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href="#Differentiation_with_other_language_mixtures"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Differentiation with other language mixtures</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Differentiation_with_other_language_mixtures-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Proposed_examples" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Proposed_examples"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Proposed examples</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Proposed_examples-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Proposed examples subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Proposed_examples-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Michif" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Michif"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Michif</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Michif-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mednyj_Aleut" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mednyj_Aleut"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Mednyj Aleut</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mednyj_Aleut-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ma'a" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ma'a"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Ma'a</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ma'a-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Media_Lengua" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Media_Lengua"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Media Lengua</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Media_Lengua-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Light_Warlpiri" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Light_Warlpiri"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Light Warlpiri</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Light_Warlpiri-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gurindji_Kriol" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gurindji_Kriol"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6</span> <span>Gurindji Kriol</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gurindji_Kriol-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cappadocian_Greek_and_Cypriot_Arabic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cappadocian_Greek_and_Cypriot_Arabic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.7</span> <span>Cappadocian Greek and Cypriot Arabic</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cappadocian_Greek_and_Cypriot_Arabic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Kaqchikel-K'iche'_Mayan_language" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kaqchikel-K'iche'_Mayan_language"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.8</span> <span>Kaqchikel-K'iche' Mayan language</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kaqchikel-K'iche'_Mayan_language-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_possible_mixed_languages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_possible_mixed_languages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.9</span> <span>Other possible mixed languages</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_possible_mixed_languages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Possible_mixed_languages_with_a_Chinese_element" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Possible_mixed_languages_with_a_Chinese_element"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.10</span> <span>Possible mixed languages with a Chinese element</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Possible_mixed_languages_with_a_Chinese_element-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Controversy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Controversy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Controversy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Controversy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Citations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Mixed language</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 38 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-38" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">38 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mengtaal" title="Mengtaal – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Mengtaal" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D8%BA%D8%A9_%D9%85%D8%AE%D8%AA%D9%84%D8%B7%D8%A9" title="لغة مختلطة – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="لغة مختلطة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qar%C4%B1%C5%9F%C4%B1q_dil" title="Qarışıq dil – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Qarışıq dil" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%88%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%8B%D1%8F_%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%8B" title="Змешаныя мовы – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Змешаныя мовы" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yezh_kemmesk" title="Yezh kemmesk – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Yezh kemmesk" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D1%83%D1%82%C4%83%D1%88_%D1%87%C4%95%D0%BB%D1%85%D0%B5" title="Хутăш чĕлхе – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Хутăш чĕлхе" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sm%C3%AD%C5%A1en%C3%BD_jazyk" title="Smíšený jazyk – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Smíšený jazyk" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mischsprache" title="Mischsprache – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Mischsprache" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lengua_mixta" title="Lengua mixta – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Lengua mixta" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikslingvo" title="Mikslingvo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Mikslingvo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B2%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%86_%D9%85%D8%AE%D8%AA%D9%84%D8%B7" title="زبان مختلط – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="زبان مختلط" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Langue_mixte" title="Langue mixte – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Langue mixte" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mingtaal" title="Mingtaal – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Mingtaal" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%98%BC%ED%95%A9_%EC%96%B8%EC%96%B4" title="혼합 언어 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="혼합 언어" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mije%C5%A1ani_jezik" title="Miješani jezik – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Miješani jezik" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mix-lingui" title="Mix-lingui – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Mix-lingui" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahasa_campuran" title="Bahasa campuran – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Bahasa campuran" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_mista" title="Lingua mista – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Lingua mista" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D1%96%D0%BB%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%80_%D0%B1%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%8B%D1%81%D1%8B" title="Тілдер байланысы – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Тілдер байланысы" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kevert_nyelv" title="Kevert nyelv – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Kevert nyelv" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B5%D1%88%D0%B0%D0%BD_%D1%98%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA" title="Мешан јазик – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Мешан јазик" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mengtaal" title="Mengtaal – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Mengtaal" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B7%B7%E5%90%88%E8%A8%80%E8%AA%9E" title="混合言語 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="混合言語" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blandingsspr%C3%A5k" title="Blandingsspråk – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Blandingsspråk" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lenghe_m%C3%ABs-ci%C3%A0" title="Lenghe mës-cià – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Lenghe mës-cià" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Piemontèis</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C4%99zyki_mieszane" title="Języki mieszane – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Języki mieszane" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%ADngua_mista" title="Língua mista – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Língua mista" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rmy mw-list-item"><a href="https://rmy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xamomi_chhib" title="Xamomi chhib – Vlax Romani" lang="rmy" hreflang="rmy" data-title="Xamomi chhib" data-language-autonym="Romani čhib" data-language-local-name="Vlax Romani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Romani čhib</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%88%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9_%D1%8F%D0%B7%D1%8B%D0%BA" title="Смешанный язык – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Смешанный язык" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gjuha_e_p%C3%ABrzier" title="Gjuha e përzier – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Gjuha e përzier" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mixed_language" title="Mixed language – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Mixed language" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zmie%C5%A1an%C3%BD_jazyk" title="Zmiešaný jazyk – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Zmiešaný jazyk" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hybridikieli" title="Hybridikieli – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Hybridikieli" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blandspr%C3%A5k" title="Blandspråk – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Blandspråk" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A0%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A9%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%9C%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%A1" title="ภาษาผสม – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ภาษาผสม" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%BC%D1%96%D1%88%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%96_%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8" title="Змішані мови – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Змішані мови" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%AE%D9%84%D9%88%D8%B7_%D8%B2%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C%DA%BA" title="مخلوط زبانیں – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="مخلوط زبانیں" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B7%B7%E5%90%88%E8%AF%AD" title="混合语 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="混合语" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q33694#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit 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src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/40px-Ambox_important.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/60px-Ambox_important.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/80px-Ambox_important.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="40" data-file-height="40" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span"><div class="multiple-issues-text mw-collapsible"><b>This article has multiple issues.</b> Please help <b><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Mixed_language" title="Special:EditPage/Mixed language">improve it</a></b> or discuss these issues on the <b><a href="/wiki/Talk:Mixed_language" title="Talk:Mixed language">talk page</a></b>. <small><i>(<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove these messages</a>)</i></small> <div class="mw-collapsible-content"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-More_citations_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Mixed_language" title="Special:EditPage/Mixed language">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Mixed+language%22">"Mixed language"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Mixed+language%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Mixed+language%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Mixed+language%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Mixed+language%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Mixed+language%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">December 2018</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-POV plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-POV" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span class="skin-invert" typeof="mw:File"><span><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Unbalanced_scales.svg/45px-Unbalanced_scales.svg.png" decoding="async" width="45" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Unbalanced_scales.svg/68px-Unbalanced_scales.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Unbalanced_scales.svg/90px-Unbalanced_scales.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="354" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">The <b><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Neutral_point_of_view" title="Wikipedia:Neutral point of view">neutrality</a> of this article is <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NPOV_dispute" title="Wikipedia:NPOV dispute">disputed</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Relevant discussion may be found on the <a href="/wiki/Talk:Mixed_language##" title="Talk:Mixed language">talk page</a>. Please do not remove this message until <a href="/wiki/Template:POV#When_to_remove" title="Template:POV">conditions to do so are met</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">January 2018</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> </div> </div><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>A <b>mixed language</b>, also referred to as a <b>hybrid language</b>, <b>contact language</b>, or <b>fusion language</b>, is a language that arises among a bilingual group combining aspects of two or more languages but not clearly deriving primarily from any single language.<sup id="cite_ref-Matras_2008_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Matras_2008-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It differs from a <a href="/wiki/Creole_language" title="Creole language">creole</a> or <a href="/wiki/Pidgin" title="Pidgin">pidgin language</a> in that, whereas creoles/pidgins arise where speakers of many languages acquire a common language, a mixed language typically arises in a population that is fluent in both of the source languages. </p><p>Because all languages show some degree of mixing<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> by virtue of containing <a href="/wiki/Loanword" title="Loanword">loanwords</a>, it is a matter of controversy whether the concept of a mixed language can meaningfully be distinguished from the type of contact and borrowing seen in all languages.<sup id="cite_ref-arends-1994_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-arends-1994-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Scholars debate to what extent language mixture can be distinguished from other mechanisms such as <a href="/wiki/Code-switching" title="Code-switching">code-switching</a>, <a href="/wiki/Stratum_(linguistics)" title="Stratum (linguistics)">substrata</a>, or lexical borrowing.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Definitions">Definitions</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mixed_language&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Definitions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Other terms used in <a href="/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">linguistics</a> for the concept of a mixed language include <i>hybrid language</i>, <i>contact language</i>, and <i>fusion language</i>; in older usage, 'jargon' was sometimes used in this sense.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In some linguists' usage, <a href="/wiki/Creole_language" title="Creole language">creoles</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pidgin" title="Pidgin">pidgins</a> are types of mixed languages, whereas in others' usage, creoles and pidgins are merely among the kinds of language that might become full-fledged mixed languages. </p><p>Thomason (1995) classifies mixed languages into two categories: Category 1 languages exhibit "heavy influence from the dominant group's language in all aspects of structure and grammar as well as lexicon" (Winford 171). Category 2 languages show a "categorial specificity of the structural borrowing" or a uniform borrowing of specific categories (Winford).<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2013)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Mixed language and intertwined language are seemingly interchangeable terms for some researchers. Some use the term "intertwining" instead of "mixing" because the former implies "mixture of two systems which are not necessarily the same order" nor does it suggest "replacement of the either the lexicon or of the grammatical system", unlike <a href="/wiki/Relexification" title="Relexification">relexification</a>, massive grammatical replacement, and re-<a href="/wiki/Grammaticalization" title="Grammaticalization">grammaticalization</a>. The grammar of a mixed language typically comes from a language well known to first-generation speakers, which Arends claims is the language spoken by the mother. This is because of the close relationship between mother and child and the likelihood that the language is spoken by the community at large.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2013)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Arends et al. classify an intertwined language as a language that "has lexical morphemes from one language and grammatical morphemes from another". This definition does not include <a href="/wiki/Michif" title="Michif">Michif</a>, which combines French lexical items in specific contexts, but still utilizes Cree lexical and grammatical items.<sup id="cite_ref-arends-1994_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-arends-1994-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Yaron Matras distinguishes between three types of models for mixed language: "language maintenance and <a href="/wiki/Language_shift" title="Language shift">language shift</a>, unique and predetermined processes ("intertwining"), and conventionalisation of language mixing patterns". The first model involves the use of one language for heavy substitutions of entire grammatical paradigms or morphology of another language. This is because a speech community will not adopt a newer dominant language, and so adapt their language with grammatical material from the dominant language. Bakker (1997) argues that mixed languages result from mixed populations. Languages "intertwine", in that the morphosyntax (provided by female native speakers) mixes with the lexicon of another language (spoken by men, often in a colonialist context). This appears to have been the case with Michif, where European men and Cree, Nakota, and Ojibwe women had offspring who learned a mixture of French and Cree. The third model "assumes a gradual loss of the conversational function of language alternation as a means of expressing contrast". In other words, language no longer becomes a means of differentiation between two speech communities as a result of language mixing.<sup id="cite_ref-journals.cambridge.org_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-journals.cambridge.org-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Lexical reorientation, according to Matras, is defined as "the conscious shifting of the linguistic field that is responsible for encoding meaning or conceptual representations away from the language in which linguistic interaction is normally managed, organised, and processed: speakers adopt in a sense one linguistic system to express lexical meaning (or symbols, in the Buhlerian sense of the term) and another to organize the relations among lexical symbols, as well as within sentences, utterances, and interaction. The result is a split, by source language, between lexicon and grammar."<sup id="cite_ref-journals.cambridge.org_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-journals.cambridge.org-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Differentiation_with_other_language_mixtures">Differentiation with other language mixtures</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mixed_language&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Differentiation with other language mixtures"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A mixed language differs from <a href="/wiki/Pidgins" class="mw-redirect" title="Pidgins">pidgins</a>, <a href="/wiki/Creole_language" title="Creole language">creoles</a> and <a href="/wiki/Code-switching" title="Code-switching">code-switching</a> in very fundamental ways. In most cases, mixed language speakers are fluent, even native, speakers of both languages; however, speakers of Michif (a verb-noun or V-N mixed language) are unique in that many are not fluent in both of the source languages.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Pidgins, on the other hand, develop in a situation, usually in the context of trade, where speakers of two (or more) different languages come into contact and need to find some way to communicate with each other. Creoles develop when a pidgin language becomes a first language for young speakers. While creoles tend to have drastically simplified <a href="/wiki/Morphology_(linguistics)" title="Morphology (linguistics)">morphologies</a>, mixed languages often retain the inflectional complexities of one, or both, of the parent languages. For instance, Michif retains the complexities of its Cree verb-phrases and its French noun-phrases.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>It also differs from a language that has undergone heavy borrowing, such as Korean, Japanese, and Vietnamese from Chinese (see <a href="/wiki/Sino-Xenic" class="mw-redirect" title="Sino-Xenic">Sino-Xenic</a>), English from French, or <a href="/wiki/Maltese_language" title="Maltese language">Maltese</a> from Sicilian/Italian. In these cases, despite the heavy borrowing, the grammar and basic words of the borrowing language remain relatively unchanged, with the borrowed words confined mainly to more abstract or foreign concepts, and any complex morphology remains that of the host language rather than being borrowed along with the borrowed word. In the case of Maltese, for example, if verbs borrowed from Italian were inflected using Italian inflectional rules rather than Arabic-derived ones, then Maltese would be a candidate for being a mixed language. </p><p>Finally, a mixed language differs from <a href="/wiki/Code-switching" title="Code-switching">code-switching</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Spanglish" title="Spanglish">Spanglish</a> or <a href="/wiki/Portu%C3%B1ol" title="Portuñol">Portuñol</a>, in that, once it has developed, the fusion of the source languages is fixed in the grammar and vocabulary, and speakers do not need to know the source languages in order to speak it. But, linguists believe that mixed languages evolve from persistent code-switching, with younger generations picking up the code-switching, but not necessarily the source languages that generated it.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2013)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Languages such as <a href="/wiki/Franglais" title="Franglais">Franglais</a> and <a href="/wiki/Angloromany_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Angloromany language">Anglo-Romani</a> are not mixed languages, or even examples of code-switching, but <a href="/wiki/Register_(sociolinguistics)" title="Register (sociolinguistics)">registers</a> of a language (here <a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a> and <a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a>), characterized by large numbers of <a href="/wiki/Loanword" title="Loanword">loanwords</a> from a second language (here <a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a> and <a href="/wiki/Romani_language" title="Romani language">Romani</a>).<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="Other sources on the subject say that Angloromani is a language, not sure where this came from. (December 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> <a href="/wiki/Middle_English" title="Middle English">Middle English</a> (the immediate fore-runner of Modern English) developed from such a situation, incorporating many <a href="/wiki/Norman_language" title="Norman language">Norman</a> borrowings into <a href="/wiki/Old_English" title="Old English">Old English</a>, but it is not considered a mixed language.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Proposed_examples">Proposed examples</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mixed_language&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Proposed examples"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Michif">Michif</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mixed_language&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Michif"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Michif" title="Michif">Michif</a></div> <p>Michif derives nouns, numerals, definite/indefinite articles, possessive pronouns, some adverbs and adjectives from <a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a>, while it derives demonstratives (in/animate), question words, verbs (in/animacy agreement with the subject/object), and some adverbs/verb-like adjectives from <a href="/wiki/Cree_language" title="Cree language">Cree</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-arends-1994_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-arends-1994-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Cree components of Michif generally remain grammatically intact, while the French lexicon and grammar is restricted to noun phrases where nouns occur with a French possessive element or article (i.e. in/definite, masculine/feminine, singular/plural).<sup id="cite_ref-silva-corvalan-1997_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-silva-corvalan-1997-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-thomason-1997_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-thomason-1997-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Further, many speakers of Michif are able to identify the French and Cree components of a given sentence, likely from the phonological and morphological features of words. Although the phonological systems of both French and Cree are generally independent in Michif, there is convergence in 1) mid-vowel raising, 2) sibilant harmony, 3) vowel length (e.g. French vowel pairs [i]/[ɪ] and [a]/[ɑ] differ in length as in Cree), and 4) instances where the three nasal vowels /æ̃/, /ũ/, and /ĩ/ occur in the Cree components, although this last point of convergence may be due to Ojibwe influence.<sup id="cite_ref-thomason-1997_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-thomason-1997-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Scholars propose that, in the <a href="/wiki/M%C3%A9tis" title="Métis">Métis</a> multilingual community, Michif emerged as a need to symbolize a new social identity.<sup id="cite_ref-silva-corvalan-1997_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-silva-corvalan-1997-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first unambiguous mention of Michif dates to the 1930s.<sup id="cite_ref-thomason-1997_12-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-thomason-1997-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Métis of St. Laurent, a tribe of indigenous people in Canada, were made to feel their language was a sign of inferiority by nuns, priests, and other missionaries who insisted that the Metis switch to Standard Canadian French. Because missionaries stigmatized Michif French as an inferior, "bastardized" form of Canadian French, the Métis began to develop a sense of inferiority and shame which they associated with speaking Michif. Although Michif may have arisen as a way for Métis people to identify themselves, it became taboo to speak Michif inter-ethnically.<sup id="cite_ref-GL_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GL-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In an attempt to make students unlearn Michif French, some nuns used a "token-system" in which each student was given ten tokens each week, and for every use of Michif French, a student would have to surrender a token. Students with the most tokens were rewarded with a prize. Overall, this system did not work.<sup id="cite_ref-GL_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GL-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mednyj_Aleut">Mednyj Aleut</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mixed_language&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Mednyj Aleut"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Mednyj_Aleut" class="mw-redirect" title="Mednyj Aleut">Mednyj Aleut</a></div> <p>Mednyj Aleut is identified as a mixed language composed of mostly intact systematic components from two typologically and genetically unrelated languages: <a href="/wiki/Aleut_language" title="Aleut language">Aleut</a> and <a href="/wiki/Russian_language" title="Russian language">Russian</a>. This mixed language's grammar and lexicon are both largely Aleut in origin, while the finite verb morphology, a whole grammatical subsystem, is primarily of Russian origin. Nonetheless, there are some syntactic patterns with Russian influence and some Aleut features in the finite verb complex such as, 1) a topic-number agreement pattern, 2) Aleut pronouns with unaccusatives, 3) the Aleut agglutinative tense + number + person/number pattern in one of two alternative past-tense forms. Scholars hypothesize that due to the elaborate Russian and Aleut components of Mednyj Aleut, the Aleut/Russian creoles in which the mixed language arose must have been fluent bilinguals of Aleut and Russian and, therefore, not a pidgin language—that is, "imperfect learning" is usually a feature in the emergence of a pidgin. Furthermore, some code-switching and deliberate decisions likely served as mechanisms for the development of Mednyj Aleut and it is possible that these were motivated by a need for a language that reflected the community's new group identity.<sup id="cite_ref-thomason-1997_12-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-thomason-1997-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ma'a"><span id="Ma.27a"></span>Ma'a</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mixed_language&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Ma'a"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Mbugu" class="mw-redirect" title="Mbugu">Mbugu</a></div> <p>Ma’a has a <a href="/wiki/Cushitic_languages" title="Cushitic languages">Cushitic</a> basic vocabulary and a primarily <a href="/wiki/Bantu_languages" title="Bantu languages">Bantu</a> grammatical structure. The language also shares some phonological units with languages in the Cushitic phylum (e.g. the voiceless lateral fricative, the voiceless glottal stop, and the voiceless velar fricative that do not occur in Bantu), as well as syntactic structures, derivational processes, and a feature of inflectional morphology. However, few productive non-lexical structures in Ma’a appear derived from Cushitic. <a href="/wiki/Sarah_Thomason" title="Sarah Thomason">Sarah G. Thomason</a> therefore argues for a classification of Ma’a as a mixed language since it does not have enough Cushitic grammar to be genetically related to the Cushitic language. By contrast, Ma’a has a productive set of inflectional structures derived from Bantu. Ma’a also demonstrates phonological structures derived from Bantu—for instance, the prenasalized voiced stops /ᵐb ⁿd ᶮɟ ᵑg/, phonemic tones, the absence of pharyngeal fricatives, labialized dorsal stops, ejective and retroflex stops, and final consonants— as well as noun classification, number category, and verb morphology patterns of Bantu. Syntactic and derivational patterns in Ma’a vary between Cushitic and Bantu origins—some Ma’a constructions used, such as genitive and copula constructions, are both from Cushitic and Bantu. These observations, in view of additional <a href="/wiki/Language_contact" title="Language contact">language contact</a> cases like Cappadocian Greek, Anglo-Romani, and Mednyj Aleut, suggest that Ma'a arose as a product of massive interference from a Bantu language via intense cultural pressure on a Cushitic-speaking community.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Media_Lengua">Media Lengua</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mixed_language&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Media Lengua"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Media_Lengua" title="Media Lengua">Media Lengua</a></div> <p>Media Lengua (roughly translated to "half language" or "in-between language"), also known as <i>Chaupi-shimi</i>, <i>Chaupi-lengua</i>, <i>Chaupi-Quichua</i>, <i>Quichuañol</i>, <i>Chapu-shimi</i> or <i>llanga-shimi</i>,<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>nb 1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Pallares_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pallares-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is a mixed language that consists of Spanish <a href="/wiki/Vocabulary" title="Vocabulary">vocabulary</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ecuador" title="Ecuador">Ecuadorian</a> <a href="/wiki/Quichua_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Quichua language">Quichua</a> grammar, most conspicuously in its <a href="/wiki/Morphology_(linguistics)" title="Morphology (linguistics)">morphology</a>. In terms of vocabulary, almost all <a href="/wiki/Lexeme" title="Lexeme">lexemes</a> (89%<sup id="cite_ref-Stewart_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stewart-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Muysken1997_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Muysken1997-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>), including <a href="/wiki/Swadesh_list" title="Swadesh list">core vocabulary</a>, are of Spanish origin and appear to conform to Quichua <a href="/wiki/Phonotactics" title="Phonotactics">phonotactics</a>. Media Lengua is one of the few widely acknowledged examples of a "bilingual mixed language" in both the conventional and narrow <a href="/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">linguistic</a> sense because of its split between roots and suffixes.<sup id="cite_ref-Backus_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Backus-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-McConvell_and_Meakins_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McConvell_and_Meakins-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Such extreme and systematic borrowing is only rarely attested, and Media Lengua is not typically described as a variety of either Quichua or Spanish. Arends et al. list two languages subsumed under the name <i>Media Lengua</i>: Salcedo Media Lengua and Media Lengua of Saraguro.<sup id="cite_ref-arends-1994_3-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-arends-1994-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The northern variety of Media Lengua, found in the province of <a href="/wiki/Imbabura_Province" title="Imbabura Province">Imbabura</a>, is commonly referred to as Imbabura Media Lengua<sup id="cite_ref-Gómez-Rendón2008_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gómez-Rendón2008-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Gómez-Rendón_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gómez-Rendón-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and more specifically, the dialect varieties within the province are known as Pijal Media Lengua and Anglas Media Lengua.<sup id="cite_ref-Stewart_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stewart-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Scholars indicate that Media Lengua arose largely via relexification mechanisms.<sup id="cite_ref-matras-bakker-2003_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-matras-bakker-2003-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Pieter Muysken suggests that the social context in which the language emerged as an intralanguage involved a presence of "acculturated Indians" that neither identified with traditional, rural Quechua nor with urban Spanish cultures. This is an instance of a language developing from a need for "ethnic self-identification".<sup id="cite_ref-thomason-1997_12-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-thomason-1997-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Light_Warlpiri">Light Warlpiri</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mixed_language&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Light Warlpiri"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Light_Warlpiri" title="Light Warlpiri">Light Warlpiri</a></div> <p>Light Warlpiri, seen as a form of Warlpiri by speakers, derives verbs and verbal morphology largely from Australian <a href="/wiki/Australian_Kriol_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Australian Kriol language">Kriol</a>, while nouns are largely from <a href="/wiki/Warlpiri_language" title="Warlpiri language">Warlpiri</a> and English and nominal morphology from Warlpiri. Light Warlpiri likely developed as an intralanguage via <a href="/wiki/Code-mixing" title="Code-mixing">code-mixing</a> between Warlpiri and either Kriol or English. This code-mixing conventionalized into Light Warlpiri, which is now learned by Lajamanu children as a first language, along with Warlpiri, although Light Warlpiri is often produced first and used in daily interactions with younger speakers and adults within the <a href="/wiki/Lajamanu,_Northern_Territory" title="Lajamanu, Northern Territory">Lajamanu</a> community. Light Warlpiri is considered a new language for several reasons: 1) Light Warlpiri speakers use an auxiliary verb-system that older Warlpiri speakers do not while code-mixing, 2) elements are distributed differently in Light Warlpiri than in code-mixing varieties of older Warlpiri speakers, 3) Light Warlpiri is a native language, which indicates stability of the language, and 4) grammatical structures and lexical items from each source language occur consistently in Light Warlpiri.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Gurindji_Kriol">Gurindji Kriol</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mixed_language&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Gurindji Kriol"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Gurindji_Kriol_language" title="Gurindji Kriol language">Gurindji Kriol language</a></div> <p>Gurindji Kriol exhibits a structural split between the noun phrase and verb phrase, with Gurindji contributing the noun structure including case-marking, and the verb structure including TAM (<a href="/wiki/Tense-aspect-mood" class="mw-redirect" title="Tense-aspect-mood">tense-aspect-mood</a>) auxiliaries coming from Kriol. In this respect, Gurindji Kriol is classified as a verb-noun (V-N) mixed language. Other examples of V-N mixed languages include <a href="/wiki/Michif" title="Michif">Michif</a> and <a href="/wiki/Light_Warlpiri" title="Light Warlpiri">Light Warlpiri</a>. The maintenance of Gurindji within the mixed language can be seen as the perpetuation of Aboriginal identity under massive and continuing cultural incursion. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cappadocian_Greek_and_Cypriot_Arabic">Cappadocian Greek and Cypriot Arabic</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mixed_language&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Cappadocian Greek and Cypriot Arabic"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Cappadocian_Greek" title="Cappadocian Greek">Cappadocian Greek</a> and <a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Cyprus" title="Languages of Cyprus">Languages of Cyprus</a></div> <p>Both <a href="/wiki/Cappadocian_Greek" title="Cappadocian Greek">Cappadocian Greek</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cypriot_Arabic" title="Cypriot Arabic">Cypriot Maronite-Arabic</a> are cases of extreme borrowing—the former from <a href="/wiki/Turkish_language" title="Turkish language">Turkish</a> and the latter from <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a>. The remaining Greek dialects of <a href="/wiki/Anatolia" title="Anatolia">Asia Minor</a> display borrowing of vocabulary, function words, derivational morphology, and some borrowed nominal and verbal inflectional morphology from Turkish. Cypriot Arabic largely shows borrowing of vocabulary, and consequently Greek morphosyntax.<sup id="cite_ref-matras-bakker-2003_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-matras-bakker-2003-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Both Cappadocian Greek and Cypriot Arabic (as well as Ma'a) differ socially from Michif and Mednyj Aleut because they have evolved out of intense language contact, extensive bilingualism, and a strong pressure for speakers to shift to the dominant language. Nonetheless, neither language has an entire grammar and lexicon that is derived from a single historical source and in each case the linguistic group achieves fluent bilingualism. The social context in which they arose largely distinguishes them from pidgins and creoles and, for some scholars, identifies them closely with mixed languages.<sup id="cite_ref-thomason-kaufman-1988_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-thomason-kaufman-1988-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Kaqchikel-K'iche'_Mayan_language"><span id="Kaqchikel-K.27iche.27_Mayan_language"></span>Kaqchikel-K'iche' Mayan language</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mixed_language&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Kaqchikel-K'iche' Mayan language"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Cauque_Mayan_language" title="Cauque Mayan language">Cauque Mayan language</a></div> <p>The Kaqchikel-K'iche' Mixed Language, also known as the Cauqué Mixed Language or Cauqué Mayan, is spoken in the aldea of Santa María Cauqué, Santiago Sacatepéquez, Department of Sacatepéquez in Guatemala. A 1998 study by the Summer Institute of Linguistics (SIL) estimated speaker population at 2,000.<sup id="cite_ref-ethnologue.com_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ethnologue.com-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While the language's grammatical base is from K'iche', its lexicon is supplied by Kaqchikel. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_possible_mixed_languages">Other possible mixed languages</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mixed_language&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Other possible mixed languages"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Surzhyk" title="Surzhyk">Surzhyk</a>, a freeform mixture of <a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_language" title="Ukrainian language">Ukrainian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Russian_language" title="Russian language">Russian</a> spoken in rural areas of <a href="/wiki/Ukraine" title="Ukraine">Ukraine</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bolze" title="Bolze">Bolze</a>, a mixture of <a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a> and <a href="/wiki/Swiss_German_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Swiss German language">Swiss German</a> spoken in the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Basse-Ville_district&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Basse-Ville district (page does not exist)">Basse-Ville district</a> of <a href="/wiki/Fribourg" title="Fribourg">Fribourg</a>, <a href="/wiki/Switzerland" title="Switzerland">Switzerland</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bonin_English" title="Bonin English">Bonin English</a>, a mix of <a href="/wiki/Japanese_language" title="Japanese language">Japanese</a> and <a href="/wiki/English_Creole" class="mw-redirect" title="English Creole">English Creole</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gadal_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Gadal language">Gadal</a>, or <i>Tagdal</i>, a <a href="/wiki/Songhay_languages" title="Songhay languages">Songhay</a> base with a majority-<a href="/wiki/Tuareg_languages" title="Tuareg languages">Tuareg</a> vocabulary, sometimes considered a mixed language.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jopara" title="Jopara">Jopara</a>, a mixture of <a href="/wiki/Guaran%C3%AD_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Guaraní language">Guaraní</a> and <a href="/wiki/Spanish_language" title="Spanish language">Spanish</a> that involves incorporating elements of Spanish grammar and vocabulary into Guaraní.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/L%C3%ADngua_Geral_Amaz%C3%B4nica" class="mw-redirect" title="Língua Geral Amazônica">Língua Geral Amazônica</a> and <a href="/wiki/L%C3%ADngua_Geral_Paulista" class="mw-redirect" title="Língua Geral Paulista">Língua Geral Paulista</a>, important historical languages spoken in <a href="/wiki/Colonial_Brazil" title="Colonial Brazil">colonial Brazil</a>, composed mainly of Amerindian (predominantly <a href="/wiki/Tupi_languages" title="Tupi languages">Tupi</a>) lexicon and <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_language" title="Portuguese language">Portuguese structure</a>. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2018)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lomavren_language" title="Lomavren language">Lomavren</a>, a combination of <a href="/wiki/Armenian_language" title="Armenian language">Armenian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Indo-Aryan_languages" title="Indo-Aryan languages">Indo-Aryan</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Makassar_Malay" class="mw-redirect" title="Makassar Malay">Makassar Malay</a>, mixing <a href="/wiki/Malay_language" title="Malay language">Malay</a> and <a href="/wiki/Makassarese_language" title="Makassarese language">Makassarese</a> elements.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Missingsch" title="Missingsch">Missingsch</a>, <a href="/wiki/Low_German" title="Low German">Low Saxon</a> grammar, pronunciation, pragmatics, loanwords and substrate and German vocabulary. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2018)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Para-Romani_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Para-Romani languages">Para-Romani languages</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Erromintxela_language" title="Erromintxela language">Erromintxela</a>, which derives most of its lexicon from <a href="/wiki/Kalderash_Romani_language" title="Kalderash Romani language">Kalderash Romani</a> but uses <a href="/wiki/Basque_language" title="Basque language">Basque</a> grammar and syntax.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2013)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petuh" title="Petuh">Petuh</a>, Danish grammar and semantics with German vocabulary. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2018)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rapa_language" title="Rapa language">Reo Rapa</a>, a mixture of <a href="/wiki/Tahitian_language" title="Tahitian language">Tahitian</a> and Old Rapa.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arb%C3%ABresh_language" title="Arbëresh language">Siculo-Arbëresh</a> as spoken in <a href="/wiki/Sicily" title="Sicily">Sicily</a> may possibly be classed as a mixed language, as it is largely mixed <a href="/wiki/Sicilian_language" title="Sicilian language">Sicilian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Arb%C3%ABresh_language" title="Arbëresh language">Arbëresh</a> lexicon with <a href="/wiki/Arb%C3%ABresh" class="mw-redirect" title="Arbëresh">Arbëresh</a> grammar.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yiddish" title="Yiddish">Yiddish</a>, theorised by <a href="/wiki/Max_Weinreich" title="Max Weinreich">Max Weinreich</a> to have used elements of <a href="/wiki/Zarphatic" class="mw-redirect" title="Zarphatic">Zarphatic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Judeo-Italian" class="mw-redirect" title="Judeo-Italian">Judeo-Italian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Middle_High_German" title="Middle High German">Middle High German</a>, versions of <a href="/wiki/Biblical_Hebrew" title="Biblical Hebrew">Biblical Hebrew</a> including Talmudic and post-Talmudic, and various <a href="/wiki/Slavic_languages" title="Slavic languages">Slavic languages</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Czech_language" title="Czech language">Czech</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_language" title="Ukrainian language">Ukrainian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Polish_language" title="Polish language">Polish</a>, <a href="/wiki/White_Russian" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="White Russian">White Russian</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Russian_language" title="Russian language">Russian</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Possible_mixed_languages_with_a_Chinese_element">Possible mixed languages with a Chinese element</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mixed_language&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Possible mixed languages with a Chinese element"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wutunhua" class="mw-redirect" title="Wutunhua">Wutunhua</a>, a mix of <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bonan_language" title="Bonan language">Mongol</a><sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dao_language_(China)" title="Dao language (China)">Dao</a>, Chinese–Tibetan <sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2018)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/E_language" title="E language">E</a>, a mix of one of the <a href="/wiki/Zhuang_languages" title="Zhuang languages">Zhuang languages</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pinghua_Chinese" class="mw-redirect" title="Pinghua Chinese">Pinghua Chinese</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2013)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lingling_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Lingling dialect">Lingling</a> and <a href="/wiki/Maojia_dialect" title="Maojia dialect">Maojia</a>, Mandarin–Miao <sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2018)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tangwang_language" title="Tangwang language">Tangwang</a>, Mandarin–Santa <sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2018)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waxiang_Chinese" title="Waxiang Chinese">Waxiang</a>, Hunanese–Miao <sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2018)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hezhou_language" title="Hezhou language">Hezhou</a>, Uyghur–Mandarin <sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2018)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinglish" title="Chinglish">Chinglish</a>, a mix of English with a Chinese language, especially when spoken by second-generation Chinese<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kelantan_Peranakan_Hokkien" title="Kelantan Peranakan Hokkien">Kelantan Peranakan Hokkien</a>, a mix of <a href="/wiki/Hokkien" title="Hokkien">Hokkien</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kelantan-Pattani_Malay" title="Kelantan-Pattani Malay">Kelantan-Pattani Malay</a> and <a href="/wiki/Southern_Thai_language" title="Southern Thai language">Southern Thai</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippine_Hybrid_Hokkien" class="mw-redirect" title="Philippine Hybrid Hokkien">Philippine Hybrid Hokkien</a>, a mix of <a href="/wiki/Philippine_Hokkien" title="Philippine Hokkien">Philippine Hokkien</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tagalog_language" title="Tagalog language">Tagalog</a>, and <a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Controversy">Controversy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mixed_language&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Controversy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1861, <a href="/wiki/Max_M%C3%BCller" title="Max Müller">Max Müller</a> denied "the possibility of a mixed language".<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1881, William D. Whitney wrote the following, expressing skepticism regarding the chances of a language being proven a mixed language. </p> <blockquote><p> Such a thing as the adoption on the part of one tongue, by a direct process, of any part or parts of the formal structure of another tongue has, so far as is known, not come under the notice of linguistic students during the recorded periods of language-history. So far as these are concerned, it appears to be everywhere the case that when the speakers of two languages, A and B, are brought together into one community, there takes place no amalgamation of their speech, into AB; but for a time the two maintain their own several identity, only as modified each by the admission of material from the other in accordance with the ordinary laws of mixture; we may call them A<sup>b</sup> and B<sup>a</sup>, and not AB. [...] [W]e shall doubtless meet now and then with the claim that such and such a case presents peculiar conditions which separate it from the general class, and that some remote and difficult problem in language-history is to be solved by admitting promiscuous mixture. Any one advancing such a claim, however, does it at his peril; the burden of proof is upon him to show what the peculiar conditions might have been, and how they should have acted to produce the exceptional result; he will be challenged to bring forward some historically authenticated case of analogous results; and his solution, if not rejected altogether, will be looked upon with doubt and misgiving until he shall have complied with these reasonable requirements.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Schmidt_(linguist)" title="Wilhelm Schmidt (linguist)">Wilhelm Schmidt</a> was an important proponent of the idea of mixed languages in the very late 19th and early 20th century.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the judgement of <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Sebeok" title="Thomas Sebeok">Thomas Sebeok</a>, Schmidt produced "not a scrap of evidence" for his theory.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Margaret_Schlauch" title="Margaret Schlauch">Margaret Schlauch</a> provides a summary of the various objections to Schmidt's theory of <i>Sprachmischung</i>,<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> by prominent linguists such as <a href="/wiki/Alfredo_Trombetti" title="Alfredo Trombetti">Alfredo Trombetti</a>, <a href="/wiki/Antoine_Meillet" title="Antoine Meillet">Antoine Meillet</a> and A. Kholodovich. </p><p>Despite the old and broad consensus that rejected the idea of a "mixed language", Thomason and Kaufman in 1988 proposed to revive the idea that some languages had shared genealogy.<sup id="cite_ref-thomason-kaufman-1988_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-thomason-kaufman-1988-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Felicity_Meakins" title="Felicity Meakins">Meakins</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-meakins-2013_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-meakins-2013-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> who finds Thomason and Kaufman's account credible, suggests that a mixed language results from the fusion of usually two source languages, normally in situations of thorough <a href="/wiki/Bilingualism" class="mw-redirect" title="Bilingualism">bilingualism</a>, so that it is not possible to classify the resulting language as belonging to either of the <a href="/wiki/Language_families" class="mw-redirect" title="Language families">language families</a> that were its sources. </p><p>Despite these recent efforts to rehabilitate mixed languages as an idea, many linguists remained unconvinced. For example, van Driem rejects one by one each of Thomason and Kaufman's examples as well as those more recently proposed.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most recently, Versteegh rejects the notion of a mixed language, writing that at "no point is it necessary to posit a category of mixed languages."<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the opinion of linguist Maarten Mous the notion of mixed languages has been rejected because "[m]ixed languages pose a challenge to <a href="/wiki/Historical_linguistics" title="Historical linguistics">historical linguistics</a> because these languages defy classification. One attitude towards mixed languages has been that they simply do not exist, and that the claims for mixed languages are instances of a naive use of the term. The inhibition to accept the existence of mixed languages is linked to the fact that it was inconceivable how they could emerge, and moreover their mere existence posited a threat to the validity of the <a href="/wiki/Comparative_method_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Comparative method (linguistics)">comparative method</a> and to genetic linguistics."<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mixed_language&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Code-switching" title="Code-switching">Code-switching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creole_language" title="Creole language">Creole language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diglossia" title="Diglossia">Diglossia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interlinguistics" title="Interlinguistics">Interlinguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koin%C3%A9_language" title="Koiné language">Koiné language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_contact" title="Language contact">Language contact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_transfer" title="Language transfer">Language transfer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manually_coded_language" title="Manually coded language">Manually coded language</a> (the vocabulary of a sign language with the grammar of an oral language, but without an established language community)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macaronic_language" title="Macaronic language">Macaronic language</a> – Text using a mixture of languages</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metatypy" title="Metatypy">Metatypy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pidgin" title="Pidgin">Pidgin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relexification" title="Relexification">Relexification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Translanguaging" title="Translanguaging">Translanguaging</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mixed_language&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Llanga-shimi</i> is typically a derogatory term used by speakers of Quichua to describe their language. However, it also appears to describe Media Lengua in the Imbabura Communities. It is believed that the term was introduced by <a href="/wiki/Mestizo" title="Mestizo">Mestizo</a> school teachers to further discredit the indigenous populations</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mixed_language&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mixed_language&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Citations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Matras_2008-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Matras_2008_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFMatras,_YaronBakker,_Peter2008" class="citation book cs1">Matras, Yaron; Bakker, Peter, eds. (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=H_8rdQ8yLzIC"><i>The Mixed Language Debate: Theoretical and Empirical Advances</i></a>. Walter de Gruyter. p. 191. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783110197242" title="Special:BookSources/9783110197242"><bdi>9783110197242</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Mixed+Language+Debate%3A+Theoretical+and+Empirical+Advances&rft.pages=191&rft.pub=Walter+de+Gruyter&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=9783110197242&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DH_8rdQ8yLzIC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMixed+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Zuckermann (2009) p. 48, citing Hjelmslev (1938) and Schuchardt (1884).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-arends-1994-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-arends-1994_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-arends-1994_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-arends-1994_3-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-arends-1994_3-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Arends et al. 1994</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYaron_Matras2000" class="citation journal cs1">Yaron Matras (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210220013822/http://languagecontact.humanities.manchester.ac.uk/YM/downloads/Matras,%20Y.%20%282000%29%20Mixed%20languages%20a%20functional-communicative%20approach.pdf">"Mixed languages: a functional–communicative approach"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Bilingualism: Language and Cognition</i>. <b>3</b> (2): 79–99. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS1366728900000213">10.1017/S1366728900000213</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://languagecontact.humanities.manchester.ac.uk/YM/downloads/Matras,%20Y.%20(2000)%20Mixed%20languages%20a%20functional-communicative%20approach.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2021-02-20<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2017-05-15</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bilingualism%3A+Language+and+Cognition&rft.atitle=Mixed+languages%3A+a+functional%E2%80%93communicative+approach&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=79-99&rft.date=2000&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS1366728900000213&rft.au=Yaron+Matras&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flanguagecontact.humanities.manchester.ac.uk%2FYM%2Fdownloads%2FMatras%2C%2520Y.%2520%282000%29%2520Mixed%2520languages%2520a%2520functional-communicative%2520approach.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMixed+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">According to Google n-gram, the German term <span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Mischsprache</i></span> is first attested in 1832, and attested in English since 1909.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"jargon, n.1." OED Online. Oxford University Press, March 2015. Web. 4 May 2015, sense 5.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-journals.cambridge.org-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-journals.cambridge.org_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-journals.cambridge.org_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Matras, Yaron, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayFulltext?type=1&fid=57778&jid=BIL&volumeId=3&issueId=02&aid=57777&bodyId=&membershipNumber=&societyETOCSession=">"Mixed Languages: a functional-communicative approach"</a>, "Bilingualism: Language and Cognition / Volume 3 / Issue 2 / August 2000 / p. 79 - 99</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVelupillai2015" class="citation book cs1">Velupillai, Viveka (2015-03-24). <i>Pidgins, Creoles and Mixed Languages</i>. Creole Language Library. Vol. 48. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1075%2Fcll.48">10.1075/cll.48</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789027252715" title="Special:BookSources/9789027252715"><bdi>9789027252715</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Pidgins%2C+Creoles+and+Mixed+Languages&rft.place=Amsterdam&rft.series=Creole+Language+Library&rft.pub=John+Benjamins+Publishing+Company&rft.date=2015-03-24&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1075%2Fcll.48&rft.isbn=9789027252715&rft.aulast=Velupillai&rft.aufirst=Viveka&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMixed+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFViveka.2015" class="citation book cs1">Viveka., Velupillai (2015). <i>Pidgins, Creoles and Mixed Languages</i>. John Benjamins Publishing Company. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/942975077">942975077</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Pidgins%2C+Creoles+and+Mixed+Languages&rft.pub=John+Benjamins+Publishing+Company&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F942975077&rft.aulast=Viveka.&rft.aufirst=Velupillai&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMixed+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.csun.edu/~sk36711/WWW/engl400/me1.pdf">"Middle English Chapter 5"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Middle+English+Chapter+5.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.csun.edu%2F~sk36711%2FWWW%2Fengl400%2Fme1.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMixed+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-silva-corvalan-1997-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-silva-corvalan-1997_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-silva-corvalan-1997_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Silva-Corvalán 1997</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-thomason-1997-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-thomason-1997_12-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-thomason-1997_12-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-thomason-1997_12-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-thomason-1997_12-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-thomason-1997_12-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Thomason 1997</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-GL-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-GL_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-GL_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Lavalle, Guy <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://iportal.usask.ca/docs/Native_studies_review/v7/issue1/pp81-93.pdf">http://iportal.usask.ca/docs/Native_studies_review/v7/issue1/pp81-93.pdf</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Thomason, Sarah Grey. GENETIC RELATIONSHIP AND THE CASE OF MA'A (MBUGU), Studies in African Linguistics. 14.2. University of Pittsburgh, 1983. Web. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://elanguage.net/journals/sal/article/view/1138/1154">http://elanguage.net/journals/sal/article/view/1138/1154</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Pallares-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Pallares_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Pallares, A. (2002). From peasant struggles to Indian resistance: the Ecuadorian Andes in the late twentieth century. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Stewart-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Stewart_17-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stewart_17-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Stewart, Jesse (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://mspace.lib.umanitoba.ca/bitstream/1993/4882/1/Stewart_Jesse.pdf"><i>A Brief Descriptive Grammar of Pijal Media Lengua and an Acoustic Vowel Space Analysis of Pijal Media Lengua and Imbabura Quichua.</i></a>. (thesis)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Muysken1997-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Muysken1997_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Muysken, Pieter (1997). "Media Lengua", in Thomason, Sarah G. <i>Contact languages: a wider perspective</i> Amsterdam: John Benjamins (pp. 365-426)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Backus-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Backus_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Backus, Ad. 2003. Can a mixed language be conventionalised alternational codeswitching? in Matras & Bakker (eds) The Mixed Language Debate: theoretical and empirical advances Mouton de Gruyter Berlin: 237-/270.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-McConvell_and_Meakins-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-McConvell_and_Meakins_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">McConvell, Patrick, and Felicity Meakins. 2005. Gurindji Kriol: A Mixed Language Emerges from Code-switching. Quatro Fonologias Quechuas, 25(1), 9-30.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gómez-Rendón2008-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Gómez-Rendón2008_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gómez-Rendón, J. A. (2008). Mestizaje lingüístico en los Andes: génesis y estructura de una lengua mixta (1era. ed.). Quito, Ecuador: Abya-Yala.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gómez-Rendón-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Gómez-Rendón_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gómez-Rendón, J. (2005). La Media Lengua de Imbabura. Encuentros conflictos bilingüismo contacto de lenguas en el mundo andino (pp. 39-58). 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John Benjamins Publishing. p. 46. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9027299505" title="Special:BookSources/978-9027299505"><bdi>978-9027299505</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Pidgins+and+Creoles%3A+An+Introduction&rft.pages=46&rft.pub=John+Benjamins+Publishing&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-9027299505&rft.au=Arends%2C+Jacques&rft.au=Pieter+Muysken&rft.au=Norvel+Smith&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DTDA2K3Y0CAYC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMixed+language" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBakker,_Peter1997" class="citation book cs1">Bakker, Peter (1997). <i>A Language of Our Own: The Genesis of Michif, the Mixed Cree-French Language of the Canadian Metis</i>. <a href="/wiki/Oxford" title="Oxford">Oxford</a>: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-509712-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-509712-2"><bdi>978-0-19-509712-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Language+of+Our+Own%3A+The+Genesis+of+Michif%2C+the+Mixed+Cree-French+Language+of+the+Canadian+Metis&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-19-509712-2&rft.au=Bakker%2C+Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMixed+language" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBakker,_P.M._Mous1994" class="citation book cs1">Bakker, P.; M. 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(2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qZMRV8y6T8AC"><i>The Mixed Language Debate: Theoretical and Empirical Advances</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Berlin" title="Berlin">Berlin</a>: Walter de Gruyter. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-017776-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-11-017776-3"><bdi>978-3-11-017776-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Mixed+Language+Debate%3A+Theoretical+and+Empirical+Advances&rft.place=Berlin&rft.pub=Walter+de+Gruyter&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-3-11-017776-3&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DqZMRV8y6T8AC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMixed+language" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Meakins, Felicity. (2011). <i>Case-marking in Contact: The Development and Function of Case-Marking in Gurindji Kriol'. Amsterdam: John Benjamins</i></li> <li>Meakins, Felicity. (2013). <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.humanities.manchester.ac.uk/medialibrary/llc/files/meakins/Ch3_Meakins.pdf">Mixed languages</a></i>. In Bakker, Peter and Yaron Matras (eds)<i>Contact Languages: A Comprehensive Guide</i> Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. pp. 159–228.</li> <li>Mous, Maarten. (2003). <i>The making of a mixed language: The case of Ma'a/Mbugu</i>. Creole language library (No. 26). Amsterdam: J. Benjamins Pub. Co.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSebba,_Mark1997" class="citation book cs1">Sebba, Mark (1997). <i>Contact Languages: Pidgins and Creoles</i>. MacMillan. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-333-63024-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-333-63024-2"><bdi>978-0-333-63024-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Contact+Languages%3A+Pidgins+and+Creoles&rft.pub=MacMillan&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-333-63024-2&rft.au=Sebba%2C+Mark&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMixed+language" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>O'Shannessy, Carmel. (2005). <i>Special Issue: Language Shift, Code-mixing and Variation, Light Warlpiri: A New Language</i>. Australian Journal of Linguistics. (25.1).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSilva-Corvalán,_Carmen1997" class="citation book cs1">Silva-Corvalán, Carmen (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=XL5Z5E6O0Q4C"><i>Spanish in Four Continents: Studies in Language Contact and Bilingualism</i></a>. Georgetown University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1589014152" title="Special:BookSources/978-1589014152"><bdi>978-1589014152</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Spanish+in+Four+Continents%3A+Studies+in+Language+Contact+and+Bilingualism&rft.pub=Georgetown+University+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-1589014152&rft.au=Silva-Corval%C3%A1n%2C+Carmen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DXL5Z5E6O0Q4C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMixed+language" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThomason,_Sarah_Grey1997" class="citation book cs1">Thomason, Sarah Grey (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=to6P22ieV5kC"><i>Contact Languages: A Wider Perspective, Creole Language Library</i></a>. John Benjamins Publishing. pp. 303–466. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9027252395" title="Special:BookSources/978-9027252395"><bdi>978-9027252395</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Contact+Languages%3A+A+Wider+Perspective%2C+Creole+Language+Library&rft.pages=303-466&rft.pub=John+Benjamins+Publishing&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-9027252395&rft.au=Thomason%2C+Sarah+Grey&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dto6P22ieV5kC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMixed+language" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThomason,_SarahTerrence_Kaufman1988" class="citation book cs1">Thomason, Sarah & Terrence Kaufman (1988). <i>Language Contact, Creolization, and Genetic Linguistics</i>. <a href="/wiki/University_of_California_Press" title="University of California Press">University of California Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-07893-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-07893-2"><bdi>978-0-520-07893-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Language+Contact%2C+Creolization%2C+and+Genetic+Linguistics&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=978-0-520-07893-2&rft.au=Thomason%2C+Sarah&rft.au=Terrence+Kaufman&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMixed+language" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Velupillai, Viveka. (2015). Pidgins, Creoles, & Mixed Languages: An Introduction. Chapter 3: Mixed Languages. John Benjamins Publishing. pp. 69–97.</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist 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