_Switzerland" title="Template:History of Switzerland"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_Switzerland" title="Template talk:History of Switzerland"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_Switzerland" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of Switzerland"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>During <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a> and <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, <a href="/wiki/Switzerland" title="Switzerland">Switzerland</a> maintained <a href="/wiki/Armed_neutrality" class="mw-redirect" title="Armed neutrality">armed neutrality</a>, and was not invaded by its neighbors, in part because of its topography, much of which is mountainous. Germany was a threat, and Switzerland built a powerful defense. It served as a "protecting power" for the belligerents of both sides, with a special role in helping prisoners of war. The <a href="/wiki/Belligerent" title="Belligerent">belligerent</a> states made it the scene for diplomacy, espionage, and commerce, as well as being a safe haven for 300,000 refugees. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="World_War_I">World War I</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Switzerland_during_the_world_wars&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: World War I"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_Europe_alliances_1914-en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Map_Europe_alliances_1914-en.svg/220px-Map_Europe_alliances_1914-en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="130" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Map_Europe_alliances_1914-en.svg/330px-Map_Europe_alliances_1914-en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Map_Europe_alliances_1914-en.svg/440px-Map_Europe_alliances_1914-en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1002" data-file-height="593" /></a><figcaption>Alliances in Europe in 1914. Switzerland (yellow) found itself surrounded by members of opposing alliances</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Baracke_f%C3%BCr_Offiziere_-_CH-BAR_-_3237045.tif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Baracke_f%C3%BCr_Offiziere_-_CH-BAR_-_3237045.tif/lossy-page1-220px-Baracke_f%C3%BCr_Offiziere_-_CH-BAR_-_3237045.tif.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Baracke_f%C3%BCr_Offiziere_-_CH-BAR_-_3237045.tif/lossy-page1-330px-Baracke_f%C3%BCr_Offiziere_-_CH-BAR_-_3237045.tif.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Baracke_f%C3%BCr_Offiziere_-_CH-BAR_-_3237045.tif/lossy-page1-440px-Baracke_f%C3%BCr_Offiziere_-_CH-BAR_-_3237045.tif.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6220" data-file-height="4071" /></a><figcaption>Swiss officers' barracks in the <a href="/wiki/Umbrail_Pass" title="Umbrail Pass">Umbrail Pass</a> during World War I</figcaption></figure> <p>Switzerland maintained a state of armed neutrality during the first world war. However, with two of the <a href="/wiki/Central_Powers" title="Central Powers">Central Powers</a> (<a href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">Germany</a> and <a href="/wiki/Austria-Hungary" title="Austria-Hungary">Austria-Hungary</a>) and two of the <a href="/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_I" title="Allies of World War I">Entente Powers</a> (<a href="/wiki/French_Third_Republic" title="French Third Republic">France</a> and <a href="/wiki/Italy_in_WWI" class="mw-redirect" title="Italy in WWI">Italy</a>) all sharing borders and populations with Switzerland, neutrality proved difficult. Under the <a href="/wiki/Schlieffen_Plan" title="Schlieffen Plan">Schlieffen Plan</a>, the <a href="/wiki/German_General_Staff" title="German General Staff">German General Staff</a> had been open to the possibility of trying to outflank the French fortifications by marching through Switzerland in violation of its neutrality, although the plan's eventual executor <a href="/wiki/Helmuth_von_Moltke_the_Younger" title="Helmuth von Moltke the Younger">Helmuth von Moltke the Younger</a> selected <a href="/wiki/Belgium_in_World_War_I" title="Belgium in World War I">Belgium</a> instead due to Switzerland's <a href="/wiki/Geography_of_the_Alps" title="Geography of the Alps">mountainous topography</a> and the disorganized state of the <a href="/wiki/Belgian_Armed_Forces" title="Belgian Armed Forces">Belgian Armed Forces</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> From December 1914 until the spring of 1918, Swiss troops were deployed in the <a href="/wiki/Jura_(canton)" class="mw-redirect" title="Jura (canton)">Jura</a> along the French border over concern that the <a href="/wiki/Trench_war" class="mw-redirect" title="Trench war">trench war</a> might spill into Switzerland. Of lesser concern was the Italian border, but troops were also stationed in the <a href="/wiki/Engadin#Lower_Engadin" title="Engadin">Unterengadin</a> region of <a href="/wiki/Graub%C3%BCnden" class="mw-redirect" title="Graubünden">Graubünden</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-HDS_WWI_Intro_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HDS_WWI_Intro-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While the <a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a>-speaking majority in Switzerland generally favored the Central Powers, the <a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a>- and, later, <a href="/wiki/Italian_language" title="Italian language">Italian</a>-speaking populations sided with the Entente Powers, which would cause internal conflict in 1918. However, the country managed to keep out of the war, although it was blockaded by the Allies and therefore suffered some difficulties. Nevertheless, because Switzerland was centrally located, neutral, and generally undamaged, the war allowed the growth of the <a href="/wiki/Banking_in_Switzerland" title="Banking in Switzerland">Swiss banking</a> industry.<sup id="cite_ref-HDS_WWI_Intro_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HDS_WWI_Intro-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For the same reasons, Switzerland became a haven for foreign refugees and revolutionaries.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Following the organization of the army in 1907 and military expansion in 1911, the <a href="/wiki/Military_of_Switzerland" class="mw-redirect" title="Military of Switzerland">Swiss Army</a> consisted of about 250,000 men with an additional 200,000 in supporting roles.<sup id="cite_ref-HDS_WWI_Lage_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HDS_WWI_Lage-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Both European alliance-systems took the size of the Swiss military into account in the years prior to 1914, especially in the <a href="/wiki/Schlieffen_Plan" title="Schlieffen Plan">Schlieffen Plan</a>. </p><p>Following the declarations of war in late July 1914, on 1 August 1914, Switzerland mobilized its army; by 7 August the newly appointed general <a href="/wiki/Ulrich_Wille" title="Ulrich Wille">Ulrich Wille</a> had about 220,000 men under his command. By 11 August Wille had deployed much of the army along the Jura border with France, with smaller units deployed along the eastern and southern borders. This remained unchanged until May 1915 when Italy entered the war on the Entente side, at which point troops were deployed to the <a href="/wiki/Lower_Engadine" class="mw-redirect" title="Lower Engadine">Unterengadin</a> valley, <a href="/wiki/Val_M%C3%BCstair" title="Val Müstair">Val Müstair</a> and along the southern border. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ballonpionier_der_Schweizer_Armee.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Ballonpionier_der_Schweizer_Armee.jpg/170px-Ballonpionier_der_Schweizer_Armee.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="277" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Ballonpionier_der_Schweizer_Armee.jpg/255px-Ballonpionier_der_Schweizer_Armee.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Ballonpionier_der_Schweizer_Armee.jpg/340px-Ballonpionier_der_Schweizer_Armee.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2376" data-file-height="3872" /></a><figcaption>Replica of a <a href="/wiki/Observation_balloon" title="Observation balloon">balloon observer</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Swiss_Army" class="mw-redirect" title="Swiss Army">Swiss Army</a> in World War I</figcaption></figure> <p>Once it became clear that the Allies and the Central Powers would respect Swiss neutrality, the number of troops deployed began to drop. After September 1914, some soldiers were released to return to their farms and to vital industries. By November 1916 the Swiss had only 38,000 men in the army. This number increased during the winter of 1916–17 to over 100,000 as a result of a <a href="/w/index.php?title=Plan_H&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Plan H (page does not exist)">proposed French attack</a> that would have crossed Switzerland. When this attack failed to occur the army began to shrink again. Because of widespread workers' strikes, at the end of the war the Swiss army had shrunk to only 12,500 men.<sup id="cite_ref-HDS32_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HDS32-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the war, belligerents crossed the Swiss borders about 1,000 times,<sup id="cite_ref-HDS32_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HDS32-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with some of these incidents occurring around the <i>Dreisprachen Piz</i> (Three Languages Peak), near the <a href="/wiki/Stelvio_Pass" title="Stelvio Pass">Stelvio Pass</a>. Switzerland had an outpost and a hotel (which was destroyed as it was used by the Austrians) on the peak. During the war, fierce battles were fought in the ice and snow of the area, with gunfire coming on to Swiss territory. The three nations made an agreement not to fire over Swiss territory, which jutted out between Austria (to the north) and Italy (to the south). Instead they could fire down the pass, as Swiss territory was around the peak. In one incident, a Swiss soldier was killed at his outpost on <i>Dreisprachen Piz</i> by Italian gunfire.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the fighting, Switzerland became a haven for many politicians, artists, pacifists, and thinkers.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Bern" title="Bern">Bern</a>, <a href="/wiki/Z%C3%BCrich" class="mw-redirect" title="Zürich">Zürich</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Geneva" title="Geneva">Geneva</a> became centers of debate and discussion. In Zürich two very different anti-war groups, the <a href="/wiki/Bolsheviks" title="Bolsheviks">Bolsheviks</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Dada" title="Dada">Dadaists</a>, would bring lasting changes to the world. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Z%C3%BCrich_-_Spiegelgasse_14_-_Lenin_IMG_1325.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Z%C3%BCrich_-_Spiegelgasse_14_-_Lenin_IMG_1325.jpg/220px-Z%C3%BCrich_-_Spiegelgasse_14_-_Lenin_IMG_1325.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="136" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Z%C3%BCrich_-_Spiegelgasse_14_-_Lenin_IMG_1325.jpg/330px-Z%C3%BCrich_-_Spiegelgasse_14_-_Lenin_IMG_1325.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Z%C3%BCrich_-_Spiegelgasse_14_-_Lenin_IMG_1325.jpg/440px-Z%C3%BCrich_-_Spiegelgasse_14_-_Lenin_IMG_1325.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3071" data-file-height="1898" /></a><figcaption>Plaque on Lenin's house at Spiegelgasse 14 in <a href="/wiki/Z%C3%BCrich" class="mw-redirect" title="Zürich">Zürich</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Bolsheviks" title="Bolsheviks">Bolsheviks</a> were a faction of the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Social_Democratic_Labour_Party" title="Russian Social Democratic Labour Party">Russian Social Democratic Labour Party</a>, centered around <a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin" title="Vladimir Lenin">Vladimir Lenin</a>. Following the outbreak of the war, Lenin was stunned when the large <a href="/wiki/Social_democracy" title="Social democracy">Social Democratic parties</a> of Europe (at that time predominantly <a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxist</a> in orientation) supported their various respective countries' war efforts. Lenin, believing that the peasants and workers of the <a href="/wiki/Proletariat" title="Proletariat">proletariat</a> were fighting for their <a href="/wiki/Class_enemies" class="mw-redirect" title="Class enemies">class enemies</a>, adopted the stance that what he described as an "imperialist war" ought to be turned into a civil war between the classes. He left Austria for neutral Switzerland in 1914 following the outbreak of the war and remained active in Switzerland until 1917. Following the 1917 <a href="/wiki/February_Revolution" title="February Revolution">February Revolution</a> in Russia and the abdication of Tsar <a href="/wiki/Nicholas_II_of_Russia" class="mw-redirect" title="Nicholas II of Russia">Nicholas II</a>, he left Switzerland on a <a href="/wiki/Sealed_train" title="Sealed train">sealed train</a> to <a href="/wiki/Petrograd" class="mw-redirect" title="Petrograd">Petrograd</a>, where he would shortly lead the 1917 <a href="/wiki/October_Revolution" title="October Revolution">October Revolution</a> in Russia. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cabaretvoltaire.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Cabaretvoltaire.jpg/220px-Cabaretvoltaire.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Cabaretvoltaire.jpg/330px-Cabaretvoltaire.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Cabaretvoltaire.jpg/440px-Cabaretvoltaire.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption>Cabaret Voltaire in Zürich, as it appeared in 2006</figcaption></figure> <p>While the <a href="/wiki/Dada" title="Dada">Dada art movement</a> was also an anti-war organization, Dadaists used art to oppose all wars. The founders of the movement had left Germany and <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Romania" title="Kingdom of Romania">Romania</a> to escape the destruction of the war. At the <a href="/wiki/Cabaret_Voltaire_(Z%C3%BCrich)" title="Cabaret Voltaire (Zürich)">Cabaret Voltaire</a> in Zürich they put on performances expressing their disgust with the war and with the interests that inspired it. By some accounts Dada coalesced on 6 October 1916 at the cabaret. The artists used abstraction to fight against the social, political, and cultural ideas of that time that they believed had caused the war. Dadaists viewed abstraction as the result of a lack of planning and of logical thought-processes.<sup id="cite_ref-nga.gov_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nga.gov-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When World War I ended in 1918, most of the Zürich Dadaists returned to their home countries, and some began Dada activities in other cities. </p><p>In 1917 Switzerland's neutrality came into question when the <a href="/wiki/Grimm%E2%80%93Hoffmann_Affair" class="mw-redirect" title="Grimm–Hoffmann Affair">Grimm–Hoffmann Affair</a> erupted. <a href="/wiki/Robert_Grimm" title="Robert Grimm">Robert Grimm</a>, a Swiss socialist politician, travelled to Russia as an activist to negotiate a <a href="/wiki/Separate_peace" title="Separate peace">separate peace</a> between Russia and Germany, in order to end the war on the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Front_(World_War_I)" title="Eastern Front (World War I)">Eastern Front</a> in the interests of socialism and <a href="/wiki/Pacifism" title="Pacifism">pacifism</a>. Misrepresenting himself as a diplomat and an actual representative of the Swiss government, he made progress but had to admit to fraud and return home when the Allies found out about the proposed peace deal. The Allies were placated by the resignation of <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Hoffmann_(politician)" title="Arthur Hoffmann (politician)">Arthur Hoffmann</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Swiss_Federal_Council" class="mw-redirect" title="Swiss Federal Council">Swiss Federal Councillor</a> who had supported Grimm but had not consulted his colleagues on the initiative. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Swiss_hosts_POW_invalided_out_of_military_service_from_Entente_and_Central_Powers">Swiss hosts POW invalided out of military service from Entente and Central Powers</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Switzerland_during_the_world_wars&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Swiss hosts POW invalided out of military service from Entente and Central Powers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Prisoner_of_war_camps_in_Switzerland_during_World_War_I" title="Prisoner of war camps in Switzerland during World War I">Prisoner of war camps in Switzerland during World War I</a></div> <p>During the war Switzerland accepted 68,000 British, French and German wounded prisoners of war for recovery in <a href="/wiki/Mountain_resort" title="Mountain resort">mountain resorts</a>. To be transferred, the wounded had to have a disability that would negate their further military service or have been interned over 18 months with deteriorating mental health. The wounded were transferred from <a href="/wiki/Prisoner-of-war_camp" title="Prisoner-of-war camp">prisoner of war camps</a> unable to cope with the number of wounded and sat out the war in Switzerland. The transfer was agreed between the warring powers and organised by the <a href="/wiki/International_Red_Cross_and_Red_Crescent_Movement" title="International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement">Red Cross</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Swiss_independence_during_the_interwar_period">Swiss independence during the interwar period</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Switzerland_during_the_world_wars&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Swiss independence during the interwar period"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>One potential result of <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a> was an expansion of Switzerland itself during the <a href="/wiki/Interwar_period" title="Interwar period">interwar period</a>. In a referendum held in the Austrian state of <a href="/wiki/Vorarlberg" title="Vorarlberg">Vorarlberg</a> on 11 May 1920, over 80% of those voting supported a proposal that the state join the Swiss Confederation. However, this was prevented by the opposition of the <a href="/wiki/Austrian_First_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Austrian First Republic">Austrian Government</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_I" title="Allies of World War I">Allies</a>, <a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_radicalism_in_Switzerland" class="mw-redirect" title="Liberalism and radicalism in Switzerland">Swiss liberals</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Swiss_Italian" title="Swiss Italian">Swiss-Italians</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Romandy" title="Romandy">Swiss-French</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>However, the <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Liechtenstein" class="mw-redirect" title="Principality of Liechtenstein">Principality of Liechtenstein</a> managed to exclude itself from Austria in 1918 and signed a <a href="/wiki/Currency_union" title="Currency union">monetary</a> and <a href="/wiki/Customs_union" title="Customs union">customs union</a> with Switzerland that effectively guaranteed its independence. In 1920, Switzerland joined the <a href="/wiki/League_of_Nations" title="League of Nations">League of Nations</a>. </p><p>In 1934 the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Act_on_Banks_and_Savings_Banks" title="Federal Act on Banks and Savings Banks">Swiss Banking Act</a> was passed. This allowed for anonymous <a href="/wiki/Numbered_bank_account" title="Numbered bank account">numbered bank accounts</a>, in part to allow Germans (including Jews) to hide or protect their assets from seizure by the newly established <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Third Reich</a>. </p><p>In 1936 <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Gustloff" title="Wilhelm Gustloff">Wilhelm Gustloff</a> was assassinated at <a href="/wiki/Davos" title="Davos">Davos</a>; he was the head of the <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Party" title="Nazi Party">Nazi Party</a>'s <a href="/wiki/NSDAP/AO" class="mw-redirect" title="NSDAP/AO">"Auslands-Organisation"</a> in Switzerland. The Swiss government refused to <a href="/wiki/Extradition" title="Extradition">extradite</a> the alleged assassin <a href="/wiki/David_Frankfurter" title="David Frankfurter">David Frankfurter</a> to Germany. Frankfurter was sentenced to 18 years in prison but was pardoned in 1945. </p><p>As European tension grew in the 1930s, the Swiss began to rethink their political and military situation. The <a href="/wiki/Social_Democratic_Party_of_Switzerland" title="Social Democratic Party of Switzerland">Social Democratic party</a> abandoned their revolutionary and anti-military stances, and soon the country began to rearm for war.<sup id="cite_ref-CHS_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CHS-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Party_of_Farmers,_Traders_and_Independents" title="Party of Farmers, Traders and Independents">BGB</a> Federal Councillor <a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Minger" title="Rudolf Minger">Rudolf Minger</a>, predicting war would come in 1939, led the rebuilding of the <a href="/wiki/Swiss_Army" class="mw-redirect" title="Swiss Army">Swiss Army</a>. Starting in 1936, he secured a larger <a href="/wiki/Military_budget" title="Military budget">defence budget</a> and started a <a href="/wiki/War_bond" title="War bond">war bond</a> system. The army was restructured into smaller, better equipped <a href="/wiki/Division_(military)" title="Division (military)">divisions</a> and <a href="/wiki/Conscription_in_Switzerland#Army_service" title="Conscription in Switzerland">boot camp</a> for conscripts was extended to 3 months of instruction. In 1937 a <a href="/wiki/War_economy" title="War economy">war economy</a> cell was established. Households were encouraged to keep a two-month supply of food and basic necessities.<sup id="cite_ref-CHS_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CHS-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1938 Foreign Minister <a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Motta" title="Giuseppe Motta">Giuseppe Motta</a> withdrew Switzerland from the <a href="/wiki/League_of_Nations" title="League of Nations">League of Nations</a>, returning the country to its traditional form of neutrality. </p><p>Actions were also taken to prove Switzerland's independent national identity and unique culture from the surrounding Fascist powers. This policy was known as <i><a href="/wiki/Geistige_Landesverteidigung" class="mw-redirect" title="Geistige Landesverteidigung">Geistige Landesverteidigung</a></i>, or "spiritual national defence". In 1937, the government opened the Museum of Federal Charters. Increased use of <a href="/wiki/Swiss_German" title="Swiss German">Swiss German</a> coincided with a national referendum that made <a href="/wiki/Romansh_language" title="Romansh language">Romansh</a> a national language in 1938, a move designed to counter <a href="/wiki/Benito_Mussolini" title="Benito Mussolini">Benito Mussolini</a>'s attempts to incite <a href="/wiki/Italian_nationalism" title="Italian nationalism">Italian nationalism</a> in the southern <a href="/wiki/Grisons" title="Grisons">Grisons</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ticino" title="Ticino">Ticino</a> cantons.<sup id="cite_ref-CHS_10-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CHS-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In December of that year in a government address, <a href="/wiki/Christian_Democratic_People%27s_Party_of_Switzerland" title="Christian Democratic People's Party of Switzerland">Catholic-Conservative</a> Councillor <a href="/wiki/Philipp_Etter" title="Philipp Etter">Philipp Etter</a> urged a defence of Swiss culture. <i>Geistige Landesverteidigung</i> subsequently exploded, being featured on stamps, in children's books, and through official publications.<sup id="cite_ref-CHS_10-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CHS-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="World_War_II">World War II</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Switzerland_during_the_world_wars&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: World War II"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Second_world_war_europe_1941-1942_map_en.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Second_world_war_europe_1941-1942_map_en.png/220px-Second_world_war_europe_1941-1942_map_en.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="202" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Second_world_war_europe_1941-1942_map_en.png/330px-Second_world_war_europe_1941-1942_map_en.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Second_world_war_europe_1941-1942_map_en.png/440px-Second_world_war_europe_1941-1942_map_en.png 2x" data-file-width="1090" data-file-height="1000" /></a><figcaption>Switzerland was surrounded by territory controlled by the <a href="/wiki/Axis_Powers" class="mw-redirect" title="Axis Powers">Axis Powers</a> from 1940 to 1944.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Reduit_Schweiz_Neu.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Reduit_Schweiz_Neu.jpg/220px-Reduit_Schweiz_Neu.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="142" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Reduit_Schweiz_Neu.jpg/330px-Reduit_Schweiz_Neu.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Reduit_Schweiz_Neu.jpg/440px-Reduit_Schweiz_Neu.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3736" data-file-height="2410" /></a><figcaption>Plan of the defence lines of the <a href="/wiki/National_Redoubt_(Switzerland)" title="National Redoubt (Switzerland)">National Redoubt</a></figcaption></figure> <p>At the outbreak of <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a> in 1939, Switzerland immediately began to <a href="/wiki/Mobilization" title="Mobilization">mobilize</a> for a possible <a href="/wiki/Invasion" title="Invasion">invasion</a>. The transition into wartime was smooth and caused less controversy than in 1914; the country was fully mobilized in only three days.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Parliament quickly selected the 61-year-old career soldier <a href="/wiki/Henri_Guisan" title="Henri Guisan">Henri Guisan</a> to be <a href="/wiki/General_(Switzerland)" title="General (Switzerland)">General</a> and by 3 September 430,000 combat troops and 210,000 in support services, 10,000 of whom were women, had been mobilized, though most of these were sent home during the <a href="/wiki/Phoney_War" title="Phoney War">Phoney War</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-CHS_10-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CHS-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At its highest point, 850,000 soldiers were mobilized.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBonjour1978431_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBonjour1978431-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the war, under the <a href="/wiki/Pan-Germanism" title="Pan-Germanism">pan-Germanist</a> <a href="/wiki/New_Order_(Nazism)" title="New Order (Nazism)"><i>Neuordnung</i></a> doctrine, detailed invasion plans were drawn up by the <a href="/wiki/Oberkommando_der_Wehrmacht" title="Oberkommando der Wehrmacht">German military command</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Operation_Tannenbaum" title="Operation Tannenbaum">Operation Tannenbaum</a>, but Switzerland was never attacked.<sup id="cite_ref-swallow_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-swallow-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Switzerland was able to remain independent through a combination of military deterrence, economic concessions to Germany and good fortune as larger events during the war delayed an invasion. Attempts by the <a href="/wiki/National_Movement_of_Switzerland" title="National Movement of Switzerland">National Movement of Switzerland</a>, a Swiss political party with Nazi sympathies (which never had more than 4,000 members out of a population of 4.2 million people, less than 0.1%) to effect a <a href="/wiki/Anschluss" title="Anschluss">unification with Germany</a> failed, largely as a result of Switzerland's sense of national identity and tradition of democracy and civil liberties.<sup id="cite_ref-BergierReport_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BergierReport-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Swiss press criticized the Third Reich, often infuriating its leadership. In turn, Berlin denounced Switzerland as a medieval remnant and its people renegade Germans. Swiss military strategy was changed from one of static defence at the borders to a strategy of attrition and withdrawal to strong, well-stockpiled positions high in the Alps known as the <a href="/wiki/National_Redoubt_(Switzerland)" title="National Redoubt (Switzerland)">National Redoubt</a>. This controversial strategy was essentially one of deterrence. The idea was to render the cost of invading too high. During an invasion, the <a href="/wiki/Swiss_Armed_Forces" title="Swiss Armed Forces">Swiss Army</a> would cede control of the economic heartland and population centres but retain control of crucial rail links and passes in the National Redoubt.<sup id="cite_ref-BergierReport_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BergierReport-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1941, <a href="/wiki/Franz_Burri" title="Franz Burri">Franz Burri</a>, the leading Nazi propagandist for Switzerland, sent a letter to <a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Himmler" title="Heinrich Himmler">Heinrich Himmler</a> in which he discussed the importance of a Nazi coup for Switzerland. Burri said he and his colleagues were "ready for action at any time" and had a paramilitary of 1,800 men prepared for deployment in all German-speaking Swiss cantons.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Switzerland was a base for espionage by both sides in the conflict and often mediated communications between the <a href="/wiki/Axis_powers" title="Axis powers">Axis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II" title="Allies of World War II">Allied powers</a> by serving as a <a href="/wiki/Protecting_power" title="Protecting power">protecting power</a>. In 1942, the United States <a href="/wiki/Office_of_Strategic_Services" title="Office of Strategic Services">Office of Strategic Services</a> (OSS) was established in <a href="/wiki/Bern" title="Bern">Bern</a>. Through the efforts of <a href="/wiki/Allen_Dulles" title="Allen Dulles">Allen Dulles</a>, the first US intelligence service in Western Europe was created. During the <a href="/wiki/Allied_invasion_of_Italy" title="Allied invasion of Italy">allied invasion of Italy</a>, the OSS in Switzerland guided tactical efforts for the take-over of <a href="/wiki/Salerno" title="Salerno">Salerno</a> and the islands of <a href="/wiki/Corsica" title="Corsica">Corsica</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sardinia" title="Sardinia">Sardinia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Despite the public and political attitudes in Switzerland, some higher-ranking officers within the Swiss Army had pro-Nazi sympathies: notably Colonel <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Fonjallaz" title="Arthur Fonjallaz">Arthur Fonjallaz</a> and Colonel <a href="/wiki/Eugen_Bircher" title="Eugen Bircher">Eugen Bircher</a>, who led the <a href="/wiki/Schweizerischer_Vaterl%C3%A4ndischer_Verband" class="mw-redirect" title="Schweizerischer Vaterländischer Verband">Schweizerischer Vaterländischer Verband</a>. In <i>Letters to Suzanne</i> (French: <i>Lettres à Suzanne</i>, Lausanne, Switzerland, 1949), the Swiss journalist <a href="/wiki/L%C3%A9on_Savary" title="Léon Savary">Léon Savary</a> retrospectively denounced in this sense "the occult<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> influence of Hitlerism on the Swiss people during the Second World War, which they were not conscious of being under".<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Prosecutions_for_collaboration">Prosecutions for collaboration</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Switzerland_during_the_world_wars&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Prosecutions for collaboration"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Swiss <a href="/wiki/Military_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Military law">military law</a> provided for capital punishment for <a href="/wiki/Treason" title="Treason">treason</a> and certain other military offenses, such as desertion in the face of the enemy. During World War II, 33 people were sentenced to death for spying for Nazi Germany, 15 of them in absentia. Seventeen of those condemned were executed before the end of the war. With the exception of one man from <a href="/wiki/Liechtenstein" title="Liechtenstein">Liechtenstein</a>, all of those executed were Swiss. Hundreds of others were also imprisoned for spying for Germany and acts against national security.<sup id="cite_ref-Noll2_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Noll2-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In January 1946, the Swiss government published a report on collaboration which, in the words of Swiss historian Luc van Dongen, gave the public memory its memorial and ideology tone and also its clear conscience." From the end of the war to April 1949, the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Supreme_Court_of_Switzerland" title="Federal Supreme Court of Switzerland">Federal Supreme Court of Switzerland</a> held six trials against 102 Swiss citizens, who were charged with treason and undermining Swiss's neutrality and independence, for collaboration, of which 99 were convicted. Some of those convicted were tried in absentia. According to Martin Gutmann, the trials served as a way for the Swiss establishment to reinforce a convenient and simplistic myth over its wartime past. However, they constituted a genuine national cleansing of Nazism by targeting key ideological figures in Switzerland's Nazi movement. Many Swiss volunteers in the Waffen-SS were tried on lesser charges, including desertion, dereliction of duty, and unauthorized border crossing.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1953, Johannes Pauli, a dual-national with German citizenship, stood trial for crimes committed at the Bisingen concentration camp. He was one of only seven Nazi war criminals to be convicted by Swiss courts, three of whom were tried in absentia. All of the cases were tried under the regular <a href="/wiki/Swiss_Criminal_Code" title="Swiss Criminal Code">Swiss Criminal Code</a>, but the special nature of the trials was made clear in their files. Swiss police had received word of Pauli, who'd fled to Switzerland to avoid prosecution, from the French in 1947. Pauli, who denied any involvement in war crimes, was initially released due to a lack of evidence. Over the next few years, however, prosecutors compiled evidence and witness testimony against him. In 1951, under questioning, Pauli finally admitted to his involvement in the executions of two prisoners. He was also one of the two main participants in the Offenburg massacre, in which SS men massacred 41 concentration camp prisoners who were too weak to walk in 1945, and had been the leader of a six-man <a href="/wiki/Feldgendarmerie" title="Feldgendarmerie">Feldgendarmerie</a> squad in <a href="/wiki/Ukraine" title="Ukraine">Ukraine</a>, where he was most likely involved in the Holocaust. However, neither of these things were known at the time. In 1953, he was found guilty of murder for executing a prisoner for looting and ordering the executions of two other prisoners without trial, and sentenced to 12 years in prison. Pauli was released from prison in 1961, and died in 1969. According to historian Martin Faust, the participation of Swiss citizens in Nazi war crimes is "a topic that has so far been dealt with almost completely by German historiography and only insufficiently by Swiss historiography."<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="German_violations">German violations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Switzerland_during_the_world_wars&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: German violations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Nazi Germany repeatedly violated Swiss airspace. During the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_France" title="Battle of France">Battle of France</a> in 1940, German aircraft violated Swiss airspace at least 197 times.<sup id="cite_ref-neutrals_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-neutrals-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In several air incidents, the Swiss shot down 11 <a href="/wiki/Luftwaffe" title="Luftwaffe">Luftwaffe</a> aircraft between 10 May and 17 June 1940, while suffering the loss of three of their own aircraft.<sup id="cite_ref-neutrals_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-neutrals-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Germany protested diplomatically on 5 June and with a second note on 19 June which contained explicit threats. <a href="/wiki/Hitler" class="mw-redirect" title="Hitler">Hitler</a> was especially furious when he saw that German equipment was used to shoot down German pilots. He said they would respond "in another manner".<sup id="cite_ref-neutrals_22-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-neutrals-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On 20 June, the Swiss air force was ordered to stop intercepting planes violating Swiss airspace. Swiss fighters began instead to force intruding aircraft to land at Swiss airfields. <a href="/wiki/Anti-aircraft" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-aircraft">Anti-aircraft</a> units still operated. Later, Hitler and <a href="/wiki/Hermann_G%C3%B6ring" title="Hermann Göring">Hermann Göring</a> sent saboteurs to destroy Swiss airfields but they were captured by Swiss troops before they could cause any damage.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Skirmishes between German and Swiss troops took place on the northern border of Switzerland throughout the war.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2019)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Allied_bombings_and_violations">Allied bombings and violations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Switzerland_during_the_world_wars&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Allied bombings and violations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Bombings_of_Switzerland_in_World_War_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Bombings of Switzerland in World War II">Bombings of Switzerland in World War II</a></div> <p>Allied aircraft intruded on Swiss airspace throughout World War II. In total, 6,304 Allied aircraft violated Swiss airspace during the war.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some damaged Allied bombers returning from raids over Italy and Germany would intentionally violate Swiss airspace, preferring <a href="/wiki/Internment" title="Internment">internment</a> by the Swiss to becoming <a href="/wiki/Prisoners_of_war" class="mw-redirect" title="Prisoners of war">prisoners of war</a>. Over a hundred Allied aircraft and their crews were interned in this manner. They were subsequently put up in various <a href="/wiki/Ski_resort" title="Ski resort">ski resorts</a> that had been emptied from lack of tourists due to the war and held until hostilities ended.<sup id="cite_ref-apogdip_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-apogdip-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At least 940 American airmen attempted to escape into France after the <a href="/wiki/D-Day" class="mw-redirect" title="D-Day">Allied invasion of Normandy in June 1944</a> but Swiss authorities intercepted 183 internees. Over 160 of these airmen were incarcerated in a Swiss prison camp known as <a href="/wiki/Wauwilermoos_internment_camp" title="Wauwilermoos internment camp">Wauwilermoos</a>, which was located near <a href="/wiki/Lucerne" title="Lucerne">Lucerne</a> and commanded by <a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_B%C3%A9guin" class="mw-redirect" title="André Béguin">André Béguin</a>, a pro-Nazi Swiss officer. The American internees remained in Wauwilermoos until November 1944 when the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_State" title="United States Department of State">U.S. State Department</a> lodged protests against the Swiss government and eventually secured their release.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The American military attaché in Bern warned <a href="/wiki/Marcel_Pilet-Golaz" title="Marcel Pilet-Golaz">Marcel Pilet-Golaz</a>, <a href="/wiki/Federal_Department_of_Foreign_Affairs" title="Federal Department of Foreign Affairs">Swiss foreign minister</a> in 1944, that "the mistreatment inflicted on US aviators could lead to 'navigation errors' during bombing raids over Germany".<sup id="cite_ref-swissinfo-danculler_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-swissinfo-danculler-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Switzerland, surrounded by <a href="/wiki/German-occupied_Europe" title="German-occupied Europe">Axis-controlled territory</a>, also suffered from <a href="/wiki/Bombings_of_Switzerland_in_World_War_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Bombings of Switzerland in World War II">Allied bombings</a> during the war; most notably from the <a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Schaffhausen_in_World_War_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Bombing of Schaffhausen in World War II">accidental bombing of Schaffhausen</a> by American aircraft on 1 April 1944. It was mistaken for <a href="/wiki/Ludwigshafen_am_Rhein" class="mw-redirect" title="Ludwigshafen am Rhein">Ludwigshafen am Rhein</a>, a German town 284 kilometres (176 mi) away; forty people were killed and over fifty buildings destroyed, among them a group of small factories producing <a href="/wiki/Anti-aircraft_warfare" title="Anti-aircraft warfare">anti-aircraft shells</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ball_bearing" title="Ball bearing">ball-bearings</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Messerschmitt_Bf_109" title="Messerschmitt Bf 109">Bf 109</a> parts for Germany.<sup id="cite_ref-apogdip_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-apogdip-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-sncweb_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sncweb-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The bombing limited much of the leniency the Swiss had shown toward Allied airspace violations. Eventually, the problem became so bad that they declared a zero-tolerance policy for violation by either Axis or Allied aircraft and authorized attacks on American aircraft.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Victims of these mistaken bombings were not limited to Swiss civilians but included the often confused American aircrews, shot down by the Swiss fighters as well as several Swiss fighters shot down by American airmen. In February 1945, 18 civilians were killed by Allied bombs dropped over <a href="/wiki/Stein_am_Rhein" title="Stein am Rhein">Stein am Rhein</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vals,_Switzerland" title="Vals, Switzerland">Vals</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Rafz" title="Rafz">Rafz</a>. Arguably the most notorious incident came on 4 March 1945, when <a href="/wiki/Basel" title="Basel">Basel</a> and <a href="/wiki/Z%C3%BCrich" class="mw-redirect" title="Zürich">Zürich</a> were accidentally bombed by American aircraft.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The attack on Basel's <a href="/wiki/Basel_SBB_railway_station" title="Basel SBB railway station">railway station</a> led to the destruction of a passenger train, but no casualties were reported; a <a href="/wiki/Consolidated_B-24_Liberator" title="Consolidated B-24 Liberator">B-24 Liberator</a> dropped its bomb load over Zürich, destroying two buildings and killing five civilians. The crew claimed they believed that they were attacking <a href="/wiki/Freiburg" class="mw-redirect" title="Freiburg">Freiburg</a> in Germany.<sup id="cite_ref-sncweb_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sncweb-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As John Helmreich points out, the pilot and navigator, in choosing a target of opportunity, "missed the marshalling yard they were aiming for, missed the city they were aiming for, and even missed the country they were aiming for". </p><p>The Swiss, although somewhat skeptical, reacted by treating these violations of their neutrality as "accidents". The United States was warned that single aircraft would be forced down and their crews would still be allowed to seek refuge, while bomber formations in violation of airspace would be intercepted. While American politicians and diplomats tried to minimize the political damage caused by these incidents, others took a more hostile view. Some senior commanders argued that as Switzerland was "full of German sympathizers", it deserved to be bombed.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> General <a href="/wiki/Henry_H._Arnold" title="Henry H. Arnold">Henry H. Arnold</a>, Commanding General of the <a href="/wiki/U.S._Army_Air_Forces" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Army Air Forces">U.S. Army Air Forces</a>, even suggested that it was the Germans themselves who were flying captured Allied planes over Switzerland in an attempt to gain a propaganda victory.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>From 1943 onwards Switzerland stopped American and British aircraft, mainly bombers, overflying Switzerland on nine occasions, six times by Swiss Air Force fighters and nine by flak. Thirty-six Allied airmen were killed. On 1 October 1943 the first American bomber was shot down near <a href="/wiki/Bad_Ragaz" title="Bad Ragaz">Bad Ragaz</a>, with only three men surviving. The officers were interned in <a href="/wiki/Davos" title="Davos">Davos</a> and the airmen in <a href="/wiki/Adelboden" title="Adelboden">Adelboden</a>. The representative of the US military intelligence group based in Bern, <a href="/wiki/Barnwell_R._Legge" title="Barnwell R. Legge">Barnwell Legge</a> (a US <a href="/wiki/Military_attach%C3%A9" title="Military attaché">military attaché</a> to Switzerland), instructed the soldiers not to flee, but most of them thought it to be a diplomatic joke and gave no regard to his request.<sup id="cite_ref-srf-20150907_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-srf-20150907-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-erzwungenelandung_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-erzwungenelandung-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-schweizaktuell-20151023_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-schweizaktuell-20151023-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Jewish_refugees">Jewish refugees</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Switzerland_during_the_world_wars&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Jewish refugees"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ella_Maillart_Article_1938.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Ella_Maillart_Article_1938.jpg/220px-Ella_Maillart_Article_1938.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="302" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Ella_Maillart_Article_1938.jpg/330px-Ella_Maillart_Article_1938.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Ella_Maillart_Article_1938.jpg/440px-Ella_Maillart_Article_1938.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2550" data-file-height="3506" /></a><figcaption>Ella Maillart's article about Jewish refugees in Switzerland, 1938, in the collection of the <a href="/wiki/Jewish_Museum_of_Switzerland" title="Jewish Museum of Switzerland">Jewish Museum of Switzerland</a></figcaption></figure> <p>As a neutral state bordering Germany, Switzerland was relatively easy to reach for refugees from the Nazis. Switzerland's refugee laws, especially with respect to Jews fleeing Germany, were strict and have caused controversy since the end of World War II. From 1933 until 1944 asylum for refugees could only be granted to those who were under personal threat owing to their political activities only; it did not include those who were under threat due to race, religion or ethnicity.<sup id="cite_ref-ICE_107_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ICE_107-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On the basis of this definition, Switzerland granted asylum to only 644 people between 1933 and 1945; of these, 252 cases were admitted during the war.<sup id="cite_ref-ICE_107_38-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ICE_107-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> All other refugees were admitted by the individual cantons and were granted different permits, including a "tolerance permit" that allowed them to live in the canton but not to work. Over the course of the war, Switzerland interned 300,000 refugees.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Of these, 104,000 were foreign troops interned according to the Rights and Duties of Neutral Powers outlined in the <a href="/wiki/Hague_Conventions_(1899_and_1907)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hague Conventions (1899 and 1907)">Hague Conventions</a>. The rest were foreign civilians and were either interned or granted tolerance or residence permits by the cantonal authorities. Refugees were not allowed to hold jobs. Of the refugees, 60,000 were civilians escaping persecution by the Nazis. Of these 60,000, 27,000 were Jews.<sup id="cite_ref-ICE_107_38-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ICE_107-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The official Swiss narrative on this subject was largely focused on Switzerland's generosity and tolerance, while refugees were portrayed as a burden. This attitude can clearly be seen in an article by <a href="/wiki/Ella_Maillart" title="Ella Maillart">Ella Maillart</a> for the “Weekly” magazine in London, 1938. Between 10,000 and 24,000 Jewish civilian refugees were refused entry.<sup id="cite_ref-ICE_107_38-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ICE_107-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These refugees were refused entry on the claim of 'dwindling supplies'. Of those refused entry, a Swiss government representative said, "Our little lifeboat is full." At the beginning of the war, Switzerland had a Jewish population of between 18,000 and 28,000 and a total population of about 4 million.<sup id="cite_ref-neutrals_22-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-neutrals-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the end of the war, there were over 115,000 refuge-seeking people of all categories in Switzerland, representing the maximum number of refugees at any one time.<sup id="cite_ref-ICE_107_38-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ICE_107-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A refugee help network operated from the <a href="/wiki/List_of_diplomatic_missions_of_Poland" title="List of diplomatic missions of Poland">Polish embassy in Bern</a>; the <a href="/wiki/%C5%81ado%C5%9B_Group" title="Ładoś Group">Ładoś Group</a>. This initiative saved thousands of Jews from certain death by issuing them with Latin American identity papers. Not all efforts were successful though, and the network was eventually discovered and dismantled by the Swiss authorities.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Switzerland's treatment of Jewish refugees has been criticized by scholars of the Holocaust. In 1999 an international panel of historians declared that Switzerland was "guilty of acting as an accomplice to the Holocaust when it refused to accept many thousands of fleeing Jews, and instead sent them back to almost certain annihilation at the hands of the Nazis".<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:17._Service_d%27aide_intellectuelle_aux_prisonniers_de_guerre_(1939-45),_(.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/17._Service_d%27aide_intellectuelle_aux_prisonniers_de_guerre_%281939-45%29%2C_%28.jpg/220px-17._Service_d%27aide_intellectuelle_aux_prisonniers_de_guerre_%281939-45%29%2C_%28.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="162" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/17._Service_d%27aide_intellectuelle_aux_prisonniers_de_guerre_%281939-45%29%2C_%28.jpg/330px-17._Service_d%27aide_intellectuelle_aux_prisonniers_de_guerre_%281939-45%29%2C_%28.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/17._Service_d%27aide_intellectuelle_aux_prisonniers_de_guerre_%281939-45%29%2C_%28.jpg/440px-17._Service_d%27aide_intellectuelle_aux_prisonniers_de_guerre_%281939-45%29%2C_%28.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2720" data-file-height="2009" /></a><figcaption>A photograph from the International Bureau of Education Archives showing the preparation of parcels and books for distribution to prisoners of war.</figcaption></figure> <p>Switzerland also acted as a refuge for <a href="/wiki/List_of_prisoner-of-war_camps_in_Germany" class="mw-redirect" title="List of prisoner-of-war camps in Germany">Allied prisoners of war</a> who escaped, including those from <a href="/wiki/Oflag_IV-C" title="Oflag IV-C">Oflag IV-C</a> (Colditz).<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Protecting_Power_mandates">Protecting Power mandates</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Switzerland_during_the_world_wars&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Protecting Power mandates"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Protecting_power" title="Protecting power">Protecting power</a></div> <p>In war time each belligerent nation relies on an independent neutral third party to protect its diplomatic interests through "mandates" as specified in international law especially the <a href="/wiki/Hague_Conventions_of_1899_and_1907" title="Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907">Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907</a>. In World War II, Switzerland, and to a lesser extent Sweden and the United States, performed these roles for both sides. When the US entered the war in late 1941, Switzerland took over its mandates. In terms of major roles Swiss diplomats had the mandate to protect Germany's interest in Britain, the United States, Yugoslavia, Turkey, and Dutch Indonesia. Switzerland protected British interests in Germany, France, Italy, Hungary, Romania and Japan. It protected Vichy France's interests in Britain, the United States, Italy, Egypt and Brazil. It protected Italy's interest in Egypt and Brazil. It protected the United States interest in Germany, France, Italy, Japan, China and Denmark. It protected Japan's interest in Britain, the United States, Egypt and Argentina. The diplomats arranged travel permissions, helping tens of thousands of people to return to their home countries after being trapped in an enemy nation. Swiss diplomats also supervised closed enemy embassies. Of special importance was the protection provided prisoners of war, especially the sick and wounded.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Service_of_Intellectual_Assistance_to_Prisoners_of_War_(SIAP)"><span id="Service_of_Intellectual_Assistance_to_Prisoners_of_War_.28SIAP.29"></span>Service of Intellectual Assistance to Prisoners of War (SIAP)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Switzerland_during_the_world_wars&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Service of Intellectual Assistance to Prisoners of War (SIAP)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1939, the Service of Intellectual Assistance to Prisoners of War (SIAP) was created by the <a href="/wiki/International_Bureau_of_Education" title="International Bureau of Education">International Bureau of Education</a> (IBE), a Geneva-based <a href="/wiki/International_organization" title="International organization">international organization</a> dedicated to educational matters. In collaboration with the <a href="/wiki/Swiss_Federal_Council" class="mw-redirect" title="Swiss Federal Council">Swiss Federal Council</a>, who initially funded the project, and the <a href="/wiki/International_Committee_of_the_Red_Cross" title="International Committee of the Red Cross">International Committee of the Red Cross</a> (ICRC), the SIAP provided over half a million books to prisoners of war during World War II, and organized educational opportunities and study groups in prison camps.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Financial_relationships_with_Nazi_Germany">Financial relationships with Nazi Germany</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Switzerland_during_the_world_wars&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Financial relationships with Nazi Germany"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Swiss_National_Bank#World_War_II" title="Swiss National Bank">Swiss National Bank § World War II</a></div> <p>Switzerland's trade was blockaded by both the <a href="/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II" title="Allies of World War II">Allies</a> and by the <a href="/wiki/Axis_Powers" class="mw-redirect" title="Axis Powers">Axis</a>. Each side openly exerted pressure on Switzerland not to trade with the other. Economic cooperation and extension of credit to the Third Reich varied according to the perceived likelihood of invasion, and the availability of other trading partners. Concessions reached their zenith after a crucial rail link through <a href="/wiki/Vichy_France" title="Vichy France">Vichy France</a> was severed in 1942, leaving Switzerland completely surrounded by the Axis. Switzerland relied on trade for half of its food and essentially all of its fuel; however, the Swiss controlled vital trans-alpine rail tunnels between Germany and Italy and possessed considerable electrical generating capacity that was relatively safe from air attack. Switzerland's most important exports during the war were precision machine tools, watches, <a href="/wiki/Jewel_bearing" title="Jewel bearing">jewel bearings</a> (used in bomb sights), electricity, and dairy products. Until 1936, the <a href="/wiki/Swiss_franc" title="Swiss franc">Swiss franc</a> was the only remaining major freely convertible currency in the world,<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and both the Allies and the Germans sold large amounts of gold to the <a href="/wiki/Swiss_National_Bank" title="Swiss National Bank">Swiss National Bank</a>. Between 1940 and 1945, the German <a href="/wiki/Reichsbank" title="Reichsbank">Reichsbank</a> sold 1.3 billion francs (approximately 18 billion francs adjusted for inflation to 2019) worth of gold to Swiss banks in exchange for Swiss francs and other foreign currency, which were used to buy strategically important raw materials like <a href="/wiki/Tungsten" title="Tungsten">tungsten</a> and oil from neutral countries.<sup id="cite_ref-ICE_107_38-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ICE_107-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hundreds of millions of francs' worth of this gold was <a href="/wiki/Gold_standard" title="Gold standard">monetary gold</a> plundered from the <a href="/wiki/Central_bank" title="Central bank">central banks</a> of occupied countries. A total of 581,000 francs' worth of "Melmer" gold taken from <a href="/wiki/Holocaust" class="mw-redirect" title="Holocaust">Holocaust</a> victims in eastern Europe was sold to Swiss banks.<sup id="cite_ref-ICE_107_38-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ICE_107-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable sortable" border="1"> <caption>Swiss National Bank gold transactions from 1 September 1939 to 30 June 1945<br />(in CHF millions)<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>b<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Party</th> <th>Purchases</th> <th>Sales</th> <th>Net </th></tr> <tr> <td>USA</td> <td>2242.9</td> <td>714.3</td> <td>1528.7 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Great Britain</td> <td>668.6</td> <td>0</td> <td>668.6 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Canada</td> <td>65.3</td> <td>0</td> <td>65.3 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Germany</td> <td>1231.1</td> <td>19.5</td> <td>1211.6 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Italy</td> <td>150.1</td> <td>0</td> <td>150.1 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Japan</td> <td>0</td> <td>5</td> <td>−5.0 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Portugal</td> <td>85.1</td> <td>536.6</td> <td>−451.5 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Spain</td> <td>0</td> <td>185.1</td> <td>−185.1 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Romania</td> <td>9.8</td> <td>112.1</td> <td>−102.3 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Hungary</td> <td>0</td> <td>16.3</td> <td>−16.3 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Slovakia</td> <td>0</td> <td>11.3</td> <td>−11.3 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Turkey</td> <td>0</td> <td>14.8</td> <td>−14.8 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Argentina</td> <td>32.7</td> <td>0</td> <td>32.7 </td></tr> <tr> <td>France</td> <td>193.2</td> <td>0</td> <td>193.2 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Greece</td> <td>0.5</td> <td>0</td> <td>0.5 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Sweden</td> <td>77.5</td> <td>3</td> <td>74.5 </td></tr> <tr> <td>BIS</td> <td>61.5</td> <td>18.3</td> <td>43.2 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Market</td> <td>71.6</td> <td>667.8</td> <td>−596.2 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Confederation</td> <td>269.3</td> <td>1087.9</td> <td>−818.6 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Federal Mint</td> <td>42.5</td> <td>45.8</td> <td>−3.3 </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>In the 1990s, a <a href="/wiki/World_Jewish_Congress_lawsuit_against_Swiss_banks" title="World Jewish Congress lawsuit against Swiss banks">controversy over a class-action lawsuit</a> brought in <a href="/wiki/Brooklyn" title="Brooklyn">Brooklyn</a>, <a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York</a>, over Jewish assets in <a href="/wiki/Banking_in_Switzerland#Swiss_banks_and_World_War_II" title="Banking in Switzerland">Holocaust-era bank accounts</a> prompted the Swiss government to commission the most recent and authoritative study of Switzerland's interaction with the Nazi regime. The final report by this independent panel of international scholars, known as the <a href="/wiki/Bergier_Commission" class="mw-redirect" title="Bergier Commission">Bergier Commission</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-ICE_107_38-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ICE_107-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> was issued in 2002<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and also documented Switzerland's role as a major hub for the sale and transfer of <a href="/wiki/Nazi_plunder" title="Nazi plunder">Nazi-looted art</a> during the Second World War.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:3D.chart.-.swiss.weapon,.ammunition.and.detonator.exports.in.WW2.1940-1944.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/3D.chart.-.swiss.weapon%2C.ammunition.and.detonator.exports.in.WW2.1940-1944.jpg/220px-3D.chart.-.swiss.weapon%2C.ammunition.and.detonator.exports.in.WW2.1940-1944.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="177" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/3D.chart.-.swiss.weapon%2C.ammunition.and.detonator.exports.in.WW2.1940-1944.jpg/330px-3D.chart.-.swiss.weapon%2C.ammunition.and.detonator.exports.in.WW2.1940-1944.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/3D.chart.-.swiss.weapon%2C.ammunition.and.detonator.exports.in.WW2.1940-1944.jpg/440px-3D.chart.-.swiss.weapon%2C.ammunition.and.detonator.exports.in.WW2.1940-1944.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1058" data-file-height="852" /></a><figcaption>Swiss exports of arms, ammunition, and fuses (thousands of CHF) 1940–1944<sup id="cite_ref-ICE_107_38-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ICE_107-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Under pressure from the Allies, in December 1943 quotas were imposed on the importation and exportation of certain goods and foodstuffs and in October 1944 sales of munitions were halted. However, the transit of goods by railway between Germany, Italy and <a href="/wiki/German_military_administration_in_occupied_France_during_World_War_II" title="German military administration in occupied France during World War II">occupied France</a> continued. North–South transit trade across Switzerland increased from 2.5 million tons before the war to nearly 6 million tons per year. No troops or "war goods" were supposed to be transshipped. Switzerland was concerned that Germany would cease the supply of the coal it required if it blocked coal shipments to Italy while the Allies, despite some plans to do so, took no action as they wanted to maintain good relations with Switzerland.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Between 1939 and 1945 Germany exported 10,267,000 tons of coal to Switzerland. In 1943 these imports supplied 41% of Swiss energy requirements. In the same period Switzerland sold electric power to Germany equivalent to 6,077,000 tons of coal.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Switzerland_during_the_world_wars&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_World_War_II_weapons_of_Switzerland" title="List of World War II weapons of Switzerland">List of World War II weapons of Switzerland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_aircraft_of_Switzerland_in_World_War_II" title="List of aircraft of Switzerland in World War II">List of aircraft of Switzerland in World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutral_powers_during_World_War_II" title="Neutral powers during World War II">Neutral powers during World War II</a></li> <li><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schweiz_im_Ersten_Weltkrieg" class="extiw" title="de:Schweiz im Ersten Weltkrieg">Switzerland in the First World War (in German)</a></li> <li><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Histoire_de_la_Suisse_pendant_la_Premi%C3%A8re_Guerre_mondiale" class="extiw" title="fr:Histoire de la Suisse pendant la Première Guerre mondiale">Switzerland during the First World War (in French)</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Switzerland_during_the_world_wars&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Here likely in the sense of the original Latin meaning: occultus, lit. 'hidden' or 'secret'</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Purchases and sales made <i>by</i> the <a href="/wiki/Swiss_National_Bank" title="Swiss National Bank">Swiss National Bank</a> <i>to</i> the listed counterparty.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Switzerland_during_the_world_wars&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFStackelberg2003" class="citation book cs1">Stackelberg (October 3, 2003). Stackelberg, Roderick; Winkle, Sally A. (eds.). <i>The Nazi Germany Sourcebook : An Anthology of Texts</i>. Routledge. p. 31. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-203-46392-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-203-46392-5"><bdi>978-0-203-46392-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Nazi+Germany+Sourcebook+%3A+An+Anthology+of+Texts&rft.pages=31&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2003-10-03&rft.isbn=978-0-203-46392-5&rft.au=Stackelberg&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwitzerland+during+the+world+wars" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-HDS_WWI_Intro-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-HDS_WWI_Intro_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-HDS_WWI_Intro_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>World War I-Introduction</i> in <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hls-dhs-dss.ch/textes/d/D8926.php"><span title="World War I-Introduction in German">German</span></a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hls-dhs-dss.ch/textes/f/F8926.php"><span title="World War I-Introduction in French">French</span></a> and <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hls-dhs-dss.ch/textes/i/I8926.php"><span title="World War I-Introduction in Italian">Italian</span></a> in the online <i><a href="/wiki/Historical_Dictionary_of_Switzerland" title="Historical Dictionary of Switzerland">Historical Dictionary of Switzerland</a></i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-HDS_WWI_Lage-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-HDS_WWI_Lage_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>World War I – Preparation</i> in <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hls-dhs-dss.ch/textes/d/D8926.php"><span title="World War I – Preparation in German">German</span></a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hls-dhs-dss.ch/textes/f/F8926.php"><span title="World War I – Preparation in French">French</span></a> and <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hls-dhs-dss.ch/textes/i/I8926.php"><span title="World War I – Preparation in Italian">Italian</span></a> in the online <i><a href="/wiki/Historical_Dictionary_of_Switzerland" title="Historical Dictionary of Switzerland">Historical Dictionary of Switzerland</a></i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-HDS32-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-HDS32_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-HDS32_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>World War I – 1914 to 1918</i> in <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hls-dhs-dss.ch/textes/d/D8926.php"><span title="World War I – 1914 to 1918 in German">German</span></a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hls-dhs-dss.ch/textes/f/F8926.php"><span title="World War I – 1914 to 1918 in French">French</span></a> and <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hls-dhs-dss.ch/textes/i/I8926.php"><span title="World War I – 1914 to 1918 in Italian">Italian</span></a> in the online <i><a href="/wiki/Historical_Dictionary_of_Switzerland" title="Historical Dictionary of Switzerland">Historical Dictionary of Switzerland</a></i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.suedostschweiz.ch/zeitung/gefallen-1916-der-dreisprachenspitze">"Gefallen 1916 an der Dreisprachenspitze"</a>. <i>www.suedostschweiz.ch</i> (in German). 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 30,</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=bbc.com&rft.atitle=Switzerland%27s+forgotten+role+in+saving+World+War+One+lives&rft.date=2016-05-30&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.com%2Fnews%2Fworld-europe-36391241&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwitzerland+during+the+world+wars" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110706225722/http://www.c2d.ch/detailed_display.php?lname=votes&table=votes&&id=37824&continent=Europe&countrygeo=110&stategeo=10608&citygeo==&level=2&recent=1">"C2D - Centre for Research on Direct Democracy"</a>. <i>c2d.ch</i>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 18,</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Neue+Z%C3%BCrcher+Zeitung+NZZ&rft.atitle=Mobilmachung+der+Armee+von+1939%3A+%22%C3%9Cberall+Menschen%2C+Pferde%2C+Aufregung%22&rft.date=2014-09-02&rft.au=Rudolf+Jaun&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nzz.ch%2Fschweiz%2Fueberall-menschen-pferde-aufregung-1.18374986&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwitzerland+during+the+world+wars" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBonjour1978431-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBonjour1978431_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBonjour1978">Bonjour 1978</a>, p. 431.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-swallow-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-swallow_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Let's Swallow Switzerland" by Klaus Urner (Lexington Books, 2002).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-BergierReport-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-BergierReport_14-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-BergierReport_14-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIndependent_Commission_of_Experts_Switzerland_-_Second_World_War_(UEK/CIE)2002" class="citation report cs1">Independent Commission of Experts Switzerland - Second World War (UEK/CIE), ed. (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.uek.ch/en/index.htm">Switzerland, National Socialism, and the Second World War. Final Report</a> (Report). Zürich, Switzerland: Pendo Verlag GmbH. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-85842-601-6" title="Special:BookSources/3-85842-601-6"><bdi>3-85842-601-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=report&rft.btitle=Switzerland%2C+National+Socialism%2C+and+the+Second+World+War.+Final+Report.&rft.place=Z%C3%BCrich%2C+Switzerland&rft.pub=Pendo+Verlag+GmbH&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=3-85842-601-6&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.uek.ch%2Fen%2Findex.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwitzerland+during+the+world+wars" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTribelhorn2018" class="citation news cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Tribelhorn, Marc (May 6, 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nzz.ch/schweiz/der-hetzer-ld.1383675">"Der Schweizer Hetzer, der den "Anschluss" an Nazi-Deutschland forderte"</a>. <i>Neue Zürcher Zeitung</i> (in Swiss High German). <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0376-6829">0376-6829</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 12,</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Neue+Z%C3%BCrcher+Zeitung&rft.atitle=Der+Schweizer+Hetzer%2C+der+den+%22Anschluss%22+an+Nazi-Deutschland+forderte&rft.date=2018-05-06&rft.issn=0376-6829&rft.aulast=Tribelhorn&rft.aufirst=Marc&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nzz.ch%2Fschweiz%2Fder-hetzer-ld.1383675&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwitzerland+during+the+world+wars" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bruce L. Brager (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.militaryhistoryonline.com/general/articles/officestrategicservices.aspx">The Office of Strategic Services</a>. MilitaryHistoryOnline.com. Retrieved January 17, 2016.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChevallaz2001" class="citation book cs1">Chevallaz, Georges André (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-MtdoOfwQqUC&pg=PA236"><i>The challenge of neutrality: diplomacy and the defense of Switzerland</i></a>. Lexington Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7391-0274-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7391-0274-9"><bdi>978-0-7391-0274-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+challenge+of+neutrality%3A+diplomacy+and+the+defense+of+Switzerland&rft.pub=Lexington+Books&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-7391-0274-9&rft.aulast=Chevallaz&rft.aufirst=Georges+Andr%C3%A9&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-MtdoOfwQqUC%26pg%3DPA236&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwitzerland+during+the+world+wars" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Noll2-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Noll2_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Peter_Noll&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Peter Noll (page does not exist)">Peter Noll</a>: <i>Landesverräter. 17 Lebensläufe und Todesurteile 1942–1944.</i> Huber, Frauenfeld 1980, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-7193-0681-X" title="Special:BookSources/3-7193-0681-X">3-7193-0681-X</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGutmann2018" class="citation book cs1">Gutmann, Martin R. (December 20, 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=PJB2DwAAQBAJ"><i>Building a Nazi Europe</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. pp. 199–201. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-316-60894-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-316-60894-4"><bdi>978-1-316-60894-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Building+a+Nazi+Europe&rft.pages=199-201&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2018-12-20&rft.isbn=978-1-316-60894-4&rft.aulast=Gutmann&rft.aufirst=Martin+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DPJB2DwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwitzerland+during+the+world+wars" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRosch2020" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Rosch, Benjamin (May 31, 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bzbasel.ch/basel/basel-stadt/der-kz-fuhrer-mit-dem-schweizer-pass-johannes-pauli-ein-leben-mit-gewalt-ld.1421229">"Kriegsverbrecher - Der KZ-Führer mit dem Schweizer Pass: Johannes Pauli, ein Leben mit Gewalt"</a>. <i>bz Basel</i> (in German)<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 26,</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=bz+Basel&rft.atitle=Kriegsverbrecher+-+Der+KZ-F%C3%BChrer+mit+dem+Schweizer+Pass%3A+Johannes+Pauli%2C+ein+Leben+mit+Gewalt&rft.date=2020-05-31&rft.aulast=Rosch&rft.aufirst=Benjamin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bzbasel.ch%2Fbasel%2Fbasel-stadt%2Fder-kz-fuhrer-mit-dem-schweizer-pass-johannes-pauli-ein-leben-mit-gewalt-ld.1421229&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwitzerland+during+the+world+wars" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-neutrals-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-neutrals_22-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-neutrals_22-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-neutrals_22-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-neutrals_22-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>The Neutrals</i> by Time Life (<a href="/wiki/Time_Life_Books" class="mw-redirect" title="Time Life Books">Time Life Books</a>, 1995) states 25,000</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Essential Militaria</i>, Nicholas Hobbes, 2005</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schweizer_Luftwaffe#Im_Zweiten_Weltkrieg" class="extiw" title="de:Schweizer Luftwaffe">de:Schweizer Luftwaffe#Im Zweiten Weltkrieg</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-apogdip-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-apogdip_25-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-apogdip_25-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.airpower.maxwell.af.mil/airchronicles/apj/apj00/sum00/helmreich.html">The Diplomacy of Apology: U.S. Bombings of Switzerland during World War II</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070505083348/http://www.airpower.maxwell.af.mil/airchronicles/apj/apj00/sum00/helmreich.html">Archived</a> May 5, 2007, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Dwight S. Mears, "The Catch-22 Effect: The Lasting Stigma of Wartime Cowardice in the U.S. Army Air Forces," <i>The Journal of Military History</i> 77 (July 2013): 1037–43.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-swissinfo-danculler-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-swissinfo-danculler_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOlivier_Grivat2013" class="citation web cs1">Olivier Grivat (February 11, 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.swissinfo.ch/eng/belated-honour_pow-medal-recognises-us-aviators--suffering/34959126">"POW medal recognises US aviators' suffering"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Swissinfo" class="mw-redirect" title="Swissinfo">swissinfo</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 23,</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=POW+medal+recognises+US+aviators%27+suffering&rft.pub=swissinfo&rft.date=2013-02-11&rft.au=Olivier+Grivat&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.swissinfo.ch%2Feng%2Fbelated-honour_pow-medal-recognises-us-aviators--suffering%2F34959126&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwitzerland+during+the+world+wars" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://stadtarchiv-schaffhausen.ch/Schaffhausen-Geschichte/Schaffhausen+im+Zweiten+Weltkrieg.pdf">"Stadtarchiv Schaffhausen : Willkommen beim Stadtarchiv Schaffhausen"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>stadtarchiv-schaffhausen.ch</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=stadtarchiv-schaffhausen.ch&rft.atitle=Stadtarchiv+Schaffhausen+%3A+Willkommen+beim+Stadtarchiv+Schaffhausen&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fstadtarchiv-schaffhausen.ch%2FSchaffhausen-Geschichte%2FSchaffhausen%2Bim%2BZweiten%2BWeltkrieg.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwitzerland+during+the+world+wars" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-sncweb-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-sncweb_29-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-sncweb_29-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sncweb.ch/pressemitteilung/1_2005/maerz05/us-bomben.htm">US-Bomben auf Schweizer Kantone</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070928205411/http://www.sncweb.ch/pressemitteilung/1_2005/maerz05/us-bomben.htm">Archived</a> September 28, 2007, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.archives.gov/research/holocaust/finding-aid/military/part-1-notes.html">"Military Agency Records"</a>. <i>National Archives</i>. August 15, 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=National+Archives&rft.atitle=Military+Agency+Records&rft.date=2016-08-15&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.archives.gov%2Fresearch%2Fholocaust%2Ffinding-aid%2Fmilitary%2Fpart-1-notes.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwitzerland+during+the+world+wars" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Regan, Geoffrey. <i>Blue on Blue – A History of Friendly Fire</i>. Avin Books, New York, 1995.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHalbrook2003" class="citation book cs1">Halbrook, Stephen (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hrnU9Fi4NPMC&pg=PA224"><i>Target Switzerland: Swiss Armed Neutrality in World War II</i></a>. Da Capo Press. p. 224. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-306-81325-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-306-81325-4"><bdi>0-306-81325-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Target+Switzerland%3A+Swiss+Armed+Neutrality+in+World+War+II&rft.pages=224&rft.pub=Da+Capo+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=0-306-81325-4&rft.aulast=Halbrook&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DhrnU9Fi4NPMC%26pg%3DPA224&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwitzerland+during+the+world+wars" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPrince2003" class="citation book cs1">Prince, Cathryn (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gTtnAAAAMAAJ&q=Switzerland+was+full+of+German+sympathizers"><i>Shot from the sky : American POWs in Switzerland</i></a>. Annapolis, Md.: Naval Institute Press. p. 179. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-55750-433-4" title="Special:BookSources/1-55750-433-4"><bdi>1-55750-433-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Shot+from+the+sky+%3A+American+POWs+in+Switzerland&rft.place=Annapolis%2C+Md.&rft.pages=179&rft.pub=Naval+Institute+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=1-55750-433-4&rft.aulast=Prince&rft.aufirst=Cathryn&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DgTtnAAAAMAAJ%26q%3DSwitzerland%2Bwas%2Bfull%2Bof%2BGerman%2Bsympathizers&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwitzerland+during+the+world+wars" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPetersen1996" class="citation book cs1">Petersen, Neal (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3SRqcl3FsBEC&q=watime+intelligence+reports+of+allen+dulles"><i>From Hitler's Doorstep: the Wartime Intelligence Reports of Allen Dulles, 1942–1945</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/University_Park,_Pennsylvania" class="mw-redirect" title="University Park, Pennsylvania">University Park, Pennsylvania</a>: <a href="/wiki/Penn_State_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="Penn State Press">Penn State Press</a>. p. 398. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-271-01485-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-271-01485-7"><bdi>0-271-01485-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+Hitler%27s+Doorstep%3A+the+Wartime+Intelligence+Reports+of+Allen+Dulles%2C+1942%E2%80%931945&rft.place=University+Park%2C+Pennsylvania&rft.pages=398&rft.pub=Penn+State+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=0-271-01485-7&rft.aulast=Petersen&rft.aufirst=Neal&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D3SRqcl3FsBEC%26q%3Dwatime%2Bintelligence%2Breports%2Bof%2Ballen%2Bdulles&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwitzerland+during+the+world+wars" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-srf-20150907-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-srf-20150907_35-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFranz_Kasperski2015" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Franz Kasperski (September 7, 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.srf.ch/kultur/im-fokus/der-archivar/abgeschossen-von-der-neutralen-schweiz">"Abgeschossen von der neutralen Schweiz"</a> (in German). <a href="/wiki/Schweizer_Radio_und_Fernsehen" title="Schweizer Radio und Fernsehen">Schweizer Radio und Fernsehen</a> SRF<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 23,</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Abgeschossen+von+der+neutralen+Schweiz&rft.pub=Schweizer+Radio+und+Fernsehen+SRF&rft.date=2015-09-07&rft.au=Franz+Kasperski&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.srf.ch%2Fkultur%2Fim-fokus%2Fder-archivar%2Fabgeschossen-von-der-neutralen-schweiz&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwitzerland+during+the+world+wars" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-erzwungenelandung-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-erzwungenelandung_36-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://climage.ch/en/movies/forced-landing/">"Forced Landing"</a>. climage.ch<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 23,</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Forced+Landing&rft.pub=climage.ch&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fclimage.ch%2Fen%2Fmovies%2Fforced-landing%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwitzerland+during+the+world+wars" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-schweizaktuell-20151023-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-schweizaktuell-20151023_37-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.srf.ch/sendungen/schweiz-aktuell/massen-dna-test-jubilaeum-paraplegiker-zentrum">"Gedenkstein für Internierten-Straflager"</a> (in German). <a href="/wiki/Schweiz_aktuell" title="Schweiz aktuell">Schweiz aktuell</a>. October 23, 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 23,</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Gedenkstein+f%C3%BCr+Internierten-Straflager&rft.pub=Schweiz+aktuell&rft.date=2015-10-23&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.srf.ch%2Fsendungen%2Fschweiz-aktuell%2Fmassen-dna-test-jubilaeum-paraplegiker-zentrum&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwitzerland+during+the+world+wars" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ICE_107-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ICE_107_38-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ICE_107_38-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ICE_107_38-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ICE_107_38-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ICE_107_38-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ICE_107_38-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ICE_107_38-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ICE_107_38-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ICE_107_38-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBergierW._BartoszewskiS._FriedländerH._James2002" class="citation conference cs1">Bergier, Jean-Francois; W. Bartoszewski; S. Friedländer; H. James; H. Junz; G. Kreis; S. Milton; J. Picard; J. Tanner; D. Thürer; J. Voyame (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.uek.ch/en/schlussbericht/synthesis/ueke.pdf"><i>Final Report of the Independent Commission of Experts Switzerland – Second World War</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Zürich: Pendo Verlag GmbH. p. 107. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-85842-603-2" title="Special:BookSources/3-85842-603-2"><bdi>3-85842-603-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=conference&rft.btitle=Final+Report+of+the+Independent+Commission+of+Experts+Switzerland+%E2%80%93+Second+World+War&rft.place=Z%C3%BCrich&rft.pages=107&rft.pub=Pendo+Verlag+GmbH&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=3-85842-603-2&rft.aulast=Bergier&rft.aufirst=Jean-Francois&rft.au=W.+Bartoszewski&rft.au=S.+Friedl%C3%A4nder&rft.au=H.+James&rft.au=H.+Junz&rft.au=G.+Kreis&rft.au=S.+Milton&rft.au=J.+Picard&rft.au=J.+Tanner&rft.au=D.+Th%C3%BCrer&rft.au=J.+Voyame&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.uek.ch%2Fen%2Fschlussbericht%2Fsynthesis%2Fueke.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwitzerland+during+the+world+wars" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Asylum</i> in <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hls-dhs-dss.ch/textes/d/D10374.php"><span title="Asylum in German">German</span></a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hls-dhs-dss.ch/textes/f/F10374.php"><span title="Asylum in French">French</span></a> and <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hls-dhs-dss.ch/textes/i/I10374.php"><span title="Asylum in Italian">Italian</span></a> in the online <i><a href="/wiki/Historical_Dictionary_of_Switzerland" title="Historical Dictionary of Switzerland">Historical Dictionary of Switzerland</a></i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Second World War-Refugees</i> in <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hls-dhs-dss.ch/textes/d/D8927.php"><span title="Second World War-Refugees in German">German</span></a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hls-dhs-dss.ch/textes/f/F8927.php"><span title="Second World War-Refugees in French">French</span></a> and <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hls-dhs-dss.ch/textes/i/I8927.php"><span title="Second World War-Refugees in Italian">Italian</span></a> in the online <i><a href="/wiki/Historical_Dictionary_of_Switzerland" title="Historical Dictionary of Switzerland">Historical Dictionary of Switzerland</a></i>. states 28,000</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www1.yadvashem.org/odot_pdf/Microsoft%20Word%20-%206062.pdf">Switzerland from the Shoah Resource Foundation</a> accessed February 4, 2009</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLubrich2021" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Lubrich, Naomi (2021). <i>Passports, Profiteers, Police: A Swiss War Secret</i> (in German and English). Basel: edition clandestin. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-907262-09-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-907262-09-2"><bdi>978-3-907262-09-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Passports%2C+Profiteers%2C+Police%3A+A+Swiss+War+Secret&rft.place=Basel&rft.pub=edition+clandestin&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=978-3-907262-09-2&rft.aulast=Lubrich&rft.aufirst=Naomi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwitzerland+during+the+world+wars" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDrozdiak1999" class="citation news cs1">Drozdiak, William (December 10, 1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/pmextra/dec99/10/swiss.htm">"Panel Finds Switzerland Complicit in Holocaust"</a>. <i>The Washington Post</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 14,</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Washington+Post&rft.atitle=Panel+Finds+Switzerland+Complicit+in+Holocaust&rft.date=1999-12-10&rft.aulast=Drozdiak&rft.aufirst=William&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Fwp-srv%2Fpmextra%2Fdec99%2F10%2Fswiss.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwitzerland+during+the+world+wars" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Pat_Reid" title="Pat Reid">Reid, Pat</a> <i><a href="/wiki/The_Colditz_Story" title="The Colditz Story">The Colditz Story</a></i>, <i>The Latter Days at Colditz</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Leo Schelbert. "Linking the Hideously-Sundered Nations" Neutral Switzerland as Protecting Power" in Leo Schelbert, ed., <i>Switzerland Under Siege 1939-1945: A Neutral Nation's Struggle for Survival</i> (2000) pp 153-182, at p. 156-159.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:1_46-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAvanziniDarcy_de_OlivieraEggerRoller1979" class="citation book cs1">Avanzini, Guy; Darcy de Oliviera, Rosiska; Egger, Eugen; Roller, Samuel; Stock, Rodney; Suchodolski, Bogdan (1979). <i>The International Bureau of Education in the service of educational development</i>. UNESCO. pp. 51, 80. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/92-3-101733-0" title="Special:BookSources/92-3-101733-0"><bdi>92-3-101733-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+International+Bureau+of+Education+in+the+service+of+educational+development&rft.pages=51%2C+80&rft.pub=UNESCO&rft.date=1979&rft.isbn=92-3-101733-0&rft.aulast=Avanzini&rft.aufirst=Guy&rft.au=Darcy+de+Oliviera%2C+Rosiska&rft.au=Egger%2C+Eugen&rft.au=Roller%2C+Samuel&rft.au=Stock%2C+Rodney&rft.au=Suchodolski%2C+Bogdan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwitzerland+during+the+world+wars" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEichengreenReisMacEdo1996" class="citation book cs1">Eichengreen, Barry; Reis, Jaime; MacEdo, Jorge Braga de (May 16, 1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=IqPMKv1h4uEC&q=switzerland+gold+convertibility+1926&pg=PA33"><i>Currency Convertibility: The Gold Standard and Beyond</i></a>. Taylor & Francis. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-203-98429-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-203-98429-1"><bdi>978-0-203-98429-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Currency+Convertibility%3A+The+Gold+Standard+and+Beyond&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=1996-05-16&rft.isbn=978-0-203-98429-1&rft.aulast=Eichengreen&rft.aufirst=Barry&rft.au=Reis%2C+Jaime&rft.au=MacEdo%2C+Jorge+Braga+de&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DIqPMKv1h4uEC%26q%3Dswitzerland%2Bgold%2Bconvertibility%2B1926%26pg%3DPA33&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwitzerland+during+the+world+wars" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBergierW._BartoszewskiS._FriedländerH._James2002" class="citation conference cs1">Bergier, Jean-Francois; W. Bartoszewski; S. Friedländer; H. James; H. Junz; G. Kreis; S. Milton; J. Picard; J. Tanner; D. Thürer; J. Voyame (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.uek.ch/en/schlussbericht/synthesis/ueke.pdf"><i>Final Report of the Independent Commission of Experts Switzerland – Second World War</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Zürich: Pendo Verlag GmbH. p. 243. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-85842-603-2" title="Special:BookSources/3-85842-603-2"><bdi>3-85842-603-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=conference&rft.btitle=Final+Report+of+the+Independent+Commission+of+Experts+Switzerland+%E2%80%93+Second+World+War&rft.place=Z%C3%BCrich&rft.pages=243&rft.pub=Pendo+Verlag+GmbH&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=3-85842-603-2&rft.aulast=Bergier&rft.aufirst=Jean-Francois&rft.au=W.+Bartoszewski&rft.au=S.+Friedl%C3%A4nder&rft.au=H.+James&rft.au=H.+Junz&rft.au=G.+Kreis&rft.au=S.+Milton&rft.au=J.+Picard&rft.au=J.+Tanner&rft.au=D.+Th%C3%BCrer&rft.au=J.+Voyame&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.uek.ch%2Fen%2Fschlussbericht%2Fsynthesis%2Fueke.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwitzerland+during+the+world+wars" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIndependent_Commission_of_Experts_Switzerland_–_Second_World_War" class="citation web cs1">Independent Commission of Experts Switzerland – Second World War. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.uek.ch/en/schlussbericht/synthesis/ueke.pdf">"Switzerland, National Socialism and the Second World War Final Report"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Independent Commission of Experts Switzerland – Second World War</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 25,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Independent+Commission+of+Experts+Switzerland+%E2%80%93+Second+World+War&rft.atitle=Switzerland%2C+National+Socialism+and+the+Second+World+War+Final+Report&rft.au=Independent+Commission+of+Experts+Switzerland+%E2%80%93+Second+World+War&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.uek.ch%2Fen%2Fschlussbericht%2Fsynthesis%2Fueke.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwitzerland+during+the+world+wars" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLaird2013" class="citation web cs1">Laird, Michèle (November 7, 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.lootedart.com/news.php?r=QCINKQ344721">"A race against time Swiss urged to provide missing links to Nazi-looted art"</a>. <i>LootedArt.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 25,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=LootedArt.com&rft.atitle=A+race+against+time+Swiss+urged+to+provide+missing+links+to+Nazi-looted+art&rft.date=2013-11-07&rft.aulast=Laird&rft.aufirst=Mich%C3%A8le&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.lootedart.com%2Fnews.php%3Fr%3DQCINKQ344721&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwitzerland+during+the+world+wars" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHelmreich2000" class="citation journal cs1">Helmreich, Dr. Jonathan E. (Summer 2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070505083348/http://www.airpower.maxwell.af.mil/airchronicles/apj/apj00/sum00/helmreich.html">"The Diplomacy of Apology: U.S. Bombings of Switzerland during World War II"</a>. <i>Aerospace Power Journal</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.airpower.maxwell.af.mil/airchronicles/apj/apj00/sum00/helmreich.html">the original</a> on May 5, 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Aerospace+Power+Journal&rft.atitle=The+Diplomacy+of+Apology%3A+U.S.+Bombings+of+Switzerland+during+World+War+II&rft.ssn=summer&rft.date=2000&rft.aulast=Helmreich&rft.aufirst=Dr.+Jonathan+E.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.airpower.maxwell.af.mil%2Fairchronicles%2Fapj%2Fapj00%2Fsum00%2Fhelmreich.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwitzerland+during+the+world+wars" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Golson, p. 294</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Switzerland_during_the_world_wars&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBonjour1978" class="citation book cs1">Bonjour, Edgar (1978). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/modernswitzerlan00luck">"Swiss Neutrality During Two World Wars"</a></span>. In Luck, James Murray; Burckhardt, Lukas F.; Haug, Hans (eds.). <i>Modern Switzerland</i>. The Society for the Promotion of Science and Scholarship Inc. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/modernswitzerlan00luck/page/419">419</a>–438. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-930664-01-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-930664-01-9"><bdi>0-930664-01-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Swiss+Neutrality+During+Two+World+Wars&rft.btitle=Modern+Switzerland&rft.pages=419-438&rft.pub=The+Society+for+the+Promotion+of+Science+and+Scholarship+Inc.&rft.date=1978&rft.isbn=0-930664-01-9&rft.aulast=Bonjour&rft.aufirst=Edgar&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmodernswitzerlan00luck&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwitzerland+during+the+world+wars" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Codevilla, Angelo M. <i>Between the Alps and a Hard Place: Switzerland in World War II and the Rewriting of History</i>, (2013) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-89526-238-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-89526-238-X">0-89526-238-X</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/Between-Alps-Hard-Place-ebook/dp/B00BY6TRB2/">excerpt and text search</a></li> <li>Golson, Eric Bernard, <i>The Economics of Neutrality: Spain, Sweden and Switzerland in the Second World War</i> (2011) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://etheses.lse.ac.uk/178/1/Golson_The_Economics_of_Neutrality.pdf">PhD thesis, LSE, 500pp. full text</a></li> <li>Kreis, Georg. <i>Switzerland and the Second World War</i> (2013) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Qe92SCpUBM8C">excerpt and text search</a></li> <li>Petropoulos, Jonathan, "Co-Opting Nazi Germany: Neutrality in Europe During World War II." <i>Dimensions</i> 14.1 (2000): 13+. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.proquest.com/openview/2b510eeccef654a7650bb3c795470e30/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=43165">excerpt</a></li> <li>Schelbert, Leo, ed. <i>Switzerland Under Siege 1939–1945</i>, editor <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-89725-414-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-89725-414-7">0-89725-414-7</a></li> <li>Wylie, Neville. <i>Britain, Switzerland, and the Second World War</i> (Oxford U.P. 2003)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Switzerland_during_the_world_wars&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Moos, Carlo: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/article/domestic_politics_and_neutrality_switzerland">Domestic Politics and Neutrality (Switzerland)</a>, in: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/home.html">1914-1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War</a>.</li> <li>Bürgisser, Thomas: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/article/internees_switzerland">Internees (Switzerland)</a>, in: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/home.html">1914-1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War</a>.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://history-switzerland.geschichte-schweiz.ch/switzerland-neutrality-world-war-ii.html">Switzerland's Neutrality</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.switzerland1914-1918.net">Switzerland and the First World War</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.yadvashem.org/articles/academic/switzerland-and-the-refugees-fleeing-nazism.html">Switzerland and the Refugees Fleeing Nazism</a>, on <a href="/wiki/Yad_Vashem" title="Yad Vashem">Yad Vashem</a> website</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox 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.nobold{font-weight:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Switzerland_articles" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Switzerland_topics" title="Template:Switzerland topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Switzerland_topics" title="Template talk:Switzerland topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a 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href="/wiki/Early_history_of_Switzerland" title="Early history of Switzerland">Early history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Switzerland_in_the_Roman_era" title="Switzerland in the Roman era">Roman era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Swiss_Confederacy" title="Old Swiss Confederacy">Old Confederacy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Federal_Charter_of_1291" title="Federal Charter of 1291">Federal Charter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R%C3%BCtli_Oath" title="Rütli Oath">Rütli Oath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Growth_of_the_Old_Swiss_Confederacy" title="Growth of the Old Swiss Confederacy">Growth</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformation_in_Switzerland" title="Reformation in Switzerland">Reformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Modern_Switzerland" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Modern Switzerland">Early Modern era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Switzerland_in_the_Napoleonic_era" title="Switzerland in the Napoleonic era">Napoleonic era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restoration_and_Regeneration_in_Switzerland" title="Restoration and Regeneration in Switzerland">Restoration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Switzerland_as_a_federal_state" title="Switzerland as a federal state">Federal state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Switzerland_during_the_World_Wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Switzerland during the World Wars">World wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_history_of_Switzerland" title="Modern history of Switzerland">Modern history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Switzerland" title="Military history of Switzerland">Military history</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_wars_involving_Switzerland" title="List of wars involving Switzerland">list of wars</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_Switzerland" title="Historiography of Switzerland">Historiography</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="5" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Coat_of_Arms_of_Switzerland_(Pantone).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Coat_of_Arms_of_Switzerland_%28Pantone%29.svg/80px-Coat_of_Arms_of_Switzerland_%28Pantone%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="80" height="89" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Coat_of_Arms_of_Switzerland_%28Pantone%29.svg/120px-Coat_of_Arms_of_Switzerland_%28Pantone%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Coat_of_Arms_of_Switzerland_%28Pantone%29.svg/160px-Coat_of_Arms_of_Switzerland_%28Pantone%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="604" data-file-height="669" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Switzerland" title="Geography of Switzerland">Geography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Physiographic areas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Swiss_Alps" title="Swiss Alps">Swiss Alps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swiss_Plateau" title="Swiss Plateau">Swiss Plateau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jura_Mountains" title="Jura Mountains">Jura Mountains</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Subdivisions_of_Switzerland" title="Subdivisions of Switzerland">Subdivisions</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cantons_of_Switzerland" title="Cantons of Switzerland">Cantons</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Appenzell_Innerrhoden" title="Appenzell Innerrhoden">AI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aargau" title="Aargau">AG</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appenzell_Ausserrhoden" title="Appenzell Ausserrhoden">AR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canton_of_Bern" title="Canton of Bern">BE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basel-Landschaft" title="Basel-Landschaft">BL</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basel-Stadt" title="Basel-Stadt">BS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canton_of_Fribourg" title="Canton of Fribourg">FR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canton_of_Geneva" title="Canton of Geneva">GE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canton_of_Glarus" title="Canton of Glarus">GL</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grisons" title="Grisons">GR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canton_of_Jura" title="Canton of Jura">JU</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canton_of_Lucerne" title="Canton of Lucerne">LU</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canton_of_Neuch%C3%A2tel" title="Canton of Neuchâtel">NE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nidwalden" title="Nidwalden">NW</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obwalden" title="Obwalden">OW</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canton_of_St._Gallen" title="Canton of St. Gallen">SG</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canton_of_Schaffhausen" title="Canton of Schaffhausen">SH</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canton_of_Solothurn" title="Canton of Solothurn">SO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canton_of_Schwyz" title="Canton of Schwyz">SZ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thurgau" title="Thurgau">TG</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ticino" title="Ticino">TI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canton_of_Uri" title="Canton of Uri">UR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaud" title="Vaud">VD</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valais" title="Valais">VS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canton_of_Zug" title="Canton of Zug">ZG</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canton_of_Zurich" title="Canton of Zurich">ZH</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Districts_of_Switzerland" title="Districts of Switzerland">Districts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Municipalities_of_Switzerland" title="Municipalities of Switzerland">Municipalities</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_in_Switzerland" title="List of cities in Switzerland">list of cities and towns</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NUTS_statistical_regions_of_Switzerland" title="NUTS statistical regions of Switzerland">Statistical regions</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">By topic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_of_Switzerland" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate of Switzerland">Climate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_earthquakes_in_Switzerland" title="List of earthquakes in Switzerland">Earthquakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_extreme_points_of_Switzerland" title="List of extreme points of Switzerland">Extreme points</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fauna_of_Switzerland" title="Fauna of Switzerland">Fauna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forests_of_Switzerland" title="Forests of Switzerland">Forests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_glaciers_in_Switzerland" title="List of glaciers in Switzerland">Glaciers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrology_of_Switzerland" title="Hydrology of Switzerland">Hydrology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_of_Switzerland" title="List of islands of Switzerland">Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_lakes_of_Switzerland" title="List of lakes of Switzerland">Lakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mountain_passes_in_Switzerland" title="List of mountain passes in Switzerland">Mountain passes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_prominent_mountains_of_Switzerland" title="List of prominent mountains of Switzerland">Mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature_parks_in_Switzerland" title="Nature parks in Switzerland">Parks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rivers_of_Switzerland" title="List of rivers of Switzerland">Rivers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Switzerland" title="Politics of Switzerland">Politics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Subdivisions_of_Switzerland" title="Subdivisions of Switzerland">Administrative divisions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swiss_Federal_Constitution" title="Swiss Federal Constitution">Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_courts_of_Switzerland" title="Federal courts of Switzerland">Courts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Federal_Supreme_Court_of_Switzerland" title="Federal Supreme Court of Switzerland">Supreme Court</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_Switzerland" title="Elections in Switzerland">Elections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_Switzerland" title="Foreign relations of Switzerland">Foreign relations</a></li> <li>Government <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Federal_Council_(Switzerland)" title="Federal Council (Switzerland)">Federal Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/President_of_the_Swiss_Confederation" title="President of the Swiss Confederation">President of the Confederation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_administration_of_Switzerland" title="Federal administration of Switzerland">Federal administration</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Switzerland" title="Human rights in Switzerland">Human rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_Switzerland" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights in Switzerland">LGBT</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landsgemeinde" title="Landsgemeinde">Landsgemeinde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Switzerland" title="Law of Switzerland">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_enforcement_in_Switzerland" title="Law enforcement in Switzerland">Law enforcement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swiss_Armed_Forces" title="Swiss Armed Forces">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Redoubt_(Switzerland)" title="National Redoubt (Switzerland)">National Redoubt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swiss_neutrality" title="Swiss neutrality">Neutrality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_Assembly_(Switzerland)" title="Federal Assembly (Switzerland)">Parliament</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_Council_(Switzerland)" title="National Council (Switzerland)">National Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_States_(Switzerland)" title="Council of States (Switzerland)">Council of States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_parties_in_Switzerland" title="List of political parties in Switzerland">Political parties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Popular_initiative_in_Switzerland" title="Popular initiative in Switzerland">Popular initiative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voting_in_Switzerland" title="Voting in Switzerland">Voting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_decree" title="Federal decree">Federal decree</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Switzerland" title="Economy of Switzerland">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_Switzerland" title="Economic history of Switzerland">Economic history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Switzerland" title="Agriculture in Switzerland">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banking_in_Switzerland" title="Banking in Switzerland">Banking</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Swiss_National_Bank" title="Swiss National Bank">Central bank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_banks_in_Switzerland" title="List of banks in Switzerland">Private banks</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_companies_of_Switzerland" title="List of companies of Switzerland">Companies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_in_Switzerland" title="Energy in Switzerland">Energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swiss_franc" title="Swiss franc">Franc <span style="font-size:85%;">(currency)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmaceutical_industry_in_Switzerland" class="mw-redirect" title="Pharmaceutical industry in Switzerland">Pharmaceutical industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_Switzerland" title="Science and technology in Switzerland">Science and technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SIX_Swiss_Exchange" title="SIX Swiss Exchange">Stock exchange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swiss_made" title="Swiss made">Swiss made</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxation_in_Switzerland" title="Taxation in Switzerland">Taxation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Switzerland" title="Telecommunications in Switzerland">Telecommunications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_Switzerland" title="Tourism in Switzerland">Tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trade_unions_in_Switzerland" title="Trade unions in Switzerland">Trade unions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_in_Switzerland" title="Transport in Switzerland">Transport</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_airports_in_Switzerland" title="List of airports in Switzerland">air</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rail_transport_in_Switzerland" title="Rail transport in Switzerland">rail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Swiss_main_roads" title="List of Swiss main roads">road</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waste_management_in_Switzerland" title="Waste management in Switzerland">Waste management</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Society_of_Switzerland" title="Category:Society of Switzerland">Society</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_Switzerland" title="Abortion in Switzerland">Abortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment_in_Switzerland" title="Capital punishment in Switzerland">Capital punishment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conscription_in_Switzerland" title="Conscription in Switzerland">Conscription</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Switzerland" title="Corruption in Switzerland">Corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Switzerland" title="Crime in Switzerland">Crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_Switzerland" title="Demographics of Switzerland">Demographics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Switzerland" title="Education in Switzerland">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euthanasia_in_Switzerland" title="Euthanasia in Switzerland">Euthanasia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Firearms_regulation_in_Switzerland" title="Firearms regulation in Switzerland">Firearms regulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_in_Switzerland" title="Health in Switzerland">Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Healthcare_in_Switzerland" title="Healthcare in Switzerland">Healthcare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homelessness_in_Switzerland" title="Homelessness in Switzerland">Homelessness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking_in_Switzerland" title="Human trafficking in Switzerland">Human trafficking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immigration_to_Switzerland" title="Immigration to Switzerland">Immigration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pension_system_in_Switzerland" title="Pension system in Switzerland">Pensions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_prisons_in_Switzerland" title="List of prisons in Switzerland">Prisons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_in_Switzerland" title="Poverty in Switzerland">Poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostitution_in_Switzerland" title="Prostitution in Switzerland">Prostitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_security_in_Switzerland" title="Social security in Switzerland">Social security</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swiss_people" title="Swiss people">Swiss people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_Welfare_Policy_in_Switzerland" title="Public Welfare Policy in Switzerland">Welfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Switzerland" title="Women in Switzerland">Women</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Switzerland" title="Culture of Switzerland">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Swiss_Psalm" title="Swiss Psalm">Anthem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_Switzerland" title="Architecture of Switzerland">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinema_of_Switzerland" title="Cinema of Switzerland">Cinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coat_of_arms_of_Switzerland" title="Coat of arms of Switzerland">Coat of arms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swiss_cuisine" title="Swiss cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_Switzerland" title="Flag of Switzerland">Flag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swiss_folklore" title="Swiss folklore">Folklore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helvetia" title="Helvetia">Helvetia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Switzerland" title="Languages of Switzerland">Languages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Swiss_Standard_German" title="Swiss Standard German">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swiss_French" title="Swiss French">French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swiss_Italian" title="Swiss Italian">Italian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romansh_language" title="Romansh language">Romansh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R%C3%B6stigraben" title="Röstigraben">Röstigraben</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swiss_literature" title="Swiss literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_media_in_Switzerland" title="Mass media in Switzerland">Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Switzerland" title="Music of Switzerland">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_holidays_in_Switzerland" title="Public holidays in Switzerland">Public holidays</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Swiss_National_Day" title="Swiss National Day">National Day</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Switzerland" title="Religion in Switzerland">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sport_in_Switzerland" title="Sport in Switzerland">Sport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_symbols_of_Switzerland" title="National symbols of Switzerland">Symbols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swiss_Inventory_of_Cultural_Property_of_National_and_Regional_Significance" title="Swiss Inventory of Cultural Property of National and Regional Significance">Cultural Property of National Significance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_World_Heritage_Sites_in_Switzerland" title="List of World Heritage Sites in Switzerland">World Heritage Sites</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3" style="font-weight:bold;"><div><div style="margin-bottom:-0.4em;"><ul><li><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Switzerland" title="Outline of Switzerland">Outline</a></span></li><li><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Switzerland" title="Outline of Switzerland">Index</a></span></li></ul></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Switzerland" title="Category:Switzerland">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Switzerland" title="Portal:Switzerland">Portal</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="History_of_World_War_I_by_region_and_country" style=";wide;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:WWI_history_by_nation" title="Template:WWI history by nation"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:inherit">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:WWI_history_by_nation" title="Template talk:WWI history by nation"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:inherit">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:WWI_history_by_nation" title="Special:EditPage/Template:WWI history by nation"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:inherit">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="History_of_World_War_I_by_region_and_country" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">History of <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a> by region and country</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Africa</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/German_campaign_in_Angola" title="German campaign in Angola">Angola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_African_campaign_(World_War_I)" title="East African campaign (World War I)">East Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinai_and_Palestine_campaign" title="Sinai and Palestine campaign">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopia_in_World_War_I" title="Ethiopia in World War I">Ethiopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberia_in_World_War_I" title="Liberia in World War I">Liberia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zaian_War" title="Zaian War">Morocco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_African_Overseas_Expeditionary_Force" title="South African Overseas Expeditionary Force">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_West_Africa_campaign" title="South West Africa campaign">South West Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Rhodesia_in_World_War_I" title="Southern Rhodesia in World War I">Southern Rhodesia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Americas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brazil_during_World_War_I" title="Brazil during World War I">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canada_in_World_War_I" title="Canada in World War I">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_in_World_War_I" title="United States in World War I">United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venezuela_during_World_War_I" title="Venezuela during World War I">Venezuela</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Asia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Caucasus_campaign" title="Caucasus campaign">Caucasus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/China_during_World_War_I" title="China during World War I">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hong_Kong_during_World_War_I" title="Hong Kong during World War I">Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Army_during_World_War_I" title="Indian Army during World War I">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_campaign_(World_War_I)" title="Persian campaign (World War I)">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamian_campaign" title="Mesopotamian campaign">Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japan_during_World_War_I" title="Japan during World War I">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire_in_World_War_I" title="Ottoman Empire in World War I">Ottoman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinai_and_Palestine_campaign" title="Sinai and Palestine campaign">Palestine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siam_in_World_War_I" title="Siam in World War I">Siam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Vietnam_during_World_War_I" title="History of Vietnam during World War I">Vietnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Arabia_during_World_War_I" title="South Arabia during World War I">Yemen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Europe</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/World_War_I_in_Albania" title="World War I in Albania">Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Austria-Hungary_during_World_War_I" title="History of Austria-Hungary during World War I">Austria-Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belgium_in_World_War_I" title="Belgium in World War I">Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulgaria_during_World_War_I" title="Bulgaria during World War I">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Croatia_during_World_War_I" title="Croatia during World War I">Croatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denmark_during_World_War_I" title="Denmark during World War I">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_occupation_of_Estonia_during_World_War_I" title="German occupation of Estonia during World War I">Estonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Army_in_World_War_I" title="French Army in World War I">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Germany_during_World_War_I" title="History of Germany during World War I">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greece_during_World_War_I" title="Greece during World War I">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungary_in_World_War_I" title="Hungary in World War I">Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ireland_and_World_War_I" title="Ireland and World War I">Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Italy_during_World_War_I" title="Military history of Italy during World War I">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liechtenstein_in_World_War_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Liechtenstein in World War I">Liechtenstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_occupation_of_Luxembourg_during_World_War_I" title="German occupation of Luxembourg during World War I">Luxembourg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Netherlands_in_World_War_I" title="Netherlands in World War I">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norway_in_World_War_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Norway in World War I">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire_in_World_War_I" title="Ottoman Empire in World War I">Ottoman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Poland_during_World_War_I" title="History of Poland during World War I">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portugal_during_World_War_I" title="Portugal during World War I">Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romania_in_World_War_I" title="Romania in World War I">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russia_in_the_First_World_War" title="Russia in the First World War">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serbian_campaign" title="Serbian campaign">Serbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spain_during_World_War_I" title="Spain during World War I">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sweden_during_World_War_I" title="Sweden during World War I">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Switzerland_during_the_World_Wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Switzerland during the World Wars">Switzerland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ukraine_during_World_War_I" title="Ukraine during World War I">Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_Kingdom_during_the_First_World_War" title="History of the United Kingdom during the First World War">United Kingdom</a> (<a href="/wiki/Wales_in_the_World_Wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Wales in the World Wars">Wales</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ireland_and_World_War_I" title="Ireland and World War I">Ireland</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Oceania</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Australia_during_World_War_I" title="Military history of Australia during World War I">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_New_Zealand_during_World_War_I" title="Military history of New Zealand during World War I">New Zealand</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="History_of_World_War_II_by_region_and_country" style=";wide;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:WWII_history_by_nation" title="Template:WWII history by nation"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:inherit">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:WWII_history_by_nation" title="Template talk:WWII history by nation"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:inherit">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:WWII_history_by_nation" title="Special:EditPage/Template:WWII history by nation"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:inherit">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="History_of_World_War_II_by_region_and_country" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/World_War_II_by_country" title="World War II by country">History of World War II by region and country</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Africa</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Belgian_Congo_in_World_War_II" title="Belgian Congo in World War II">Belgian Congo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_invasion_of_British_Somaliland" title="Italian invasion of British Somaliland">British Somaliland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egypt_in_World_War_II" title="Egypt in World War II">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Ethiopia" title="Italian Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Somaliland_in_World_War_II" title="French Somaliland in World War II">French Somaliland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_West_Africa_in_World_War_II" title="French West Africa in World War II">French West Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Gambia_in_World_War_II" title="The Gambia in World War II">The Gambia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gold_Coast_in_World_War_II" title="Gold Coast in World War II">Gold Coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kenya_in_World_War_II" title="Kenya in World War II">Kenya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberia_in_World_War_II" title="Liberia in World War II">Liberia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madagascar_in_World_War_II" title="Madagascar in World War II">Madagascar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_African_campaign" title="North African campaign">North Africa</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tunisian_campaign" title="Tunisian campaign">Tunisia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morocco_in_World_War_II" title="Morocco in World War II">Morocco</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nyasaland_in_World_War_II" title="Nyasaland in World War II">Nyasaland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sierra_Leone_in_World_War_II" title="Sierra Leone in World War II">Sierra Leone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_South_Africa_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of South Africa during World War II">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Rhodesia_in_World_War_II" title="Southern Rhodesia in World War II">Southern Rhodesia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">North America</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Canada_in_World_War_II" title="Canada in World War II">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuba_during_World_War_II" title="Cuba during World War II">Cuba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_dictatorship_in_El_Salvador#World_War_II" title="Military dictatorship in El Salvador">El Salvador</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenland_in_World_War_II" title="Greenland in World War II">Greenland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mexico_during_World_War_II" title="Mexico during World War II">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Newfoundland_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of Newfoundland during World War II">Newfoundland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_United_States_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of the United States during World War II">United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arizona_during_World_War_II" title="Arizona during World War II">Arizona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/California_during_World_War_II" title="California during World War II">California</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nevada_during_World_War_II" title="Nevada during World War II">Nevada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Mexico_during_World_War_II" title="New Mexico during World War II">New Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Puerto_Ricans_in_World_War_II" title="Puerto Ricans in World War II">Puerto Rico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_Americans_and_World_War_II" title="Native Americans and World War II">Native Americans</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">South America</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Argentina_during_World_War_II" title="Argentina during World War II">Argentina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brazil_in_World_War_II" title="Brazil in World War II">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colombia_during_World_War_II" title="Colombia during World War II">Colombia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_America_during_World_War_II" title="Latin America during World War II">Latin America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suriname_during_World_War_II" title="Suriname during World War II">Suriname</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uruguay_during_World_War_II" title="Uruguay during World War II">Uruguay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venezuela_during_World_War_II" title="Venezuela during World War II">Venezuela</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Asia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_Burma" title="Japanese occupation of Burma">Burma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ceylon_in_World_War_II" title="Ceylon in World War II">Ceylon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Sino-Japanese_War" title="Second Sino-Japanese War">China</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Manchukuo" title="Manchukuo">Manchuria</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_the_Dutch_East_Indies" title="Japanese occupation of the Dutch East Indies">Dutch East Indies</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_New_Guinea" title="Japanese occupation of New Guinea">New Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_West_Sumatra" title="Japanese occupation of West Sumatra">West Sumatra</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_Hong_Kong" title="Japanese occupation of Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/India_in_World_War_II" title="India in World War II">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Indochina_in_World_War_II" title="French Indochina in World War II">Indochina</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_Cambodia" title="Japanese occupation of Cambodia">Cambodia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Soviet_invasion_of_Iran" title="Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Iraqi_War" title="Anglo-Iraqi War">Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japan_during_World_War_II" title="Japan during World War II">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_Malaya" title="Japanese occupation of Malaya">Malaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongolia_in_World_War_II" title="Mongolia in World War II">Mongolia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nepal_in_World_War_II" title="Nepal in World War II">Nepal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_Philippines_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of the Philippines during World War II">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_British_Borneo" title="Japanese occupation of British Borneo">Sarawak, Brunei, Labuan, and British North Borneo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_Singapore" title="Japanese occupation of Singapore">Singapore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thailand_in_World_War_II" title="Thailand in World War II">Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibet_(1912%E2%80%931951)" title="Tibet (1912–1951)">Tibet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/One-party_period_of_the_Republic_of_Turkey#Politics_of_World_War_II" title="One-party period of the Republic of Turkey">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuva_in_World_War_II" title="Tuva in World War II">Tuva</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Europe</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/World_War_II_in_Albania" title="World War II in Albania">Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anschluss" title="Anschluss">Austria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belgium_in_World_War_II" title="Belgium in World War II">Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulgaria_during_World_War_II" title="Bulgaria during World War II">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_Czechoslovakia_(1938%E2%80%931945)" title="Occupation of Czechoslovakia (1938–1945)">Czechoslovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denmark_in_World_War_II" title="Denmark in World War II">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Estonia_in_World_War_II" title="Estonia in World War II">Estonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finland_in_World_War_II" title="Finland in World War II">Finland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/France_during_World_War_II" title="France during World War II">France</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_France_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of France during World War II">Military history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_II_in_the_Basque_Country" title="World War II in the Basque Country">Basque Country</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Greece_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of Greece during World War II">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungary_in_World_War_II" title="Hungary in World War II">Hungary</a> (<a href="/wiki/Carpathian_Ruthenia_during_World_War_II" title="Carpathian Ruthenia during World War II">Carpathian Ruthenia</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iceland_in_World_War_II" title="Iceland in World War II">Iceland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Emergency_(Ireland)" title="The Emergency (Ireland)">Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Italy_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of Italy during World War II">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Latvia_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of Latvia during World War II">Latvia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Liechtenstein#World_War_II" title="History of Liechtenstein">Liechtenstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resistance_in_Lithuania_during_World_War_II" title="Resistance in Lithuania during World War II">Lithuania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luxembourg_in_World_War_II" title="Luxembourg in World War II">Luxembourg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Netherlands_in_World_War_II" title="Netherlands in World War II">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_occupation_of_Norway" title="German occupation of Norway">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Poland_(1939%E2%80%931945)" title="History of Poland (1939–1945)">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portugal_during_World_War_II" title="Portugal during World War II">Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romania_in_World_War_II" title="Romania in World War II">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slovakia_during_World_War_II" title="Slovakia during World War II">Slovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union_in_World_War_II" title="Soviet Union in World War II">Soviet Union</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Azerbaijan_in_World_War_II" title="Azerbaijan in World War II">Azerbaijan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byelorussia_in_World_War_II" title="Byelorussia in World War II">Byelorussia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_history_of_Ukraine#World_War_II" title="Modern history of Ukraine">Ukraine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spain_during_World_War_II" title="Spain during World War II">Spain</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/World_War_II_in_the_Basque_Country" title="World War II in the Basque Country">Basque Country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catalonia_and_World_War_II" title="Catalonia and World War II">Catalonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galicia_and_World_War_II" title="Galicia and World War II">Galicia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sweden_during_World_War_II" title="Sweden during World War II">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Switzerland_during_the_World_Wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Switzerland during the World Wars">Switzerland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_United_Kingdom_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of the United Kingdom during World War II">United Kingdom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/British_Empire_in_World_War_II" title="British Empire in World War II">British Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wales_in_the_World_Wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Wales in the World Wars">Wales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_occupation_of_the_Channel_Islands" title="German occupation of the Channel Islands">Channel Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Gibraltar_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of Gibraltar during World War II">Gibraltar</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vatican_City_during_World_War_II" title="Vatican City during World War II">Vatican City</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_II_in_Yugoslavia" title="World War II in Yugoslavia">Yugoslavia</a> (<a href="/wiki/World_War_II_in_the_Slovene_Lands" title="World War II in the Slovene Lands">Slovenia</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Oceania and<br /> Antarctica</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antarctica_during_World_War_II" title="Antarctica during World War II">Antarctica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Australia_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of Australia during World War II">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_the_Gilbert_Islands" title="Japanese occupation of the Gilbert Islands">Gilbert Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_Nauru" title="Japanese occupation of Nauru">Nauru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_New_Guinea" title="Japanese occupation of New Guinea">New Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_New_Zealand_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of New Zealand during World War II">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_the_Solomon_Islands" title="Japanese occupation of the Solomon Islands">Solomon Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacific_Islands_home_front_during_World_War_II" title="Pacific Islands home front during World War II">Pacific Islands</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1130092004">.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-bordered{padding:0 2em;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;justify-content:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-unbordered{padding:0 1.7em;margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{margin:0 1em 0 0.5em;flex:0 0 auto;min-height:24px}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;flex:0 1 auto;padding:0.15em 0;column-gap:1em;align-items:baseline;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content-related{margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-item{display:inline-block;margin:0.15em 0.2em;min-height:24px;line-height:24px}@media screen and (max-width:768px){.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;flex-flow:column wrap;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{text-align:center;flex:0;padding-left:0.5em;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;align-items:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;align-items:center;flex:0;column-gap:1em;border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;margin:0 auto;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content-related{border-top:none;margin:0;list-style:none}}.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.sister-bar{margin-top:-1px}</style><div class="portal-bar noprint metadata noviewer portal-bar-bordered" role="navigation" aria-label="Portals"><span class="portal-bar-header"><a 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class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Switzerland.svg/29px-Flag_of_Switzerland.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Switzerland.svg/38px-Flag_of_Switzerland.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Switzerland" title="Portal:Switzerland">Switzerland</a></li></ul></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-label="Navbox" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span 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