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class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Phonology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Phonology </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Phonology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Morphosyntax" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Morphosyntax"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Morphosyntax </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Morphosyntax-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vocabulary" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vocabulary"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 Vocabulary </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vocabulary-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Typology_and_areal_features" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Typology_and_areal_features"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Typology and areal features </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Typology_and_areal_features-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Proposed_external_relationships" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Proposed_external_relationships"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Proposed external relationships </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Proposed_external_relationships-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Proposed external relationships subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Proposed_external_relationships-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Altaic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Altaic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Altaic </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Altaic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Japonic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Japonic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Japonic </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Japonic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Others" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Others"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Others </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Others-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Early_history" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_history"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Early history </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Early_history-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Early history subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Early_history-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Early_Chinese_descriptions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_Chinese_descriptions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Early Chinese descriptions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_Chinese_descriptions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Three_Kingdoms_period" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Three_Kingdoms_period"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Three Kingdoms period </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Three_Kingdoms_period-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 References </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle References subsection </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Works_cited" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Works_cited"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 Works cited </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Works_cited-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Koreanic languages</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" 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Available in 23 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-23" aria-hidden="true" > 23 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lling%C3%BCes_core%C3%A1niques" title="Llingües coreániques – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Llingües coreániques" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lleng%C3%BCes_core%C3%A0niques" title="Llengües coreàniques – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Llengües coreàniques" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korejsk%C3%A9_jazyky" title="Korejské jazyky – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Korejské jazyky" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koreanische_Sprachen" title="Koreanische Sprachen – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Koreanische Sprachen" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9A%CE%BF%CF%81%CE%B5%CE%B1%CE%BD%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AD%CF%82_%CE%B3%CE%BB%CF%8E%CF%83%CF%83%CE%B5%CF%82" title="Κορεανικές γλώσσες – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Κορεανικές γλώσσες" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lenguas_core%C3%A1nicas" title="Lenguas coreánicas – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Lenguas coreánicas" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B2%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%86%E2%80%8C%D9%87%D8%A7%DB%8C_%DA%A9%D8%B1%D9%87%E2%80%8C%D8%A7%DB%8C" title="زبان‌های کره‌ای – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="زبان‌های کره‌ای" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Langues_cor%C3%A9aniques" title="Langues coréaniques – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Langues coréaniques" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguas_core%C3%A1nicas" title="Linguas coreánicas – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Linguas coreánicas" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%95%9C%EA%B5%AD%EC%96%B4%EC%A1%B1" title="한국어족 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="한국어족" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korejski_jezici" title="Korejski jezici – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Korejski jezici" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rumpun_bahasa_Koreanik" title="Rumpun bahasa Koreanik – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Rumpun bahasa Koreanik" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguae_Coreanicae" title="Linguae Coreanicae – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Linguae Coreanicae" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kor%C4%97jie%C4%8Di%C5%B3_kalbos" title="Korėjiečių kalbos – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Korėjiečių kalbos" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%9C%9D%E9%AE%AE%E8%AA%9E%E6%97%8F" title="朝鮮語族 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="朝鮮語族" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%ADnguas_core%C3%A1nicas" title="Línguas coreánicas – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Línguas coreánicas" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korealaiset_kielet" title="Korealaiset kielet – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Korealaiset kielet" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B0%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B9%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%A0%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A9%E0%B8%B2%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%AB%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%B5" title="ตระกูลภาษาเกาหลี – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ตระกูลภาษาเกาหลี" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kore_dilleri" title="Kore dilleri – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Kore dilleri" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B9%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D1%96_%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8" title="Корейські мови – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Корейські мови" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D9%88%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%A6%DB%8C_%D8%B2%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C%DA%BA" title="کوریائی زبانیں – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="کوریائی زبانیں" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ng%E1%BB%AF_h%E1%BB%87_Tri%E1%BB%81u_Ti%C3%AAn" title="Ngữ hệ Triều Tiên – Vietnamese" lang="vi" 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id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Language family</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox" style="width:22em;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background-color: yellowgreen;">Koreanic</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Geographic distribution</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Korea" title="Korea">Korea</a>, <a href="/wiki/Manchuria" title="Manchuria">Manchuria</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Language_family" title="Language family">Linguistic classification</a></th><td class="infobox-data">One of the world's primary <a href="/wiki/Language_family" title="Language family">language families</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Proto-language</th><td class="infobox-data">Proto-Koreanic</td></tr><tr class="plainlist"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Subdivisions</th><td class="infobox-data"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Korean_language" title="Korean language">Korean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeju_language" title="Jeju language">Jeju</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yukjin_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Yukjin dialect">Yukjin</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVovin2013c201-1">[1]</a></li> <li><abbr title="Extinct" aria-label="Extinct" style="border: none; text-decoration: none; cursor: inherit; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal;">†</abbr><a href="/wiki/Baekje_language" title="Baekje language">Baekje</a>?</li> <li><abbr title="Extinct" aria-label="Extinct" style="border: none; text-decoration: none; cursor: inherit; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal;">†</abbr><a href="/wiki/Goguryeo_language" title="Goguryeo language">Goguryeo</a>?</li></ul> </td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: black; background-color: yellowgreen;">Language codes</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Glottolog" title="Glottolog">Glottolog</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><samp><code><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/kore1284">kore1284</a></code></samp></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><a href="/wiki/File:Koreanic.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Koreanic.svg/300px-Koreanic.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="423" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Koreanic.svg/450px-Koreanic.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Koreanic.svg/600px-Koreanic.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="722" /></a><div style="text-align:left;">Current extent of Koreanic as majority and minority (dashed) languages in East Asia</div></td></tr></tbody></table> Koreanic is a small <a href="/wiki/Language_family" title="Language family">language family</a> consisting of the <a href="/wiki/Korean_language" title="Korean language">Korean</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jeju_language" title="Jeju language">Jeju</a> languages. The latter is often described as a dialect of Korean but is distinct enough to be considered a separate language. <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Vovin" title="Alexander Vovin">Alexander Vovin</a> suggested that the <a href="/wiki/Yukjin_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Yukjin dialect">Yukjin dialect</a> of the far northeast should be similarly distinguished. Korean has been richly documented since the introduction of the <a href="/wiki/Hangul" title="Hangul">Hangul</a> alphabet in the 15th century. Earlier renditions of Korean using <a href="/wiki/Chinese_characters" title="Chinese characters">Chinese characters</a> are much more difficult to interpret. All modern varieties are descended from the <a href="/wiki/Old_Korean" title="Old Korean">Old Korean</a> of the state of <a href="/wiki/Silla" title="Silla">Silla</a>. What little is known of other languages spoken on the peninsula before the <a href="/wiki/Later_Silla" class="mw-redirect" title="Later Silla">Sillan unification</a> (late 7th century) comes largely from placenames. Some of these languages are believed to have been Koreanic, but there is also evidence suggesting that <a href="/wiki/Japonic_languages" title="Japonic languages">Japonic languages</a> were spoken in central and southern parts of the peninsula. There have been many attempts to link Koreanic with other language families, most often with <a href="/wiki/Tungusic_languages" title="Tungusic languages">Tungusic</a> or Japonic, but no <a href="/wiki/Genetic_relationship_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Genetic relationship (linguistics)">genetic relationship</a> has been conclusively demonstrated. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Extant_languages">Extant languages</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Koreanic_languages&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Extant languages">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Korean_dialect_zones.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Korean_dialect_zones.svg/220px-Korean_dialect_zones.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="413" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Korean_dialect_zones.svg/330px-Korean_dialect_zones.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Korean_dialect_zones.svg/440px-Korean_dialect_zones.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="961" /></a><figcaption>Dialect zones<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENGII201737-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing198734-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECASS2012Map_C1-7-4">[4]</a></figcaption></figure> The various forms of Korean are conventionally described as "dialects" of a single Korean language, but breaks in intelligibility justify viewing them as a small family of two or three languages.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChoWhitman202013-5">[5]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Korean">Korean</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Koreanic_languages&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Korean">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Korean_language" title="Korean language">Korean language</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Korean_dialects" title="Korean dialects">Korean dialects</a> form a <a href="/wiki/Dialect_continuum" title="Dialect continuum">dialect continuum</a> stretching from the southern end of the Korean peninsula to <a href="/wiki/Yanbian_Korean_Autonomous_Prefecture" title="Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture">Yanbian prefecture</a> in the Chinese province of <a href="/wiki/Jilin" title="Jilin">Jilin</a>, though dialects at opposite ends of the continuum are not <a href="/wiki/Mutually_intelligible" class="mw-redirect" title="Mutually intelligible">mutually intelligible</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChoWhitman202013-5">[5]</a> This area is usually divided into five or six dialect zones following provincial boundaries, with Yanbian dialects included in the northeastern <a href="/wiki/Hamgy%C5%8Fng_dialect" title="Hamgyŏng dialect">Hamgyŏng</a> group.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESohn199957–59-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYeon2012168-7">[7]</a> Dialects differ in <a href="/wiki/Palatalization_(sound_change)" title="Palatalization (sound change)">palatalization</a> and the reflexes of <a href="/wiki/Middle_Korean" title="Middle Korean">Middle Korean</a> accent, vowels, voiced fricatives, word-medial /k/ and word-initial /l/ and /n/.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESohn199960–66-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYeon2012169–172-9">[9]</a> Korean is extensively and precisely documented from the introduction of the <a href="/wiki/Hangul" title="Hangul">Hangul</a> alphabet in the 15th century (the Late Middle Korean period).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESohn199945-10">[10]</a> Earlier forms, written with Chinese characters using a variety of strategies, are much more obscure.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeeRamsey20115–6-11">[11]</a> The key sources on Early Middle Korean (10th to 14th centuries) are a Chinese text, the <a href="/wiki/Jilin_leishi" title="Jilin leishi">Jilin leishi</a> (1103–1104), and the pharmacological work Hyangyak kugŭppang (鄕藥救急方, mid-13th century).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeeRamsey201179–81-12">[12]</a> During this period, Korean absorbed a huge number of Chinese loanwords, affecting all aspects of the language.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESohn199944-13">[13]</a> It is estimated that <a href="/wiki/Sino-Korean_vocabulary" title="Sino-Korean vocabulary">Sino-Korean vocabulary</a> makes up more than half of the Korean lexicon, but only about 10% of basic vocabulary.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESohn199987-14">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeeRamsey2000136-15">[15]</a> <a href="/wiki/Old_Korean" title="Old Korean">Old Korean</a> (6th to early 10th centuries) is even more sparsely attested, mostly by inscriptions and 14 <a href="/wiki/Hyangga" title="Hyangga">hyangga</a> songs composed between the 7th and 9th centuries and recorded in the <a href="/wiki/Samguk_yusa" title="Samguk yusa">Samguk yusa</a> (13th century).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeeRamsey201151–59-16">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-18">[a]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Standard_language" title="Standard language">standard languages</a> of North and South Korea are both based primarily on the central <a href="/wiki/Prestige_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Prestige dialect">prestige dialect</a> of <a href="/wiki/Seoul" title="Seoul">Seoul</a>, despite the North Korean claim that their standard is based on the speech of their capital <a href="/wiki/Pyongyang" title="Pyongyang">Pyongyang</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeeRamsey2000309–310-19">[18]</a> The two standards have phonetic and lexical differences.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYeon2012180–184-20">[19]</a> Many loanwords have been purged from the North Korean standard, while South Korea has expanded Sino-Korean vocabulary and adopted loanwords, especially from English.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESohn199982–83-21">[20]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYeon2012181–182-22">[21]</a> Nonetheless, due to its origin in the Seoul dialect, the North Korean standard language is easily intelligible to all South Koreans.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeeRamsey2000309–310-19">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYeon2012184-23">[22]</a> In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, in response to poor harvests and the <a href="/wiki/Japanese_annexation_of_Korea" class="mw-redirect" title="Japanese annexation of Korea">Japanese annexation of Korea</a>, people emigrated from the northern parts of the peninsula to eastern Manchuria and the southern part of <a href="/wiki/Primorsky_Krai" title="Primorsky Krai">Primorsky Krai</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Far_East" title="Russian Far East">Russian Far East</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrownYeon2015465-24">[23]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing1987233–234-25">[24]</a> Korean labourers were forcibly moved to Manchuria as part of the <a href="/wiki/Manchukuo" title="Manchukuo">Japanese occupation of Manchuria</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrownYeon2015465-24">[23]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJanhunen199642-26">[25]</a> There are now about 2 million <a href="/wiki/Koreans_in_China" title="Koreans in China">Koreans in China</a>, mostly in the border prefecture of <a href="/wiki/Yanbian_Korean_Autonomous_Prefecture" title="Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture">Yanbian</a>, where the language has official status.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrownYeon2015465-24">[23]</a> The speech of Koreans in the Russian Far East was described by Russian scholars such as Mikhail Putsillo, who compiled a dictionary in 1874.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing1987238–241-27">[26]</a> Some 250,000 Koreans lived in the area in the 1930s, when Stalin had them <a href="/wiki/Deportation_of_Koreans_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Deportation of Koreans in the Soviet Union">forcibly deported</a> to <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Central_Asia" title="Soviet Central Asia">Soviet Central Asia</a>, particularly <a href="/wiki/Uzbekistan" title="Uzbekistan">Uzbekistan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kazakhstan" title="Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYeon2012179–180-28">[27]</a> There are small Korean communities scattered throughout central Asia maintaining forms of Korean known collectively as <a href="/wiki/Koryo-mar" title="Koryo-mar">Koryo-mar</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing1987235-29">[28]</a> There is also a Korean population on <a href="/wiki/Sakhalin" title="Sakhalin">Sakhalin</a>, descended from people forcibly transferred to the Japanese part of the island before 1945.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJanhunen199643-30">[29]</a> Most <a href="/wiki/Koreans_in_Japan" title="Koreans in Japan">Koreans in Japan</a> are descendants of immigrants during the Japanese occupation. Most Korean-language schools in Japan follow the North Korean standard.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrownYeon2015466–467-31">[30]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Zainichi_Korean_language" title="Zainichi Korean language">form of Korean spoken in Japan</a> also shows the influence of Japanese, for example in a reduced vowel system and some grammatical simplification.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrownYeon2015467–468-32">[31]</a> Korean-speakers are also found throughout the world, for example in North America, where Seoul Korean is the accepted standard.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrownYeon2015468–469-33">[32]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Jeju">Jeju</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Koreanic_languages&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Jeju">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Jeju_language" title="Jeju language">Jeju language</a></div> The speech of <a href="/wiki/Jeju_Island" title="Jeju Island">Jeju Island</a> is not mutually intelligible with standard Korean, suggesting that it should be treated as a separate language.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYangO'GradyYangHilton2018-34">[33]</a> Standard 15th-century texts include a back central unrounded vowel /ʌ/ (written with the Hangul letter ⟨ㆍ⟩), which has merged with other vowels in mainland dialects but is retained as a distinct vowel in Jeju.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYeon2012170,_178-35">[34]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Hunminjeongeum_Haerye" title="Hunminjeongeum Haerye">Hunminjeongeum Haerye</a> (1446) states that the combination /jʌ/ was not found in the standard speech of that time, but did occur in some dialects. It is also distinguished in Jeju.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeeRamsey2011159–160-36">[35]</a> This suggests that Jeju diverged from other dialects some time before the 15th century.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhitman2011155-37">[36]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Yukchin">Yukchin</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Koreanic_languages&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Yukchin">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Yukjin_Korean" title="Yukjin Korean">Yukjin Korean</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Yukchin_map.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Yukchin_map.svg/220px-Yukchin_map.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="237" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Yukchin_map.svg/330px-Yukchin_map.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Yukchin_map.svg/440px-Yukchin_map.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="552" /></a><figcaption>The six garrisons (Yukchin) in far northeastern Korea</figcaption></figure> The Yukchin dialect, spoken in the northernmost part of Korea and adjacent areas in China, forms a dialect island separate from neighbouring northeastern dialects, and is sometimes considered a separate language.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVovin2013c201-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing1987238-38">[37]</a> When King <a href="/wiki/Sejong_the_Great" title="Sejong the Great">Sejong</a> drove the <a href="/wiki/Jurchen_people" title="Jurchen people">Jurchen</a> from what is now the northernmost part of <a href="/wiki/North_Hamgyong_Province" title="North Hamgyong Province">North Hamgyong Province</a> in 1434, he established six garrisons (Yukchin) in the bend of the <a href="/wiki/Tumen_River" title="Tumen River">Tumen River</a> – <a href="/wiki/Kyonghung_County" title="Kyonghung County">Kyŏnghŭng</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kyongwon_County" title="Kyongwon County">Kyŏngwŏn</a>, <a href="/wiki/Onsong_County" title="Onsong County">Onsŏng</a>, Chongsŏng, <a href="/wiki/Hoeryong" title="Hoeryong">Hoeryŏng</a> and <a href="/wiki/Puryong_County" title="Puryong County">Puryŏng</a> – populated by immigrants from southeastern Korea. The speech of their descendents is thus markedly distinct from other Hamgyong dialects, and preserves many archaisms.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing1987236–238-39">[38]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing1992202-40">[39]</a> In particular, Yukchin was unaffected by the palatalization found in most other dialects.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing1987236-41">[40]</a> About 10 percent of Korean speakers in central Asia use the Yukchin dialect.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing1992202-40">[39]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Proto-Koreanic">Proto-Koreanic</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Koreanic_languages&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Proto-Koreanic">edit</a>]</div> Koreanic is a relatively shallow language family. Modern varieties show limited variation, most of which can be treated as derived from <a href="/wiki/Late_Middle_Korean" class="mw-redirect" title="Late Middle Korean">Late Middle Korean</a> (15th century). The few exceptions indicate a date of divergence only a few centuries earlier, following the <a href="/wiki/Unified_Silla" title="Unified Silla">unification of the peninsula</a> by <a href="/wiki/Silla" title="Silla">Silla</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhitman2011155-37">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJanhunen19992–3-42">[41]</a> Thus proto-Koreanic is reconstructed largely by applying <a href="/wiki/Internal_reconstruction" title="Internal reconstruction">internal reconstruction</a> to Middle Korean, supplemented with philological analysis of the fragmentary records of Old Korean.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhitman201227–28-43">[42]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeeRamsey20112,_63-44">[43]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Phonology">Phonology</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Koreanic_languages&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Phonology">edit</a>]</div> A relatively simple inventory of consonants is reconstructed for Proto-Koreanic: <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Proto-Korean consonants<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhitman201228-45">[44]</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Bilabial_consonant" title="Bilabial consonant">Bilabial</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Alveolar_consonant" title="Alveolar consonant">Alveolar</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Palatal_consonant" title="Palatal consonant">Palatal</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Velar_consonant" title="Velar consonant">Velar</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Nasal_stop" class="mw-redirect" title="Nasal stop">Nasal</a> </th> <td>*<a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_nasal" title="Voiced bilabial nasal">m</a></td> <td>*<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_nasal" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar nasal">n</a></td> <td></td> <td>*<a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_nasal" title="Voiced velar nasal">ŋ</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Stop_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Stop consonant">Stop</a> </th> <td>*<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_bilabial_plosive" title="Voiceless bilabial plosive">p</a></td> <td>*<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless alveolar plosive">t</a></td> <td>*<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_palatal_plosive" title="Voiceless palatal plosive">c</a></td> <td>*<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_plosive" title="Voiceless velar plosive">k</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Fricative_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Fricative consonant">Fricative</a> </th> <td></td> <td>*<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless alveolar fricative">s</a></td> <td></td> <td>*<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_glottal_fricative" title="Voiceless glottal fricative">h</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Tap_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Tap consonant">Tap</a> </th> <td></td> <td>*<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_trill" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar trill">r</a></td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Approximant_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Approximant consonant">Approximant</a> </th> <td></td> <td></td> <td>*<a href="/wiki/Voiced_palatal_approximant" title="Voiced palatal approximant">j</a></td> <td> </td></tr></tbody></table> Many of the consonants in later forms of Korean are secondary developments: <ul><li>The <a href="/wiki/Tenseness" title="Tenseness">reinforced</a> consonants of modern Korean arose from clusters of consonants, becoming phonemically distinct after the Late Middle Korean period.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhitman201228-45">[44]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeeRamsey2011128-46">[45]</a></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Aspirated_consonant" title="Aspirated consonant">aspirated consonants</a> of Middle and modern Korean also arose from clusters with *k or *h.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVovin201011-47">[46]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhitman201228–29-48">[47]</a> There is some disagreement over whether aspirates were already a distinct series in the Old Korean period.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhitman2015431-49">[48]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeeRamsey201164–65-50">[49]</a> However, it seems clear that the process began with *t and *c, extended to *p and finally to *k.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeeRamsey201165-51">[50]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhitman2015432-52">[51]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKim2015-53">[52]</a></li> <li>Late Middle Korean had a series of voiced fricatives, /β/ ⟨ㅸ⟩, /z/ ⟨ㅿ⟩ and /ɦ/ ⟨ㆁ⟩. These occurred only in limited environments, and are believed to have arisen from <a href="/wiki/Lenition" title="Lenition">lenition</a> of /p/, /s/ and /k/, respectively.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVovin201012–32-54">[53]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhitman201229-55">[54]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeeRamsey201164-56">[55]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhitman2015431-49">[48]</a> These fricatives have disappeared in most modern dialects, but some dialects in the southeast and northeast (including Yukchin) retain /p/, /s/ and /k/ in these words.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeeRamsey2000320–321-57">[56]</a></li></ul> Middle Korean /l/ ⟨ㄹ⟩ does not occur initially in native words, a typological characteristic shared with "Altaic" languages.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESohn199989-58">[57]</a> Some, but not all, occurrences of /l/ are attributed to lenition of /t/.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMartin199620–21-59">[58]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhitman201229-55">[54]</a> Distinctions in the phonographic use of the Chinese characters <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E4%B9%99#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:乙">乙</a> and <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%B0%B8#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:尸">尸</a> suggest that Old Korean probably had two sounds corresponding to later Korean l.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeeRamsey201166-60">[59]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVovin2013b200–202-61">[60]</a> The second of these is often spelled lh in Middle Korean, and may reflect an earlier cluster with an obstruent.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhitman1990542n._5-62">[61]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhitman2015434-63">[62]</a> Late Middle Korean had seven vowels.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeeRamsey2011156-64">[63]</a> Based on loans from <a href="/wiki/Middle_Mongolian" class="mw-redirect" title="Middle Mongolian">Middle Mongolian</a> and transcriptions in the Jìlín lèishì, Lee Ki-Moon argued for a Korean Vowel Shift between the 13th and 15th centuries, a <a href="/wiki/Chain_shift" title="Chain shift">chain shift</a> involving five of these vowels.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeeRamsey201194–95-65">[64]</a> <a href="/wiki/William_Labov" title="William Labov">William Labov</a> found that this proposed shift followed different principles to all the other chain shifts he surveyed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELabov1994138–139-66">[65]</a> The philological evidence for the shift has also been challenged.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhitman2013254–255-67">[66]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhitman2015429-68">[67]</a> An analysis based on Sino-Korean readings leads to a more conservative system:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhitman201228-45">[44]</a> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Old Korean vowels and Middle Korean reflexes<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhitman201228-45">[44]</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Front_vowel" title="Front vowel">Front</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Central_vowel" title="Central vowel">Central</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Back_vowel" title="Back vowel">Back</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Close_vowel" title="Close vowel">Close</a> </th> <td>*<a href="/wiki/Close_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close front unrounded vowel">i</a> > [i] ⟨ㅣ⟩ </td> <td>*<a href="/wiki/Close_central_unrounded_vowel" title="Close central unrounded vowel">ɨ</a> > [ɨ] ⟨ㅡ⟩ </td> <td>*<a href="/wiki/Close_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close back rounded vowel">u</a> > [u] ⟨ㅜ⟩ </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Mid_vowel" title="Mid vowel">Mid</a> </th> <td>*<a href="/wiki/Close-mid_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close-mid front unrounded vowel">e</a> > [ə] ⟨ㅓ⟩ </td> <td>*<a href="/wiki/Mid_central_vowel" title="Mid central vowel">ə</a> > [ʌ] ⟨ㆍ⟩ </td> <td>*<a href="/wiki/Close-mid_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close-mid back rounded vowel">o</a> > [o] ⟨ㅗ⟩ </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Open_vowel" title="Open vowel">Open</a> </th> <td> </td> <td>*<a href="/wiki/Open_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Open front unrounded vowel">a</a> > [a] ⟨ㅏ⟩ </td> <td> </td></tr></tbody></table> The vowels *<a href="/wiki/Close_central_unrounded_vowel" title="Close central unrounded vowel">ɨ</a> > [ɨ] and *<a href="/wiki/Mid_central_vowel" title="Mid central vowel">ə</a> > [<a href="/wiki/Open-mid_back_unrounded_vowel" title="Open-mid back unrounded vowel">ʌ</a>] have a limited distribution in Late Middle Korean, suggesting that unaccented *<a href="/wiki/Close_central_unrounded_vowel" title="Close central unrounded vowel">ɨ</a> and *<a href="/wiki/Mid_central_vowel" title="Mid central vowel">ə</a> underwent <a href="/wiki/Syncope_(phonology)" title="Syncope (phonology)">syncope</a>. They may also have merged with *e in accented initial position or following *<a href="/wiki/Voiced_palatal_approximant" title="Voiced palatal approximant">j</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhitman201228-45">[44]</a> Some authors have proposed that Late Middle Korean [jə] ⟨ㅕ⟩ reflects an eighth Proto-Korean vowel, based on its high frequency and an analysis of <a href="/wiki/Advanced_and_retracted_tongue_root" title="Advanced and retracted tongue root">tongue root</a> harmony.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhitman2015430-69">[68]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChoWhitman202018–19-70">[69]</a> The Late Middle Korean script assigns to each syllable one of three pitch contours: low (unmarked), high (one dot) or rising (two dots).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeeRamsey2011163-71">[70]</a> The rising tone may have been longer in duration, and is believed to be secondary, arising from a contraction of a syllable with low pitch with one of high pitch.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMartin199635–40-72">[71]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeeRamsey2011163–165-73">[72]</a> Pitch levels after the first high or rising tone were not distinctive, so that Middle Korean had a <a href="/wiki/Pitch-accent_language" title="Pitch-accent language">pitch accent</a> rather than a full <a href="/wiki/Tone_(linguistics)" title="Tone (linguistics)">tone</a> system.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMartin199260–68-74">[73]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeeRamsey2011167–168-75">[74]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChoWhitman202025-76">[75]</a> In the proto-language, accent was probably not distinctive for verbs, but may have been for nouns, though with a preference for accent on the final syllable.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMartin199660-77">[76]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Morphosyntax">Morphosyntax</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Koreanic_languages&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Morphosyntax">edit</a>]</div> Korean uses several postnominal particles to indicate <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_case" title="Grammatical case">case</a> and other relationships.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhitman201234-78">[77]</a> The modern <a href="/wiki/Nominative_case" title="Nominative case">nominative case</a> suffix -i is derived from an earlier <a href="/wiki/Ergative_case" title="Ergative case">ergative case</a> marker *-i.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhitman201234-78">[77]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVovin201045-79">[78]</a> In modern Korean, verbs are <a href="/wiki/Bound_and_free_morphemes" title="Bound and free morphemes">bound forms</a> that cannot appear without one or more <a href="/wiki/Inflection" title="Inflection">inflectional</a> suffixes. In contrast, Old Korean verb stems could be used independently, particularly in verb-verb compounds, where the first verb was typically an uninflected root.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENam201264–65-80">[79]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhitman2015434–435-81">[80]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vocabulary">Vocabulary</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Koreanic_languages&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Vocabulary">edit</a>]</div> Old Korean pronouns were written with the Chinese characters for the corresponding Chinese pronouns, so their pronunciation must be inferred from Middle Korean forms.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVovin201062-82">[81]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeeRamsey201171-83">[82]</a> The known personal pronouns are *na 'I', *uri 'we' and *ne 'you'.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVovin201062-82">[81]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhitman201233-84">[83]</a> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Koreanic numerals </caption> <tbody><tr> <th> </th> <th>Proto-Korean<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhitman201233-84">[83]</a> </th> <th colspan="2">Jilin leishi<a href="#cite_note-86">[b]</a> </th> <th>Late Middle Korean<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeeRamsey2011175-87">[85]</a> </th> <th>Modern Korean </th> <th>Jeju<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYangYangO'Grady201970-88">[86]</a> </th></tr> <tr> <td>1</td> <td>*hət(V)- / *hətan<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVovin2010220-89">[87]</a> </td> <td>河屯</td> <td>ɣa-dun </td> <td>hʌnáh</td> <td>hana</td> <td>hʌna </td></tr> <tr> <td>2</td> <td>*tupɨr </td> <td>途孛</td> <td>du-buaj </td> <td>tǔlh</td> <td>tul</td> <td>tul </td></tr> <tr> <td>3</td> <td>*se- / *seki<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVovin2010181-90">[88]</a> </td> <td>洒</td> <td>ʂaj </td> <td>sə̌jh</td> <td>set</td> <td>swis </td></tr> <tr> <td>4</td> <td>*ne / *neki<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVovin2010211-91">[89]</a> </td> <td>迺</td> <td>naj </td> <td>nə̌jh</td> <td>net</td> <td>nuis </td></tr> <tr> <td>5</td> <td>*tasə </td> <td>打戍</td> <td>da(ŋ)-ʂy </td> <td>tasʌ́s</td> <td>tasʌt</td> <td>tasʌs </td></tr> <tr> <td>6</td> <td>*jəsəs </td> <td>逸戍</td> <td>jit-ʂy </td> <td>jəsɨ́s</td> <td>jʌsʌt</td> <td>jəsəs </td></tr> <tr> <td>7</td> <td>*nirkup </td> <td>一急</td> <td>ʔjit-kip </td> <td>nilkúp</td> <td>ilgop</td> <td>ilkop </td></tr> <tr> <td>8</td> <td>*jətərp </td> <td>逸答</td> <td>jit-tap </td> <td>jətɨ́lp</td> <td>jʌdʌl</td> <td>jʌtʌp </td></tr> <tr> <td>9</td> <td>*ahop </td> <td>鴉好</td> <td>ʔja-xaw </td> <td>ahóp</td> <td>ahop</td> <td>aop </td></tr> <tr> <td>10</td> <td>*jer </td> <td>噎</td> <td>ʔjiat </td> <td>jə́lh</td> <td>jʌl</td> <td>jəl </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Typology_and_areal_features">Typology and areal features</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Koreanic_languages&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Typology and areal features">edit</a>]</div> Modern Koreanic varieties have a three-way contrast between plain, <a href="/wiki/Aspirated_consonant" title="Aspirated consonant">aspirated</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tenseness" title="Tenseness">reinforced</a> stops and affricates, but Proto-Korean is reconstructed with a single set, like <a href="/wiki/Proto-Japonic" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Japonic">Proto-Japonic</a> and Ainu, but unlike Tungusic, Mongolic and Turkic, which feature a <a href="/wiki/Voice_(phonetics)" title="Voice (phonetics)">voicing</a> contrast.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETranter20127-92">[90]</a> Korean also resembles Japonic and Ainu in having a single liquid consonant, while its continental neighbours tend to distinguish /l/ and /r/.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETranter20127-92">[90]</a> Most modern varieties (except Jeju and a few northern dialects) have a form of accent, marked by vowel length in central dialects and pitch in the northeast and southeast.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESohn199960–62-93">[91]</a> The position of this accent is determined by the first high pitch syllable in <a href="/wiki/Middle_Korean" title="Middle Korean">Middle Korean</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeeRamsey2011165–167-94">[92]</a> A similar pitch accent is found in Japonic and Ainu languages, but not Tungusic, Mongolic or Turkic.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETranter20127-92">[90]</a> Like other languages in northeast Asia, Korean has <a href="/wiki/Agglutinative_language" title="Agglutinative language">agglutinative</a> morphology and <a href="/wiki/Head-final" class="mw-redirect" title="Head-final">head-final</a> word order, with <a href="/wiki/Subject%E2%80%93object%E2%80%93verb" class="mw-redirect" title="Subject–object–verb">subject–object–verb</a> order, modifiers preceding nouns, and <a href="/wiki/Postposition" class="mw-redirect" title="Postposition">postpositions</a> (particles).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETranter20126-95">[93]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESohn1999265–266-96">[94]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Proposed_external_relationships">Proposed external relationships</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Koreanic_languages&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Proposed external relationships">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lenguas_altaicas.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Lenguas_altaicas.png/220px-Lenguas_altaicas.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="125" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Lenguas_altaicas.png/330px-Lenguas_altaicas.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Lenguas_altaicas.png/440px-Lenguas_altaicas.png 2x" data-file-width="1120" data-file-height="636" /></a><figcaption>Larger language families of northeast Asia: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1216972533">.mw-parser-output .col-begin{border-collapse:collapse;padding:0;color:inherit;width:100%;border:0;margin:0}.mw-parser-output .col-begin-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .col-break{vertical-align:top;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .col-break-2{width:50%}.mw-parser-output .col-break-3{width:33.3%}.mw-parser-output .col-break-4{width:25%}.mw-parser-output .col-break-5{width:20%}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .col-begin,.mw-parser-output .col-begin>tbody,.mw-parser-output .col-begin>tbody>tr,.mw-parser-output .col-begin>tbody>tr>td{display:block!important;width:100%!important}.mw-parser-output .col-break{padding-left:0!important}}</style><div> <table class="col-begin" role="presentation"> <tbody><tr> <td class="col-break col-break-2"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r981673959">.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}</style><div class="legend">  <a href="/wiki/Turkic_languages" title="Turkic languages">Turkic</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  <a href="/wiki/Mongolic_languages" title="Mongolic languages">Mongolic</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  <a href="/wiki/Tungusic_languages" title="Tungusic languages">Tungusic</a></div> </td> <td class="col-break col-break-2"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  Koreanic</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  <a href="/wiki/Japonic_languages" title="Japonic languages">Japonic</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  <a href="/wiki/Ainu_languages" title="Ainu languages">Ainu</a></div> </td></tr></tbody></table></div></figcaption></figure> Northeast Asia is home to several relatively shallow language families.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJanhunen2010289–290-97">[95]</a> There have been several attempts to link Korean with other language families, with the most-favoured being "<a href="/wiki/Altaic_languages" title="Altaic languages">Altaic</a>" (<a href="/wiki/Tungusic_languages" title="Tungusic languages">Tungusic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mongolic_languages" title="Mongolic languages">Mongolic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Turkic_languages" title="Turkic languages">Turkic</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Japonic_languages" title="Japonic languages">Japonic</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeeRamsey201114–15-98">[96]</a> However, none of these attempts has succeeded in demonstrating a common descent for Koreanic and any other language family.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESohn199917–18-99">[97]</a> Larger proposed groupings subsuming these hypotheses, such as <a href="/wiki/Nostratic_languages" title="Nostratic languages">Nostratic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Eurasiatic_languages" title="Eurasiatic languages">Eurasiatic</a>, have even less support.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECampbellPoser2008243–266-100">[98]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Altaic">Altaic</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Koreanic_languages&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Altaic">edit</a>]</div> The Altaic proposal, grouping Tungusic, Mongolic and Turkic, emerged in the 19th century as a residue when the larger <a href="/wiki/Ural%E2%80%93Altaic_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Ural–Altaic languages">Ural–Altaic</a> grouping was abandoned.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECampbellPoser2008235-101">[99]</a> Korean was added to the proposal by <a href="/wiki/Gustaf_John_Ramstedt" title="Gustaf John Ramstedt">Gustaf Ramstedt</a> in 1924, and others later added Japanese.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECampbellPoser2008235-101">[99]</a> The languages share features such as <a href="/wiki/Agglutinative_language" title="Agglutinative language">agglutinative</a> morphology, <a href="/wiki/Subject%E2%80%93object%E2%80%93verb" class="mw-redirect" title="Subject–object–verb">subject–object–verb</a> order and <a href="/wiki/Postposition" class="mw-redirect" title="Postposition">postpositions</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETranter20126–7-102">[100]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESohn1999263,_265–266-103">[101]</a> Many cognates have been proposed, and attempts have been made to reconstruct a proto-language.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESohn199918–25-104">[102]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeeRamsey201115–23-105">[103]</a> The Altaic theory was incorporated into the influential two-wave migration model of Korean ethnic history proposed in the 1970s by the archaeologist <a href="/wiki/Kim_Won-yong" title="Kim Won-yong">Kim Won-yong</a>, who attributed cultural transitions in prehistoric Korea to migrations of distinct ethnic groups from the north.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKim19831–2-106">[104]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeeRamsey20005-107">[105]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYi2014586–587-108">[106]</a> The appearance of Neolithic <a href="/wiki/Jeulmun_pottery_period" title="Jeulmun pottery period">Jeulmun pottery</a> was interpreted as a migration of a <a href="/wiki/Paleosiberian_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Paleosiberian languages">Paleosiberian</a> group, while the arrival of bronze was attributed to a <a href="/wiki/Tungusic_languages" title="Tungusic languages">Tungusic</a> migration of the ancestral Korean population, identified with the <a href="/wiki/Yemaek" title="Yemaek">Yemaek</a> of later Chinese sources.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKim1987882-109">[107]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParkWee2016313–314-110">[108]</a> South Korean culture-historians tended to project contemporary Korean homogeneity into the distant past, assuming that a preformed Korean people arrived in the peninsula from elsewhere, ignoring the possibility of local evolution and interaction.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENelson1995220–221,_223,_230-111">[109]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPai200097,_99-112">[110]</a> However, no evidence of these migrations has been found, and archaeologists now believe that the Korean peninsula and adjacent areas of eastern Manchuria have been continuously occupied since the <a href="/wiki/Late_Pleistocene" title="Late Pleistocene">Late Pleistocene</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYi2014587-113">[111]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENelson1995230-114">[112]</a> The projection of the Yemaek back to this period has also been criticized as unjustified.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENelson1995226–229-115">[113]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPai2000104–111-116">[114]</a> Moreover, most comparativists no longer accept the core Altaic family itself, even without Korean, believing most of the commonalities to be the result of prolonged contact.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETranter20126-95">[93]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhitman2013248-117">[115]</a> The shared features turned out to be rather common among languages across the world, and <a href="/wiki/Linguistic_typology" title="Linguistic typology">typology</a> is no longer considered evidence of a genetic relationship.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECampbellPoser2008236,_240-118">[116]</a> While many cognates are found between adjacent groups, few are attested across all three. The proposed sound correspondences have also been criticized for invoking too many phonemes, such as the four phonemes that are said to have merged as *y in proto-Turkic.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECampbellPoser2008239-119">[117]</a> Similarly, Koreanic *r is said to result from the merger of four proto-Altaic liquids.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeeRamsey201120–21-120">[118]</a> In any case, most of the proposed matches with Korean were from the neighbouring Tungusic group.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeeRamsey201123–24-121">[119]</a> A detailed comparison of Korean and Tungusic was published by Kim Dongso in 1981, but it has been criticized for teleological reconstructions, failing to distinguish loanwords and poor semantic matches, leaving too few comparisons to establish correspondences.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJanhunenKho19824–5-122">[120]</a> Much of this work relies on comparisons with modern languages, particularly <a href="/wiki/Manchu_language" title="Manchu language">Manchu</a>, rather than reconstructed proto-Tungusic.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhitman2013249-123">[121]</a> Many of the best matches are found only in Manchu and closely related languages, and thus could be the result of language contact.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChoWhitman202012-124">[122]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Japonic">Japonic</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Koreanic_languages&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Japonic">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Comparison_of_Japanese_and_Korean" title="Comparison of Japanese and Korean">Comparison of Japanese and Korean</a></div> Scholars outside of Korea have given greater attention to possible links with Japonic, which were first investigated by <a href="/wiki/William_George_Aston" title="William George Aston">William George Aston</a> in 1879.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeeRamsey201126–29-125">[123]</a> The phoneme inventories of the two proto-languages are similar, with a single series of obstruents, a single liquid consonant and six or seven vowels.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhitman201224,_26–28-126">[124]</a> <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Elmo_Martin" class="mw-redirect" title="Samuel Elmo Martin">Samuel Martin</a>, John Whitman and others have proposed hundreds of possible cognates, with sound correspondences.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVovin2017-127">[125]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESohn199929–35-128">[126]</a> Most of the shared words concern the natural environment and agriculture.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJanhunen1996200-129">[127]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhitman2011156-130">[128]</a> However, Koreanic and Japonic have a long history of interaction, which may explain their grammatical similarities and makes it difficult to distinguish inherited cognates from ancient loanwords.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVovin2010237–240-131">[129]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJanhunen19991–2,_6–7-132">[130]</a> Most linguists studying the Japonic family believe that it was brought to the <a href="/wiki/Japanese_archipelago" title="Japanese archipelago">Japanese archipelago</a> from the Korean peninsula around 700–300 BC by wet-rice farmers of the <a href="/wiki/Yayoi_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Yayoi culture">Yayoi culture</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESerafim200898-133">[131]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVovin2017-127">[125]</a> <a href="/wiki/Placename_glosses_in_the_Samguk_sagi" title="Placename glosses in the Samguk sagi">Placename glosses in the Samguk sagi</a> and other evidence suggest that Japonic languages persisted in central and southwestern parts of the peninsula into the early centuries of the common era.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhitman2011154-134">[132]</a> The early Japanese state received many cultural innovations via Korea, which may also have influenced the language.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJanhunen19995-135">[133]</a> <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Vovin" title="Alexander Vovin">Alexander Vovin</a> points out that <a href="/wiki/Old_Japanese" title="Old Japanese">Old Japanese</a> contains several pairs of words of similar meaning in which one word matches a Korean form, while the other is also found in <a href="/wiki/Ryukyuan_languages" title="Ryukyuan languages">Ryukyuan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Old_Japanese" title="Eastern Old Japanese">Eastern Old Japanese</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVovin201092–94-136">[134]</a> He suggests that the former group represent early loans from Korean, and that Old Japanese morphemes should not be assigned a Japonic origin unless they are also attested in Southern Ryukyuan or Eastern Old Japanese, which reduces the proposed cognates to fewer than a dozen.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVovin20106,_237–240-137">[135]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Others">Others</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Koreanic_languages&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Others">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Dravido-Korean_languages" title="Dravido-Korean languages">Dravido-Korean languages</a></div> A link with Dravidian was first proposed by <a href="/wiki/Homer_Hulbert" title="Homer Hulbert">Homer Hulbert</a> in 1905 and explored by Morgan Clippinger in 1984, but has attracted little interest since the 1980s.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESohn199927–29-138">[136]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeeRamsey201115-139">[137]</a> There have also been proposals to link Korean with <a href="/wiki/Austronesian_languages" title="Austronesian languages">Austronesian</a>, but these have few adherents.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESohn199925–27-140">[138]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKim1987881–882-141">[139]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_history">Early history</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Koreanic_languages&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Early history">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Korean_language" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Korean language">History of the Korean language</a></div> All modern varieties are descended from the language of <a href="/wiki/Unified_Silla" title="Unified Silla">Unified Silla</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESohn199940-142">[140]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeeRamsey20114-143">[141]</a> Evidence for the earlier linguistic history of the Korean peninsula is extremely sparse. Various proposals have been based on archaeological and ethnological theories and vague references in early Chinese histories.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESohn199917-144">[142]</a> There is a tendency in Korea to assume that all languages formerly spoken on the peninsula were early forms of Korean, but the evidence indicates much greater linguistic variety in the past.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeeRamsey201131-145">[143]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_Chinese_descriptions">Early Chinese descriptions</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Koreanic_languages&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Early Chinese descriptions">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Puy%C5%8F_languages" title="Puyŏ languages">Puyŏ languages</a> and <a href="/wiki/Han_languages" title="Han languages">Han languages</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_of_Dongyi_in_Sanguozhi.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Map_of_Dongyi_in_Sanguozhi.svg/220px-Map_of_Dongyi_in_Sanguozhi.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="395" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Map_of_Dongyi_in_Sanguozhi.svg/330px-Map_of_Dongyi_in_Sanguozhi.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Map_of_Dongyi_in_Sanguozhi.svg/440px-Map_of_Dongyi_in_Sanguozhi.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="672" data-file-height="1208" /></a><figcaption>Chinese commanderies (in purple) and their eastern neighbours mentioned in the Records of the Three Kingdoms<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShin201416,_19-146">[144]</a></figcaption></figure> Chinese histories provide the only contemporaneous descriptions of peoples of the Korean peninsula and eastern Manchuria in the early centuries of the common era.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeeRamsey201131-145">[143]</a> They contain impressionistic remarks about the customs and languages of the area based on second-hand reports, and sometimes contradict one another.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeeRamsey201136-147">[145]</a> The later Korean histories lack any discussion of languages.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeeRamsey201136-147">[145]</a> In 108 BC, the Chinese <a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han dynasty</a> conquered northern Korea and established the <a href="/wiki/Four_Commanderies_of_Han" title="Four Commanderies of Han">Four Commanderies of Han</a>, the most important being <a href="/wiki/Lelang_Commandery" title="Lelang Commandery">Lelang</a>, which was centred on the basin of the <a href="/wiki/Taedong_River" title="Taedong River">Taedong River</a> and lasted until 314 AD.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESeth202418–19-148">[146]</a> Chapter 30 of the <a href="/wiki/Records_of_the_Three_Kingdoms" title="Records of the Three Kingdoms">Records of the Three Kingdoms</a><a href="#cite_note-149">[c]</a> (late 3rd century) and Chapter 85 of the <a href="/wiki/Book_of_the_Later_Han" title="Book of the Later Han">Book of the Later Han</a> (5th century) contain parallel accounts of peoples neighbouring the commanderies, apparently both based on a survey carried out by the Chinese state of <a href="/wiki/Cao_Wei" title="Cao Wei">Wei</a> after their defeat of <a href="/wiki/Goguryeo" title="Goguryeo">Goguryeo</a> in 244.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEByingtonBarnes201497–98-150">[147]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeeRamsey201134-151">[148]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESeth202419–22-152">[149]</a> To the north and east, the <a href="/wiki/Buyeo" title="Buyeo">Buyeo</a>, Goguryeo and <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Ye" title="Eastern Ye">Ye</a> were described as speaking similar languages, with the language of <a href="/wiki/Okjeo" title="Okjeo">Okjeo</a> only slightly different from them.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeeRamsey201134-151">[148]</a> Their languages were said to differ from that of the <a href="/wiki/Yilou" title="Yilou">Yilou</a> to the northeast. The latter language is completely unattested, but is believed, on the basis of the description of the people and their location, to have been <a href="/wiki/Tungusic_languages" title="Tungusic languages">Tungusic</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeeRamsey201135-153">[150]</a> To the south lay the <a href="/wiki/Samhan" title="Samhan">Samhan</a> ('three Han'), <a href="/wiki/Mahan_confederacy" title="Mahan confederacy">Mahan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Byeonhan_confederacy" title="Byeonhan confederacy">Byeonhan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jinhan_confederacy" title="Jinhan confederacy">Jinhan</a>, who were described in quite different terms from Buyeo and Goguryeo.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeeRamsey201135-153">[150]</a><a href="#cite_note-155">[d]</a> The Mahan were said to have a different language from Jinhan, but the two accounts differ on the relationship between the languages of Byeonhan and Jinhan, with the Records of the Three Kingdoms describing them as similar, but the Book of the Later Han referring to differences.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeeRamsey201135–36-156">[152]</a> The Zhōuhú (州胡) people on a large island to the west of Mahan (possibly Jeju) were described as speaking a different language to Mahan.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEByingtonBarnes2014105-157">[153]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESeth202422-158">[154]</a> Based on this text, Lee Ki-Moon divided the languages spoken on the Korean peninsula at that time into <a href="/wiki/Puy%C5%8F_languages" title="Puyŏ languages">Puyŏ</a> and <a href="/wiki/Han_languages" title="Han languages">Han</a> groups.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeeRamsey201134–36-159">[155]</a> Lee originally proposed that these were two branches of a Koreanic language family, a view that was widely adopted by scholars in Korea.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKim1987882–883-160">[156]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhitman2013249–250-161">[157]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKim19832-162">[158]</a> He later argued that the Puyŏ languages were intermediate between Korean and Japanese.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeeRamsey201144-163">[159]</a> <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Vovin" title="Alexander Vovin">Alexander Vovin</a> and <a href="/wiki/James_Marshall_Unger" class="mw-redirect" title="James Marshall Unger">James Marshall Unger</a> argue that the Han languages were Japonic, and were replaced by Koreanic Puyŏ languages in the 4th century.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVovin2013a237–238-164">[160]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEUnger200987-165">[161]</a> Some authors believe that the Puyŏ languages belong to the <a href="/wiki/Tungusic_languages" title="Tungusic languages">Tungusic</a> family.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESohn199939-166">[162]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeckwith200419-167">[163]</a> Others believe that there is insufficient evidence to support a classification.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGeorg2017151-168">[164]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Three_Kingdoms_period">Three Kingdoms period</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Koreanic_languages&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Three Kingdoms period">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Placename_glosses_in_the_Samguk_sagi" title="Placename glosses in the Samguk sagi">Placename glosses in the Samguk sagi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Goguryeo_language" title="Goguryeo language">Goguryeo language</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Baekje_language" title="Baekje language">Baekje language</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:History_of_Korea-476.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/History_of_Korea-476.PNG/220px-History_of_Korea-476.PNG" decoding="async" width="220" height="260" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/History_of_Korea-476.PNG/330px-History_of_Korea-476.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/History_of_Korea-476.PNG/440px-History_of_Korea-476.PNG 2x" data-file-width="970" data-file-height="1146" /></a><figcaption>The Korean peninsula in the late 5th century</figcaption></figure> As Chinese power ebbed in the early 4th century, centralized states arose on the peninsula.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESeth202433–34-169">[165]</a> The Lelang commandery was overrun by Goguryeo in 314. In the south, <a href="/wiki/Baekje" title="Baekje">Baekje</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Gaya_confederacy" title="Gaya confederacy">Gaya confederacy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Silla" title="Silla">Silla</a> arose from Mahan, Byeonhan and Jinhan respectively.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPai2000234-170">[166]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESeth202428–31-171">[167]</a><a href="#cite_note-173">[e]</a> Thus began the <a href="/wiki/Three_Kingdoms_of_Korea" title="Three Kingdoms of Korea">Three Kingdoms period</a>, referring to Goguryeo, Baekje and Silla (Gaya was absorbed by Silla in the 6th century). The period ended in the late 7th century, when Silla conquered the other kingdoms in alliance with the Chinese <a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang dynasty</a> and then expelled the Tang from the peninsula.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESeth202427–28-174">[169]</a> Linguistic evidence from these states is sparse and, being recorded in <a href="/wiki/Chinese_characters" title="Chinese characters">Chinese characters</a>, difficult to interpret. Most of these materials come from Silla, whose language is generally believed to be ancestral to all extant Korean varieties.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeeRamsey2000274–275-175">[170]</a> There is no agreement on the relationship of Sillan to the languages of the other kingdoms. The issue is politically charged in Korea, with scholars who point out differences being accused by nationalists of trying to "divide the homeland".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeeRamsey2000276-176">[171]</a> Apart from placenames, whose interpretation is controversial, data on the languages of Goguryeo and Baekje is extremely sparse.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhitman2015423-177">[172]</a> The most widely cited evidence for Goguryeo is chapter 37 of the <a href="/wiki/Samguk_sagi" title="Samguk sagi">Samguk sagi</a>, a history of the Three Kingdoms period written in <a href="/wiki/Classical_Chinese" title="Classical Chinese">Classical Chinese</a> and compiled in 1145 from earlier records that are no longer extant.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeeRamsey201137-178">[173]</a> This chapter surveys the part of Goguryeo annexed by Silla, listing pronunciations and meanings of placenames, from which a vocabulary of 80 to 100 words has been extracted.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeeRamsey201139-179">[174]</a> Although the pronunciations recorded using <a href="/wiki/Chinese_characters" title="Chinese characters">Chinese characters</a> are difficult to interpret, some of these words appear to resemble <a href="/wiki/Tungusic_languages" title="Tungusic languages">Tungusic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Korean_language" title="Korean language">Korean</a> or <a href="/wiki/Japonic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Japonic language">Japonic</a> words.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeeRamsey201137–44-180">[175]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEItabashi2003-181">[176]</a> Scholars who take these words as representing the language of Goguryeo have come to a range of conclusions about the language, some holding that it was Koreanic, others that it was Japonic, and others that it was somehow intermediate between the three families.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhitman2011154-134">[132]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeckwith200427–28-182">[177]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeeRamsey201143–44-183">[178]</a> Other authors point out that most of the place names come from central Korea, an area captured by Goguryeo from Baekje and other states in the 5th century, and none from the historical homeland of Goguryeo north of the <a href="/wiki/Taedong_River" title="Taedong River">Taedong River</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeeRamsey201140–41-184">[179]</a> These authors suggest that the place names reflect the languages of those states rather than that of Goguryeo.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeeRamsey201140-185">[180]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEToh200523–26-186">[181]</a> This would explain why they seem to reflect multiple language groups.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhitman2013251–252-187">[182]</a> It is generally agreed that these glosses demonstrate that Japonic languages were once spoken in part of the Korean peninsula, but there is no consensus on the identity of the speakers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhitman2011154-134">[132]</a> A small number of inscriptions have been found in Goguryeo, the earliest being the <a href="/wiki/Gwanggaeto_Stele" title="Gwanggaeto Stele">Gwanggaeto Stele</a> (erected in <a href="/wiki/Ji%27an,_Jilin" title="Ji'an, Jilin">Ji'an</a> in 414). All are written in <a href="/wiki/Classical_Chinese" title="Classical Chinese">Classical Chinese</a>, but feature some irregularities, including occasional use of <a href="/wiki/Subject%E2%80%93object%E2%80%93verb" class="mw-redirect" title="Subject–object–verb">object–verb</a> order (as found in Korean and other northeast Asian languages) instead of the usual Chinese <a href="/wiki/Subject%E2%80%93verb%E2%80%93object" class="mw-redirect" title="Subject–verb–object">verb–object</a> order, and particles 之 and 伊, for which some authors have proposed Korean interpretations.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVovin2005117–119-188">[183]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENam201242-189">[184]</a> <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Vovin" title="Alexander Vovin">Alexander Vovin</a> argues that the <a href="/wiki/Goguryeo_language" title="Goguryeo language">Goguryeo language</a> was the ancestor of Koreanic, citing a few Goguryeo words in Chinese texts such as the <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Wei" title="Book of Wei">Book of Wei</a> (6th century) that appear to have Korean etymologies, as well as Koreanic loanwords in <a href="/wiki/Jurchen_language" title="Jurchen language">Jurchen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Manchu_language" title="Manchu language">Manchu</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVovin2013a224–226,_228–232-190">[185]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Liang" title="Book of Liang">Book of Liang</a> (635) states that the language of <a href="/wiki/Baekje" title="Baekje">Baekje</a> was the same as that of Goguryeo.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeeRamsey201144-163">[159]</a> According to Korean traditional history, the kingdom of Baekje was founded by immigrants from Goguryeo who took over Mahan.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESohn199938-191">[186]</a> The Japanese history <a href="/wiki/Nihon_Shoki" title="Nihon Shoki">Nihon Shoki</a>, compiled in the early 8th century from earlier documents, including some from Baekje, records 42 Baekje words. These are transcribed as <a href="/wiki/Old_Japanese" title="Old Japanese">Old Japanese</a> syllables, which are restricted to the form (C)V, limiting the precision of the transcription. About half of them appear to be Koreanic.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBentley2000424–427,_436–438-192">[187]</a> Based on these words and a passage in the <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Zhou" title="Book of Zhou">Book of Zhou</a> (636), Kōno Rokurō argued that the kingdom of Baekje was bilingual, with the gentry speaking a Puyŏ language and the common people a Han language.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVovin2005119-193">[188]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKōno198784–85-194">[189]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Koreanic_languages&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-18"><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a> Nam Pung-hyun considers Old Korean as spanning the period from the <a href="/wiki/Three_Kingdoms_of_Korea" title="Three Kingdoms of Korea">Three Kingdoms</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasions_of_Korea" title="Mongol invasions of Korea">Mongol invasion</a> (mid-13th century).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENam201241-17">[17]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a> Readings in Late Middle Chinese<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank1991-85">[84]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-149"><a href="#cite_ref-149">^</a> The title refers to the Chinese <a href="/wiki/Three_Kingdoms" title="Three Kingdoms">Three Kingdoms</a> period (220–280 AD), not the <a href="/wiki/Three_Kingdoms_of_Korea" title="Three Kingdoms of Korea">Three Kingdoms of Korea</a> (4th to 7th centuries). </li> <li id="cite_note-155"><a href="#cite_ref-155">^</a> The name Han (韓) is unrelated to the Chinese Han dynasty, but is analysed as Korean ha 'great' with the nominalizer suffix -n, meaning 'chieftain'.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENam201255-154">[151]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-173"><a href="#cite_ref-173">^</a> Traditional histories give founding dates for Baekje and Silla of 18 BC and 57 BC respectively, and these dates are repeated in textbooks, but archaeological and documentary evidence indicates that these kingdoms were founded in the 4th century.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESeth202427-172">[168]</a> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Koreanic_languages&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 22em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVovin2013c201-1">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVovin2013c201_1-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVovin2013c201_1-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFVovin2013c">Vovin (2013c)</a>, p. 201. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENGII201737-2"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENGII201737_2-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNGII2017">NGII (2017)</a>, p. 37. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing198734-3"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing198734_3-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKing1987">King (1987)</a>, p. 34. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECASS2012Map_C1-7-4"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECASS2012Map_C1-7_4-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCASS2012">CASS (2012)</a>, Map C1-7. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChoWhitman202013-5">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChoWhitman202013_5-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChoWhitman202013_5-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFChoWhitman2020">Cho & Whitman (2020)</a>, p. 13. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESohn199957–59-6"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESohn199957–59_6-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSohn1999">Sohn (1999)</a>, pp. 57–59. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEYeon2012168-7"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYeon2012168_7-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFYeon2012">Yeon (2012)</a>, p. 168. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESohn199960–66-8"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESohn199960–66_8-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSohn1999">Sohn (1999)</a>, pp. 60–66. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEYeon2012169–172-9"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYeon2012169–172_9-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFYeon2012">Yeon (2012)</a>, pp. 169–172. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESohn199945-10"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESohn199945_10-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSohn1999">Sohn (1999)</a>, p. 45. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELeeRamsey20115–6-11"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeeRamsey20115–6_11-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLeeRamsey2011">Lee & Ramsey (2011)</a>, pp. 5–6. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELeeRamsey201179–81-12"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeeRamsey201179–81_12-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLeeRamsey2011">Lee & Ramsey (2011)</a>, pp. 79–81. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESohn199944-13"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESohn199944_13-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSohn1999">Sohn (1999)</a>, p. 44. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESohn199987-14"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESohn199987_14-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSohn1999">Sohn (1999)</a>, p. 87. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELeeRamsey2000136-15"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeeRamsey2000136_15-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLeeRamsey2000">Lee & Ramsey (2000)</a>, p. 136. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELeeRamsey201151–59-16"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeeRamsey201151–59_16-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLeeRamsey2011">Lee & Ramsey (2011)</a>, pp. 51–59. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENam201241-17"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENam201241_17-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNam2012">Nam (2012)</a>, p. 41. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELeeRamsey2000309–310-19">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeeRamsey2000309–310_19-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeeRamsey2000309–310_19-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFLeeRamsey2000">Lee & Ramsey (2000)</a>, pp. 309–310. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEYeon2012180–184-20"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYeon2012180–184_20-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFYeon2012">Yeon (2012)</a>, pp. 180–184. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESohn199982–83-21"><a 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href="#CITEREFJanhunen1996">Janhunen (1996)</a>, p. 42. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing1987238–241-27"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing1987238–241_27-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKing1987">King (1987)</a>, pp. 238–241. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEYeon2012179–180-28"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYeon2012179–180_28-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFYeon2012">Yeon (2012)</a>, pp. 179–180. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing1987235-29"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing1987235_29-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKing1987">King (1987)</a>, p. 235. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJanhunen199643-30"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJanhunen199643_30-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFJanhunen1996">Janhunen (1996)</a>, p. 43. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrownYeon2015466–467-31"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrownYeon2015466–467_31-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBrownYeon2015">Brown & Yeon (2015)</a>, pp. 466–467. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrownYeon2015467–468-32"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrownYeon2015467–468_32-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBrownYeon2015">Brown & Yeon (2015)</a>, pp. 467–468. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrownYeon2015468–469-33"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrownYeon2015468–469_33-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBrownYeon2015">Brown & Yeon (2015)</a>, pp. 468–469. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEYangO'GradyYangHilton2018-34"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYangO'GradyYangHilton2018_34-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFYangO'GradyYangHilton2018">Yang et al. (2018)</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEYeon2012170,_178-35"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYeon2012170,_178_35-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFYeon2012">Yeon (2012)</a>, pp. 170, 178. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELeeRamsey2011159–160-36"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeeRamsey2011159–160_36-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLeeRamsey2011">Lee & Ramsey (2011)</a>, pp. 159–160. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhitman2011155-37">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhitman2011155_37-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhitman2011155_37-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFWhitman2011">Whitman (2011)</a>, p. 155. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing1987238-38"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing1987238_38-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKing1987">King (1987)</a>, p. 238. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing1987236–238-39"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing1987236–238_39-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKing1987">King (1987)</a>, pp. 236–238. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing1992202-40">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing1992202_40-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing1992202_40-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFKing1992">King (1992)</a>, p. 202. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing1987236-41"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing1987236_41-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKing1987">King (1987)</a>, p. 236. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJanhunen19992–3-42"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJanhunen19992–3_42-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFJanhunen1999">Janhunen (1999)</a>, pp. 2–3. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhitman201227–28-43"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhitman201227–28_43-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWhitman2012">Whitman (2012)</a>, pp. 27–28. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELeeRamsey20112,_63-44"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeeRamsey20112,_63_44-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLeeRamsey2011">Lee & Ramsey (2011)</a>, pp. 2, 63. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhitman201228-45">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhitman201228_45-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhitman201228_45-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhitman201228_45-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhitman201228_45-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhitman201228_45-4">e</a> <a href="#CITEREFWhitman2012">Whitman (2012)</a>, p. 28. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELeeRamsey2011128-46"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeeRamsey2011128_46-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLeeRamsey2011">Lee & Ramsey (2011)</a>, p. 128. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVovin201011-47"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVovin201011_47-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFVovin2010">Vovin (2010)</a>, p. 11. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhitman201228–29-48"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhitman201228–29_48-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWhitman2012">Whitman (2012)</a>, pp. 28–29. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhitman2015431-49">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhitman2015431_49-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhitman2015431_49-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFWhitman2015">Whitman (2015)</a>, p. 431. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELeeRamsey201164–65-50"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeeRamsey201164–65_50-0">^</a> <a 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cited</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Koreanic_languages&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Works cited">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-hanging-indents refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFBeckwith2004" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Christopher_I._Beckwith" title="Christopher I. Beckwith">Beckwith, Christopher I.</a> (2004), Koguryo, the Language of Japan's Continental Relatives, Brill, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-13949-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-13949-7"><bdi>978-90-04-13949-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Koguryo%2C+the+Language+of+Japan%27s+Continental+Relatives&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-90-04-13949-7&rft.aulast=Beckwith&rft.aufirst=Christopher+I.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKoreanic+languages" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBentley2000" class="citation cs2">Bentley, John R. 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Marshall</a> (2009), The role of contact in the origins of the Japanese and Korean languages, Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8248-3279-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8248-3279-7"><bdi>978-0-8248-3279-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+role+of+contact+in+the+origins+of+the+Japanese+and+Korean+languages&rft.place=Honolulu&rft.pub=University+of+Hawaii+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-8248-3279-7&rft.aulast=Unger&rft.aufirst=J.+Marshall&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKoreanic+languages" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVovin2005" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Vovin" title="Alexander Vovin">Vovin, Alexander</a> (2005), "Koguryŏ and Paekche: different languages or dialects of Old Korean?", Journal of Inner and East Asian Studies, 2 (2): 107–140.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Inner+and+East+Asian+Studies&rft.atitle=Kogury%C5%8F+and+Paekche%3A+different+languages+or+dialects+of+Old+Korean%3F&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=107-140&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Vovin&rft.aufirst=Alexander&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKoreanic+languages" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVovin2010" class="citation cs2">——— (2010), Korea-Japonica: A Re-evaluation of a Common Genetic Origin, University of Hawaii Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8248-3278-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8248-3278-0"><bdi>978-0-8248-3278-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Korea-Japonica%3A+A+Re-evaluation+of+a+Common+Genetic+Origin&rft.pub=University+of+Hawaii+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-8248-3278-0&rft.aulast=Vovin&rft.aufirst=Alexander&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKoreanic+languages" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVovin2013a" class="citation cs2">——— (2013a), "From Koguryo to Tamna: Slowly riding to the South with speakers of Proto-Korean", Korean Linguistics, 15 (2): 222–240, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1075%2Fkl.15.2.03vov">10.1075/kl.15.2.03vov</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Korean+Linguistics&rft.atitle=From+Koguryo+to+Tamna%3A+Slowly+riding+to+the+South+with+speakers+of+Proto-Korean&rft.volume=15&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=222-240&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1075%2Fkl.15.2.03vov&rft.aulast=Vovin&rft.aufirst=Alexander&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKoreanic+languages" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVovin2013b" class="citation cs2">——— (2013b), "Mongolian names for 'Korea' and 'Korean' and their significance for the history of the Korean language", in Sohn, Sung-Ock; Cho, Sungdai; You, Seok-Hoon (eds.), Studies in Korean Linguistics and Language Pedagogy: Festschrift for Ho-min Sohn, Korea University Press, pp. 200–206, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-89-7641-830-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-89-7641-830-2"><bdi>978-89-7641-830-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Mongolian+names+for+%27Korea%27+and+%27Korean%27+and+their+significance+for+the+history+of+the+Korean+language&rft.btitle=Studies+in+Korean+Linguistics+and+Language+Pedagogy%3A+Festschrift+for+Ho-min+Sohn&rft.pages=200-206&rft.pub=Korea+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-89-7641-830-2&rft.aulast=Vovin&rft.aufirst=Alexander&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKoreanic+languages" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVovin2013c" class="citation cs2">——— (2013c), "Northeastern and Central Asia: 'Altaic' linguistic history", in Bellwood, Peter (ed.), The Global Prehistory of Human Migration, Wiley-Blackwell, pp. 197–203, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-118-97059-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-118-97059-1"><bdi>978-1-118-97059-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Northeastern+and+Central+Asia%3A+%27Altaic%27+linguistic+history&rft.btitle=The+Global+Prehistory+of+Human+Migration&rft.pages=197-203&rft.pub=Wiley-Blackwell&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1-118-97059-1&rft.aulast=Vovin&rft.aufirst=Alexander&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKoreanic+languages" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVovin2017" class="citation cs2">——— (2017), "Origins of the Japanese Language", Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Linguistics, Oxford University Press, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Facrefore%2F9780199384655.013.277">10.1093/acrefore/9780199384655.013.277</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-938465-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-938465-5"><bdi>978-0-19-938465-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Origins+of+the+Japanese+Language&rft.btitle=Oxford+Research+Encyclopedia+of+Linguistics&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Facrefore%2F9780199384655.013.277&rft.isbn=978-0-19-938465-5&rft.aulast=Vovin&rft.aufirst=Alexander&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKoreanic+languages" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWhitman1990" class="citation cs2">Whitman, John (1990), "A rule of medial *-r- loss in pre-Old Japanese", in <a href="/wiki/Philip_Baldi" title="Philip Baldi">Baldi, Philip</a> (ed.), Change and Reconstruction Methodology, Berlin: de Gruyter, pp. 511–545, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-11-011908-0" title="Special:BookSources/3-11-011908-0"><bdi>3-11-011908-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=A+rule+of+medial+%2A-r-+loss+in+pre-Old+Japanese&rft.btitle=Change+and+Reconstruction+Methodology&rft.place=Berlin&rft.pages=511-545&rft.pub=de+Gruyter&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=3-11-011908-0&rft.aulast=Whitman&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKoreanic+languages" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWhitman2011" class="citation cs2">——— (2011), "Northeast Asian Linguistic Ecology and the Advent of Rice Agriculture in Korea and Japan", Rice, 4 (3–4): 149–158, <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2011Rice....4..149W">2011Rice....4..149W</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs12284-011-9080-0">10.1007/s12284-011-9080-0</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Rice&rft.atitle=Northeast+Asian+Linguistic+Ecology+and+the+Advent+of+Rice+Agriculture+in+Korea+and+Japan&rft.volume=4&rft.issue=3%E2%80%934&rft.pages=149-158&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs12284-011-9080-0&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2011Rice....4..149W&rft.aulast=Whitman&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKoreanic+languages" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWhitman2012" class="citation cs2">——— (2012), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://conf.ling.cornell.edu/whitman/Whitman2012Relationship.pdf">"The relationship between Japanese and Korean"</a> (PDF), in Tranter, Nicolas (ed.), The Languages of Japan and Korea, Routledge, pp. 24–38, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-46287-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-46287-7"><bdi>978-0-415-46287-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+relationship+between+Japanese+and+Korean&rft.btitle=The+Languages+of+Japan+and+Korea&rft.pages=24-38&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-415-46287-7&rft.aulast=Whitman&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fconf.ling.cornell.edu%2Fwhitman%2FWhitman2012Relationship.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKoreanic+languages" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWhitman2013" class="citation cs2">——— (2013), "A History of the Korean Language, by Ki-Moon Lee and Robert Ramsey", Korean Linguistics, 15 (2): 246–260, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1075%2Fkl.15.2.05whi">10.1075/kl.15.2.05whi</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Korean+Linguistics&rft.atitle=A+History+of+the+Korean+Language%2C+by+Ki-Moon+Lee+and+Robert+Ramsey&rft.volume=15&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=246-260&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1075%2Fkl.15.2.05whi&rft.aulast=Whitman&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKoreanic+languages" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWhitman2015" class="citation cs2">——— (2015), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://conf.ling.cornell.edu/whitman/Whitman2015OldKorean.pdf">"Old Korean"</a> (PDF), in Brown, Lucien; Yeon, Jaehoon (eds.), The Handbook of Korean Linguistics, Wiley, pp. 421–438, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-118-35491-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-118-35491-9"><bdi>978-1-118-35491-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Old+Korean&rft.btitle=The+Handbook+of+Korean+Linguistics&rft.pages=421-438&rft.pub=Wiley&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1-118-35491-9&rft.aulast=Whitman&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fconf.ling.cornell.edu%2Fwhitman%2FWhitman2015OldKorean.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKoreanic+languages" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYangO'GradyYangHilton2018" class="citation cs2">Yang, Changyong; O'Grady, William; Yang, Sejung; Hilton, Nanna; Kang, Sang-Gu; Kim, So-Young (2018), Brunn, Stanley D.; Kehrein, Roland (eds.), Handbook of the Changing World Language Map, Springer, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-319-73400-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-319-73400-2"><bdi>978-3-319-73400-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Handbook+of+the+Changing+World+Language+Map&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-3-319-73400-2&rft.aulast=Yang&rft.aufirst=Changyong&rft.au=O%27Grady%2C+William&rft.au=Yang%2C+Sejung&rft.au=Hilton%2C+Nanna&rft.au=Kang%2C+Sang-Gu&rft.au=Kim%2C+So-Young&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKoreanic+languages" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYangYangO'Grady2019" class="citation cs2">Yang, Changyong; Yang, Sejung; O'Grady, William (2019), Jejueo: The Language of Korea's Jeju Island, Honolulu: University of Hawaiʻi Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8248-7443-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8248-7443-8"><bdi>978-0-8248-7443-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Jejueo%3A+The+Language+of+Korea%27s+Jeju+Island&rft.place=Honolulu&rft.pub=University+of+Hawai%CA%BBi+Press&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-0-8248-7443-8&rft.aulast=Yang&rft.aufirst=Changyong&rft.au=Yang%2C+Sejung&rft.au=O%27Grady%2C+William&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKoreanic+languages" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYeon2012" class="citation cs2">Yeon, Jaehoon (2012), "Korean dialects: a general survey", in Tranter, Nicolas (ed.), The Languages of Japan and Korea, Routledge, pp. 168–185, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-46287-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-46287-7"><bdi>978-0-415-46287-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Korean+dialects%3A+a+general+survey&rft.btitle=The+Languages+of+Japan+and+Korea&rft.pages=168-185&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-415-46287-7&rft.aulast=Yeon&rft.aufirst=Jaehoon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKoreanic+languages" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYi2014" class="citation cs2">Yi, Seonbok (2014), "Korea: archaeology", in Bellwood, Peter (ed.), The Global Prehistory of Human Migration, Wiley, pp. 586–597, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-118-97059-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-118-97059-1"><bdi>978-1-118-97059-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Korea%3A+archaeology&rft.btitle=The+Global+Prehistory+of+Human+Migration&rft.pages=586-597&rft.pub=Wiley&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1-118-97059-1&rft.aulast=Yi&rft.aufirst=Seonbok&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKoreanic+languages" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Koreanic_languages&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin refbegin-hanging-indents refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2">Byington, Mark E. (2006), "Christopher I. Beckwith—Koguryo, the Language of Japan's Continental Relatives (Leiden: Brill, 2004)", <a href="/wiki/Acta_Koreana" title="Acta Koreana">Acta Koreana</a>, 9 (1): 141–166.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Acta+Koreana&rft.atitle=Christopher+I.+Beckwith%E2%80%94Koguryo%2C+the+Language+of+Japan%27s+Continental+Relatives+%28Leiden%3A+Brill%2C+2004%29&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=141-166&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Byington&rft.aufirst=Mark+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKoreanic+languages" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Kang, Yeng-pong, ed. (2009), Revised Jeju Dictionary (in Korean), Jeju Province, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-89-962572-5-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-89-962572-5-7"><bdi>978-89-962572-5-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Revised+Jeju+Dictionary&rft.pub=Jeju+Province&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-89-962572-5-7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKoreanic+languages" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2">Pellard, Thomas (2005), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00194111">"Koguryo, the Language of Japan's Continental Relatives: An Introduction to the Historical-Comparative Study of the Japanese-Koguryoic Languages with a Preliminary Description of Archaic Northeastern Middle Chinese By Christopher I. Beckwith"</a>, <a href="/wiki/Korean_Studies_(journal)" title="Korean Studies (journal)">Korean Studies</a>, 29: 167–170, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fks.2006.0008">10.1353/ks.2006.0008</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Korean+Studies&rft.atitle=Koguryo%2C+the+Language+of+Japan%27s+Continental+Relatives%3A+An+Introduction+to+the+Historical-Comparative+Study+of+the+Japanese-Koguryoic+Languages+with+a+Preliminary+Description+of+Archaic+Northeastern+Middle+Chinese+By+Christopher+I.+Beckwith&rft.volume=29&rft.pages=167-170&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Fks.2006.0008&rft.aulast=Pellard&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhal.archives-ouvertes.fr%2Fhal-00194111&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKoreanic+languages" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div 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style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Korean" title="History of Korean">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Proto-Koreanic">Proto-Koreanic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Han_languages" title="Han languages">Han</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Puy%C5%8F_languages" title="Puyŏ languages">Puyŏ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ye-Maek_language" title="Ye-Maek language">Ye-Maek</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Old_Korean" title="Old Korean">Old Korean</a> (?–10th century)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baekje_language" title="Baekje language">Baekje</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buyeo_language" title="Buyeo language">Buyeo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaya_language" title="Gaya language">Gaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goguryeo_language" title="Goguryeo language">Goguryeo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahan_language" title="Mahan language">Mahan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Korean" title="Old Korean">Silla</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Middle_Korean" title="Middle Korean">Middle Korean</a> (10–16th century)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Goryeo</li> <li>Joseon</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Early modern Korean (17–18th century)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">Joseon</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Korean_language" title="Korean language">Modern Korean</a> (19th century–present)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Joseon</li> <li>North Korea</li> <li>South Korea</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="8" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/File:Hangugeo-Chosono.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Hangugeo-Chosono.svg/125px-Hangugeo-Chosono.svg.png" decoding="async" width="125" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Hangugeo-Chosono.svg/188px-Hangugeo-Chosono.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Hangugeo-Chosono.svg/250px-Hangugeo-Chosono.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="263" data-file-height="371" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Standard</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/South_Korea" title="South Korea">South Korea</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/South_Korean_standard_language" title="South Korean standard language">Pyojuneo</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/North_Korea" title="North Korea">North Korea</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/North_Korean_standard_language" title="North Korean standard language">Munhwaŏ</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Korean_dialects" title="Korean dialects">Dialects</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/South_Korea" title="South Korea">South Korea</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chungcheong_dialect" title="Chungcheong dialect">Chungcheong dialect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gangwon_dialect" title="Gangwon dialect">Gangwon dialect</a> <ul><li>Yeongdong dialect</li> <li>Yeongseo dialect</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gyeonggi_dialect" title="Gyeonggi dialect">Gyeonggi/Seoul dialect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gyeongsang_dialect" title="Gyeongsang dialect">Gyeongsang dialect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeolla_dialect" title="Jeolla dialect">Jeolla dialect</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/North_Korea" title="North Korea">North Korea</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hamgy%C5%8Fng_dialect" title="Hamgyŏng dialect">Hamgyŏng dialect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hwanghae_dialect" title="Hwanghae dialect">Hwanghae dialect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyongan_dialect" title="Pyongan dialect">Pyongan dialect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yukjin_Korean" title="Yukjin Korean">Yukjin dialect</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Korean_language_in_China" title="Korean language in China">Chinese Korean</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Central_Asia" title="Central Asia">Central Asia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Koryo-mar" title="Koryo-mar">Koryo-mar</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan">Japan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zainichi_Korean_language" title="Zainichi Korean language">Zainichi Korean</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Koreanic languages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jeju_language" title="Jeju language">Jeju language</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Korean_language#Writing_system" title="Korean language">Writing system</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Braille" title="Korean Braille">Korean Braille</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hangul" title="Hangul">Hangul</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hangul_consonant_and_vowel_tables" title="Hangul consonant and vowel tables">Consonant and vowel tables</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_punctuation" title="Korean punctuation">Punctuation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hanja" title="Hanja">Hanja</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gugyeol" title="Gugyeol">Gugyeol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyangchal" title="Hyangchal">Hyangchal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idu_script" title="Idu script">Idu</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_mixed_script" title="Korean mixed script">Mixed script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcription_into_Korean" title="Transcription into Korean">Transcription into Korean</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cyrillization_of_Korean" title="Cyrillization of Korean">Cyrillization</a> and <a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Korean" title="Romanization of Korean">Romanization</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/ISO/TR_11941" title="ISO/TR 11941">ISO/TR 11941</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyrillization_of_Korean" title="Cyrillization of Korean">Cyrillization of Korean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/McCune%E2%80%93Reischauer" title="McCune–Reischauer">McCune-Reischauer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revised_Romanization_of_Korean" title="Revised Romanization of Korean">Revised</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yale_romanization_of_Korean" title="Yale romanization of Korean">Yale</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Korean_grammar" title="Korean grammar">Grammar</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Korean_phonology" title="Korean phonology">Phonology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_count_word" title="Korean count word">Count word</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_honorifics" title="Korean honorifics">Honorifics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_numerals" title="Korean numerals">Numerals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_postpositions" title="Korean postpositions">Postpositions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_pronouns" title="Korean pronouns">Pronouns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_speech_levels" title="Korean speech levels">Speech levels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_verbs" title="Korean verbs">Verbs</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Korean_literature" title="Korean literature">Literature</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gasa_(poetry)" title="Gasa (poetry)">Gasa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyangga" title="Hyangga">Hyangga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sijo" title="Sijo">Sijo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yongbieocheonga" title="Yongbieocheonga">Yongbieocheonga</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Koreanic languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Circle_of_Korean_Linguistics" title="International Circle of Korean Linguistics">International Circle of Korean Linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konglish" title="Konglish">Konglish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Konglish_terms" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Konglish terms">List of Konglish terms</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_English_words_of_Korean_origin" title="List of English words of Korean origin">List of English words of Korean origin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Institute_of_the_Korean_Language" class="mw-redirect" title="National Institute of the Korean Language">National Institute of the Korean Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North%E2%80%93South_differences_in_the_Korean_language" title="North–South differences in the Korean language">North–South differences in the Korean language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Korean_vocabulary" title="Sino-Korean vocabulary">Sino-Korean vocabulary</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Language_families_of_Eurasia" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Eurasian_languages" title="Template:Eurasian languages"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Eurasian_languages" title="Template talk:Eurasian languages"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Eurasian_languages" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Eurasian languages"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Language_families_of_Eurasia" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_language_families" title="List of language families">Language families</a> of <a href="/wiki/Eurasia" title="Eurasia">Eurasia</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Europe" title="Languages of Europe">Europe</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uralic_languages" title="Uralic languages">Uralic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkic_languages" title="Turkic languages">Turkic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basque_language" title="Basque language">Basque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iberian_language" title="Iberian language">Iberian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tartessian_language" title="Tartessian language">Tartessian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleo-Corsican_language" title="Paleo-Corsican language">Paleo-Corsican</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleo-Sardinian_language" title="Paleo-Sardinian language">Paleo-Sardinian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Camunic_language" title="Camunic language">Camunic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ligurian_(ancient_language)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ligurian (ancient language)">Ligurian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Picene_language" title="North Picene language">North Picene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sicani" title="Sicani">Sicani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tyrsenian_languages" title="Tyrsenian languages">Tyrsenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eteocretan_language" title="Eteocretan language">Eteocretan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eteocypriot_language" title="Eteocypriot language">Eteocypriot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minoan_language" title="Minoan language">Minoan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Western_Asia" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Asia">West Asia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afroasiatic_languages" title="Afroasiatic languages">Afroasiatic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkic_languages" title="Turkic languages">Turkic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hattic_language" title="Hattic language">Hattic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaskian_language" title="Kaskian language">Kaskian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hurro-Urartian_languages" title="Hurro-Urartian languages">Hurro-Urartian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kassite_language" title="Kassite language">Kassite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gutian_language" title="Gutian language">Gutian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philistine_language" title="Philistine language">Philistine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sumerian_language" title="Sumerian language">Sumerian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elamite_language" title="Elamite language">Elamite</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_the_Caucasus" title="Languages of the Caucasus">Caucasus</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kartvelian_languages" title="Kartvelian languages">Kartvelian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Caucasian_languages" title="North Caucasian languages">North Caucasian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Northeast_Caucasian_languages" title="Northeast Caucasian languages">Northeast Caucasian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northwest_Caucasian_languages" title="Northwest Caucasian languages">Northwest Caucasian</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_South_Asia" title="Languages of South Asia">South Asia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dravidian_languages" title="Dravidian languages">Dravidian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Tibetan_languages" title="Sino-Tibetan languages">Sino-Tibetan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austroasiatic_languages" title="Austroasiatic languages">Austroasiatic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nihali_language" title="Nihali language">Nihali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burushaski" title="Burushaski">Burushaski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kusunda_language" title="Kusunda language">Kusunda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harappan_language" title="Harappan language">Harappan</a> ?</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_East_Asia" title="Languages of East Asia">East Asia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Tibetan_languages" title="Sino-Tibetan languages">Sino-Tibetan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austroasiatic_languages" title="Austroasiatic languages">Austroasiatic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hmong%E2%80%93Mien_languages" title="Hmong–Mien languages">Hmong–Mien</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kra%E2%80%93Dai_languages" title="Kra–Dai languages">Kra–Dai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austronesian_languages" title="Austronesian languages">Austronesian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkic_languages" title="Turkic languages">Turkic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongolic_languages" title="Mongolic languages">Mongolic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tungusic_languages" title="Tungusic languages">Tungusic</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Koreanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japonic_languages" title="Japonic languages">Japonic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean" title="Indian Ocean">Indian Ocean</a> rim</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Andamanese_languages" title="Great Andamanese languages">Great Andamanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ongan_languages" title="Ongan languages">Ongan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sentinelese_language" title="Sentinelese language">Sentinelese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kenaboi_language" title="Kenaboi language">Kenaboi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/North_Asia" title="North Asia">North Asia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="&quot;Paleosiberian&quot;" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">"<a href="/wiki/Paleosiberian_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Paleosiberian languages">Paleosiberian</a>"</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ainu_languages" title="Ainu languages">Ainu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nivkh_languages" title="Nivkh languages">Nivkh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chukotko-Kamchatkan_languages" title="Chukotko-Kamchatkan languages">Chukotko-Kamchatkan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yukaghir_languages" title="Yukaghir languages">Yukaghir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yeniseian_languages" title="Yeniseian languages">Yeniseian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other <a href="/wiki/North_Asia" title="North Asia">North Asia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Uralic_languages" title="Uralic languages">Uralic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkic_languages" title="Turkic languages">Turkic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rouran_language" title="Rouran language">Rouran</a> ?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eskaleut_languages" title="Eskaleut languages">Eskaleut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xiongnu_language" title="Xiongnu language">Xiongnu</a> ?</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Proposed groupings</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alarodian_languages" title="Alarodian languages">Alarodian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Altaic_languages" title="Altaic languages">Altaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Borean_languages" title="Borean languages">Borean</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nostratic_languages" title="Nostratic languages">Nostratic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Den%C3%A9%E2%80%93Caucasian_languages" title="Dené–Caucasian languages">Dené–Caucasian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eurasiatic_languages" title="Eurasiatic languages">Eurasiatic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Den%C3%A9%E2%80%93Yeniseian_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Dené–Yeniseian languages">Dené–Yeniseian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dravido-Korean_languages" title="Dravido-Korean languages">Dravido-Korean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elamo-Dravidian_languages" title="Elamo-Dravidian languages">Elamo-Dravidian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibero-Caucasian_languages" title="Ibero-Caucasian languages">Ibero-Caucasian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Hittite" title="Indo-Hittite">Indo-Hittite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Pacific_languages" title="Indo-Pacific languages">Indo-Pacific</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Semitic_languages" title="Indo-Semitic languages">Indo-Semitic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Uralic_languages" title="Indo-Uralic languages">Indo-Uralic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karasuk_languages" title="Karasuk languages">Karasuk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serbi%E2%80%93Mongolic_languages" title="Serbi–Mongolic languages">Serbi–Mongolic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pontic_languages" title="Pontic languages">Pontic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ural-Altaic_languages" title="Ural-Altaic languages">Ural-Altaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uralo-Siberian_languages" title="Uralo-Siberian languages">Uralo-Siberian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uralic%E2%80%93Yukaghir_languages" title="Uralic–Yukaghir languages">Uralic–Yukaghir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eskimo%E2%80%93Uralic_languages" title="Eskimo–Uralic languages">Eskimo–Uralic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chukotko-Kamchatkan%E2%80%93Amuric_languages" title="Chukotko-Kamchatkan–Amuric languages">Chukotko-Kamchatkan–Amuric</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Language_isolates_and_independent_language_families_in_Arunachal" class="mw-redirect" title="Language isolates and independent language families in Arunachal">Arunachal</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greater_Siangic_languages" title="Greater Siangic languages">Greater Siangic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Siangic_languages" title="Siangic languages">Siangic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digaro_languages" title="Digaro languages">Digaro</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mijiic_languages" title="Mijiic languages">Mijiic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miju_languages" title="Miju languages">Miju</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hrusish_languages" title="Hrusish languages">Hrusish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kho-Bwa_languages" title="Kho-Bwa languages">Kho-Bwa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Classification_of_Southeast_Asian_languages" title="Classification of Southeast Asian languages">East and Southeast Asia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Andamanese_languages" title="Andamanese languages">Andamanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austric_languages" title="Austric languages">Austric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austro-Tai_languages" title="Austro-Tai languages">Austro-Tai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austronesian%E2%80%93Ongan_languages" title="Austronesian–Ongan languages">Austronesian–Ongan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Asian_languages" title="East Asian languages">East Asian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Austronesian_languages" title="Sino-Austronesian languages">Sino-Austronesian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Stratum_(linguistics)" title="Stratum (linguistics)">Substrata</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_(Semitic)_languages" title="Atlantic (Semitic) languages">Atlantic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Celtic" class="mw-redirect" title="Pre-Celtic">Pre-Celtic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_substrate_hypothesis" title="Germanic substrate hypothesis">Pre-Germanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goidelic_substrate_hypothesis" title="Goidelic substrate hypothesis">Pre-Goidelic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Greek_substrate" title="Pre-Greek substrate">Pre-Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vasconic_substrate_hypothesis" title="Vasconic substrate hypothesis">Vasconic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Substratum_in_Vedic_Sanskrit" title="Substratum in Vedic Sanskrit">Pre-Vedic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Finno-Ugric_substrate" title="Pre-Finno-Ugric substrate">Pre-Finno-Ugric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleo-Laplandic_languages" title="Paleo-Laplandic languages">Paleo-Laplandic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Euphratean_language" title="Proto-Euphratean language">Proto-Euphratean</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><div class="hlist"><ul><li>Families in italics have no living members.</li><li>Families with more than 30 languages are in bold.</li></ul></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Primary_language_families" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Language_families" title="Template:Language families"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Language_families" title="Template talk:Language families"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Language_families" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Language families"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Primary_language_families" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_language_families" title="List of language families">Primary language families</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Africa" title="Languages of Africa">Africa</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afroasiatic_languages" title="Afroasiatic languages">Afroasiatic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austronesian_languages" title="Austronesian languages">Austronesian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khoe%E2%80%93Kwadi_languages" title="Khoe–Kwadi languages">Khoe–Kwadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kx%CA%BCa_languages" title="Kxʼa languages">Kx'a</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niger%E2%80%93Congo_languages" title="Niger–Congo languages">Niger–Congo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nilo-Saharan_languages" title="Nilo-Saharan languages">Nilo-Saharan</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuu_languages" title="Tuu languages">Tuu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mande_languages" title="Mande languages">Mande</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Songhay_languages" title="Songhay languages">Songhay</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ijaw_languages" title="Ijaw languages">Ijaw</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ubangian_languages" title="Ubangian languages">Ubangian</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kadu_languages" title="Kadu languages">Kadu</a>?</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Isolates</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bangime_language" title="Bangime language">Bangime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hadza_language" title="Hadza language">Hadza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jalaa_language" title="Jalaa language">Jalaa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sandawe_language" title="Sandawe language">Sandawe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laal_language" title="Laal language">Laal</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shabo_language" title="Shabo language">Shabo</a>?</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Eurasia (<a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Europe" title="Languages of Europe">Europe</a> and <a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Asia" title="Languages of Asia">Asia</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afroasiatic_languages" title="Afroasiatic languages">Afroasiatic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ainu_languages" title="Ainu languages">Ainu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austroasiatic_languages" title="Austroasiatic languages">Austroasiatic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austronesian_languages" title="Austronesian languages">Austronesian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chukotko-Kamchatkan_languages" title="Chukotko-Kamchatkan languages">Chukotko-Kamchatkan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dravidian_languages" title="Dravidian languages">Dravidian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eskaleut_languages" title="Eskaleut languages">Eskaleut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Andamanese_languages" title="Great Andamanese languages">Great Andamanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hmong%E2%80%93Mien_languages" title="Hmong–Mien languages">Hmong–Mien</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hurro-Urartian_languages" title="Hurro-Urartian languages">Hurro-Urartian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japonic_languages" title="Japonic languages">Japonic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kartvelian_languages" title="Kartvelian languages">Kartvelian</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Koreanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kra%E2%80%93Dai_languages" title="Kra–Dai languages">Kra–Dai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongolic_languages" title="Mongolic languages">Mongolic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nivkh_languages" title="Nivkh languages">Nivkh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northeast_Caucasian_languages" title="Northeast Caucasian languages">Northeast Caucasian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northwest_Caucasian_languages" title="Northwest Caucasian languages">Northwest Caucasian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ongan_languages" title="Ongan languages">Ongan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Tibetan_languages" title="Sino-Tibetan languages">Sino-Tibetan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tungusic_languages" title="Tungusic languages">Tungusic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkic_languages" title="Turkic languages">Turkic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tyrsenian_languages" title="Tyrsenian languages">Tyrsenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uralic_languages" title="Uralic languages">Uralic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yeniseian_languages" title="Yeniseian languages">Yeniseian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yukaghir_languages" title="Yukaghir languages">Yukaghir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digaro_languages" title="Digaro languages">Digaro</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hrusish_languages" title="Hrusish languages">Hrusish</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kho-Bwa_languages" title="Kho-Bwa languages">Kho-Bwa</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mijiic_languages" title="Mijiic languages">Mijiic</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miju_languages" title="Miju languages">Miju</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siangic_languages" title="Siangic languages">Siangic</a>?</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Isolates</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Basque_language" title="Basque language">Basque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burushaski" title="Burushaski">Burushaski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elamite_language" title="Elamite language">Elamite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hattic_language" title="Hattic language">Hattic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kenaboi_language" title="Kenaboi language">Kenaboi</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kusunda_language" title="Kusunda language">Kusunda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minoan_language" title="Minoan language">Minoan</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nihali_language" title="Nihali language">Nihali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shompen_language" title="Shompen language">Shompen</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sumerian_language" title="Sumerian language">Sumerian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tambora_language" title="Tambora language">Tambora</a>?</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Papuan_languages" title="Papuan languages">New Guinea</a> and <a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Oceania" title="Languages of Oceania">the Pacific</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arai%E2%80%93Samaia_languages" title="Arai–Samaia languages">Arai–Samaia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austronesian_languages" title="Austronesian languages">Austronesian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Binanderean%E2%80%93Goilalan_languages" title="Binanderean–Goilalan languages">Binanderean–Goilalan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Border_languages_(New_Guinea)" title="Border languages (New Guinea)">Border</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulaka_River_languages" title="Bulaka River languages">Bulaka River</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Solomon_languages" title="Central Solomon languages">Central Solomons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chimbu%E2%80%93Wahgi_languages" title="Chimbu–Wahgi languages">Chimbu–Wahgi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demta%E2%80%93Sentani_languages" title="Demta–Sentani languages">Demta–Sentani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doso%E2%80%93Turumsa_languages" title="Doso–Turumsa languages">Doso–Turumsa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Geelvink_Bay_languages" title="East Geelvink Bay languages">East Geelvink Bay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_New_Britain_languages" title="East New Britain languages">East New Britain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Strickland_languages" title="East Strickland languages">East Strickland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eleman_languages" title="Eleman languages">Eleman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engan_languages" title="Engan languages">Engan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fas_languages" title="Fas languages">Fas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foja_Range_languages" title="Foja Range languages">Foja Range</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaure%E2%80%93Kosare_languages" title="Kaure–Kosare languages">Kaure–Kosare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kiwaian_languages" title="Kiwaian languages">Kiwaian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kutubuan_languages" title="Kutubuan languages">Kutubuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lakes_Plain_languages" title="Lakes Plain languages">Lakes Plain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lower_Mamberamo_languages" title="Lower Mamberamo languages">Lower Mamberamo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lower_Sepik_languages" title="Lower Sepik languages">Lower Sepik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madang_languages" title="Madang languages">Madang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mairasi_languages" title="Mairasi languages">Mairasi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Bougainville_languages" title="North Bougainville languages">North Bougainville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pauwasi_languages" title="Pauwasi languages">Pauwasi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramu_languages" title="Ramu languages">Ramu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Senagi_languages" title="Senagi languages">Senagi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Senu_River_languages" title="Senu River languages">Senu River</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sepik_languages" title="Sepik languages">Sepik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skou_languages" title="Skou languages">Skou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Bougainville_languages" title="South Bougainville languages">South Bougainville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teberan_languages" title="Teberan languages">Teberan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Torricelli_languages" title="Torricelli languages">Torricelli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trans-Fly_languages" title="Trans-Fly languages">Trans-Fly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trans%E2%80%93New_Guinea_languages" title="Trans–New Guinea languages">Trans–New Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turama%E2%80%93Kikorian_languages" title="Turama–Kikorian languages">Turama–Kikorian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upper_Yuat_languages" title="Upper Yuat languages">Upper Yuat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Papuan_languages" title="West Papuan languages">West Papuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yam_languages" title="Yam languages">Yam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yawa_languages" title="Yawa languages">Yawa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuat_languages" title="Yuat languages">Yuat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northwest_Papuan_languages" title="Northwest Papuan languages">Northwest Papuan</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papuan_Gulf_languages" title="Papuan Gulf languages">Papuan Gulf</a>?</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Isolates</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abinomn_language" title="Abinomn language">Abinomn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abun_language" title="Abun language">Abun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/An%C3%AAm_language" title="Anêm language">Anêm</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ata_language" title="Ata language">Ata</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kol_language_(Papua_New_Guinea)" title="Kol language (Papua New Guinea)">Kol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kuot_language" title="Kuot language">Kuot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maybrat_language" title="Maybrat language">Maybrat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mpur_language" title="Mpur language">Mpur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pawaia_language" title="Pawaia language">Pawaia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Porome_language" title="Porome language">Porome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sulka_language" title="Sulka language">Sulka</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tayap_language" title="Tayap language">Taiap</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tambora_language" title="Tambora language">Tambora</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wiru_language" title="Wiru language">Wiru</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Australian_Aboriginal_languages" title="Australian Aboriginal languages">Australia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Macro-Gunwinyguan_languages" title="Macro-Gunwinyguan languages">Arnhem/Macro-Gunwinyguan</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bunuban_languages" title="Bunuban languages">Bunuban</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Darwin_Region_languages" title="Darwin Region languages">Darwin Region</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Daly_languages" title="Eastern Daly languages">Eastern Daly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Tasmanian_languages" title="Eastern Tasmanian languages">Eastern Tasmanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garawan_languages" title="Garawan languages">Garawan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iwaidjan_languages" title="Iwaidjan languages">Iwaidjan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jarrakan_languages" title="Jarrakan languages">Jarrakan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marrku%E2%80%93Wurrugu_languages" title="Marrku–Wurrugu languages">Marrku–Wurrugu</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mirndi_languages" title="Mirndi languages">Mirndi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Tasmanian_languages" title="Northern Tasmanian languages">Northern Tasmanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northeastern_Tasmanian_languages" title="Northeastern Tasmanian languages">Northeastern Tasmanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nyulnyulan_languages" title="Nyulnyulan languages">Nyulnyulan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pama%E2%80%93Nyungan_languages" title="Pama–Nyungan languages">Pama–Nyungan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Daly_languages" title="Southern Daly languages">Southern Daly</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tangkic_languages" title="Tangkic languages">Tangkic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wagaydyic_languages" title="Wagaydyic languages">Wagaydyic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Daly_languages" title="Western Daly languages">Western Daly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Tasmanian_languages" title="Western Tasmanian languages">Western Tasmanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Worrorran_languages" title="Worrorran languages">Worrorran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wardaman_language" title="Wardaman language">Yangmanic</a> (incl. <a href="/wiki/Wagiman_language" title="Wagiman language">Wagiman</a>)?</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Isolates</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Giimbiyu_language" title="Giimbiyu language">Giimbiyu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malak-Malak_language" title="Malak-Malak language">Malak-Malak</a> (Northern Daly?)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiwi_language" title="Tiwi language">Tiwi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_languages_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous languages of the Americas">North America</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Algic_languages" title="Algic languages">Algic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alsea_language" title="Alsea language">Alsea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caddoan_languages" title="Caddoan languages">Caddoan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chimakuan_languages" title="Chimakuan languages">Chimakuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinookan_languages" title="Chinookan languages">Chinookan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chumashan_languages" title="Chumashan languages">Chumashan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comecrudan_languages" title="Comecrudan languages">Comecrudan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coosan_languages" title="Coosan languages">Coosan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eskaleut_languages" title="Eskaleut languages">Eskaleut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iroquoian_languages" title="Iroquoian languages">Iroquoian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalapuyan_languages" title="Kalapuyan languages">Kalapuyan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keres_language" title="Keres language">Keres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maiduan_languages" title="Maiduan languages">Maiduan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muskogean_languages" title="Muskogean languages">Muskogean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Na-Dene_languages" title="Na-Dene languages">Na-Dene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palaihnihan_languages" title="Palaihnihan languages">Palaihnihan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plateau_Penutian_languages" title="Plateau Penutian languages">Plateau Penutian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pomoan_languages" title="Pomoan languages">Pomoan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salishan_languages" title="Salishan languages">Salishan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shastan_languages" title="Shastan languages">Shastan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siouan_languages" title="Siouan languages">Siouan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tanoan_languages" title="Tanoan languages">Tanoan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tsimshianic_languages" title="Tsimshianic languages">Tsimshianic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utian_languages" title="Utian languages">Utian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uto-Aztecan_languages" title="Uto-Aztecan languages">Uto-Aztecan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wakashan_languages" title="Wakashan languages">Wakashan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wintuan_languages" title="Wintuan languages">Wintuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuki%E2%80%93Wappo_languages" title="Yuki–Wappo languages">Yukian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuman%E2%80%93Cochim%C3%AD_languages" title="Yuman–Cochimí languages">Yuman–Cochimí</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Isolates</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chimariko_language" title="Chimariko language">Chimariko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Esselen_language" title="Esselen language">Esselen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haida_language" title="Haida language">Haida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karuk_language" title="Karuk language">Karuk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kutenai_language" title="Kutenai language">Kutenai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seri_language" title="Seri language">Seri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siuslaw_language" title="Siuslaw language">Siuslaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Takelma_language" title="Takelma language">Takelma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timucua_language" title="Timucua language">Timucua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tonkawa_language" title="Tonkawa language">Tonkawa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waikuri_language" title="Waikuri language">Waikuri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Washo_language" title="Washo language">Washo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yana_language" title="Yana language">Yana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yokuts_language" title="Yokuts language">Yokuts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuchi_language" title="Yuchi language">Yuchi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zuni_language" title="Zuni language">Zuni</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Mesoamerican_languages" title="Mesoamerican languages">Mesoamerica</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chibchan_languages" title="Chibchan languages">Chibchan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jicaquean_languages" title="Jicaquean languages">Jicaquean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lencan_languages" title="Lencan languages">Lencan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mayan_languages" title="Mayan languages">Mayan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Misumalpan_languages" title="Misumalpan languages">Misumalpan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mixe%E2%80%93Zoque_languages" title="Mixe–Zoque languages">Mixe–Zoque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oto-Manguean_languages" title="Oto-Manguean languages">Oto-Manguean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tequistlatecan_languages" title="Tequistlatecan languages">Tequistlatecan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Totonacan_languages" title="Totonacan languages">Totonacan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uto-Aztecan_languages" title="Uto-Aztecan languages">Uto-Aztecan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xincan_languages" title="Xincan languages">Xincan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Isolates</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cuitlatec_language" title="Cuitlatec language">Cuitlatec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huave_language" title="Huave language">Huave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pur%C3%A9pecha_language" title="Purépecha language">Tarascan/Purépecha</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_languages_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous languages of the Americas">South America</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Andoque%E2%80%93Urequena_languages" title="Andoque–Urequena languages">Andoque–Urequena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arawan_languages" title="Arawan languages">Arauan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Araucanian_languages" title="Araucanian languages">Araucanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arawakan_languages" title="Arawakan languages">Arawakan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arutani%E2%80%93Sape_languages" title="Arutani–Sape languages">Arutani–Sape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aymaran_languages" title="Aymaran languages">Aymaran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbacoan_languages" title="Barbacoan languages">Barbacoan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boran_languages" title="Boran languages">Boran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cahuapanan_languages" title="Cahuapanan languages">Cahuapanan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cariban_languages" title="Cariban languages">Cariban</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catacaoan_languages" title="Catacaoan languages">Catacaoan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chapacuran_languages" title="Chapacuran languages">Chapacuran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charruan_languages" title="Charruan languages">Charruan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chibchan_languages" title="Chibchan languages">Chibchan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Choco_languages" title="Choco languages">Choco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chonan_languages" title="Chonan languages">Chonan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guaicuruan_languages" title="Guaicuruan languages">Guaicuruan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guajiboan_languages" title="Guajiboan languages">Guajiboan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Har%C3%A1kmbut%E2%80%93Katukinan_languages" title="Harákmbut–Katukinan languages">Harákmbut–Katukinan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jirajaran_languages" title="Jirajaran languages">Jirajaran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicham_languages" title="Chicham languages">Jivaroan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Katembri%E2%80%93Taruma_languages" title="Katembri–Taruma languages">Katembri–Taruma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mascoian_languages" title="Mascoian languages">Mascoian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matacoan_languages" title="Matacoan languages">Matacoan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nadahup_languages" title="Nadahup languages">Nadahup</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nambikwaran_languages" title="Nambikwaran languages">Nambikwaran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otom%C3%A1koan_languages" title="Otomákoan languages">Otomákoan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pano-Tacanan_languages" title="Pano-Tacanan languages">Pano-Tacanan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peba%E2%80%93Yaguan_languages" title="Peba–Yaguan languages">Peba–Yaguan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quechuan_languages" title="Quechuan languages">Quechuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piaroa%E2%80%93Saliban_languages" title="Piaroa–Saliban languages">Piaroa–Saliban</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ticuna%E2%80%93Yuri_languages" title="Ticuna–Yuri languages">Ticuna–Yuri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timotean_languages" title="Timotean languages">Timotean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiniguan_languages" title="Tiniguan languages">Tiniguan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tucanoan_languages" title="Tucanoan languages">Tucanoan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tupian_languages" title="Tupian languages">Tupian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uru%E2%80%93Chipaya_languages" title="Uru–Chipaya languages">Uru–Chipaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Witotoan_languages" title="Witotoan languages">Witotoan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yanomaman_languages" title="Yanomaman languages">Yanomaman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zamucoan_languages" title="Zamucoan languages">Zamucoan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zaparoan_languages" title="Zaparoan languages">Zaparoan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bora%E2%80%93Witoto_languages" title="Bora–Witoto languages">Bora-Witoto</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chimuan_languages" title="Chimuan languages">Chimuan</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Esmeralda%E2%80%93Yaruroan_languages" title="Esmeralda–Yaruroan languages">Esmeralda–Yaruro</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hibito%E2%80%93Cholon_languages" title="Hibito–Cholon languages">Hibito–Cholón</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lule%E2%80%93Vilela_languages" title="Lule–Vilela languages">Lule–Vilela</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macro-J%C3%AA_languages" title="Macro-Jê languages">Macro-Jê</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tequiraca%E2%80%93Canichana_languages" title="Tequiraca–Canichana languages">Tequiraca–Canichana</a>?</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Isolates (extant in 2000)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aikan%C3%A3_language" title="Aikanã language">Aikanã</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alacalufan_languages" title="Alacalufan languages">Alacalufan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cams%C3%A1_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Camsá language">Camsá</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Candoshi-Shapra_language" title="Candoshi-Shapra language">Candoshi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chimane_language" title="Chimane language">Chimane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chiquitano_language" title="Chiquitano language">Chiquitano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cof%C3%A1n_language" title="Cofán language">Cofán</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fulni%C3%B4_language" title="Fulniô language">Fulniô</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guat%C3%B3_language" title="Guató language">Guató</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hod%C3%AF_language" title="Hodï language">Hodï/Joti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irantxe_language" title="Irantxe language">Irantxe</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Itonama_language" title="Itonama language">Itonama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kunza_language" title="Kunza language">Kunza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leco_language" title="Leco language">Leco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maku_language_of_Auari" title="Maku language of Auari">Maku</a> (Maku-Auari/Jukude)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Movima_language" title="Movima language">Movima</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mura_language" title="Mura language">Mura-Pirahã</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nukak_language" title="Nukak language">Nukak</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/P%C3%A1ez_language" title="Páez language">Páez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Puinave_language" title="Puinave language">Puinave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waorani_language" title="Waorani language">Huaorani/Waorani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trumai_language" title="Trumai language">Trumai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urarina_language" title="Urarina language">Urarina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warao_language" title="Warao language">Warao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yahgan_language" title="Yahgan language">Yamana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuracar%C3%A9_language" title="Yuracaré language">Yuracaré</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sign_language" title="Sign language">Sign languages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arab_sign-language_family" title="Arab sign-language family">Arab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/BANZSL" title="BANZSL">BANZSL</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Sign_Language" title="Chinese Sign Language">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Sign_Language_family" title="French Sign Language family">Francosign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_Sign_Language_family" title="German Sign Language family">Germanosign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Pakistani_Sign_Language" title="Indo-Pakistani Sign Language">Indo-Pakistani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_Sign_Language_family" title="Japanese Sign Language family">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Chiangmai%E2%80%93Bangkok_Sign_Language_family" title="Old Chiangmai–Bangkok Sign Language family">Original Thai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_Sign_Language_family" title="Swedish Sign Language family">Swedish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tanzanian_sign_languages" title="Tanzanian sign languages">Tanzanian</a>?</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Isolates</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>See <a href="/wiki/List_of_sign_languages" title="List of sign languages">list of sign languages</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constructed_language" title="Constructed language">Constructed languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creole_language" title="Creole language">Creoles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_isolate" title="Language isolate">Language isolates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mixed_language" title="Mixed language">Mixed languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pidgin" title="Pidgin">Pidgins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unclassified_language" title="Unclassified language">Unclassified languages</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><div class="hlist"><ul><li>Families with question marks (?) are disputed or controversial.</li><li>Families in italics have no living members.</li><li>Families with more than 30 languages are in bold.</li></ul></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Altaic_hypothesis" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Altaic_languages" title="Template:Altaic languages"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Altaic_languages" title="Template talk:Altaic languages"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Altaic_languages" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Altaic languages"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Altaic_hypothesis" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Altaic_languages" title="Altaic languages">Altaic hypothesis</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Families</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Turkic_languages" title="Turkic languages">Turkic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongolic_languages" title="Mongolic languages">Mongolic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tungusic_languages" title="Tungusic languages">Tungusic</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Koreanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japonic_languages" title="Japonic languages">Japonic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Early languages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Turkic" title="Old Turkic">Old Turkic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Korean" title="Old Korean">Old Korean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Japanese" title="Old Japanese">Old Japanese</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Proto-language" title="Proto-language">Proto-languages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Altaic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Altaic language">Proto-Altaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Turkic_language" title="Proto-Turkic language">Proto-Turkic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Mongolic_language" title="Proto-Mongolic language">Proto-Mongolic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Japonic" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Japonic">Proto-Japonic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-label="Navbox" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a>: National <a 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alt="Powered by MediaWiki" width="88" height="31" loading="lazy"></a></li> </ul> </footer> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-settings" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul></ul> </div><script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-f69cdc8f6-7j489","wgBackendResponseTime":167,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"1.929","walltime":"2.126","ppvisitednodes":{"value":20614,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":315369,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":20696,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":13,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":12,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":273832,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":1,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 1817.410 1 -total"," 33.07% 600.933 217 Template:Sfnp"," 20.89% 379.574 55 Template:Citation"," 9.23% 167.739 19 Template:Lang"," 6.90% 125.359 1 Template:Infobox_language_family"," 6.47% 117.557 1 Template:Infobox"," 6.41% 116.571 93 Template:IPA"," 5.18% 94.167 6 Template:Navbox"," 4.96% 90.208 1 Template:Short_description"," 4.86% 88.240 1 Template:Korean_language"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"1.219","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":21409298,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-logs":"anchor_id_list = table#1 {\n [\"CITEREFBeckwith2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBentley2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrownYeon2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFByingtonBarnes2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCASS2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCampbellPoser2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChoWhitman2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGeorg2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFItabashi2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJanhunen1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJanhunen1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJanhunen2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJanhunenKho1982\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKim1983\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKim1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKim2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKing1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKing1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKōno1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLabov1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLeeRamsey2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLeeRamsey2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMartin1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMartin1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNGII2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNam2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNelson1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPai2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFParkWee2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPulleyblank1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSerafim2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSeth2024\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShin2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSohn1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFToh2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTranter2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFUnger2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVovin2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVovin2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVovin2013a\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVovin2013b\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVovin2013c\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVovin2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWhitman1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWhitman2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWhitman2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWhitman2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWhitman2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYangO\u0026#039;GradyYangHilton2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYangYangO\u0026#039;Grady2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYeon2012\"] = 1,\n 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