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<li id="toc-United_Kingdom" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_Kingdom"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>United Kingdom</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_Kingdom-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-United_States" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_States"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>United States</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_States-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Types_of_wildlife_management" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Types_of_wildlife_management"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Types of wildlife management</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Types_of_wildlife_management-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hunting_limitations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hunting_limitations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Hunting limitations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hunting_limitations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Impact_on_ecosystems" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Impact_on_ecosystems"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Impact on ecosystems</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Impact_on_ecosystems-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Opposition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Opposition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Opposition</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Opposition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div 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class="mw-page-title-main">Wildlife management</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. 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class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wildtiermanagement" title="Wildtiermanagement – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Wildtiermanagement" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manejo_de_la_vida_silvestre" title="Manejo de la vida silvestre – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Manejo de la vida silvestre" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%AF%DB%8C%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AA_%D8%AD%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D9%88%D8%AD%D8%B4" title="مدیریت حیات وحش – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="مدیریت حیات وحش" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gestion_cyn%C3%A9g%C3%A9tique" title="Gestion cynégétique – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Gestion cynégétique" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vadgazd%C3%A1lkod%C3%A1s" title="Vadgazdálkodás – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Vadgazdálkodás" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pengurusan_hidupan_liar" title="Pengurusan hidupan liar – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Pengurusan hidupan liar" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%87%8E%E7%94%9F%E5%8B%95%E7%89%A9%E7%AE%A1%E7%90%86" title="野生動物管理 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="野生動物管理" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viltforvaltning" title="Viltforvaltning – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Viltforvaltning" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manejo_de_fauna_silvestre" title="Manejo de fauna silvestre – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Manejo de fauna silvestre" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wildlife_management" title="Wildlife management – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Wildlife management" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viltv%C3%A5rd" title="Viltvård – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Viltvård" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" 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#36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Globalize plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-globalize" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="Globe icon." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Ambox_globe_content.svg/48px-Ambox_globe_content.svg.png" decoding="async" width="48" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Ambox_globe_content.svg/73px-Ambox_globe_content.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Ambox_globe_content.svg/97px-Ambox_globe_content.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="350" data-file-height="290" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">The examples and perspective in this article <b>deal primarily with the United States and the United Kingdom and do not represent a <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Countering_systemic_bias" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Countering systemic bias">worldwide view</a> of the subject</b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> You may <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wildlife_management&action=edit">improve this article</a>, discuss the issue on the <a href="/wiki/Talk:Wildlife_management" title="Talk:Wildlife management">talk page</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Article_wizard" title="Wikipedia:Article wizard">create a new article</a>, as appropriate.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">January 2023</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Wildlife management</b> is the management process influencing interactions among and between <a href="/wiki/Wildlife" title="Wildlife">wildlife</a>, its <a href="/wiki/Habitat" title="Habitat">habitats</a> and <a href="/wiki/Human" title="Human">people</a> to achieve predefined impacts.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Wildlife management can include <a href="/wiki/Wildlife_conservation" title="Wildlife conservation">wildlife conservation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Population_control" title="Population control">population control</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gamekeeping" class="mw-redirect" title="Gamekeeping">gamekeeping</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wildlife_contraceptive" title="Wildlife contraceptive">wildlife contraceptive</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pest_control" title="Pest control">pest control</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Humanaspect_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Humanaspect-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Wildlife_management_triad_-_management_environment,_wildlife,_habitat,_humans_-_%22Human_Dimensions_of_Wildlife_Management%22_(2012)_ISBN_9781421406541_p._4.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Wildlife_management_triad_-_management_environment%2C_wildlife%2C_habitat%2C_humans_-_%22Human_Dimensions_of_Wildlife_Management%22_%282012%29_ISBN_9781421406541_p._4.png/220px-Wildlife_management_triad_-_management_environment%2C_wildlife%2C_habitat%2C_humans_-_%22Human_Dimensions_of_Wildlife_Management%22_%282012%29_ISBN_9781421406541_p._4.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="183" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Wildlife_management_triad_-_management_environment%2C_wildlife%2C_habitat%2C_humans_-_%22Human_Dimensions_of_Wildlife_Management%22_%282012%29_ISBN_9781421406541_p._4.png/330px-Wildlife_management_triad_-_management_environment%2C_wildlife%2C_habitat%2C_humans_-_%22Human_Dimensions_of_Wildlife_Management%22_%282012%29_ISBN_9781421406541_p._4.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Wildlife_management_triad_-_management_environment%2C_wildlife%2C_habitat%2C_humans_-_%22Human_Dimensions_of_Wildlife_Management%22_%282012%29_ISBN_9781421406541_p._4.png/440px-Wildlife_management_triad_-_management_environment%2C_wildlife%2C_habitat%2C_humans_-_%22Human_Dimensions_of_Wildlife_Management%22_%282012%29_ISBN_9781421406541_p._4.png 2x" data-file-width="577" data-file-height="479" /></a><figcaption>Wildlife management triad.</figcaption></figure> <p>Wildlife management aims to halt the <a href="/wiki/Holocene_extinction_event" class="mw-redirect" title="Holocene extinction event">loss in the Earth's biodiversity</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> by taking into consideration ecological principles such as <a href="/wiki/Carrying_capacity" title="Carrying capacity">carrying capacity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Disturbance_(ecology)" title="Disturbance (ecology)">disturbance</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ecological_succession" title="Ecological succession">succession</a>, and environmental conditions such as <a href="/wiki/Physical_geography" title="Physical geography">physical geography</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pedology_(soil_study)" class="mw-redirect" title="Pedology (soil study)">pedology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hydrology" title="Hydrology">hydrology</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Soule86_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Soule86-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Hunter96_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hunter96-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Groom06_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Groom06-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most wildlife biologists are concerned with the conservation and improvement of habitats; although <a href="/wiki/Rewilding_(conservation_biology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Rewilding (conservation biology)">rewilding</a> is increasingly being undertaken.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Techniques can include <a href="/wiki/Reforestation" title="Reforestation">reforestation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pest_control" title="Pest control">pest control</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nitrification" title="Nitrification">nitrification</a> and <a href="/wiki/Denitrification" title="Denitrification">denitrification</a>, <a href="/wiki/Irrigation" title="Irrigation">irrigation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Coppicing" title="Coppicing">coppicing</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hedge_laying" class="mw-redirect" title="Hedge laying">hedge laying</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Gamekeeping is the management or control of wildlife for the well-being of game and may include the killing of other animals which share the same <a href="/wiki/Ecological_niche" title="Ecological niche">niche</a> or predators to maintain a high population of more profitable species, such as pheasants introduced into woodland. <a href="/wiki/Aldo_Leopold" title="Aldo Leopold">Aldo Leopold</a> defined wildlife management in 1933 as the art of making land produce sustained annual crops of wild game for recreational use.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Wildlife_management&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The history of wildlife management begins with the <a href="/wiki/Game_law" title="Game law">game laws</a>, which regulated the right to kill <a href="/wiki/Fish" title="Fish">fish</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wildlife" title="Wildlife">wildlife</a> <a href="/wiki/Game_(hunting)" title="Game (hunting)">game</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="United_Kingdom">United Kingdom</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Wildlife_management&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: United Kingdom"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Great_Britain" title="Great Britain">Great Britain</a> game laws developed out of the <a href="/wiki/Forest_laws" class="mw-redirect" title="Forest laws">forest laws</a>, which in the time of the <a href="/wiki/Normans" title="Normans">Norman</a> kings were very oppressive. Under <a href="/wiki/William_the_Conqueror" title="William the Conqueror">William the Conqueror</a>, it was as great a crime to kill one of the king's deer as to kill one of his subjects. A certain rank and standing were for a long time qualifications indispensably necessary to confer upon anyone the right of pursuing and killing game.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Snowden_Slights,_front_view_YORYM-S13.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Snowden_Slights%2C_front_view_YORYM-S13.jpg/220px-Snowden_Slights%2C_front_view_YORYM-S13.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="275" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Snowden_Slights%2C_front_view_YORYM-S13.jpg/330px-Snowden_Slights%2C_front_view_YORYM-S13.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Snowden_Slights%2C_front_view_YORYM-S13.jpg/440px-Snowden_Slights%2C_front_view_YORYM-S13.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1404" data-file-height="1754" /></a><figcaption>Hunter with <a href="/wiki/Rook_(bird)" title="Rook (bird)">rooks</a>, <a href="/wiki/Common_pheasant" title="Common pheasant">pheasant</a>, and a <a href="/wiki/Flat-coated_retriever" class="mw-redirect" title="Flat-coated retriever">flat-coated retriever</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yorkshire" title="Yorkshire">Yorkshire</a>, 1912.</figcaption></figure> <p>The late 19th century saw the passage of the first pieces of <a href="/wiki/Wildlife_conservation" title="Wildlife conservation">wildlife conservation</a> legislation and the establishment of the first nature conservation societies. The <a href="/wiki/Sea_Birds_Preservation_Act_1869" title="Sea Birds Preservation Act 1869">Sea Birds Preservation Act of 1869</a> was passed in the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> as the first nature protection law in the world<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> after extensive lobbying from the <a href="/wiki/Association_for_the_Protection_of_Sea-Birds" title="Association for the Protection of Sea-Birds">Association for the Protection of Sea-Birds</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Game_Act_1831" title="Game Act 1831">Game Act 1831</a> (<a href="/wiki/1_%26_2_Will._4" class="mw-redirect" title="1 & 2 Will. 4">1 & 2 Will. 4</a>. c. 32) protected <a href="/wiki/Game_birds" class="mw-redirect" title="Game birds">game birds</a> by establishing close seasons when they could not be legally taken. The act made it lawful to take game only with the provision of a game license and provided for the appointment of gamekeepers around the country. The purposes of the law was to balance the needs for preservation and harvest and to manage both <a href="/wiki/Natural_environment" title="Natural environment">environment</a> and <a href="/wiki/Population_biology" title="Population biology">populations</a> of fish and game.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Royal_Society_for_the_Protection_of_Birds" title="Royal Society for the Protection of Birds">Royal Society for the Protection of Birds</a> was founded as the Plumage League in 1889 by <a href="/wiki/Emily_Williamson" title="Emily Williamson">Emily Williamson</a> at her house in <a href="/wiki/Manchester" title="Manchester">Manchester</a><sup id="cite_ref-milestones_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-milestones-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as a <a href="/wiki/Advocacy_group" title="Advocacy group">protest group</a> campaigning against the use of <a href="/wiki/Great_crested_grebe" title="Great crested grebe">great crested grebe</a> and <a href="/wiki/Black-legged_Kittiwake" class="mw-redirect" title="Black-legged Kittiwake">kittiwake</a> skins and feathers in <a href="/wiki/Fur_clothing" title="Fur clothing">fur clothing</a>. The group gained popularity and eventually amalgamated with the Fur and Feather League in <a href="/wiki/Croydon" title="Croydon">Croydon</a> to form the RSPB.<sup id="cite_ref-history_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-history-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Society attracted growing support from the suburban middle-classes as well as support from many other influential figures, such as the <a href="/wiki/Ornithologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Ornithologist">ornithologist</a> Professor <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Newton" title="Alfred Newton">Alfred Newton</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-milestones_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-milestones-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/National_Trust" title="National Trust">National Trust</a> formed in 1895 with the manifesto to "...promote the permanent preservation, for the benefit of the nation, of lands, ...to preserve (so far practicable) their natural aspect." On 1 May 1899, the Trust purchased two acres of <a href="/wiki/Wicken_Fen" title="Wicken Fen">Wicken Fen</a> with a donation from the amateur naturalist <a href="/wiki/Charles_Rothschild" title="Charles Rothschild">Charles Rothschild</a>, establishing the first nature reserve in Britain.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rothschild was a pioneer of wildlife conservation in Britain, and went on to establish many other nature reserves, such as one at <a href="/wiki/Woodwalton_Fen" title="Woodwalton Fen">Woodwalton Fen</a>, near <a href="/wiki/Huntingdon" title="Huntingdon">Huntingdon</a>, in 1910.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During his lifetime he built and managed his estate at <a href="/wiki/Ashton_Wold" title="Ashton Wold">Ashton Wold</a><sup id="cite_ref-Pevsner_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pevsner-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in <a href="/wiki/Northamptonshire" title="Northamptonshire">Northamptonshire</a> to maximise its suitability for wildlife, especially butterflies. Concerned about the loss of wildlife habitats, in 1912 he set up the <a href="/wiki/Society_For_The_Promotion_Of_Nature_Reserves" class="mw-redirect" title="Society For The Promotion Of Nature Reserves">Society for the Promotion of Nature Reserves</a>, the forerunner of <a href="/wiki/The_Wildlife_Trusts_partnership" class="mw-redirect" title="The Wildlife Trusts partnership">The Wildlife Trusts partnership</a>. </p><p>During the society's early years, membership tended to be made up of specialist <a href="/wiki/Natural_history" title="Natural history">naturalists</a> and its growth was comparatively slow. The first independent Trust was formed in <a href="/wiki/Norfolk" title="Norfolk">Norfolk</a> in 1926 as the Norfolk Naturalists Trust, followed in 1938 by the Pembrokeshire Bird Protection Society which after several subsequent changes of name is now the Wildlife Trust of South and West Wales and it was not until the 1940s and 1950s that more Naturalists' Trusts were formed in <a href="/wiki/Yorkshire" title="Yorkshire">Yorkshire</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lincolnshire" title="Lincolnshire">Lincolnshire</a>, <a href="/wiki/Leicestershire" title="Leicestershire">Leicestershire</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cambridgeshire" title="Cambridgeshire">Cambridgeshire</a>. These early Trusts tended to focus on purchasing land to establish <a href="/wiki/Nature_reserve" title="Nature reserve">nature reserves</a> in the geographical areas they served. </p><p>In the later <a href="/wiki/20th_century" title="20th century">20th century</a>, wildlife management is undertaken by several organizations including government bodies such as the <a href="/wiki/Forestry_Commission" title="Forestry Commission">Forestry Commission</a>, Charities such as the <a href="/wiki/RSPB" class="mw-redirect" title="RSPB">RSPB</a> and <a href="/wiki/The_Wildlife_Trusts" title="The Wildlife Trusts">The Wildlife Trusts</a> and privately hired gamekeepers and contractors. Legislation has also been passed to protect wildlife such as the <a href="/wiki/Wildlife_and_Countryside_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Wildlife and Countryside Act">Wildlife and Countryside Act</a> 1981. The UK government also give <a href="/wiki/Subsidy_farming" class="mw-redirect" title="Subsidy farming">farmers subsidies</a> through the <a href="/wiki/Countryside_Stewardship_Scheme" title="Countryside Stewardship Scheme">Countryside Stewardship Scheme</a> to improve the conservation value of their farms. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="United_States">United States</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Wildlife_management&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: United States"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Early game laws were enacted in the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> in 1839 when <a href="/wiki/Rhode_Island" title="Rhode Island">Rhode Island</a> closed the hunting season for <a href="/wiki/White-tailed_deer" title="White-tailed deer">white-tailed deer</a> from May to November. Other regulations during this time focused primarily on restricting hunting. At this time, lawmakers did not consider population sizes or the need for preservation or restoration of wildlife habitats.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Wild_Duck_Shooting,_Crane_Creek,_near_Toledo,_Ohio_-_DPLA_-_4ac6a51874f9a3716ae87583a4965ead_(page_1).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Wild_Duck_Shooting%2C_Crane_Creek%2C_near_Toledo%2C_Ohio_-_DPLA_-_4ac6a51874f9a3716ae87583a4965ead_%28page_1%29.jpg/220px-Wild_Duck_Shooting%2C_Crane_Creek%2C_near_Toledo%2C_Ohio_-_DPLA_-_4ac6a51874f9a3716ae87583a4965ead_%28page_1%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="139" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Wild_Duck_Shooting%2C_Crane_Creek%2C_near_Toledo%2C_Ohio_-_DPLA_-_4ac6a51874f9a3716ae87583a4965ead_%28page_1%29.jpg/330px-Wild_Duck_Shooting%2C_Crane_Creek%2C_near_Toledo%2C_Ohio_-_DPLA_-_4ac6a51874f9a3716ae87583a4965ead_%28page_1%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Wild_Duck_Shooting%2C_Crane_Creek%2C_near_Toledo%2C_Ohio_-_DPLA_-_4ac6a51874f9a3716ae87583a4965ead_%28page_1%29.jpg/440px-Wild_Duck_Shooting%2C_Crane_Creek%2C_near_Toledo%2C_Ohio_-_DPLA_-_4ac6a51874f9a3716ae87583a4965ead_%28page_1%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2356" data-file-height="1492" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Waterfowl_hunting" title="Waterfowl hunting">Waterfowl hunting</a> using <a href="/wiki/Duck_decoy_(model)" title="Duck decoy (model)">decoys</a> near <a href="/wiki/Toledo,_Ohio" title="Toledo, Ohio">Toledo, Ohio</a>, 1908.</figcaption></figure> <p>The profession of wildlife management was established in the United States in the 1920s and 1930s by <a href="/wiki/Aldo_Leopold" title="Aldo Leopold">Aldo Leopold</a> and others who sought to transcend the purely restrictive policies of the previous generation of conservationists, such as anti-hunting activist <a href="/wiki/William_T._Hornaday" class="mw-redirect" title="William T. Hornaday">William T. Hornaday</a>. Leopold and his close associate <a href="/w/index.php?title=Herbert_Stoddard&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Herbert Stoddard (page does not exist)">Herbert Stoddard</a>, who had both been trained in scientific forestry, argued that modern science and technology could be used to restore and improve wildlife habitat and thus produce abundant "crops" of <a href="/wiki/Duck" title="Duck">ducks</a>, deer, and other valued wild animals.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The institutional foundations of the profession of wildlife management were established in the 1930s, when Leopold was granted the first university professorship in wildlife management (1933, <a href="/wiki/University_of_Wisconsin,_Madison" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Wisconsin, Madison">University of Wisconsin, Madison</a>), when Leopold's textbook 'Game Management' was published (1933), when <a href="/wiki/The_Wildlife_Society" title="The Wildlife Society">The Wildlife Society</a> was founded, when the Journal of Wildlife Management began publishing, and when the first Cooperative Wildlife Research Units were established. Conservationists planned many projects throughout the 1940s. Some of which included the harvesting of female mammals such as deer to decrease rising populations. Others included waterfowl and wetland research. The <a href="/w/index.php?title=Fish_and_Wildlife_Management_Act&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Fish and Wildlife Management Act (page does not exist)">Fish and Wildlife Management Act</a> was put in place to urge farmers to plant food for wildlife and to provide cover for them.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1937, the Federal Aid in Wildlife Restoration Act (also known as the <a href="/wiki/Pittman%E2%80%93Robertson_Federal_Aid_in_Wildlife_Restoration_Act" title="Pittman–Robertson Federal Aid in Wildlife Restoration Act">Pittman-Robertson Act</a>) was passed in the U.S.. This law was an important advancement in the field of wildlife management. It placed a 10% tax on sales of guns and ammunition. The funds generated were then distributed to the states for use in wildlife management activities and research. This law is still in effect today.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Wildlife management grew after World War II with the help of the <a href="/wiki/G.I._Bill" title="G.I. Bill">GI Bill</a> and a postwar boom in recreational hunting. An important step in wildlife management in the United States national parks occurred after several years of public controversy regarding the forced reduction of the elk population in <a href="/wiki/Yellowstone_National_Park" title="Yellowstone National Park">Yellowstone National Park</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1963, <a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_the_Interior" title="United States Secretary of the Interior">United States Secretary of the Interior</a> <a href="/wiki/Stewart_Udall" title="Stewart Udall">Stewart Udall</a> appointed an advisory board to collect scientific data to inform future wildlife management. In the <a href="/wiki/Leopold_Report" title="Leopold Report">Leopold Report</a>, the committee observed that <a href="/wiki/Culling" title="Culling">culling</a> programs at other national parks had been ineffective, and recommended active management of Yellowstone's elk population.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Elk" title="Elk">Elk</a> overpopulation in <a href="/wiki/Yellowstone_National_Park" title="Yellowstone National Park">Yellowstone</a> is thought by many wildlife biologists, such as Douglas Smith, to have been primarily caused by the <a href="/wiki/Local_extinction" title="Local extinction">extirpation</a> of wolves from the park and surrounding environment. After wolves were removed, elk herds increased in population, reaching new highs during the mid-1930s. The increased number of elk resulted in <a href="/wiki/Overgrazing" title="Overgrazing">overgrazing</a> in parts of Yellowstone. Park officials decided that the elk herd should be managed. For approximately thirty years, the park elk herds were culled: Each year some were captured and shipped to other locations, a certain number were killed by park rangers, and hunters were allowed to take more elk that migrated outside the park. By the late 1960s the herd populations dropped to historic lows (less than 4,000 for the Northern Range herd). This caused outrage among both conservationists and hunters. The park service stopped culling elk in 1968. The elk population then rebounded. Twenty years later there were 19,000 elk in the Northern Range herd, a historic high.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Since the tumultuous 1970s, when <a href="/wiki/Animal_rights" title="Animal rights">animal rights</a> activists and <a href="/wiki/Environmentalist" title="Environmentalist">environmentalists</a> began to challenge some aspects of wildlife management, the profession has been overshadowed by the rise of <a href="/wiki/Conservation_biology" title="Conservation biology">conservation biology</a>. Although wildlife managers remain central to the implementation of the Endangered Species Act and other wildlife conservation policies, conservation biologists have shifted the focus of conservation away from wildlife management's concern with the protection and restoration of single species and toward the maintenance of ecosystems and <a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">biodiversity</a>. In the United States, wildlife management practices are implemented by a governmental agency, such as the <a href="/wiki/Endangered_Species_Act_of_1973" title="Endangered Species Act of 1973">Endangered Species Act</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Types_of_wildlife_management">Types of wildlife management</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Wildlife_management&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Types of wildlife management"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Slough_Creek_Campground_bear-proof_trash_receptacles_(16599663349).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Slough_Creek_Campground_bear-proof_trash_receptacles_%2816599663349%29.jpg/220px-Slough_Creek_Campground_bear-proof_trash_receptacles_%2816599663349%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Slough_Creek_Campground_bear-proof_trash_receptacles_%2816599663349%29.jpg/330px-Slough_Creek_Campground_bear-proof_trash_receptacles_%2816599663349%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Slough_Creek_Campground_bear-proof_trash_receptacles_%2816599663349%29.jpg/440px-Slough_Creek_Campground_bear-proof_trash_receptacles_%2816599663349%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5184" data-file-height="3456" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Bear-resistant_food_storage_container" title="Bear-resistant food storage container">Bear-resistant</a> custodial management trash receptacles in <a href="/wiki/Slough_Creek_(Wyoming)" title="Slough Creek (Wyoming)">Slough Creek</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Custodial management</b> is preventive or protective. The aim is to minimize external influences on the population and its habitat. It is appropriate in a national park where one of the stated goals is to protect ecological processes. It is also appropriate for conservation of a threatened species where the threat is of external origin rather than being intrinsic to the system. <a href="/wiki/Do_not_feed_the_animals" title="Do not feed the animals">Feeding of animals by visitors</a> is discouraged.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><b>Manipulative management</b> acts on a population, either changing its numbers by direct means or influencing numbers by the indirect means of altering food supply, habitat, density of predators, or prevalence of disease. This is appropriate when a population is to be harvested, or when it slides to an unacceptably low density or increases to an unacceptably high level. Such densities are inevitably the subjective view of the land owner, and may be disputed by <a href="/wiki/Animal_welfare" title="Animal welfare">animal welfare</a> interests.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Pest_control" title="Pest control">Pest control</a> is the control of real or perceived pests and can be used for the benefit of wildlife, farmers, gamekeepers or human safety. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Hunting_limitations">Hunting limitations</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Wildlife_management&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Hunting limitations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Wildlife management studies, research and lobbying by interest groups help designate times of the year when certain wildlife species can be legally hunted, allowing for surplus animals to be removed. In the United States, <a href="/wiki/Hunting_season" title="Hunting season">hunting season</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bag_limits" title="Bag limits">bag limits</a> are determined by guidelines set by the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Fish_and_Wildlife_Service" title="United States Fish and Wildlife Service">United States Fish and Wildlife Service</a> for <a href="/wiki/Anseriformes" title="Anseriformes">waterfowl</a> and other migratory gamebirds.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The hunting season and bag limits for state regulated game species such as deer are determined by State game Commissions, which are made up of representatives from various interest groups and wildlife biologists.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Hunting_season" title="Hunting season">Open season</a> is when wildlife is allowed to be hunted by law and is usually not during the <a href="/wiki/Breeding_season" class="mw-redirect" title="Breeding season">breeding season</a>. Hunters may be restricted by sex, age or class of animal, for instance there may be an open season for any male deer with 4 <a href="/wiki/Antler" title="Antler">points</a> or better on at least one antler. Closed season is when wildlife is protected from hunting and is usually during its breeding season. Closed season is enforced by law, any hunting during closed season is punishable by law and termed as illegal hunting or <a href="/wiki/Poaching" title="Poaching">poaching</a>. Open and closed season on deer in the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> is legislated for in the Deer Act.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Impact_on_ecosystems">Impact on ecosystems</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Wildlife_management&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Impact on ecosystems"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Habitat_destruction" title="Habitat destruction">Habitat destruction</a> and <a href="/wiki/Habitat_fragmentation" title="Habitat fragmentation">fragmentation</a> are major drivers of <a href="/wiki/Biodiversity_loss" title="Biodiversity loss">biodiversity loss</a> in the United Kingdom,<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> however landowners that participate in <a href="/wiki/Field_sports" title="Field sports">field sports</a>, particularly hunting and shooting, are more likely to conserve and reinstate woodlands<sup id="cite_ref-:0_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and hedgerows<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> because they are used by quarry species. A study in 2003 showed that they are around 2.5 times more likely to plant new woodlands than landowners without game or hunting interests, and also conserve a far greater woodland area.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_39-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Landowners undertake management measures to improve habitats for quarry species, including shrub planting, <a href="/wiki/Coppicing" title="Coppicing">coppicing</a><sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and skylighting<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to encourage <a href="/wiki/Understory" title="Understory">understory</a> growth. Roger Draycott of the <a href="/wiki/Game_and_Wildlife_Conservation_Trust" class="mw-redirect" title="Game and Wildlife Conservation Trust">Game and Wildlife Conservation Trust</a> has reported the conservation benefits of game management schemes in the UK, including woodlands with denser undergrowth and higher abundances of native birds.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, overall evidence that game shooting is beneficial to wider biodiversity has been inconclusive: high densities of game birds are known to negatively impact ecosystems, resulting in shorter grassland vegetation,<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> lower floral diversity in semi-natural woodlands,<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> fewer saplings in hedgerows leading from such woodlands,<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and reductions in <a href="/wiki/Arthropod" title="Arthropod">arthropod</a> biomass attributable to predation. </p><p>The rearing of both wild and released game birds requires the provision of food and shelter during the winter months,<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and to achieve this landowners plant <a href="/wiki/Cover_crops" class="mw-redirect" title="Cover crops">cover crops</a>. Generally species such as <a href="/wiki/Maize" title="Maize">maize</a> or <a href="/wiki/Quinoa" title="Quinoa">quinoa</a>, these are planted in strips alongside arable land. Cover crops are also utilised by a variety of nationally declining farmland birds such as <a href="/wiki/Linnets" class="mw-redirect" title="Linnets">linnets</a> and <a href="/wiki/Finches" class="mw-redirect" title="Finches">finches</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> providing valuable food resources and refuge from predators.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Prior to the <a href="/wiki/Hunting_Act_2004" title="Hunting Act 2004">Hunting Act</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fox_hunting" title="Fox hunting">fox hunting</a> also provided a major incentive for woodland conservation and management throughout England and Wales, with higher species diversity and abundance of plants and butterflies found in woodlands managed for foxes according to a survey of mounted hunts in 2006, verified by The Council of Hunting Associations.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Opposition">Opposition</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Wildlife_management&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Opposition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The control of wildlife through killing and hunting has created an <a href="/wiki/Opposition_to_hunting" title="Opposition to hunting">opposition to hunting</a> by <a href="/wiki/Animal_rights" title="Animal rights">animal rights</a> and <a href="/wiki/Animal_welfare" title="Animal welfare">animal welfare</a> activists.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Critics object to the real or perceived <a href="/wiki/Cruelty_to_animals" title="Cruelty to animals">cruelty</a> involved in some forms of wildlife management. They also argue against the deliberate breeding of certain animals by <a href="/wiki/Environmental_organization" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental organization">environmental organizations</a>—who hunters pay money to kill—in pursuit of profit.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Additionally, they draw attention to the attitude that it is acceptable to kill animals in the name of ecosystem or biodiversity preservation, yet it is seen as unacceptable to kill humans for the same purpose; asserting that such attitudes are a form of discrimination based on species-membership i.e. <a href="/wiki/Speciesism" title="Speciesism">speciesism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Environmentalists have also opposed hunting where they believe it is unnecessary or will negatively affect biodiversity.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Critics of game keeping note that habitat manipulation and predator control are often used to maintain artificially inflated populations of valuable game animals (including introduced exotics) without regard to the ecological integrity of the habitat.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Gamekeepers in the United Kingdom claim it to be necessary for wildlife conservation as the amount of <a href="/wiki/Rural_area" title="Rural area">countryside</a> they look after exceeds by a factor of nine the amount in <a href="/wiki/Nature_reserve" title="Nature reserve">nature reserves</a> and <a href="/wiki/National_park" title="National park">national parks</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Wildlife_management&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFDeckerRileySiemer2012" class="citation book cs1">Decker, Daniel J.; Riley, Shawn J. (Shawn James); Siemer, William F. (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/778244877"><i>Human dimensions of wildlife management</i></a> (2nd ed.). Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 4. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4214-0654-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4214-0654-1"><bdi>978-1-4214-0654-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/778244877">778244877</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Human+dimensions+of+wildlife+management&rft.place=Baltimore&rft.pages=4&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Johns+Hopkins+University+Press&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F778244877&rft.isbn=978-1-4214-0654-1&rft.aulast=Decker&rft.aufirst=Daniel+J.&rft.au=Riley%2C+Shawn+J.+%28Shawn+James%29&rft.au=Siemer%2C+William+F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F778244877&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWildlife+management" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSinclairFryxellCaughley2006" class="citation book cs1">Sinclair, Anthony R. E.; Fryxell, John M.; Caughley, Graeme (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/58526307"><i>Wildlife ecology, conservation, and management</i></a> (2nd ed.). 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New York, New York: DK Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4654-7958-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4654-7958-7"><bdi>978-1-4654-7958-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1044554389">1044554389</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+ecology+book&rft.place=New+York%2C+New+York&rft.series=Big+ideas+simply+explained&rft.pub=DK+Publishing&rft.date=2019&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2Fon1044554389&rft.isbn=978-1-4654-7958-7&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Ftitle%2Fon1044554389&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWildlife+management" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gamekeeperstrust.org.uk/">National Gamekeepers' Organisation Charitable Trust</a></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Wildlife_management&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, 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aria-labelledby="Natural_resources" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Natural_resources" title="Template:Natural resources"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Natural_resources" title="Template talk:Natural resources"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Natural_resources" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Natural resources"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Natural_resources" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Natural_resource" title="Natural resource">Natural resources</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Atmosphere_of_Earth" title="Atmosphere of Earth">Air</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.0em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Air_pollution" title="Air pollution">Pollution / quality</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_Ambient_Air_Quality_Standards" title="National Ambient Air Quality Standards">Ambient standards <span style="font-size:85%;">(US)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Air_quality_index" title="Air quality index">Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indoor_air_quality" title="Indoor air quality">Indoor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Air_quality_law" title="Air quality law">Law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Clean_Air_Act_(United_States)" title="Clean Air Act (United States)">Clean Air Act <span style="font-size:85%;">(US)</span></a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ozone_depletion" title="Ozone depletion">Ozone depletion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.0em;font-weight:normal;">Emissions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Airshed" title="Airshed">Airshed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emissions_trading" title="Emissions trading">Trading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reducing_emissions_from_deforestation_and_forest_degradation" class="mw-redirect" title="Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation">Deforestation (REDD)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Energy" title="Energy">Energy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bioenergy" title="Bioenergy">Bio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_law" title="Energy law">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_resources" class="mw-redirect" title="Energy resources">Resources</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel" title="Fossil fuel">Fossil fuels</a> (<a href="/wiki/Fuel_gas" title="Fuel gas">gas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Peak_coal" title="Peak coal">peak coal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Peak_gas" title="Peak gas">peak gas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Peak_oil" title="Peak oil">peak oil</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geothermal_energy" title="Geothermal energy">Geothermal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydropower" title="Hydropower">Hydro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power" title="Nuclear power">Nuclear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_energy" title="Solar energy">Solar</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sunlight" title="Sunlight">sunlight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shade_(shadow)" title="Shade (shadow)">shade</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind_power" title="Wind power">Wind</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Land" title="Land">Land</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_land" title="Agricultural land">Agricultural</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arable_land" title="Arable land">arable</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Peak_farmland" title="Peak farmland">peak farmland</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_degradation" title="Land degradation">Degradation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Field_(agriculture)" title="Field (agriculture)">Field</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscape" title="Landscape">Landscape</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cityscape" title="Cityscape">cityscape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seascape" title="Seascape">seascape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soundscape" title="Soundscape">soundscape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viewshed" title="Viewshed">viewshed</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_law" title="Land law">Law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Property_law" title="Property law">property</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_management" title="Land management">Management</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Habitat_conservation" title="Habitat conservation">habitat conservation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mineral" title="Mineral">Minerals</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gemstone" title="Gemstone">gemstone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_mineral" title="Industrial mineral">industrial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ore" title="Ore">ore</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Metal" title="Metal">metal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mining" title="Mining">mining</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mining_law" title="Mining law">law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sand_mining" title="Sand mining">sand</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peak_minerals" title="Peak minerals">peak</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Peak_copper" class="mw-redirect" title="Peak copper">copper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peak_phosphorus" class="mw-redirect" title="Peak phosphorus">phosphorus</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mineral_rights" title="Mineral rights">rights</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil" title="Soil">Soil</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Soil_conservation" title="Soil conservation">conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_fertility" title="Soil fertility">fertility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_health" title="Soil health">health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_resilience" title="Soil resilience">resilience</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_use" title="Land use">Use</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Land-use_planning" title="Land-use planning">planning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_space_reserve" title="Open space reserve">reserve</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Life" title="Life">Life</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">Biodiversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioprospecting" title="Bioprospecting">Bioprospecting</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biopiracy" title="Biopiracy">biopiracy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosphere" title="Biosphere">Biosphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bushfood" class="mw-redirect" title="Bushfood">Bushfood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bushmeat" title="Bushmeat">Bushmeat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fishery" title="Fishery">Fisheries</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_fisheries" title="Climate change and fisheries">climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fisheries_law" title="Fisheries law">law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fisheries_management" title="Fisheries management">management</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest" title="Forest">Forests</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Forest_genetic_resources" title="Forest genetic resources">genetic resources</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forestry_law" title="Forestry law">law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest_management" title="Forest management">management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-timber_forest_product" title="Non-timber forest product">non-timber products</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Game_(food)" class="mw-redirect" title="Game (food)">Game</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Game_law" title="Game law">law</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_conservation" title="Marine conservation">Marine conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meadow" title="Meadow">Meadow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pasture" title="Pasture">Pasture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant" title="Plant">Plants</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plant_Treaty" class="mw-redirect" title="Plant Treaty">FAO Plant Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food" title="Food">food</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_genetic_resources" title="Plant genetic resources">genetic resources</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gene_bank" title="Gene bank">gene banks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_plants_used_in_herbalism" title="List of plants used in herbalism">herbal medicines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UPOV" class="mw-redirect" title="UPOV">UPOV Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wood" title="Wood">wood</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rangeland" title="Rangeland">Rangeland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seed_bank" title="Seed bank">Seed bank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildlife" title="Wildlife">Wildlife</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wildlife_conservation" title="Wildlife conservation">conservation</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">management</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Water" title="Water">Water</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.0em;font-weight:normal;">Types / location</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aquifer" title="Aquifer">Aquifer</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aquifer_storage_and_recovery" title="Aquifer storage and recovery">storage and recovery</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drinking_water" title="Drinking water">Drinking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fresh_water" title="Fresh water">Fresh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Groundwater" title="Groundwater">Groundwater</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Groundwater_pollution" title="Groundwater pollution">pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Groundwater_recharge" title="Groundwater recharge">recharge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Groundwater_remediation" title="Groundwater remediation">remediation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrosphere" title="Hydrosphere">Hydrosphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice" title="Ice">Ice</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iceberg" title="Iceberg">bergs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glacier" title="Glacier">glacial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polar_ice_cap" title="Polar ice cap">polar</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irrigation" title="Irrigation">Irrigation</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Huerta" title="Huerta">huerta</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_resources" title="Marine resources">Marine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rain" title="Rain">Rain</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rainwater_harvesting" title="Rainwater harvesting">harvesting</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stormwater" title="Stormwater">Stormwater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surface_water" title="Surface water">Surface water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sewage" title="Sewage">Sewage</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reclaimed_water" title="Reclaimed water">reclaimed water</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drainage_basin" title="Drainage basin">Watershed</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.0em;font-weight:normal;">Aspects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Desalination" title="Desalination">Desalination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flood" title="Flood">Floods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Water law">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leaching_(agriculture)" title="Leaching (agriculture)">Leaching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanitation" title="Sanitation">Sanitation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Improved_sanitation" title="Improved sanitation">improved</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_scarcity" title="Water scarcity">Scarcity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_security" title="Water security">Security</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply" title="Water supply">Supply</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_efficiency" title="Water efficiency">Efficiency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_conflict" title="Water conflict">Conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_conservation" title="Water conservation">Conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peak_water" title="Peak water">Peak water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_pollution" title="Water pollution">Pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_privatization" title="Water privatization">Privatization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_quality" title="Water quality">Quality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_right" title="Water right">Right</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_resources" title="Water resources">Resources</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Improved_water_source" title="Improved water source">improved</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_resource_policy" title="Water resource policy">policy</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Commons" title="Commons">Commons</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Enclosure" title="Enclosure">enclosure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_commons" title="Global commons">global</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_land" title="Common land">land</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tragedy_of_the_commons" 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title="Natural capital">Natural capital</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Natural_capital_accounting" title="Natural capital accounting">accounting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_good" title="Environmental good">good</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_heritage" title="Natural heritage">Natural heritage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature_reserve" title="Nature reserve">Nature reserve</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Remnant_natural_area" title="Remnant natural area">remnant natural area</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_ecology" title="Systems ecology">Systems ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_ecology" title="Urban ecology">Urban ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilderness" title="Wilderness">Wilderness</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.0em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Resource" title="Resource">Resource</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div 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