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class="vector-toc-text"> 1.1 Anthropogenic (human-made) sources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Anthropogenic_(human-made)_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Natural_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Natural_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.2 Natural sources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Natural_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Emission_factors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Emission_factors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.3 Emission factors </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Emission_factors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pollutants" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pollutants"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 Pollutants </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Pollutants-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Pollutants subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Pollutants-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Primary_pollutants" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Primary_pollutants"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Primary pollutants </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Primary_pollutants-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Secondary_pollutants" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Secondary_pollutants"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Secondary pollutants </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Secondary_pollutants-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_pollutants" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_pollutants"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 Other pollutants </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_pollutants-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Exposure" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Exposure"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Exposure </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Exposure-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Indoor_air_quality" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Indoor_air_quality"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Indoor air quality </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Indoor_air_quality-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Health_effects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Health_effects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Health effects </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Health_effects-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Health effects subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Health_effects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Mortality" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mortality"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Mortality </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mortality-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Primary_mechanisms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Primary_mechanisms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1.1 Primary mechanisms </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Primary_mechanisms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-By_region" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#By_region"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1.2 By region </div> </a> <ul id="toc-By_region-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Major_causes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Major_causes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1.3 Major causes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Major_causes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Guidelines" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Guidelines"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1.4 Guidelines </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Guidelines-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cardiovascular_disease" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cardiovascular_disease"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Cardiovascular disease </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cardiovascular_disease-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Lung_disease" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lung_disease"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 Lung disease </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lung_disease-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cancer" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cancer"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.4 Cancer </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cancer-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Kidney_disease" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kidney_disease"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.5 Kidney disease </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kidney_disease-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fertility" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fertility"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.6 Fertility </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fertility-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Nitrogen_dioxide_(NO2)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nitrogen_dioxide_(NO2)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.6.1 Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nitrogen_dioxide_(NO2)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Carbon_monoxide_(CO)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Carbon_monoxide_(CO)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.6.2 Carbon monoxide (CO) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Carbon_monoxide_(CO)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Polycyclic_aromatic_hydrocarbons" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Polycyclic_aromatic_hydrocarbons"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.6.3 Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Polycyclic_aromatic_hydrocarbons-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Particulate_matter" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Particulate_matter"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.6.4 Particulate matter </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Particulate_matter-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ground-level_ozone_pollution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ground-level_ozone_pollution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.6.5 Ground-level ozone pollution </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ground-level_ozone_pollution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Children" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Children"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.7 Children </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Children-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Prenatal_exposure" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prenatal_exposure"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.7.1 Prenatal exposure </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Prenatal_exposure-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Infants" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Infants"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.7.2 Infants </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Infants-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Central_nervous_system" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Central_nervous_system"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.8 Central nervous system </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Central_nervous_system-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-"Clean"_areas" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#"Clean"_areas"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.9 "Clean" areas </div> </a> <ul id="toc-"Clean"_areas-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Agricultural_effects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Agricultural_effects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Agricultural effects </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Agricultural_effects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Economic_effects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economic_effects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Economic effects </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Economic_effects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_effects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_effects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Other effects </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_effects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Historical_disasters" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Historical_disasters"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Historical disasters </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Historical_disasters-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reduction_and_regulation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reduction_and_regulation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Reduction and regulation </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Reduction_and_regulation-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Reduction and regulation subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Reduction_and_regulation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Pollution_control" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pollution_control"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.1 Pollution control </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pollution_control-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Energy_transition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Energy_transition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.2 Energy transition </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Energy_transition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Alternatives_to_pollution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Alternatives_to_pollution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.3 Alternatives to pollution </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Alternatives_to_pollution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Control_devices" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Control_devices"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.4 Control devices </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Control_devices-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Monitoring" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Monitoring"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.5 Monitoring </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Monitoring-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Air_quality_modeling" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Air_quality_modeling"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.6 Air quality modeling </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Air_quality_modeling-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Regulations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Regulations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.7 Regulations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Regulations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Canada" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Canada"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.7.1 Canada </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Canada-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Germany" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Germany"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.7.2 Germany </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Germany-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Governing_urban_air_pollution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Governing_urban_air_pollution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.8 Governing urban air pollution </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Governing_urban_air_pollution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Indigenous_people" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Indigenous_people"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.9 Indigenous people </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Indigenous_people-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hotspots" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hotspots"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 Hotspots </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hotspots-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cities" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cities"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 Cities </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cities-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Projections" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Projections"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 Projections </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Projections-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 15 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 16 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 17 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Air pollution</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 90 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-90" aria-hidden="true" > 90 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lugbesoedeling" title="Lugbesoedeling – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Lugbesoedeling" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D9%84%D9%88%D8%AB_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%87%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%A1" title="تلوث الهواء – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="تلوث الهواء" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A7%81_%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%8D%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%82%E0%A6%B7%E0%A6%A3" title="বায়ু প্ৰদূষণ – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="বায়ু প্ৰদূষণ" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">অসমীয়া</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contaminaci%C3%B3n_atmosf%C3%A9rica" title="Contaminación atmosférica – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Contaminación atmosférica" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmosfer_%C3%A7irkl%C9%99nm%C9%99si" title="Atmosfer çirklənməsi – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Atmosfer çirklənməsi" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%82%E0%A6%B7%E0%A6%A3" title="বায়ুদূষণ – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="বায়ুদূষণ" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%B0%D0%B1%D1%80%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%B6%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B5_%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%84%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%8B" title="Забруджванне атмасферы – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Забруджванне атмасферы" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%A3" title="हवा प्रदूषण – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="हवा प्रदूषण" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target">भोजपुरी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polusyon_sa_duros" title="Polusyon sa duros – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Polusyon sa duros" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bikol Central</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%8A%D1%80%D1%81%D1%8F%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B5_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%B2%D1%8A%D0%B7%D0%B4%D1%83%D1%85%D0%B0" title="Замърсяване на въздуха – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Замърсяване на въздуха" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contaminaci%C3%B3_atmosf%C3%A8rica" title="Contaminació atmosfèrica – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Contaminació atmosfèrica" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zne%C4%8Di%C5%A1t%C4%9Bn%C3%AD_ovzdu%C5%A1%C3%AD" title="Znečištění ovzduší – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Znečištění ovzduší" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Llygredd_aer" title="Llygredd aer – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Llygredd aer" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dag mw-list-item"><a href="https://dag.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_pollution" title="Air pollution – Dagbani" lang="dag" hreflang="dag" data-title="Air pollution" data-language-autonym="Dagbanli" data-language-local-name="Dagbani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dagbanli</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luftforurening" title="Luftforurening – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Luftforurening" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luftverschmutzung" title="Luftverschmutzung – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Luftverschmutzung" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%95husaastus" title="Õhusaastus – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Õhusaastus" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%91%CF%84%CE%BC%CE%BF%CF%83%CF%86%CE%B1%CE%B9%CF%81%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE_%CF%81%CF%8D%CF%80%CE%B1%CE%BD%CF%83%CE%B7" title="Ατμοσφαιρική ρύπανση – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ατμοσφαιρική ρύπανση" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contaminaci%C3%B3n_atmosf%C3%A9rica" title="Contaminación atmosférica – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Contaminación atmosférica" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aera_poluado" title="Aera poluado – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Aera poluado" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airearen_kutsadura" title="Airearen kutsadura – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Airearen kutsadura" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A2%D9%84%D9%88%D8%AF%DA%AF%DB%8C_%D9%87%D9%88%D8%A7" title="آلودگی هوا – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="آلودگی هوا" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pollution_de_l%27air" title="Pollution de l'air – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Pollution de l'air" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luchtfersmoarging" title="Luchtfersmoarging – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Luchtfersmoarging" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truailli%C3%BA_aeir" title="Truailliú aeir – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Truailliú aeir" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contaminaci%C3%B3n_atmosf%C3%A9rica" title="Contaminación atmosférica – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Contaminación atmosférica" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gu mw-list-item"><a href="https://gu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AA%B5%E0%AA%BE%E0%AA%AF%E0%AB%81%E0%AA%A8%E0%AB%81%E0%AA%82_%E0%AA%AA%E0%AB%8D%E0%AA%B0%E0%AA%A6%E0%AB%82%E0%AA%B7%E0%AA%A3" title="વાયુનું પ્રદૂષણ – Gujarati" lang="gu" hreflang="gu" data-title="વાયુનું પ્રદૂષણ" data-language-autonym="ગુજરાતી" data-language-local-name="Gujarati" class="interlanguage-link-target">ગુજરાતી</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%8C%80%EA%B8%B0_%EC%98%A4%EC%97%BC" title="대기 오염 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="대기 오염" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gurbacewar_Iska" title="Gurbacewar Iska – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Gurbacewar Iska" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hausa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%84%D5%A9%D5%B6%D5%B8%D5%AC%D5%B8%D6%80%D5%BF%D5%AB_%D5%A1%D5%B2%D5%BF%D5%B8%D5%BF%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B4" title="Մթնոլորտի աղտոտում – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Մթնոլորտի աղտոտում" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%81_%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%A3" title="वायु प्रदूषण – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="वायु प्रदूषण" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/One%C4%8Di%C5%A1%C4%87avanje_zraka" title="Onečišćavanje zraka – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Onečišćavanje zraka" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmosferala_polutajo" title="Atmosferala polutajo – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Atmosferala polutajo" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ig mw-list-item"><a href="https://ig.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mmet%E1%BB%8D_ikuku" title="Mmetọ ikuku – Igbo" lang="ig" hreflang="ig" data-title="Mmetọ ikuku" data-language-autonym="Igbo" data-language-local-name="Igbo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Igbo</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pencemaran_udara" title="Pencemaran udara – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Pencemaran udara" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xh mw-list-item"><a href="https://xh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ungcoliseko_lomoya" title="Ungcoliseko lomoya – Xhosa" lang="xh" hreflang="xh" data-title="Ungcoliseko lomoya" data-language-autonym="IsiXhosa" data-language-local-name="Xhosa" class="interlanguage-link-target">IsiXhosa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inquinamento_atmosferico" title="Inquinamento atmosferico – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Inquinamento atmosferico" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%96%D7%99%D7%94%D7%95%D7%9D_%D7%90%D7%95%D7%95%D7%99%D7%A8" title="זיהום אוויר – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="זיהום אוויר" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%B5%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%AF%E0%B3%81_%E0%B2%AE%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%B2%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%A8%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%AF" title="ವಾಯು ಮಾಲಿನ್ಯ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ವಾಯು ಮಾಲಿನ್ಯ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target">ಕನ್ನಡ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%B0%E1%83%90%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%93%E1%83%90%E1%83%91%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%AB%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A0%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%90" title="ჰაერის დაბინძურება – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ჰაერის დაბინძურება" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%82%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%84%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%8B_%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%83" title="Атмосфераны ластау – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Атмосфераны ластау" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rw mw-list-item"><a href="https://rw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imyuka_Ihumanya_Ikirere" title="Imyuka Ihumanya Ikirere – Kinyarwanda" lang="rw" hreflang="rw" data-title="Imyuka Ihumanya Ikirere" data-language-autonym="Ikinyarwanda" data-language-local-name="Kinyarwanda" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ikinyarwanda</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uchafuzi_wa_hewa" title="Uchafuzi wa hewa – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Uchafuzi wa hewa" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B1%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%BD_%D0%B1%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%8B%D1%88%D1%8B" title="Абанын булганышы – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Абанын булганышы" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inquinatio_a%C3%ABris" title="Inquinatio aëris – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Inquinatio aëris" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaisa_pies%C4%81r%C5%86ojums" title="Gaisa piesārņojums – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Gaisa piesārņojums" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oro_tar%C5%A1a" title="Oro tarša – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Oro tarša" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leveg%C5%91szennyez%C3%A9s" title="Levegőszennyezés – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Levegőszennyezés" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%B4%D1%83%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%9A%D0%B5_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%B4%D1%83%D1%85%D0%BE%D1%82" title="Загадување на воздухот – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Загадување на воздухот" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%85%E0%B4%A8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A4%E0%B4%B0%E0%B5%80%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B7%E0%B4%AE%E0%B4%B2%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%A8%E0%B5%80%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%A3%E0%B4%82" title="അന്തരീക്ഷമലിനീകരണം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="അന്തരീക്ഷമലിനീകരണം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%82_%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%A3" title="वायू प्रदूषण – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="वायू प्रदूषण" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pencemaran_udara" title="Pencemaran udara – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Pencemaran udara" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mni mw-list-item"><a href="https://mni.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%AF%85%EA%AF%A8%EA%AF%A1%EA%AF%81%EA%AF%A4%EA%AF%A0_%EA%AF%83%EA%AF%A5%EA%AF%A1%EA%AF%8A%EA%AF%A3%EA%AF%9B%EA%AF%84" title="ꯅꯨꯡꯁꯤꯠ ꯃꯥꯡꯊꯣꯛꯄ – Manipuri" lang="mni" hreflang="mni" data-title="ꯅꯨꯡꯁꯤꯠ ꯃꯥꯡꯊꯣꯛꯄ" data-language-autonym="ꯃꯤꯇꯩ ꯂꯣꯟ" data-language-local-name="Manipuri" class="interlanguage-link-target">ꯃꯤꯇꯩ ꯂꯣꯟ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%8B%D0%BD_%D0%B1%D0%BE%D1%85%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BB" title="Агаарын бохирдол – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Агаарын бохирдол" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luchtvervuiling" title="Luchtvervuiling – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Luchtvervuiling" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%81_%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%A3" title="वायु प्रदूषण – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="वायु प्रदूषण" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%A4%A7%E6%B0%97%E6%B1%9A%E6%9F%93" title="大気汚染 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="大気汚染" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luftforurensning" title="Luftforurensning – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Luftforurensning" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pollucion_atmosferica" title="Pollucion atmosferica – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Pollucion atmosferica" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Havoning_ifloslanishi" title="Havoning ifloslanishi – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Havoning ifloslanishi" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%B9%E0%A8%B5%E0%A8%BE_%E0%A8%AA%E0%A9%8D%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%A6%E0%A9%82%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%BC%E0%A8%A3" title="ਹਵਾ ਪ੍ਰਦੂਸ਼ਣ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਹਵਾ ਪ੍ਰਦੂਸ਼ਣ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF_%D9%87%D9%88%D8%A7_%DA%A9%DA%A9%DA%93%D8%AA%D9%8A%D8%A7" title="د هوا ککړتيا – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="د هوا ککړتيا" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zanieczyszczenie_powietrza" title="Zanieczyszczenie powietrza – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Zanieczyszczenie powietrza" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polui%C3%A7%C3%A3o_atmosf%C3%A9rica" title="Poluição atmosférica – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Poluição atmosférica" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poluarea_aerului" title="Poluarea aerului – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Poluarea aerului" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%B0%D0%B3%D1%80%D1%8F%D0%B7%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%84%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%8B_%D0%97%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%BB%D0%B8" title="Загрязнение атмосферы Земли – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Загрязнение атмосферы Земли" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa mw-list-item"><a href="https://sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D" title="वायुमालिन्यम् – Sanskrit" lang="sa" hreflang="sa" data-title="वायुमालिन्यम्" data-language-autonym="संस्कृतम्" data-language-local-name="Sanskrit" class="interlanguage-link-target">संस्कृतम्</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ndotja_e_ajrit" title="Ndotja e ajrit – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Ndotja e ajrit" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B7%80%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%BA%E0%B7%94_%E0%B6%AF%E0%B7%96%E0%B7%82%E0%B6%AB%E0%B6%BA" title="වායු දූෂණය – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="වායු දූෂණය" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target">සිංහල</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_pollution" title="Air pollution – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Air pollution" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%BE%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%A6%D9%8A_%DA%AF%D8%AF%D9%84%D8%A7%DA%BB" title="ھوائي گدلاڻ – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="ھوائي گدلاڻ" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target">سنڌي</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%DB%95%D8%AA%D8%B1%D8%B3%DB%8C%DB%95%DA%A9%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C_%D9%BE%DB%8C%D8%B3%D8%A8%D9%88%D9%86%DB%8C_%DA%BE%DB%95%D9%88%D8%A7" title="مەترسیەکانی پیسبونی ھەوا – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="مەترسیەکانی پیسبونی ھەوا" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%B0%D1%92%D0%B5%D1%9A%D0%B5_%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B4%D1%83%D1%85%D0%B0" title="Загађење ваздуха – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Загађење ваздуха" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerozaga%C4%91enje" title="Aerozagađenje – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Aerozagađenje" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ilman_saastuminen" title="Ilman saastuminen – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Ilman saastuminen" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luftf%C3%B6roreningar" title="Luftföroreningar – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Luftföroreningar" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%B3%E0%AE%BF_%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D" title="வளி மாசடைதல் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="வளி மாசடைதல்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%B5%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%AF%E0%B1%81_%E0%B0%95%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%B2%E0%B1%81%E0%B0%B7%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%AF%E0%B0%82" title="వాయు కాలుష్యం – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="వాయు కాలుష్యం" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target">తెలుగు</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%9E%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%A9%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A8" title="มลพิษทางอากาศ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="มลพิษทางอากาศ" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tcy mw-list-item"><a href="https://tcy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%B5%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%AF%E0%B3%81_%E0%B2%AE%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%B2%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%A8%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%AF%E0%B3%8A" title="ವಾಯು ಮಾಲಿನ್ಯೊ – Tulu" lang="tcy" hreflang="tcy" data-title="ವಾಯು ಮಾಲಿನ್ಯೊ" data-language-autonym="ತುಳು" data-language-local-name="Tulu" class="interlanguage-link-target">ತುಳು</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hava_kirlili%C4%9Fi" title="Hava kirliliği – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Hava kirliliği" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%B0%D0%B1%D1%80%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8F_%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%96%D1%82%D1%80%D1%8F" title="Забруднення повітря – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Забруднення повітря" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D8%B6%D8%A7%D8%A6%DB%8C_%D8%A2%D9%84%D9%88%D8%AF%DA%AF%DB%8C" title="فضائی آلودگی – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="فضائی آلودگی" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-za mw-list-item"><a href="https://za.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uqlah_hoengheiq" title="Uqlah hoengheiq – Zhuang" lang="za" hreflang="za" data-title="Uqlah hoengheiq" data-language-autonym="Vahcuengh" data-language-local-name="Zhuang" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vahcuengh</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%94_nhi%E1%BB%85m_kh%C3%B4ng_kh%C3%AD" title="Ô nhiễm không khí – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Ô nhiễm không khí" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wa mw-list-item"><a href="https://wa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mannixhance_di_l%27_air" title="Mannixhance di l' air – Walloon" lang="wa" hreflang="wa" data-title="Mannixhance di l' air" data-language-autonym="Walon" data-language-local-name="Walloon" class="interlanguage-link-target">Walon</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%A9%BA%E6%B0%94%E6%B1%A1%E6%9F%93" title="空气污染 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="空气污染" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%A4%D7%98_%D7%A4%D7%90%D7%A8%D7%A4%D7%A2%D7%A1%D7%98%D7%99%D7%A7%D7%95%D7%A0%D7%92" title="לופט פארפעסטיקונג – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="לופט פארפעסטיקונג" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target">ייִדיש</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%A9%BA%E6%B0%A3%E6%B1%A1%E6%9F%93" title="空氣污染 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="空氣污染" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%A9%BA%E6%B0%A3%E6%B1%A1%E6%9F%93" title="空氣污染 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="空氣污染" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q131123#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></div> 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i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Bad air quality" and "Air quality" redirect here. For the obsolete medical theory, see <a href="/wiki/Miasma_theory" title="Miasma theory">Miasma theory</a>. For the measurement of air pollution, see <a href="/wiki/Air_quality_index" title="Air quality index">Air quality index</a>. For the qualities of air, see <a href="/wiki/Atmosphere_of_Earth" title="Atmosphere of Earth">Atmosphere of Earth</a>.</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Alfred_Palmer_Smokestacks.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Alfred_Palmer_Smokestacks.jpg/260px-Alfred_Palmer_Smokestacks.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="201" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Alfred_Palmer_Smokestacks.jpg/390px-Alfred_Palmer_Smokestacks.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Alfred_Palmer_Smokestacks.jpg/520px-Alfred_Palmer_Smokestacks.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1548" /></a><figcaption>Air pollution from a <a href="/wiki/Coke_(fuel)" title="Coke (fuel)">coking oven</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:2016_EPI_Environmental_Health_Objective_-_Air_Quality_(26170609658).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/2016_EPI_Environmental_Health_Objective_-_Air_Quality_%2826170609658%29.jpg/440px-2016_EPI_Environmental_Health_Objective_-_Air_Quality_%2826170609658%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="440" height="352" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/2016_EPI_Environmental_Health_Objective_-_Air_Quality_%2826170609658%29.jpg/660px-2016_EPI_Environmental_Health_Objective_-_Air_Quality_%2826170609658%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/2016_EPI_Environmental_Health_Objective_-_Air_Quality_%2826170609658%29.jpg/880px-2016_EPI_Environmental_Health_Objective_-_Air_Quality_%2826170609658%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3027" data-file-height="2419" /></a><figcaption>2016 <a href="/wiki/Environmental_Performance_Index" title="Environmental Performance Index">Environmental Performance Index</a> – darker colors indicate lower concentrations of <a href="/wiki/Fine_particulate_matter" class="mw-redirect" title="Fine particulate matter">fine particulate matter</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen_dioxide" title="Nitrogen dioxide">nitrogen dioxide</a>, as well as better <a href="/wiki/Indoor_air_quality" title="Indoor air quality">indoor air quality</a>.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Air_pollution_death_rates.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Air_pollution_death_rates.png/220px-Air_pollution_death_rates.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="113" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Air_pollution_death_rates.png/330px-Air_pollution_death_rates.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Air_pollution_death_rates.png/440px-Air_pollution_death_rates.png 2x" data-file-width="1080" data-file-height="556" /></a><figcaption>Deaths from air pollution per 100,000 inhabitants (IHME, 2019)</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist 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rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of a <a href="/wiki/Category:Pollution" title="Category:Pollution">series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="padding-bottom:0; background:#fadcc5; color:#fadcc5"><a href="/wiki/Pollution" title="Pollution">Pollution</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Air_pollution3.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Air_pollution3.jpg/220px-Air_pollution3.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Air_pollution3.jpg/330px-Air_pollution3.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Air_pollution3.jpg/440px-Air_pollution3.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="2250" /></a><div class="sidebar-caption">Air pollution from a factory</div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Air</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acid_rain" title="Acid rain">Acid rain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Air_quality_index" title="Air quality index">Air quality index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_dispersion_modeling" title="Atmospheric dispersion modeling">Atmospheric dispersion modeling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chlorofluorocarbon" title="Chlorofluorocarbon">Chlorofluorocarbon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Combustion" title="Combustion">Combustion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exhaust_gas" title="Exhaust gas">Exhaust gas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haze" title="Haze">Haze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_dimming" title="Global dimming">Global dimming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_distillation" title="Global distillation">Global distillation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indoor_air_quality" title="Indoor air quality">Indoor air quality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ozone_depletion" title="Ozone depletion">Ozone depletion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Particulates" title="Particulates">Particulates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persistent_organic_pollutant" title="Persistent organic pollutant">Persistent organic pollutant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smog" title="Smog">Smog</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soot" title="Soot">Soot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volatile_organic_compound" title="Volatile organic compound">Volatile organic compound</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Biological_pollution" title="Biological pollution">Biological</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biological_hazard" title="Biological hazard">Biological hazard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_pollution" title="Genetic pollution">Genetic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_logging" title="Illegal logging">Illegal logging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Introduced_species" title="Introduced species">Introduced species</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Invasive_species" title="Invasive species">Invasive species</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Digital</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Information_pollution" title="Information pollution">Information</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_radiation_and_health" title="Electromagnetic radiation and health">Electromagnetic</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Light_pollution" title="Light pollution">Light</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_light_pollution" title="Ecological light pollution">Ecological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overillumination" class="mw-redirect" title="Overillumination">Overillumination</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radio_spectrum_pollution" title="Radio spectrum pollution">Radio spectrum</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Natural</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ozone" title="Ozone">Ozone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radium_and_radon_in_the_environment" title="Radium and radon in the environment">Radium and radon in the environment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volcanic_ash" title="Volcanic ash">Volcanic ash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildfire" title="Wildfire">Wildfire</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Noise_pollution" title="Noise pollution">Noise</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_transport" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of transport">Transportation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_effects_from_noise" title="Health effects from noise">Health effects from noise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_mammals_and_sonar" title="Marine mammals and sonar">Marine mammals and sonar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noise_barrier" title="Noise barrier">Noise barrier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noise_control" title="Noise control">Noise control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soundproofing" title="Soundproofing">Soundproofing</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Radioactive_contamination" title="Radioactive contamination">Radiation</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Actinides_in_the_environment" title="Actinides in the environment">Actinides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioremediation_of_radioactive_waste" title="Bioremediation of radioactive waste">Bioremediation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Depleted_uranium" title="Depleted uranium">Depleted uranium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fission_product" title="Nuclear fission product">Nuclear fission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fallout" title="Nuclear fallout">Nuclear fallout</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutonium_in_the_environment" title="Plutonium in the environment">Plutonium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acute_radiation_syndrome" title="Acute radiation syndrome">Poisoning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_radioactivity" title="Environmental radioactivity">Radioactivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uranium_in_the_environment" title="Uranium in the environment">Uranium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radioactive_waste" title="Radioactive waste">Radioactive waste</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Soil_contamination" title="Soil contamination">Soil</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_pollution" title="Agricultural pollution">Agricultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_degradation" title="Land degradation">Land degradation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioremediation" title="Bioremediation">Bioremediation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_defecation" title="Open defecation">Defecation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrical_resistance_heating" title="Electrical resistance heating">Electrical resistance heating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_mining" title="Illegal mining">Illegal mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_guideline_value" title="Soil guideline value">Soil guideline values</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phytoremediation" title="Phytoremediation">Phytoremediation</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Solid waste</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Advertising_mail" title="Advertising mail">Advertising mail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biodegradable_waste" title="Biodegradable waste">Biodegradable waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brown_waste" title="Brown waste">Brown waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electronic_waste" title="Electronic waste">Electronic waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foam_food_container" title="Foam food container">Foam food container</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_loss_and_waste" title="Food loss and waste">Food waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_waste" title="Green waste">Green waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hazardous_waste" title="Hazardous waste">Hazardous waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_waste" title="Industrial waste">Industrial waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Litter" title="Litter">Litter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_mining" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of mining">Mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Municipal_solid_waste" title="Municipal solid waste">Municipal solid waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollution_from_nanomaterials" title="Pollution from nanomaterials">Nanomaterials</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plastic_pollution" title="Plastic pollution">Plastic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Packaging_waste" title="Packaging waste">Packaging waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-consumer_waste" title="Post-consumer waste">Post-consumer waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waste_management" title="Waste management">Waste management</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Space</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Space_debris" title="Space debris">Space debris</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Thermal_pollution" title="Thermal pollution">Thermal</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Urban_heat_island" title="Urban heat island">Urban heat island</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Visual_pollution" title="Visual pollution">Visual</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air_travel" title="Air travel">Air travel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clutter_(advertising)" title="Clutter (advertising)">Advertising clutter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overhead_power_line" title="Overhead power line">Overhead power lines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traffic_sign" title="Traffic sign">Traffic signs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vandalism" title="Vandalism">Vandalism</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_war" title="Environmental impact of war">War</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_warfare" title="Chemical warfare">Chemical warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbicidal_warfare" title="Herbicidal warfare">Herbicidal warfare</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agent_Orange" title="Agent Orange">Agent Orange</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_holocaust" title="Nuclear holocaust">Nuclear holocaust</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fallout" title="Nuclear fallout">Nuclear fallout</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_famine" title="Nuclear famine">Nuclear famine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_winter" title="Nuclear winter">Nuclear winter</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scorched_earth" title="Scorched earth">Scorched earth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unexploded_ordnance" title="Unexploded ordnance">Unexploded ordnance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_and_environmental_law" title="War and environmental law">War and environmental law</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Water_pollution" title="Water pollution">Water</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_wastewater_treatment" title="Agricultural wastewater treatment">Agricultural wastewater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosolids" title="Biosolids">Biosolids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waterborne_diseases" class="mw-redirect" title="Waterborne diseases">Diseases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eutrophication" title="Eutrophication">Eutrophication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Firewater_(fire_fighting)" title="Firewater (fire fighting)">Firewater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freshwater_environmental_quality_parameters" title="Freshwater environmental quality parameters">Freshwater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Groundwater_pollution" title="Groundwater pollution">Groundwater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypoxia_(environmental)" title="Hypoxia (environmental)">Hypoxia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_wastewater_treatment" title="Industrial wastewater treatment">Industrial wastewater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_pollution" title="Marine pollution">Marine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_monitoring" title="Environmental monitoring">Monitoring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonpoint_source_pollution" title="Nonpoint source pollution">Nonpoint source</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nutrient_pollution" title="Nutrient pollution">Nutrient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_acidification" title="Ocean acidification">Ocean acidification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oil_spill" title="Oil spill">Oil spill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_pharmaceuticals_and_personal_care_products" title="Environmental impact of pharmaceuticals and personal care products">Pharmaceuticals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freshwater_salinization" title="Freshwater salinization">Freshwater salinization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Septic_tank" title="Septic tank">Septic tanks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sewage" title="Sewage">Sewage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_shipping" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of shipping">Shipping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sludge" title="Sludge">Sludge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_stagnation" title="Water stagnation">Stagnation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sulfur_water" title="Sulfur water">Sulfur water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surface_runoff" title="Surface runoff">Surface runoff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turbidity" title="Turbidity">Turbidity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_runoff" title="Urban runoff">Urban runoff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_quality" title="Water quality">Water quality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wastewater" title="Wastewater">Wastewater</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_environmental_pollution" title="History of environmental pollution">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollutant" title="Pollutant">Pollutants</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Heavy_metals" class="mw-redirect" title="Heavy metals">Heavy metals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paint" title="Paint">Paint</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content-with-subgroup" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Misc</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Area_source_pollution" title="Area source pollution">Area source</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brain_health_and_pollution" title="Brain health and pollution">Brain health and pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Debris" title="Debris">Debris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dust" title="Dust">Dust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garbology" title="Garbology">Garbology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legacy_pollution" title="Legacy pollution">Legacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Midden" title="Midden">Midden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Point_source_pollution" title="Point source pollution">Point source</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waste" title="Waste">Waste</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Toxic_waste" title="Toxic waste">Toxic</a></li></ul></li></ul> <table class="sidebar-subgroup"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Lists</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_pollution-related_diseases" title="List of pollution-related diseases">Diseases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_environmental_laws_by_country" title="List of environmental laws by country">Law by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_most-polluted_cities_by_particulate_matter_concentration" title="List of most-polluted cities by particulate matter concentration">Most polluted cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_least_polluted_cities_by_particulate_matter_concentration" class="mw-redirect" title="List of least polluted cities by particulate matter concentration">Least polluted cities by PM2.5</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_international_environmental_agreements" title="List of international environmental agreements">Treaties</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Categories</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pollution_by_country" title="Category:Pollution by country">By country</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/File:Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg/16px-Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg" decoding="async" width="16" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg/24px-Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg/32px-Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="700" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Environment" title="Portal:Environment">Environment portal</a></li> <li><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Earth_Day_Flag.png/16px-Earth_Day_Flag.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Earth_Day_Flag.png/24px-Earth_Day_Flag.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Earth_Day_Flag.png/32px-Earth_Day_Flag.png 2x" data-file-width="6000" data-file-height="4000" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Ecology" title="Portal:Ecology">Ecology portal</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar 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mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Winter" title="Winter">Winter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spring_(season)" title="Spring (season)">Spring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Summer" title="Summer">Summer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autumn" title="Autumn">Autumn</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Tropics" title="Tropics">Tropical seasons</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dry_season" title="Dry season">Dry season</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Harmattan" title="Harmattan">Harmattan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wet_season" title="Wet season">Wet season</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Storm" title="Storm">Storms</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cloud" title="Cloud">Cloud</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cumulonimbus_cloud" title="Cumulonimbus cloud">Cumulonimbus cloud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arcus_cloud" title="Arcus cloud">Arcus cloud</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Downburst" title="Downburst">Downburst</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Microburst" class="mw-redirect" title="Microburst">Microburst</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heat_burst" title="Heat burst">Heat burst</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Derecho" title="Derecho">Derecho</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lightning" title="Lightning">Lightning</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Volcanic_lightning" title="Volcanic lightning">Volcanic lightning</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thunderstorm" title="Thunderstorm">Thunderstorm</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air-mass_thunderstorm" title="Air-mass thunderstorm">Air-mass thunderstorm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thundersnow" title="Thundersnow">Thundersnow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dry_thunderstorm" title="Dry thunderstorm">Dry thunderstorm</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesocyclone" title="Mesocyclone">Mesocyclone</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Supercell" title="Supercell">Supercell</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tornado" title="Tornado">Tornado</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anticyclonic_tornado" title="Anticyclonic tornado">Anticyclonic tornado</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landspout" title="Landspout">Landspout</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waterspout" title="Waterspout">Waterspout</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dust_devil" title="Dust devil">Dust devil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire_whirl" title="Fire whirl">Fire whirl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anticyclone" title="Anticyclone">Anticyclone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyclone" title="Cyclone">Cyclone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polar_low" title="Polar low">Polar low</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extratropical_cyclone" title="Extratropical cyclone">Extratropical cyclone</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/European_windstorm" title="European windstorm">European windstorm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nor%27easter" title="Nor'easter">Nor'easter</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subtropical_cyclone" title="Subtropical cyclone">Subtropical cyclone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_cyclone" title="Tropical cyclone">Tropical cyclone</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_hurricane" title="Atlantic hurricane">Atlantic hurricane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Typhoon" title="Typhoon">Typhoon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Storm_surge" title="Storm surge">Storm surge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dust_storm" title="Dust storm">Dust storm</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Simoom" title="Simoom">Simoom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haboob" title="Haboob">Haboob</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monsoon" title="Monsoon">Monsoon</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amihan" title="Amihan">Amihan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gale" title="Gale">Gale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sirocco" title="Sirocco">Sirocco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Firestorm" title="Firestorm">Firestorm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Winter_storm" title="Winter storm">Winter storm</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ice_storm" title="Ice storm">Ice storm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blizzard" title="Blizzard">Blizzard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ground_blizzard" title="Ground blizzard">Ground blizzard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Snow_squall" title="Snow squall">Snow squall</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Precipitation" title="Precipitation">Precipitation</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Drizzle" title="Drizzle">Drizzle</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Freezing_drizzle" title="Freezing drizzle">Freezing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graupel" title="Graupel">Graupel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hail" title="Hail">Hail</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Megacryometeor" title="Megacryometeor">Megacryometeor</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_pellets" title="Ice pellets">Ice pellets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diamond_dust" title="Diamond dust">Diamond dust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rain" title="Rain">Rain</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Freezing_rain" title="Freezing rain">Freezing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cloudburst" title="Cloudburst">Cloudburst</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Snow" title="Snow">Snow</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rain_and_snow_mixed" title="Rain and snow mixed">Rain and snow mixed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Snow_grains" title="Snow grains">Snow grains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Snow_roller" title="Snow roller">Snow roller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slush" title="Slush">Slush</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Index_of_meteorology_articles" title="Index of meteorology articles">Topics</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Air pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atmosphere" title="Atmosphere">Atmosphere</a></li></ul> <ul><li><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_chemistry" title="Atmospheric chemistry">Chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_convection" title="Atmospheric convection">Convection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_physics" title="Atmospheric physics">Physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_river" title="Atmospheric river">River</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate" title="Climate">Climate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cloud" title="Cloud">Cloud</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cloud_physics" title="Cloud physics">Physics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fog" title="Fog">Fog</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mist" title="Mist">Mist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fog_season" title="Fog season">Season</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_wave" title="Cold wave">Cold wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heat_wave" title="Heat wave">Heat wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jet_stream" title="Jet stream">Jet stream</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meteorology" title="Meteorology">Meteorology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Severe_weather" title="Severe weather">Severe weather</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_severe_weather_phenomena" title="List of severe weather phenomena">List</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extreme_weather" title="Extreme weather">Extreme</a></li> <li>Severe weather terminology <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Severe_weather_terminology_(Canada)" title="Severe weather terminology (Canada)">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Severe_weather_terminology_(Japan)" title="Severe weather terminology (Japan)">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Severe_weather_terminology_(United_States)" title="Severe weather terminology (United States)">United States</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weather_forecasting" title="Weather forecasting">Weather forecasting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weather_modification" title="Weather modification">Weather modification</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Glossaries</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_meteorology" title="Glossary of meteorology">Meteorology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_climate_change" title="Glossary of climate change">Climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_tornado_terms" title="Glossary of tornado terms">Tornado terms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_tropical_cyclone_terms" title="Glossary of tropical cyclone terms">Tropical cyclone terms</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="border-top:#ccc 1px solid; border-bottom:#ccc 1px solid;"> <a href="/wiki/File:Cumulus_clouds_in_fair_weather.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Cumulus_clouds_in_fair_weather.jpeg/16px-Cumulus_clouds_in_fair_weather.jpeg" decoding="async" width="16" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Cumulus_clouds_in_fair_weather.jpeg/24px-Cumulus_clouds_in_fair_weather.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Cumulus_clouds_in_fair_weather.jpeg/32px-Cumulus_clouds_in_fair_weather.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Weather" title="Portal:Weather">Weather portal</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Weather" title="Template:Weather"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Weather" title="Template talk:Weather"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Weather" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Weather"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> Air pollution is the contamination of air due to the presence of substances called pollutants in the atmosphere that are harmful to the health of humans and other living beings, or cause damage to the climate or to materials.<a href="#cite_note-Air_pollution-1">[1]</a> It is also the contamination of the indoor or outdoor environment either by chemical, physical, or <a href="/wiki/Biological_agent" title="Biological agent">biological agents</a> that alters the natural features of the atmosphere.<a href="#cite_note-Air_pollution-1">[1]</a> There are many different types of air pollutants, such as gases (including <a href="/wiki/Ammonia" title="Ammonia">ammonia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Carbon_monoxide" title="Carbon monoxide">carbon monoxide</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sulfur_dioxide" title="Sulfur dioxide">sulfur dioxide</a>, <a href="/wiki/NOx" title="NOx">nitrous oxides</a>, <a href="/wiki/Methane" title="Methane">methane</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chlorofluorocarbons" class="mw-redirect" title="Chlorofluorocarbons">chlorofluorocarbons</a>), <a href="/wiki/Particulates" title="Particulates">particulates</a> (both organic and inorganic) and <a href="/wiki/Biomolecule" title="Biomolecule">biological molecules</a>. Air pollution can cause diseases, allergies, and even death to humans; it can also cause harm to other living organisms such as animals and crops, and may damage the natural environment (for example, <a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">climate change</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ozone_depletion" title="Ozone depletion">ozone depletion</a> or <a href="/wiki/Habitat_degradation" class="mw-redirect" title="Habitat degradation">habitat degradation</a>) or <a href="/wiki/Built_environment" title="Built environment">built environment</a> (for example, <a href="/wiki/Acid_rain" title="Acid rain">acid rain</a>).<a href="#cite_note-auto1-2">[2]</a> Air pollution can be caused by both human activities<a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a> and natural phenomena.<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a> Air quality is closely related to the <a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_climate" class="mw-redirect" title="Earth's climate">Earth's climate</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem" title="Ecosystem">ecosystems</a> globally. Many of the contributors of air pollution are also sources of <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emissions" title="Greenhouse gas emissions">greenhouse emission</a> i.e., burning of <a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel" title="Fossil fuel">fossil fuel</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Air_pollution-1">[1]</a> Air pollution is a significant <a href="/wiki/Risk_factor" title="Risk factor">risk factor</a> for a number of <a href="/wiki/List_of_pollution-related_diseases" title="List of pollution-related diseases">pollution-related diseases</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Respiratory_infection" class="mw-redirect" title="Respiratory infection">respiratory infections</a>, <a href="/wiki/Heart_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Heart disease">heart disease</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chronic_obstructive_pulmonary_disease" title="Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease">chronic obstructive pulmonary disease</a> (COPD), <a href="/wiki/Stroke" title="Stroke">stroke</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Lung_cancer" title="Lung cancer">lung cancer</a>.<a href="#cite_note-WHO2014-5">[5]</a> Growing evidence suggests that air pollution exposure may be associated with reduced IQ scores, impaired cognition,<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a> increased risk for psychiatric disorders such as <a href="/wiki/Depression_(mood)" title="Depression (mood)">depression</a><a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> and detrimental <a href="/wiki/Perinatal" class="mw-redirect" title="Perinatal">perinatal</a> health.<a href="#cite_note-10.1371/journal.pmed.1003718-8">[8]</a> The human health effects of poor air quality are far reaching, but principally affect the body's respiratory system and the <a href="/wiki/Circulatory_system" title="Circulatory system">cardiovascular system</a>.<a href="#cite_note-DominskiLorenzetti_BrancoBuonanno2021-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-LeeBingKiang2020-10">[10]</a> Individual reactions to air pollutants depend on the type of pollutant a person is exposed to,<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a> the degree of exposure, and the individual's health status and <a href="/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">genetics</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Vallero2014-13">[13]</a> Air pollution is the largest environmental risk factor for disease and premature death<a href="#cite_note-WHO2014-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-10.1016/S2542-5196(22)00090-0-14">[14]</a> and the fourth largest risk factor overall for human health.<a href="#cite_note-JuginovićVukovićAranza2021-15">[15]</a> Air pollution causes the premature deaths of around 7 million people worldwide each year,<a href="#cite_note-WHO2014-5">[5]</a> or a global mean loss of life expectancy (LLE) of 2.9 years,<a href="#cite_note-10.1093/cvr/cvaa025-16">[16]</a> and there has been no significant change in the number of deaths caused by all forms of pollution since at least 2015.<a href="#cite_note-10.1016/S2542-5196(22)00090-0-14">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a><a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> Outdoor air pollution attributable to fossil fuel use alone causes ~3.61 million deaths annually,<a href="#cite_note-PNAS2019-19">[19]</a> making it one <a href="/wiki/List_of_causes_of_death_by_rate" title="List of causes of death by rate">of the top contributors to human death</a>.<a href="#cite_note-WHO2014-5">[5]</a> Anthropogenic ozone causes around 470,000 premature deaths a year and fine particulate (PM2.5) pollution around another 2.1 million.<a href="#cite_note-iopscience.iop.org-20">[20]</a> The scope of the air pollution crisis is large: In 2018, WHO estimated that "9 out of 10 people breathe air containing high levels of pollutants."<a href="#cite_note-WHO2018-21">[21]</a> Although the health consequences are extensive, the way the problem is handled is considered largely haphazard<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a><a href="#cite_note-WHO2018-21">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a> or neglected.<a href="#cite_note-10.1016/S2542-5196(22)00090-0-14">[14]</a> The World Bank has estimated that welfare losses (premature deaths) and <a href="/wiki/Productivity" title="Productivity">productivity</a> losses (lost labour) caused by air pollution cost the <a href="/wiki/World_economy" title="World economy">world economy</a> $5 trillion per year.<a href="#cite_note-documents.worldbank.org-24">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-commondreams.org-25">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-Fortune2018-26">[26]</a> The costs of air pollution are generally an <a href="/wiki/Externality" title="Externality">externality</a> to the contemporary <a href="/wiki/Economic_system" title="Economic system">economic system</a> and most human activity, although they are sometimes recovered through <a href="/wiki/Regulation_and_monitoring_of_pollution" title="Regulation and monitoring of pollution">monitoring, legislation, and regulation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a><a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a> Many different technologies and strategies are available for reducing air pollution.<a href="#cite_note-boubel2013-29">[29]</a> Although a majority of countries have <a href="/wiki/Air_quality_law" title="Air quality law">air pollution laws</a>, according to <a href="/wiki/UNEP" class="mw-redirect" title="UNEP">UNEP</a>, 43 percent of countries lack a legal definition of air pollution, 31 percent lack outdoor air quality standards, 49 percent restrict their definition to outdoor pollution only, and just 31 percent have laws for tackling pollution originating from outside their borders.<a href="#cite_note-unep2021-30">[30]</a> National air quality laws have often been highly effective, notably the 1956 <a href="/wiki/Clean_Air_Act_1956" title="Clean Air Act 1956">Clean Air Act</a> in Britain and the <a href="/wiki/Clean_Air_Act_(United_States)" title="Clean Air Act (United States)">US Clean Air Act</a>, introduced in 1963.<a href="#cite_note-brimblecombe50-31">[31]</a><a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a> Some of these efforts have been successful at the international level, such as the <a href="/wiki/Montreal_Protocol" title="Montreal Protocol">Montreal Protocol</a>,<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a> which reduced the release of harmful <a href="/wiki/Ozone_layer" title="Ozone layer">ozone</a> depleting chemicals, and the 1985 <a href="/wiki/Helsinki_Protocol" class="mw-redirect" title="Helsinki Protocol">Helsinki Protocol</a>,<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a> which reduced <a href="/wiki/Sulphur_Emission_Control_Area" class="mw-redirect" title="Sulphur Emission Control Area">sulfur emissions</a>,<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a> while others, such as <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_mitigation" title="Climate change mitigation">international action on climate change</a>,<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a><a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a> have been less successful. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources_of_air_pollution">Sources of air pollution</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Air_pollution&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Sources of air pollution">edit</a>]</div> There are many different sources of air pollution. Some air pollutants (such as nitrogen oxides) originate mainly from human activities,<a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a> while some (notably <a href="/wiki/Radon" title="Radon">radon</a> gas) come mostly from natural sources.<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> However, many air pollutants (including dust and sulfur dioxide) come from a mixture of natural and human sources.<a href="#cite_note-pmid32154200-41">[41]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Anthropogenic_(human-made)_sources">Anthropogenic (human-made) sources</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Air_pollution&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Anthropogenic (human-made) sources">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Athlone_cooling_towers_demolition_2010-08-22.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Athlone_cooling_towers_demolition_2010-08-22.gif/220px-Athlone_cooling_towers_demolition_2010-08-22.gif" decoding="async" width="220" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Athlone_cooling_towers_demolition_2010-08-22.gif/330px-Athlone_cooling_towers_demolition_2010-08-22.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Athlone_cooling_towers_demolition_2010-08-22.gif/440px-Athlone_cooling_towers_demolition_2010-08-22.gif 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="460" /></a><figcaption>Demolition of the cooling towers of a power station, Athlone, Cape Town, South Africa, 2010</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:BurningOffFieldsInTheEveningInSouthGeorgia.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/BurningOffFieldsInTheEveningInSouthGeorgia.jpg/220px-BurningOffFieldsInTheEveningInSouthGeorgia.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="116" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/BurningOffFieldsInTheEveningInSouthGeorgia.jpg/330px-BurningOffFieldsInTheEveningInSouthGeorgia.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/BurningOffFieldsInTheEveningInSouthGeorgia.jpg/440px-BurningOffFieldsInTheEveningInSouthGeorgia.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="539" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Controlled_burning" class="mw-redirect" title="Controlled burning">Controlled burning</a> of a field outside of <a href="/wiki/Statesboro,_Georgia" title="Statesboro, Georgia">Statesboro, Georgia</a>, US, in preparation for spring planting</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fish_smoking_in_Ghana.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Fish_smoking_in_Ghana.jpg/220px-Fish_smoking_in_Ghana.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="197" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Fish_smoking_in_Ghana.jpg/330px-Fish_smoking_in_Ghana.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Fish_smoking_in_Ghana.jpg/440px-Fish_smoking_in_Ghana.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1995" data-file-height="1786" /></a><figcaption>Smoking of fish over an open fire in Ghana, 2018</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Joss_paper_burning_2024.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Joss_paper_burning_2024.jpg/150px-Joss_paper_burning_2024.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="228" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Joss_paper_burning_2024.jpg/225px-Joss_paper_burning_2024.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Joss_paper_burning_2024.jpg/300px-Joss_paper_burning_2024.jpg 2x" data-file-width="595" data-file-height="905" /></a><figcaption>Burning of <a href="/wiki/Joss_paper" title="Joss paper">joss paper</a> in a <a href="/wiki/Chinese_temple" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese temple">Chinese temple</a> in Hong Kong</figcaption></figure> <ul><li>Stationary sources include: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel" title="Fossil fuel">fossil-fuel</a> power plants and <a href="/wiki/Biomass_(ecology)" title="Biomass (ecology)">biomass</a> power plants both have smoke stacks (see for example <a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_the_coal_industry" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental impact of the coal industry">environmental impact of the coal industry</a>)<a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a> <ul><li>Oil and gas sites that have <a href="/wiki/Methane_leaks" class="mw-redirect" title="Methane leaks">methane leaks</a><a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a><a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a><a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a><a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a></li></ul></li> <li>burning of traditional biomass such as wood, crop waste and dung. (In developing and poor countries,<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a> traditional biomass burning is the major source of air pollutants.<a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a><a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a> It is also the main source of particulate pollution in many developed areas including the UK & New South Wales.<a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a><a href="#cite_note-auto-51">[51]</a> Its pollutants include <a href="/wiki/Polycyclic_aromatic_hydrocarbon" title="Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon">PAHs</a>.<a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a>)</li> <li>manufacturing facilities (factories)<a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a> <ul><li>a 2014 study found that in China equipment-, <a href="/wiki/Machine" title="Machine">machinery</a>-, and devices-manufacturing and construction sectors contributed more than 50% of air pollutant emissions.<a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS">better source needed</a>] This high emission is due to high <a href="/wiki/Emission_intensity" title="Emission intensity">emission intensity</a> and high <a href="/wiki/Emission_factors" class="mw-redirect" title="Emission factors">emission factors</a> in its industrial structure.<a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a></li></ul></li> <li>construction<a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a><a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renovation" title="Renovation">renovation</a><a href="#cite_note-hkGov-58">[58]</a></li> <li>waste incineration (<a href="/wiki/Incineration" title="Incineration">incinerators</a> as well as open and uncontrolled fires of mismanaged waste, making up about a fourth of municipal solid terrestrial waste)<a href="#cite_note-waste-crisis-59">[59]</a><a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a></li> <li>furnaces and other types of fuel-burning heating devices<a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mobile_source_air_pollution" title="Mobile source air pollution">Mobile sources</a> include <a href="/wiki/Roadway_air_dispersion_modeling" title="Roadway air dispersion modeling">motor vehicles</a>, trains (particularly <a href="/wiki/Diesel_locomotive" title="Diesel locomotive">diesel locomotives</a> and <a href="/wiki/Diesel_multiple_unit" title="Diesel multiple unit">DMUs</a>), marine vessels and aircraft<a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a> as well as <a href="/wiki/Rocket" title="Rocket">rockets</a> and re-entry of components and <a href="/wiki/Space_debris" title="Space debris">debris</a>.<a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Effects_of_the_car_on_societies#Public_or_external_costs" class="mw-redirect" title="Effects of the car on societies">air pollution externality of cars</a> enters the air from the <a href="/wiki/Exhaust_gas" title="Exhaust gas">exhaust gas</a> and car tires (including <a href="/wiki/Microplastics" title="Microplastics">microplastics</a><a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a>). Road vehicles make a significant amount of all air pollution (typically, for example, around a third to a half of all nitrogen dioxide emissions)<a href="#cite_note-pmid31143547-65">[65]</a><a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid26142107-67">[67]</a> and are a major driver of <a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">climate change</a>.<a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a><a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a></li> <li>Agriculture and <a href="/wiki/Forest_management" title="Forest management">forest management</a> strategies using controlled burns. Practices like <a href="/wiki/Slash-and-burn" title="Slash-and-burn">slash-and-burn</a> in forests like the Amazon cause large air pollution with the <a href="/wiki/Deforestation" title="Deforestation">deforestation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a> Controlled or prescribed burning is a practice used in <a href="/wiki/Forest_management" title="Forest management">forest management</a>, agriculture, <a href="/wiki/Prairie_restoration" title="Prairie restoration">prairie restoration</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas" title="Greenhouse gas">greenhouse gas</a> reduction.<a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a> <a href="/wiki/Forester" title="Forester">Foresters</a> can use controlled fire as a tool because fire is a natural feature of both forest and grassland ecology.<a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a><a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a> Controlled burning encourages the sprouting of some desirable forest trees, resulting in a forest renewal.<a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a></li></ul> There are also sources from processes other than <a href="/wiki/Combustion" title="Combustion">combustion</a>: <ul><li>Fumes from paint, <a href="/wiki/Hair_spray" title="Hair spray">hair spray</a>, <a href="/wiki/Varnish" title="Varnish">varnish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aerosol_spray" class="mw-redirect" title="Aerosol spray">aerosol sprays</a> and other solvents. These can be substantial; emissions from these sources was estimated to account for almost half of pollution from <a href="/wiki/Volatile_organic_compounds" class="mw-redirect" title="Volatile organic compounds">volatile organic compounds</a> in the Los Angeles basin in the 2010s.<a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a></li> <li>Waste deposition in landfills produces <a href="/wiki/Methane" title="Methane">methane</a><a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a> and open burning of waste releases harmful substances.<a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapon" title="Nuclear weapon">Nuclear weapons</a>, toxic gases, <a href="/wiki/Biological_warfare" title="Biological warfare">germ warfare</a>, and rocketry are examples of military resources.<a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_agriculture" title="Environmental impact of agriculture">Agricultural emissions</a> and <a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_meat_production" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental impact of meat production">emissions from meat production or livestock</a> contribute substantially to air pollution<a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a><a href="#cite_note-10.1038/nature15371-80">[80]</a> <ul><li>Fertilized farmland may be a major source of <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen_oxide" title="Nitrogen oxide">nitrogen oxides</a>.<a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a></li></ul></li></ul> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238864702">.mw-parser-output .bar-chart{margin:0.5em;background-color:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa);border:1px solid #c0c0c0}.mw-parser-output .bar-chart caption{font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .bar-chart th,.mw-parser-output .bar-chart td{padding:1px;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .bar-chart th[scope="col"]:not(.bar-chart-label-type){width:15em}.mw-parser-output .bar-chart th[scope="row"]:not(.bar-chart-total){font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .bar-chart-bar{height:1.25em;width:40em}.mw-parser-output .bar-chart-bar-line{background-color:#cedff2;height:1.25em;margin:0 0 0 0;z-index:0}.mw-parser-output .bar-chart-bar-comment{font-size:90%;padding-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .bar-chart-bar-numbers{position:relative;top:-1.4em;height:1.25em;padding:0 0 0 2em;z-index:10;width:40em}.mw-parser-output .bar-chart-caption{border-top:1px solid #aaa}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .bar-chart-left{float:left;clear:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .bar-chart-right{float:right;clear:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}.mw-parser-output .bar-chart-center{margin:0.5em auto}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .bar-chart-bar-line{background-color:#74497e}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .bar-chart-bar-line{background-color:#74497e}}</style> <table class="bar-chart bar-chart-right"> <caption>Mean <a href="/wiki/Acid_rain" title="Acid rain">acidifying emissions</a> (air pollution) of different foods per 100g of protein<a href="#cite_note-Nemecek_987–992-82">[82]</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th scope="col" class="bar-chart-label-type">Food Types </th> <th scope="col" style="width: 20em">Acidifying Emissions (g SO2eq per 100g protein) </th></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Beef" title="Beef">Beef</a> </th> <td><div class="bar-chart-bar" style="width: 20em;"><div class="bar-chart-bar-line" style="width:22.9em;"></div>343.6</div> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Cheese" title="Cheese">Cheese</a> </th> <td><div class="bar-chart-bar" style="width: 20em;"><div class="bar-chart-bar-line" style="width:11em;"></div>165.5</div> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Pork" title="Pork">Pork</a> </th> <td><div class="bar-chart-bar" style="width: 20em;"><div class="bar-chart-bar-line" style="width:9.5em;"></div>142.7</div> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Lamb_and_mutton" title="Lamb and mutton">Lamb and mutton</a> </th> <td><div class="bar-chart-bar" style="width: 20em;"><div class="bar-chart-bar-line" style="width:9.2em;"></div>139.0</div> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Aquaculture" title="Aquaculture">Farmed crustaceans</a> </th> <td><div class="bar-chart-bar" style="width: 20em;"><div class="bar-chart-bar-line" style="width:8.9em;"></div>133.1</div> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Poultry" title="Poultry">Poultry</a> </th> <td><div class="bar-chart-bar" style="width: 20em;"><div class="bar-chart-bar-line" style="width:6.8em;"></div>102.4</div> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Aquaculture" title="Aquaculture">Farmed fish</a> </th> <td><div class="bar-chart-bar" style="width: 20em;"><div class="bar-chart-bar-line" style="width:4.4em;"></div>65.9</div> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Egg_as_food" class="mw-redirect" title="Egg as food">Eggs</a> </th> <td><div class="bar-chart-bar" style="width: 20em;"><div class="bar-chart-bar-line" style="width:3.6em;"></div>53.7</div> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Faboideae" title="Faboideae">Groundnuts</a> </th> <td><div class="bar-chart-bar" style="width: 20em;"><div class="bar-chart-bar-line" style="width:1.5em;"></div>22.6</div> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Peas" class="mw-redirect" title="Peas">Peas</a> </th> <td><div class="bar-chart-bar" style="width: 20em;"><div class="bar-chart-bar-line" style="width:0.6em;"></div>8.5</div> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Tofu" title="Tofu">Tofu</a> </th> <td><div class="bar-chart-bar" style="width: 20em;"><div class="bar-chart-bar-line" style="width:0.4em;"></div>6.7</div> </td></tr> </tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Natural_sources">Natural sources</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Air_pollution&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Natural sources">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dust_storm_approaching_Stratford,_Texas.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Dust_storm_approaching_Stratford%2C_Texas.jpg/220px-Dust_storm_approaching_Stratford%2C_Texas.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="137" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Dust_storm_approaching_Stratford%2C_Texas.jpg/330px-Dust_storm_approaching_Stratford%2C_Texas.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Dust_storm_approaching_Stratford%2C_Texas.jpg/440px-Dust_storm_approaching_Stratford%2C_Texas.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3248" data-file-height="2028" /></a><figcaption>Dust storm approaching <a href="/wiki/Stratford,_Texas" title="Stratford, Texas">Stratford, Texas</a>, in 1935</figcaption></figure> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dust" title="Dust">Dust</a> from natural sources, usually large areas of land with little or no vegetation.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methane" title="Methane">Methane</a>, emitted by the <a href="/wiki/Digestion" title="Digestion">digestion</a> of food by animals, for example <a href="/wiki/Cattle" title="Cattle">cattle</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radon" title="Radon">Radon</a> gas from <a href="/wiki/Radioactive_decay" title="Radioactive decay">radioactive decay</a> within the <a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_crust" title="Earth's crust">Earth's crust</a>. Radon is a colorless, odorless, naturally occurring, radioactive <a href="/wiki/Noble_gas" title="Noble gas">noble gas</a> that is formed from the decay of <a href="/wiki/Radium" title="Radium">radium</a>. It is considered to be a health hazard. Radon gas from natural sources can accumulate in buildings, especially in confined areas such as the basement and it is the second most frequent cause of <a href="/wiki/Lung_cancer" title="Lung cancer">lung cancer</a>, after <a href="/wiki/Cigarette" title="Cigarette">cigarette</a> smoking.</li> <li>Smoke and <a href="/wiki/Carbon_monoxide" title="Carbon monoxide">carbon monoxide</a> from <a href="/wiki/Wildfires" class="mw-redirect" title="Wildfires">wildfires</a>. During periods of active wildfires, smoke from uncontrolled <a href="/wiki/Biomass" title="Biomass">biomass</a> <a href="/wiki/Combustion" title="Combustion">combustion</a> can make up almost 75% of all air pollution by concentration.<a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vegetation" title="Vegetation">Vegetation</a>, in some regions, emits environmentally significant amounts of <a href="/wiki/Volatile_organic_compounds" class="mw-redirect" title="Volatile organic compounds">volatile organic compounds</a> (VOCs) on warmer days. These VOCs react with primary anthropogenic pollutants – specifically, NOx, SO2, and <a href="/wiki/Anthropogenic_hazard" class="mw-redirect" title="Anthropogenic hazard">anthropogenic</a> organic carbon compounds – to produce a seasonal haze of secondary pollutants.<a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a> <a href="/wiki/Black_gum" title="Black gum">Black gum</a>, poplar, oak and <a href="/wiki/Willow" title="Willow">willow</a> are some examples of vegetation that can produce abundant VOCs. The VOC production from these species result in ozone levels up to eight times higher than the low-impact tree species.<a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volcano" title="Volcano">Volcanic</a> activity, which produces <a href="/wiki/Sulfur" title="Sulfur">sulfur</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chlorine" title="Chlorine">chlorine</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ash" title="Ash">ash</a> particulates.<a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Emission_factors">Emission factors</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Air_pollution&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Emission factors">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/AP_42_Compilation_of_Air_Pollutant_Emission_Factors" title="AP 42 Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors">AP 42 Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Beijing_smog_comparison_August_2005.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Beijing_smog_comparison_August_2005.png/450px-Beijing_smog_comparison_August_2005.png" decoding="async" width="450" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Beijing_smog_comparison_August_2005.png/675px-Beijing_smog_comparison_August_2005.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Beijing_smog_comparison_August_2005.png/900px-Beijing_smog_comparison_August_2005.png 2x" data-file-width="960" data-file-height="360" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Beijing" title="Beijing">Beijing</a> air in 2005 after <a href="/wiki/Rain" title="Rain">rain</a> (left) and a smoggy day (right)</figcaption></figure> Air pollutant emission factors are reported representative values that aim to link the quantity of a pollutant released into the ambient air to an activity connected with that pollutant's release.<a href="#cite_note-auto1-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a><a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a><a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a> The weight of the pollutant divided by a unit weight, volume, distance, or time of the activity generating the pollutant is how these factors are commonly stated (e.g., kilograms of particulate emitted per tonne of coal burned). These criteria make estimating emissions from diverse sources of pollution easier. Most of the time, these components are just averages of all available data of acceptable quality, and they are thought to be typical of long-term averages. The <a href="/wiki/Stockholm_Convention_on_Persistent_Organic_Pollutants" title="Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants">Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants</a> identified pesticides and other <a href="/wiki/Persistent_organic_pollutant" title="Persistent organic pollutant">persistent organic pollutants</a> of concern. These include <a href="/wiki/Dioxin" title="Dioxin">dioxins</a> and <a href="/wiki/Furan" title="Furan">furans</a> which are unintentionally created by combustion of organics, like open burning of plastics, and are <a href="/wiki/Endocrine_disruptor" title="Endocrine disruptor">endocrine disruptors</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mutagen" title="Mutagen">mutagens</a>. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Agbogbloshie,_Ghana_2019.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Agbogbloshie%2C_Ghana_2019.jpg/220px-Agbogbloshie%2C_Ghana_2019.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="127" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Agbogbloshie%2C_Ghana_2019.jpg/330px-Agbogbloshie%2C_Ghana_2019.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Agbogbloshie%2C_Ghana_2019.jpg/440px-Agbogbloshie%2C_Ghana_2019.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5946" data-file-height="3436" /></a><figcaption>E-waste processing in <a href="/wiki/Agbogbloshie" title="Agbogbloshie">Agbogbloshie</a>, Ghana, using open-burning of electronics to access valuable metals like copper. Open burning of plastics is common in many parts of the world without the capacity for processing. Especially without proper protections, heavy metals and other contaminates can <a href="/wiki/Soil_contamination" title="Soil contamination">seep into the soil</a>, and create <a href="/wiki/Water_pollution" title="Water pollution">water pollution</a> and air pollution.</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/United_States_Environmental_Protection_Agency" title="United States Environmental Protection Agency">United States Environmental Protection Agency</a> has published a compilation of air pollutant emission factors for a wide range of industrial sources.<a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a> The United Kingdom, Australia, Canada, and many other countries have published similar compilations, as well as the <a href="/wiki/European_Environment_Agency" title="European Environment Agency">European Environment Agency</a>.<a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a><a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a><a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a><a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Pollutants">Pollutants</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Air_pollution&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Pollutants">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Pollutant" title="Pollutant">Pollutant</a> and <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emissions" title="Greenhouse gas emissions">Greenhouse gas emissions</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Air_Pollution-Causes%26Effects.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Air_Pollution-Causes%26Effects.svg/290px-Air_Pollution-Causes%26Effects.svg.png" decoding="async" width="290" height="205" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Air_Pollution-Causes%26Effects.svg/435px-Air_Pollution-Causes%26Effects.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Air_Pollution-Causes%26Effects.svg/580px-Air_Pollution-Causes%26Effects.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1052" data-file-height="744" /></a><figcaption>Schematic drawing, causes and effects of air pollution: (1) <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_effect" title="Greenhouse effect">greenhouse effect</a>, (2) <a href="/wiki/Particulate_pollution" title="Particulate pollution">particulate contamination</a>, (3) increased <a href="/wiki/UV_radiation" class="mw-redirect" title="UV radiation">UV radiation</a>, (4) <a href="/wiki/Acid_rain" title="Acid rain">acid rain</a>, (5) increased <a href="/wiki/Ground-level_ozone" title="Ground-level ozone">ground-level ozone</a> concentration, (6) increased levels of <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen_oxides" class="mw-redirect" title="Nitrogen oxides">nitrogen oxides</a></figcaption></figure> An air pollutant is a material in the air that can have many effects on humans and the ecosystem.<a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a> The substance can be solid particles, liquid droplets, or gases, and often takes the form of an <a href="/wiki/Aerosol" title="Aerosol">aerosol</a> (solid particles or liquid droplets dispersed and carried by a gas).<a href="#cite_note-Hidy2012-96">[96]</a> A pollutant can be of natural origin or man-made. Pollutants are classified as primary or secondary. Primary pollutants are usually produced by processes such as ash from a volcanic eruption. Other examples include carbon monoxide gas from motor vehicle exhausts or sulfur dioxide released from factories. Secondary pollutants are not emitted directly. Rather, they form in the air when primary pollutants react or interact. <a href="/wiki/Ground_level_ozone" class="mw-redirect" title="Ground level ozone">Ground level ozone</a> is a prominent example of a secondary pollutant. Some pollutants may be both primary and secondary: they are both emitted directly and formed from other primary pollutants. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Primary_pollutants">Primary pollutants</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Air_pollution&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Primary pollutants">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Prose plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-style ambox-Prose" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/40px-Edit-clear.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/60px-Edit-clear.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/80px-Edit-clear.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section is in <a href="/wiki/MOS:LIST" class="mw-redirect" title="MOS:LIST">list</a> format but may read better as <a href="/wiki/MOS:PROSE" class="mw-redirect" title="MOS:PROSE">prose</a>. You can help by <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Air_pollution&action=edit">converting this section</a>, if appropriate. <a href="/wiki/Help:Editing" title="Help:Editing">Editing help</a> is available. (April 2023)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> Pollutants emitted into the atmosphere by human activity include: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ammonia_pollution" title="Ammonia pollution">Ammonia</a>: Emitted mainly by agricultural waste. Ammonia is a compound with the formula NH3. It is normally encountered as a gas with a characteristic pungent odor. Ammonia contributes significantly to the nutritional needs of terrestrial organisms by serving as a precursor to foodstuffs and fertilizers. Ammonia, either directly or indirectly, is also a building block for the synthesis of many <a href="/wiki/Medication" title="Medication">pharmaceuticals</a>. Although in wide use, ammonia is both caustic and hazardous.<a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a> In the atmosphere, ammonia reacts with <a href="/wiki/Oxides_of_nitrogen" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxides of nitrogen">oxides of nitrogen</a> and sulfur to form secondary particles.<a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">Carbon dioxide</a> (CO2): Carbon dioxide is a natural component of the atmosphere, essential for plant life and given off by the human <a href="/wiki/Respiratory_system" title="Respiratory system">respiratory system</a>.<a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a> It is potentially lethal at very high concentrations (typically 100 times "normal" atmospheric levels).<a href="#cite_note-niosh-co2-100">[100]</a><a href="#cite_note-hse-co2-101">[101]</a> Although the <a href="/wiki/World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization">World Health Organization</a> recognizes CO2 as a climate pollutant, it does not include the gas in its Air Quality Guidelines or set recommended targets for it.<a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a> Because of its role as a <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas" title="Greenhouse gas">greenhouse gas</a>, CO2 has been described as "the worst climate pollutant".<a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a> Statements such as this refer to its long-term atmospheric effects rather than shorter-term effects on such things as human health, food crops, and buildings. This question of terminology has practical consequences, for example, in determining whether the U.S. <a href="/wiki/Clean_Air_Act_(United_States)" title="Clean Air Act (United States)">Clean Air Act</a> (which is designed to improve air quality) is deemed to regulate CO2 emissions.<a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a> That issue was resolved in the United States by the <a href="/wiki/Inflation_Reduction_Act" title="Inflation Reduction Act">Inflation Reduction Act</a> of 2022, which specifically amended the Clean Air Act "to define the carbon dioxide produced by the burning of <a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuels" class="mw-redirect" title="Fossil fuels">fossil fuels</a> as an 'air pollutant.'"<a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a> CO2 currently forms about 410 parts per million (ppm) of Earth's atmosphere, compared to about 280 ppm in pre-industrial times,<a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a> and billions of metric tons of CO2 are emitted annually by burning of fossil fuels.<a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a> CO2 increase in Earth's atmosphere has been accelerating.<a href="#cite_note-MaunaMonthly-108">[108]</a> CO2 is an <a href="/wiki/Asphyxiant_gas" title="Asphyxiant gas">asphyxiant gas</a> and not classified as toxic or harmful in general.<a href="#cite_note-109">[109]</a> Workplace exposure limits exist in places like UK (5,000 ppm for long-term exposure and 15,000 ppm for short-term exposure).<a href="#cite_note-hse-co2-101">[101]</a> Natural disasters like the <a href="/wiki/Limnic_eruption" title="Limnic eruption">limnic eruption</a> at <a href="/wiki/Lake_Nyos" title="Lake Nyos">Lake Nyos</a> can result in a sudden release of huge amount of CO2 as well.<a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_monoxide" title="Carbon monoxide">Carbon monoxide</a> (CO): CO is a colorless, odorless, toxic gas.<a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a> It is a product of <a href="/wiki/Combustion" title="Combustion">combustion</a> of fuel such as natural gas, coal or wood. Vehicular exhaust contributes to the majority of carbon monoxide let into the atmosphere. It creates a smog type formation in the air that has been linked to many lung diseases and disruptions to the natural environment and animals.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chlorofluorocarbons" class="mw-redirect" title="Chlorofluorocarbons">Chlorofluorocarbons</a> (CFCs): Emitted from goods that are now prohibited from use; harmful to the ozone layer. These are gases emitted by air conditioners, freezers, aerosol sprays, and other similar devices. CFCs reach the stratosphere after being released into the atmosphere.<a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a> They interact with other gases here, causing harm to the ozone layer. UV rays are able to reach the Earth's surface as a result of this. This can result in skin cancer, eye problems, and even plant damage.<a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nitrogen_oxide" title="Nitrogen oxide">Nitrogen oxides</a> (NOx): Nitrogen oxides, particularly <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen_dioxide" title="Nitrogen dioxide">nitrogen dioxide</a>, are expelled from high temperature combustion, and are also produced during thunderstorms by <a href="/wiki/Electric_discharge" title="Electric discharge">electric discharge</a>. They can be seen as a brown <a href="/wiki/Haze" title="Haze">haze</a> dome above or a <a href="/wiki/Plume_(hydrodynamics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Plume (hydrodynamics)">plume</a> downwind of cities. Nitrogen dioxide is a chemical compound with the formula NO2. It is one of several nitrogen oxides. One of the most prominent air pollutants, this reddish-brown toxic gas has a characteristic sharp, biting odor.</li> <li>Odors: Such as from garbage, sewage, and industrial processes.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Particulate_matter" class="mw-redirect" title="Particulate matter">Particulate matter</a>/particles (PM), also known as particulates, atmospheric particulate matter (APM), or fine particles, are microscopic solid or liquid particles suspended in a gas.<a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a> Aerosol is a mixture of particles and gas. Volcanoes, <a href="/wiki/Dust_storm" title="Dust storm">dust storms</a>, forest and grassland fires, living plants, and sea spray are all sources of particles. Aerosols are produced by human activities such as the combustion of fossil fuels in automobiles, power plants, and numerous industrial processes.<a href="#cite_note-115">[115]</a> Averaged worldwide, anthropogenic aerosols – those made by human activities – currently account for approximately 10% of the atmosphere. Increased levels of fine particles in the air are linked to health hazards such as heart disease,<a href="#cite_note-116">[116]</a> altered lung function and lung cancer. Particulates are related to respiratory infections and can be particularly harmful to those with conditions like <a href="/wiki/Asthma" title="Asthma">asthma</a>.<a href="#cite_note-117">[117]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persistent_organic_pollutant" title="Persistent organic pollutant">Persistent organic pollutants</a>, which can attach to particulates. Persistent organic pollutants are organic compounds that are resistant to <a href="/wiki/Chemical_degradation" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemical degradation">environmental degradation</a> due to chemical, biological, or <a href="/w/index.php?title=Photolytic&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Photolytic (page does not exist)">photolytic</a> processes (POPs). As a result, they've been discovered to survive in the environment, be capable of long-range transmission, <a href="/wiki/Bioaccumulate" class="mw-redirect" title="Bioaccumulate">bioaccumulate</a> in human and animal tissue, biomagnify in food chains, and pose a major threat to human health and the <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem" title="Ecosystem">ecosystem</a>.<a href="#cite_note-118">[118]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radical_(chemistry)#Persistent_radicals" title="Radical (chemistry)">Persistent free radicals</a> connected to airborne fine particles are linked to cardiopulmonary disease.<a href="#cite_note-119">[119]</a><a href="#cite_note-120">[120]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polycyclic_aromatic_hydrocarbon" title="Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon">Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons</a> (PAHs): a group of aromatic compounds formed from the incomplete combustion of organic compounds including coal and oil and tobacco.<a href="#cite_note-121">[121]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radioactive_pollutants" class="mw-redirect" title="Radioactive pollutants">Radioactive pollutants</a>: Produced by <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_explosions" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear explosions">nuclear explosions</a>, nuclear events, war explosives, and natural processes such as the radioactive decay of radon.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sulfur_oxide" title="Sulfur oxide">Sulfur oxides</a> (SOx): particularly sulfur dioxide, a chemical compound with the formula SO2. SO2 is produced by volcanoes and in various industrial processes. Coal and petroleum often contain sulfur compounds, and their combustion generates sulfur dioxide. Further oxidation of SO2, usually in the presence of a catalyst such as NO2, forms H2SO4, and thus <a href="/wiki/Acid_rain" title="Acid rain">acid rain</a> is formed. This is one of the causes for concern over the environmental impact of the use of these fuels as power sources.</li> <li>Toxic metals, such as <a href="/wiki/Lead" title="Lead">lead</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mercury_(element)" title="Mercury (element)">mercury</a>, especially their compounds.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volatile_organic_compounds" class="mw-redirect" title="Volatile organic compounds">Volatile organic compounds</a> (VOC): VOCs are both indoor and outdoor air pollutants.<a href="#cite_note-epa-voc-122">[122]</a> They are categorized as either methane (CH4) or non-methane (NMVOCs). Methane is an extremely efficient greenhouse gas which contributes to enhanced <a href="/wiki/Global_warming" class="mw-redirect" title="Global warming">global warming</a>. Other hydrocarbon VOCs are also significant greenhouse gases because of their role in creating ozone and prolonging the life of <a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_methane" title="Atmospheric methane">methane in the atmosphere</a>. This effect varies depending on local air quality. The aromatic NMVOCs benzene, toluene and xylene are suspected carcinogens and may lead to leukemia with prolonged exposure. 1,3-butadiene is another dangerous compound often associated with industrial use.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Secondary_pollutants">Secondary pollutants</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Air_pollution&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Secondary pollutants">edit</a>]</div> Secondary pollutants include: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ground_level_ozone" class="mw-redirect" title="Ground level ozone">Ground level ozone</a> (O3): Ozone is created when NOx and VOCs mix. It is a significant part of the troposphere.<a href="#cite_note-123">[123]</a> It's also an important part of the ozone layer, which can be found in different sections of the stratosphere. Photochemical and chemical reactions involving it fuel many of the chemical activities that occur in the atmosphere during the day and night. It is a pollutant and a component of <a href="/wiki/Smog" title="Smog">smog</a> that is produced in large quantities as a result of human activities (mostly the combustion of fossil fuels).<a href="#cite_note-124">[124]</a> O3 is largely produced by chemical reactions involving NOx gases (nitrogen oxides, especially from combustion) and volatile organic compounds in the presence of sunlight. Due to the influence of temperature and sunlight on this reaction, high ozone levels are most common on hot summer afternoons.<a href="#cite_note-125">[125]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peroxyacetyl_nitrate" title="Peroxyacetyl nitrate">Peroxyacetyl nitrate</a> (C2H3NO5): similarly formed from NOx and VOCs.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photochemical_Smog" class="mw-redirect" title="Photochemical Smog">Photochemical smog</a>: particles are formed from gaseous primary contaminants and chemicals.<a href="#cite_note-126">[126]</a> Smog is a type of pollution that occurs in the atmosphere. Smog is caused by a huge volume of coal being burned in a certain region, resulting in a mixture of smoke and sulfur dioxide.<a href="#cite_note-127">[127]</a> Modern smog is usually caused by automotive and industrial emissions, which are acted on in the atmosphere by UV light from the sun to produce secondary pollutants, which then combine with the primary emissions to generate photochemical smog.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_pollutants">Other pollutants</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Air_pollution&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Other pollutants">edit</a>]</div> There are many other chemicals classed as hazardous air pollutants. Some of these are regulated in the USA under the <a href="/wiki/Clean_Air_Act_(United_States)" title="Clean Air Act (United States)">Clean Air Act</a> and in Europe under numerous <a href="/wiki/List_of_European_Union_directives" title="List of European Union directives">directives</a> (including the Air "Framework" Directive, 96/62/EC, on ambient air quality assessment and management, Directive 98/24/EC, on risks related to chemical agents at work, and Directive 2004/107/EC covering heavy metals and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in ambient air).<a href="#cite_note-128">[128]</a><a href="#cite_note-129">[129]</a> <table class="toc" style="width: {{{width}}}"> <tbody><tr> <th>To display all pages, subcategories and images click on the "►": </th></tr> <tr> <td><div class="CategoryTreeTag" data-ct-options="{"mode":20,"hideprefix":20,"showcount":true,"namespaces":false,"notranslations":false}"><div class="CategoryTreeSection"><div class="CategoryTreeItem"><a class="CategoryTreeToggle" data-ct-title="Hazardous_air_pollutants" aria-expanded="false"></a> <bdi dir="ltr"><a href="/wiki/Category:Hazardous_air_pollutants" title="Category:Hazardous air pollutants">Hazardous air pollutants</a></bdi> (4 C, 68 P)</div><div class="CategoryTreeChildren" style="display:none"></div></div></div> </td></tr></tbody></table> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 190px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Air_pollution_by_industrial_chimneys.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Before flue-gas desulfurization was installed, the emissions from this power plant in New Mexico contained excessive amounts of sulfur dioxide."><img alt="Before flue-gas desulfurization was installed, the emissions from this power plant in New Mexico contained excessive amounts of sulfur dioxide." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Air_pollution_by_industrial_chimneys.jpg/200px-Air_pollution_by_industrial_chimneys.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="133" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Air_pollution_by_industrial_chimneys.jpg/300px-Air_pollution_by_industrial_chimneys.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Air_pollution_by_industrial_chimneys.jpg/400px-Air_pollution_by_industrial_chimneys.jpg 2x" data-file-width="750" data-file-height="500" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Before <a href="/wiki/Flue-gas_desulfurization" title="Flue-gas desulfurization">flue-gas desulfurization</a> was installed, the emissions from this power plant in <a href="/wiki/New_Mexico" title="New Mexico">New Mexico</a> contained excessive amounts of <a href="/wiki/Sulfur_dioxide" title="Sulfur dioxide">sulfur dioxide</a>.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 190px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Thermal-oxidizer-rto.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Thermal oxidisers are air pollution abatement options for hazardous air pollutants (HAPs), volatile organic compounds (VOCs), and odorous emissions."><img alt="Thermal oxidisers are air pollution abatement options for hazardous air pollutants (HAPs), volatile organic compounds (VOCs), and odorous emissions." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Thermal-oxidizer-rto.jpg/197px-Thermal-oxidizer-rto.jpg" decoding="async" width="197" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Thermal-oxidizer-rto.jpg/295px-Thermal-oxidizer-rto.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Thermal-oxidizer-rto.jpg/393px-Thermal-oxidizer-rto.jpg 2x" data-file-width="739" data-file-height="602" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Thermal_oxidiser" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermal oxidiser">Thermal oxidisers</a> are air pollution abatement options for <a href="/wiki/Hazardous_air_pollutant" class="mw-redirect" title="Hazardous air pollutant">hazardous air pollutants</a> (HAPs), <a href="/wiki/Volatile_organic_compounds" class="mw-redirect" title="Volatile organic compounds">volatile organic compounds</a> (VOCs), and odorous emissions.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 190px;"><video id="mwe_player_0" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/NASA_-_Human_Fingerprint_on_Global_Air_Quality.webm/200px--NASA_-_Human_Fingerprint_on_Global_Air_Quality.webm.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="200" height="113" data-durationhint="103" data-mwtitle="NASA_-_Human_Fingerprint_on_Global_Air_Quality.webm" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/f/f3/NASA_-_Human_Fingerprint_on_Global_Air_Quality.webm/NASA_-_Human_Fingerprint_on_Global_Air_Quality.webm.480p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="480p.vp9.webm" data-width="854" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/f/f3/NASA_-_Human_Fingerprint_on_Global_Air_Quality.webm/NASA_-_Human_Fingerprint_on_Global_Air_Quality.webm.720p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="720p.vp9.webm" data-width="1280" data-height="720" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f3/NASA_-_Human_Fingerprint_on_Global_Air_Quality.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-width="1280" data-height="720" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/f/f3/NASA_-_Human_Fingerprint_on_Global_Air_Quality.webm/NASA_-_Human_Fingerprint_on_Global_Air_Quality.webm.144p.mjpeg.mov" type="video/quicktime" data-transcodekey="144p.mjpeg.mov" data-width="256" data-height="144" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/f/f3/NASA_-_Human_Fingerprint_on_Global_Air_Quality.webm/NASA_-_Human_Fingerprint_on_Global_Air_Quality.webm.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="426" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/f/f3/NASA_-_Human_Fingerprint_on_Global_Air_Quality.webm/NASA_-_Human_Fingerprint_on_Global_Air_Quality.webm.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/f/f3/NASA_-_Human_Fingerprint_on_Global_Air_Quality.webm/NASA_-_Human_Fingerprint_on_Global_Air_Quality.webm.360p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3ANASA_-_Human_Fingerprint_on_Global_Air_Quality.webm&lang=en&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="en" label="English ‪(en)‬" data-dir="ltr" /></video></div> <div class="gallerytext">This video provides an overview of a NASA study on the human fingerprint on global air quality.</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Exposure">Exposure</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Air_pollution&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Exposure">edit</a>]</div> The risk of air pollution is determined by the pollutant's hazard and the amount of exposure to that pollutant. Air pollution exposure can be measured for a person, a group, such as a neighborhood or a country's children, or an entire population. For example, one would want to determine a geographic area's exposure to a dangerous air pollution, taking into account the various microenvironments and age groups. This can be calculated<a href="#cite_note-:7-130">[130]</a> as an inhalation exposure. This would account for daily exposure in various settings, e.g. different indoor micro-environments and outdoor locations. The exposure needs to include different ages and other demographic groups, especially infants, children, pregnant women, and other sensitive subpopulations.<a href="#cite_note-:7-130">[130]</a> For each specific time that the subgroup is in the setting and engaged in particular activities, the exposure to an air pollutant must integrate the concentrations of the air pollutant with regard to the time spent in each setting and the respective inhalation rates for each subgroup, playing, cooking, reading, working, spending time in traffic, etc. A little child's inhaling rate, for example, will be lower than that of an adult. A young person engaging in strenuous exercise will have a faster rate of breathing than a child engaged in sedentary activity. The daily exposure must therefore include the amount of time spent in each micro-environmental setting as well as the kind of activities performed there. The air pollutant concentration in each microactivity/microenvironmental setting is summed to indicate the exposure.<a href="#cite_note-:7-130">[130]</a> For some pollutants such as <a href="/wiki/Black_carbon" title="Black carbon">black carbon</a>, traffic related exposures may dominate total exposure despite short exposure times since high concentrations coincide with proximity to major roads or participation in (motorized) traffic.<a href="#cite_note-Dons_et_al.-131">[131]</a> A large portion of total daily exposure occurs as short peaks of high concentrations, but it remains unclear how to define peaks and determine their frequency and health impact.<a href="#cite_note-Dons_et_al._2019-132">[132]</a> In 2021, the WHO halved its recommended guideline limit for tiny particles from burning fossil fuels. The new limit for <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen_dioxide" title="Nitrogen dioxide">nitrogen dioxide</a> (NO2) is 75% lower.<a href="#cite_note-133">[133]</a> Growing evidence that air pollution—even when experienced at very low levels—hurts human health, led the WHO to revise its guideline (from 10 μg/m3 to 5 μg/m3) for what it considers a safe level of exposure of particulate pollution, bringing most of the world—97.3 percent of the global population—into the unsafe zone.<a href="#cite_note-134">[134]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Indoor_air_quality">Indoor air quality</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Air_pollution&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Indoor air quality">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Indoor_air_quality" title="Indoor air quality">Indoor air quality</a> and <a href="/wiki/Indoor_air_pollution_in_developing_countries" class="mw-redirect" title="Indoor air pollution in developing countries">Indoor air pollution in developing countries</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Share_of_deaths_from_indoor_air_pollution,_OWID.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Share_of_deaths_from_indoor_air_pollution%2C_OWID.svg/330px-Share_of_deaths_from_indoor_air_pollution%2C_OWID.svg.png" decoding="async" width="330" height="233" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Share_of_deaths_from_indoor_air_pollution%2C_OWID.svg/495px-Share_of_deaths_from_indoor_air_pollution%2C_OWID.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Share_of_deaths_from_indoor_air_pollution%2C_OWID.svg/660px-Share_of_deaths_from_indoor_air_pollution%2C_OWID.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="850" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>The share of total deaths from indoor air pollution, 2017</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:New_Delhi_Met_Office,_India_02.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/New_Delhi_Met_Office%2C_India_02.jpg/220px-New_Delhi_Met_Office%2C_India_02.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/New_Delhi_Met_Office%2C_India_02.jpg/330px-New_Delhi_Met_Office%2C_India_02.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/New_Delhi_Met_Office%2C_India_02.jpg/440px-New_Delhi_Met_Office%2C_India_02.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3648" data-file-height="2736" /></a><figcaption>Air quality monitoring, <a href="/wiki/New_Delhi,_India" class="mw-redirect" title="New Delhi, India">New Delhi, India</a></figcaption></figure> A lack of ventilation indoors concentrates air pollution where people often spend the majority of their time. Indoor air pollution can pose a significant health risk. According to EPA reports, the concentrations of many air pollutants can be two to five times higher in indoor air than in outdoor air. Indoor air pollutants can be up to 100 times higher in some cases than they are inside. People can spend up to 90% of their time indoors, according to the American Lung Association; the US Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC) 2012; and the US Environmental Protection Agency 2012a.<a href="#cite_note-:6-135">[135]</a> Indoor contaminants that can cause pollution include asbestos, biologic agents, building materials, radon, tobacco smoke, and wood stoves, gas ranges, or other heating systems.<a href="#cite_note-:6-135">[135]</a> <a href="/wiki/Radon" title="Radon">Radon</a> (Rn) gas, a <a href="/wiki/Carcinogen" title="Carcinogen">carcinogen</a>, is exuded from the Earth in certain locations and trapped inside houses. Building materials including carpeting and <a href="/wiki/Plywood" title="Plywood">plywood</a> emit <a href="/wiki/Formaldehyde" title="Formaldehyde">formaldehyde</a> (H-CHO) gas. Paint and solvents give off volatile organic compounds (VOCs) as they dry. <a href="/wiki/Lead" title="Lead">Lead</a> paint can degenerate into <a href="/wiki/Dust" title="Dust">dust</a> and be inhaled.<a href="#cite_note-sapiens.revues.org-136">[136]</a><a href="#cite_note-Improved_Clean_Cookstoves-137">[137]</a> Intentional air pollution is introduced with the use of <a href="/wiki/Air_freshener" title="Air freshener">air fresheners</a>, <a href="/wiki/Incense" title="Incense">incense</a>, and other scented items. Controlled wood fires in cook stoves and fireplaces can add significant amounts of harmful smoke particulates into the air, inside and out.<a href="#cite_note-sapiens.revues.org-136">[136]</a><a href="#cite_note-Improved_Clean_Cookstoves-137">[137]</a> Indoor pollution fatalities may be caused by using <a href="/wiki/Pesticide" title="Pesticide">pesticides</a> and other chemical sprays indoors without proper ventilation. Also the kitchen in a modern produce harmful particles and gases, with equipment like toasters being one of the worst sources.<a href="#cite_note-138">[138]</a> Carbon monoxide poisoning and fatalities are often caused by faulty vents and chimneys, or by the burning of charcoal indoors or in a confined space, such as a tent.<a href="#cite_note-139">[139]</a> Chronic <a href="/wiki/Carbon_monoxide_poisoning" title="Carbon monoxide poisoning">carbon monoxide poisoning</a> can result even from poorly-adjusted <a href="/wiki/Pilot_light" title="Pilot light">pilot lights</a>. Traps are built into all domestic <a href="/wiki/Plumbing" title="Plumbing">plumbing</a> to keep sewer gas and <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_sulfide" title="Hydrogen sulfide">hydrogen sulfide</a>, out of interiors. Clothing emits <a href="/wiki/Tetrachloroethylene" title="Tetrachloroethylene">tetrachloroethylene</a>, or other dry cleaning fluids, for days after dry cleaning. Though its use has now been banned in many countries, the extensive use of <a href="/wiki/Asbestos" title="Asbestos">asbestos</a> in industrial and domestic environments in the past has left a potentially very dangerous material in many localities. <a href="/wiki/Asbestosis" title="Asbestosis">Asbestosis</a> is a chronic <a href="/wiki/Inflammation" title="Inflammation">inflammatory</a> medical condition affecting the tissue of the lungs. It occurs after long-term, heavy exposure to asbestos from asbestos-containing materials in structures. Those with asbestosis have severe <a href="/wiki/Dyspnea" class="mw-redirect" title="Dyspnea">dyspnea</a> (shortness of breath) and are at an increased risk regarding several different types of <a href="/wiki/Lung_cancer" title="Lung cancer">lung cancer</a>. As clear explanations are not always stressed in non-technical literature, care should be taken to distinguish between several forms of relevant diseases. According to the World Health Organization,<a href="#cite_note-140">[140]</a> these may be defined as asbestosis, lung cancer, and <a href="/wiki/Peritoneal_mesothelioma" title="Peritoneal mesothelioma">peritoneal mesothelioma</a> (generally a very rare form of cancer, when more widespread it is almost always associated with prolonged exposure to asbestos). Biological sources of air pollution are also found indoors, as gases and airborne particulates. Pets produce dander, people produce dust from minute skin flakes and decomposed hair, <a href="/wiki/House_dust_mite" title="House dust mite">dust mites</a> in bedding, carpeting and furniture produce enzymes and micrometre-sized fecal droppings, inhabitants emit methane, mold forms on walls and generates <a href="/wiki/Mycotoxins" class="mw-redirect" title="Mycotoxins">mycotoxins</a> and spores, <a href="/wiki/Air_conditioning" title="Air conditioning">air conditioning</a> systems can incubate <a href="/wiki/Legionellosis" class="mw-redirect" title="Legionellosis">Legionnaires' disease</a> and mold, and houseplants, soil and surrounding gardens can produce <a href="/wiki/Pollen" title="Pollen">pollen</a>, dust, and mold. Indoors, the lack of air circulation allows these airborne pollutants to accumulate more than they would otherwise occur in nature. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Health_effects">Health effects</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Air_pollution&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Health effects">edit</a>]</div> Air pollution has both acute and chronic effects on human health, affecting a number of different systems and organs but principally affect the body's respiratory system and the cardiovascular system. Afflictions include minor to chronic upper respiratory irritation such as difficulty in breathing, wheezing, coughing, <a href="/wiki/Asthma" title="Asthma">asthma</a><a href="#cite_note-:1-141">[141]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cardiovascular_disease" title="Cardiovascular disease">heart disease</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lung_cancer" title="Lung cancer">lung cancer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Stroke" title="Stroke">stroke</a>, acute <a href="/wiki/Respiratory_tract_infection" title="Respiratory tract infection">respiratory infections</a> in children and chronic bronchitis in adults, aggravating pre-existing heart and lung disease, or asthmatic attacks. Short and long term exposures have been linked with premature mortality and reduced life expectancy<a href="#cite_note-142">[142]</a> and can result in increased medication use, increased doctor or <a href="/wiki/Emergency_department" title="Emergency department">emergency department</a> visits, more hospital admissions and premature death.<a href="#cite_note-:7-130">[130]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS">better source needed</a>] Diseases that develop from persistent exposure to air pollution are <a href="/wiki/Environmental_health" title="Environmental health">environmental health</a> diseases, which develop when a health environment is not maintained.<a href="#cite_note-143">[143]</a> Even at levels lower than those considered safe by United States regulators, exposure to three components of air pollution, fine particulate matter, nitrogen dioxide and ozone, correlates with cardiac and respiratory illness.<a href="#cite_note-144">[144]</a> Individual reactions to air pollutants depend on the type of pollutant a person is exposed to, the degree of exposure, and the individual's health status and genetics.<a href="#cite_note-:7-130">[130]</a> The most common sources of air pollution include particulates and ozone (often from burning fossil fuels),<a href="#cite_note-145">[145]</a> nitrogen dioxide, and sulfur dioxide. Children aged less than five years who live in developing countries are the most vulnerable population to death attributable to indoor and outdoor air pollution.<a href="#cite_note-146">[146]</a> Under the <a href="/wiki/Clean_Air_Act_(United_States)" title="Clean Air Act (United States)">Clean Air Act</a>, <a href="/wiki/United_States_Environmental_Protection_Agency" title="United States Environmental Protection Agency">U.S. EPA</a> sets limits on certain air pollutants, including setting limits on how much can be in the air anywhere in the United States.<a href="#cite_note-147">[147]</a> Mixed exposure to both <a href="/wiki/Carbon_black" title="Carbon black">carbon black</a> and ozone could result in significantly greater health affects.<a href="#cite_note-148">[148]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mortality">Mortality</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Air_pollution&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Mortality">edit</a>]</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:How-many-people-die-from-air-pollution-1-1.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/How-many-people-die-from-air-pollution-1-1.png/300px-How-many-people-die-from-air-pollution-1-1.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/How-many-people-die-from-air-pollution-1-1.png/450px-How-many-people-die-from-air-pollution-1-1.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/How-many-people-die-from-air-pollution-1-1.png/600px-How-many-people-die-from-air-pollution-1-1.png 2x" data-file-width="2648" data-file-height="1551" /></a><figcaption>Estimates of the death toll from air pollution vary across publications.</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:292px;max-width:292px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:290px;max-width:290px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:162px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:2021_Death_rates,_by_energy_source.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/2021_Death_rates%2C_by_energy_source.svg/288px-2021_Death_rates%2C_by_energy_source.svg.png" decoding="async" width="288" height="162" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/2021_Death_rates%2C_by_energy_source.svg/432px-2021_Death_rates%2C_by_energy_source.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/2021_Death_rates%2C_by_energy_source.svg/576px-2021_Death_rates%2C_by_energy_source.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="675" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">Deaths caused by accidents and air pollution from fossil fuel use in power plants exceed those caused by production of <a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy" title="Renewable energy">renewable energy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-OWID_SafestEnergy_2021-149">[149]</a></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:290px;max-width:290px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:203px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Air-pollution-deaths-country_(OWID_0012).png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Air-pollution-deaths-country_%28OWID_0012%29.png/288px-Air-pollution-deaths-country_%28OWID_0012%29.png" decoding="async" width="288" height="203" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Air-pollution-deaths-country_%28OWID_0012%29.png/432px-Air-pollution-deaths-country_%28OWID_0012%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Air-pollution-deaths-country_%28OWID_0012%29.png/576px-Air-pollution-deaths-country_%28OWID_0012%29.png 2x" data-file-width="850" data-file-height="600" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">Estimated annual number of deaths attributed to air pollution in 2019. This includes three categories of air pollution: indoor household, outdoor particulate matter and ozone.</div></div></div></div></div> Estimates of deaths toll due to air pollution vary.<a href="#cite_note-150">[150]</a> In 2014 the World Health Organization estimated that every year air pollution causes the premature death of 7 million people worldwide,<a href="#cite_note-WHO2014-5">[5]</a> 1 in 8 deaths worldwide.<a href="#cite_note-151">[151]</a> A study published in 2019 indicated that in 2015 the number may be closer to 8.8 million, with 5.5 million of these premature deaths due to air pollution from anthropogenic sources.<a href="#cite_note-152">[152]</a><a href="#cite_note-2019-03-12-guardian-153">[153]</a> A 2022 review concluded that in 2019 air pollution was responsible for approximately 9 million premature deaths. It concluded that since 2015 little real progress against pollution has been made.<a href="#cite_note-10.1016/S2542-5196(22)00090-0-14">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-154">[154]</a> Causes of deaths include strokes, heart disease, <a href="/wiki/Chronic_obstructive_pulmonary_disease" title="Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease">COPD</a>, lung cancer, and lung infections.<a href="#cite_note-WHO2014-5">[5]</a> Children are particularly at risk.<a href="#cite_note-155">[155]</a> In 2021, the WHO reported that outdoor air pollution was estimated to cause 4.2 million premature deaths worldwide in 2019.<a href="#cite_note-who2021-156">[156]</a> The global mean loss of life expectancy (LLE; similar to <a href="/wiki/Years_of_potential_life_lost" title="Years of potential life lost">YPLL</a>) from air pollution in 2015 was 2.9 years, substantially more than, for example, 0.3 years from all forms of direct violence.<a href="#cite_note-10.1093/cvr/cvaa025-16">[16]</a> Communities with persons that live beyond 85 years have low ambient air pollution, suggesting a link between air pollution levels and longevity.<a href="#cite_note-157">[157]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Primary_mechanisms">Primary mechanisms</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Air_pollution&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Primary mechanisms">edit</a>]</div> The WHO estimates that in 2016, ~58% of outdoor air pollution-related premature deaths were due to ischaemic heart disease and stroke.<a href="#cite_note-who2021-156">[156]</a> The mechanisms linking air pollution to increased cardiovascular mortality are uncertain, but probably include pulmonary and systemic inflammation.<a href="#cite_note-158">[158]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="By_region">By region</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Air_pollution&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: By region">edit</a>]</div> India and China have the highest death rate due to air pollution.<a href="#cite_note-159">[159]</a><a href="#cite_note-160">[160]</a> India also has more deaths from asthma than any other nation according to the World Health Organization. In 2019, 1.6 million deaths in India were caused by air pollution.<a href="#cite_note-161">[161]</a> In 2013, air pollution was estimated to kill 500,000 people in China each year.<a href="#cite_note-162">[162]</a> In 2012, 2.48% of China's total air pollution emissions were caused by exports due to US demand, causing an additional 27,963 deaths across 30 provinces.<a href="#cite_note-163">[163]</a> Annual premature European deaths caused by air pollution are estimated at 430,000<a href="#cite_note-europarl.europa.eu-164">[164]</a> to 800,000.<a href="#cite_note-2019-03-12-guardian-153">[153]</a> An important cause of these deaths is nitrogen dioxide and other nitrogen oxides (NOx) emitted by road vehicles.<a href="#cite_note-europarl.europa.eu-164">[164]</a> Across the <a href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">European Union</a>, air pollution is estimated to reduce <a href="/wiki/Life_expectancy" title="Life expectancy">life expectancy</a> by almost nine months.<a href="#cite_note-165">[165]</a> In a 2015 consultation document the UK government disclosed that nitrogen dioxide is responsible for 23,500 premature UK deaths per annum.<a href="#cite_note-166">[166]</a> There is a positive correlation between <a href="/wiki/Pneumonia" title="Pneumonia">pneumonia</a>-related deaths and air pollution from motor vehicle emissions in England.<a href="#cite_note-167">[167]</a> Eliminating energy-related fossil fuel emissions in the United States would prevent 46,900–59,400 premature deaths each year and provide $537–$678 billion in benefits from avoided PM2.5-related illness and death.<a href="#cite_note-GeoHealth_20220516-168">[168]</a> A study published in 2023 in <a href="/wiki/Science_(journal)" title="Science (journal)">Science</a> focused on <a href="/wiki/Sulfur_dioxide" title="Sulfur dioxide">sulfur dioxide</a> emissions by coal power plants (coal PM2.5) and concluded that "exposure to coal PM2.5 was associated with 2.1 times greater mortality risk than exposure to PM2.5 from all sources."<a href="#cite_note-science2023mortality-169">[169]</a> From 1999 to 2020, a total of 460,000 deaths in the US were attributed to coal PM2.5.<a href="#cite_note-science2023mortality-169">[169]</a><figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pollution-deaths-from-fossil-fuels_(OWID_0831).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Pollution-deaths-from-fossil-fuels_%28OWID_0831%29.png/300px-Pollution-deaths-from-fossil-fuels_%28OWID_0831%29.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="212" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Pollution-deaths-from-fossil-fuels_%28OWID_0831%29.png/450px-Pollution-deaths-from-fossil-fuels_%28OWID_0831%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Pollution-deaths-from-fossil-fuels_%28OWID_0831%29.png/600px-Pollution-deaths-from-fossil-fuels_%28OWID_0831%29.png 2x" data-file-width="850" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>Air pollution deaths by nation due to fossil fuels</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Major_causes">Major causes</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Air_pollution&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Major causes">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="#Sources">§ Sources</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Comparison_of_footprint-based_and_transboundary_pollution-based_relationships_among_G20_nations_for_the_number_of_PM2.5-related_premature_deaths.webp" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Comparison_of_footprint-based_and_transboundary_pollution-based_relationships_among_G20_nations_for_the_number_of_PM2.5-related_premature_deaths.webp/300px-Comparison_of_footprint-based_and_transboundary_pollution-based_relationships_among_G20_nations_for_the_number_of_PM2.5-related_premature_deaths.webp.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="125" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Comparison_of_footprint-based_and_transboundary_pollution-based_relationships_among_G20_nations_for_the_number_of_PM2.5-related_premature_deaths.webp/450px-Comparison_of_footprint-based_and_transboundary_pollution-based_relationships_among_G20_nations_for_the_number_of_PM2.5-related_premature_deaths.webp.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Comparison_of_footprint-based_and_transboundary_pollution-based_relationships_among_G20_nations_for_the_number_of_PM2.5-related_premature_deaths.webp/600px-Comparison_of_footprint-based_and_transboundary_pollution-based_relationships_among_G20_nations_for_the_number_of_PM2.5-related_premature_deaths.webp.png 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="626" /></a><figcaption>A comparison of footprint-based and transboundary pollution-based relationships among G20 nations for the number of PM2.5-related premature deaths<a href="#cite_note-10.1038/s41467-021-26348-y-170">[170]</a></figcaption></figure> The largest cause of air pollution is <a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel" title="Fossil fuel">fossil fuel</a> combustion<a href="#cite_note-10.1016/j.envres.2021.110754-171">[171]</a> – mostly the production and use of <a href="/wiki/Car" title="Car">cars</a>, electricity production, and heating.<a href="#cite_note-172">[172]</a> There are estimated 4.5 million annual premature deaths worldwide due to pollutants released by high-emission power stations and vehicle exhausts.<a href="#cite_note-173">[173]</a> <a href="/wiki/Diesel_exhaust" title="Diesel exhaust">Diesel exhaust</a> (DE) is a major contributor to combustion-derived particulate matter air pollution. In several human experimental studies, using a well-validated exposure chamber setup, DE has been linked to acute vascular dysfunction and increased thrombus formation.<a href="#cite_note-174">[174]</a><a href="#cite_note-175">[175]</a> A study concluded that PM2.5 air pollution <a href="/wiki/Embedded_emissions" title="Embedded emissions">induced</a> by the contemporary free trade and consumption by the <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style>19 G20 nations causes two million premature deaths annually, suggesting that the average lifetime consumption of about ~28 people in these countries causes at least one premature death (average age ~67) while developing countries "cannot be expected" to implement or be able to implement countermeasures without external support or internationally coordinated efforts.<a href="#cite_note-176">[176]</a><a href="#cite_note-10.1038/s41467-021-26348-y-170">[170]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Guidelines">Guidelines</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Air_pollution&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Guidelines">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Air_quality_guideline" title="Air quality guideline">Air quality guideline</a></div> The US EPA has estimated that limiting ground-level ozone concentration to 65 parts per billion (ppb), would avert 1,700 to 5,100 premature deaths nationwide in 2020 compared with the 75 ppb standard. The agency projected the more protective standard would also prevent an additional 26,000 cases of aggravated asthma, and more than a million cases of missed work or school.<a href="#cite_note-177">[177]</a><a href="#cite_note-178">[178]</a> Following this assessment, the EPA acted to protect <a href="/wiki/Public_health" title="Public health">public health</a> by lowering the National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) for ground-level ozone to 70 ppb.<a href="#cite_note-179">[179]</a> A 2008 economic study of the health impacts and associated costs of air pollution in the Los Angeles Basin and San Joaquin Valley of Southern California shows that more than 3,800 people die prematurely (approximately 14 years earlier than normal) each year because air pollution levels violate federal standards. The number of annual premature deaths is considerably higher than the fatalities related to auto collisions in the same area, which average fewer than 2,000 per year.<a href="#cite_note-180">[180]</a><a href="#cite_note-181">[181]</a><a href="#cite_note-182">[182]</a> A 2021 study found that outdoor air pollution is associated with substantially <a href="/wiki/List_of_causes_of_death_by_rate#Air_pollution" title="List of causes of death by rate">increased mortality</a> "even at low pollution levels below the current European and North American standards and WHO guideline values" shortly before the WHO adjusted its guidelines.<a href="#cite_note-183">[183]</a><a href="#cite_note-184">[184]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cardiovascular_disease">Cardiovascular disease</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Air_pollution&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Cardiovascular disease">edit</a>]</div> According to the <a href="/wiki/Global_Burden_of_Disease_Study" title="Global Burden of Disease Study">Global Burden of Disease Study</a>, air pollution is responsible for 19% of all cardiovascular deaths.<a href="#cite_note-CohenBrauerBurnett2017-185">[185]</a><a href="#cite_note-de_BontJaganathanDahlquist2022-186">[186]</a> There is strong evidence linking both short- and long-term exposure to air pollution with cardiovascular disease mortality and morbidity, stroke, blood pressure, and <a href="/wiki/Coronary_artery_disease" title="Coronary artery disease">ischemic heart</a> diseases (IHD).<a href="#cite_note-de_BontJaganathanDahlquist2022-186">[186]</a> Air pollution is a leading risk factor for stroke, particularly in developing countries where pollutant levels are highest.<a href="#cite_note-Mayor2016-187">[187]</a> A systematic analysis of 17 different risk factors in 188 countries found air pollution is associated with nearly one in three strokes (29%) worldwide (33.7% of strokes in developing countries versus 10.2% in developed countries).<a href="#cite_note-Mayor2016-187">[187]</a><a href="#cite_note-FeiginRothNaghavi2016-188">[188]</a> In women, air pollution is not associated with hemorrhagic but with ischemic stroke.<a href="#cite_note-189">[189]</a> Air pollution was found to be associated with increased incidence and mortality from coronary stroke.<a href="#cite_note-190">[190]</a> Associations are believed to be causal and effects may be mediated by vasoconstriction, low-grade inflammation and <a href="/wiki/Atherosclerosis" title="Atherosclerosis">atherosclerosis</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Provost-191">[191]</a> Other mechanisms such as autonomic nervous system imbalance have also been suggested.<a href="#cite_note-AmericanHeartAssociation-192">[192]</a><a href="#cite_note-Louwies-193">[193]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Lung_disease">Lung disease</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Air_pollution&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Lung disease">edit</a>]</div> Research has demonstrated increased risk of developing asthma<a href="#cite_note-194">[194]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chronic_obstructive_pulmonary_disease" title="Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease">chronic obstructive pulmonary disease</a> (COPD)<a href="#cite_note-195">[195]</a> from increased exposure to traffic-related air pollution. Air pollution has been associated with increased hospitalization and mortality from asthma and COPD.<a href="#cite_note-196">[196]</a><a href="#cite_note-197">[197]</a> COPD comprises a spectrum of clinical disorders that include <a href="/wiki/Emphysema" title="Emphysema">emphysema</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bronchiectasis" title="Bronchiectasis">bronchiectasis</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Bronchitis" title="Bronchitis">chronic bronchitis</a>.<a href="#cite_note-198">[198]</a> COPD risk factors are both genetic and environmental. Elevated particle pollution contributes to the exacerbation of this disease and likely its pathogenesis.<a href="#cite_note-199">[199]</a> The risk of lung disease from air pollution is greatest for infants and young children, whose normal breathing is faster than that of older children and adults; the elderly; those who work outside or spend a lot of time outside; and those who have heart or lung disease <a href="/wiki/Comorbidity" title="Comorbidity">comorbidities</a>.<a href="#cite_note-200">[200]</a> A study conducted in 1960–1961 in the wake of the <a href="/wiki/Great_Smog" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Smog">Great Smog</a> of 1952 compared 293 London residents with 477 residents of Gloucester, Peterborough, and Norwich, three towns with low reported death rates from chronic bronchitis. All subjects were male postal truck drivers aged 40 to 59. Compared to the subjects from the outlying towns, the London subjects exhibited more severe respiratory symptoms (including cough, phlegm, and <a href="/wiki/Shortness_of_breath" title="Shortness of breath">dyspnea</a>), reduced lung function (<a href="/wiki/FEV1" class="mw-redirect" title="FEV1">FEV1</a> and peak flow rate), and increased sputum production and purulence. The differences were more pronounced for subjects aged 50 to 59. The study controlled for age and smoking habits, so concluded that air pollution was the most likely cause of the observed differences.<a href="#cite_note-201">[201]</a> More studies have shown that air pollution exposure from traffic reduces lung function development in children<a href="#cite_note-Gauderman-202">[202]</a> and lung function may be compromised by air pollution even at low concentrations.<a href="#cite_note-IntPanis-203">[203]</a> It is believed that, much like <a href="/wiki/Cystic_fibrosis" title="Cystic fibrosis">cystic fibrosis</a>, serious health hazards become more apparent when living in a more urban environment. Studies have shown that in urban areas people experience <a href="/wiki/Mucus" title="Mucus">mucus</a> hypersecretion, lower levels of lung function, and more self-diagnosis of chronic bronchitis and emphysema.<a href="#cite_note-204">[204]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cancer">Cancer</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Air_pollution&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Cancer">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:DARK_CLOUDS_OF_FACTORY_SMOKE_OBSCURE_CLARK_AVENUE_BRIDGE_-_NARA_-_550179.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Dark factory clouds obscure the Clark Avenue Bridge in Cleveland, Ohio, July 1973." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/DARK_CLOUDS_OF_FACTORY_SMOKE_OBSCURE_CLARK_AVENUE_BRIDGE_-_NARA_-_550179.jpg/170px-DARK_CLOUDS_OF_FACTORY_SMOKE_OBSCURE_CLARK_AVENUE_BRIDGE_-_NARA_-_550179.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="260" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/DARK_CLOUDS_OF_FACTORY_SMOKE_OBSCURE_CLARK_AVENUE_BRIDGE_-_NARA_-_550179.jpg/255px-DARK_CLOUDS_OF_FACTORY_SMOKE_OBSCURE_CLARK_AVENUE_BRIDGE_-_NARA_-_550179.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/DARK_CLOUDS_OF_FACTORY_SMOKE_OBSCURE_CLARK_AVENUE_BRIDGE_-_NARA_-_550179.jpg/340px-DARK_CLOUDS_OF_FACTORY_SMOKE_OBSCURE_CLARK_AVENUE_BRIDGE_-_NARA_-_550179.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1911" data-file-height="2919" /></a><figcaption>Dark factory-emitted clouds obscuring the Clark Avenue Bridge in Cleveland, Ohio in July 1973</figcaption></figure> Around 300,000 lung cancer deaths were attributed globally in 2019 to exposure to <a href="/wiki/PM2.5" class="mw-redirect" title="PM2.5">fine particulate matter</a>, PM2.5, suspended in the air.<a href="#cite_note-:2-205">[205]</a> PM2.5 exposure, such as from car exhausts, activates dormant mutations in lung cells, causing them to become cancerous.<a href="#cite_note-206">[206]</a><a href="#cite_note-:2-205">[205]</a> Unprotected exposure to PM2.5 air pollution can be equivalent to smoking multiple cigarettes per day,<a href="#cite_note-207">[207]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot">dead link</a>‍] potentially increasing the risk of <a href="/wiki/Cancer" title="Cancer">cancer</a>, which is mainly the result of <a href="/wiki/Environmental_factor" title="Environmental factor">environmental factors</a>.<a href="#cite_note-BBC-20151217-208">[208]</a> Long-term exposure to PM2.5 (fine particulates) increases the overall risk of non-accidental mortality by 6% per 10 μg/m3 increase. Exposure to PM2.5 is also associated with an increased risk of mortality from <a href="/wiki/Lung_cancer" title="Lung cancer">lung cancer</a> (range: 15–21% per 10 μg/m3 increase) and total cardiovascular mortality (range: 12–14% per 10 μg/m3 increase).<a href="#cite_note-longterm-209">[209]</a> The review further noted that living close to busy traffic appears to be associated with elevated risks of these three outcomes – increase in lung cancer deaths, cardiovascular deaths, and overall non-accidental deaths. The reviewers also found suggestive evidence that exposure to PM2.5 is positively associated with mortality from coronary heart diseases and exposure to SO2 increases mortality from lung cancer, but the data was insufficient to provide solid conclusions.<a href="#cite_note-longterm-209">[209]</a> Another investigation showed that higher activity level increases deposition fraction of aerosol particles in human lung and recommended avoiding heavy activities like running in outdoor space at polluted areas.<a href="#cite_note-Saber2012-210">[210]</a> In 2011, a large Danish epidemiological study found an increased risk of lung cancer for people who lived in areas with high nitrogen oxide concentrations.<a href="#cite_note-211">[211]</a> Another Danish study, likewise noted evidence of possible associations between air pollution and other forms of cancer, including cervical cancer and brain cancer.<a href="#cite_note-212">[212]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Kidney_disease">Kidney disease</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Air_pollution&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Kidney disease">edit</a>]</div> A study of 163,197 Taiwanese residents over the period of 2001–2016 estimated that every 5 <a href="/wiki/Microgram" title="Microgram">μg</a>/m3 decrease (from an approximate peak of 30μg/m3) in the ambient concentration of PM2.5 was associated with a 25% reduced risk of <a href="/wiki/Chronic_kidney_disease" title="Chronic kidney disease">chronic kidney disease</a> development.<a href="#cite_note-Bo2021-213">[213]</a> According to a cohort study involving 10,997 <a href="/wiki/Atherosclerosis" title="Atherosclerosis">atherosclerosis</a> patients, higher PM 2.5 exposure is associated with increased <a href="/wiki/Albuminuria" title="Albuminuria">albuminuria</a>.<a href="#cite_note-214">[214]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fertility">Fertility</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Air_pollution&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Fertility">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Nitrogen_dioxide_(NO2)">Nitrogen dioxide (NO2)</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Air_pollution&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Nitrogen dioxide (NO2)">edit</a>]</div> An increase in NO2 is significantly associated with a lower <a href="/wiki/Live_birth_rate" class="mw-redirect" title="Live birth rate">live birth rate</a> in women undergoing <a href="/wiki/In_vitro_fertilisation" title="In vitro fertilisation">IVF</a> treatment.<a href="#cite_note-:02-215">[215]</a> In the general population, there is a significant increase in <a href="/wiki/Miscarriage" title="Miscarriage">miscarriage</a> rate in women exposed to NO2 compared to those not exposed.<a href="#cite_note-:02-215">[215]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Carbon_monoxide_(CO)">Carbon monoxide (CO)</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Air_pollution&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Carbon monoxide (CO)">edit</a>]</div> CO exposure is significantly associated with <a href="/wiki/Stillbirth" title="Stillbirth">stillbirth</a> in the second and third trimester.<a href="#cite_note-:02-215">[215]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Benzo-a-pyrene_chemical_structure.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d2/Benzo-a-pyrene_chemical_structure.png" decoding="async" width="194" height="119" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="194" data-file-height="119" /></a><figcaption>Standard line-angle structure of benzo-a-pyrene (BaP)</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Polycyclic_aromatic_hydrocarbons">Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Air_pollution&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Polycyclic_aromatic_hydrocarbon" title="Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon">Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons</a> (PAHs) have been associated with reduced fertility. Benzo(a)pyrene (BaP) is a well-known PAH and carcinogen which is often found in exhaust fumes and cigarette smoke.<a href="#cite_note-216">[216]</a> PAHs have been reported to administer their toxic effects through oxidative stress by increasing the production of <a href="/wiki/Reactive_oxygen_species" title="Reactive oxygen species">Reactive Oxygen Species</a> (ROS) which can result in inflammation and cell death. More long-term exposure to PAHs can result in <a href="/wiki/DNA_damage" class="mw-redirect" title="DNA damage">DNA damage</a> and reduced repair.<a href="#cite_note-217">[217]</a> Exposure to BaP has been reported to reduce <a href="/wiki/Sperm_motility" title="Sperm motility">sperm motility</a> and increasing the exposure worsens this effect. Research has demonstrated that more BaPs were found in men with reported fertility issues compared to men without.<a href="#cite_note-218">[218]</a> Studies have shown that BaPs can affect <a href="/wiki/Folliculogenesis" title="Folliculogenesis">folliculogenesis</a> and ovarian development by reducing the number of ovarian germ cells via triggering cell death pathways and inducing inflammation which can lead to ovarian damage.<a href="#cite_note-219">[219]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Particulate_matter">Particulate matter</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Air_pollution&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Particulate matter">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Particulate_pollution" title="Particulate pollution">Particulate matter (PM)</a> refers to the collection of solids and liquids suspended in the air. These can be harmful to humans, and more research has shown that these effects may be more extensive than first thought; particularly on male fertility. PM can be different sizes, such as <a href="/wiki/PM2.5" class="mw-redirect" title="PM2.5">PM2.5</a> which are tiny particles of 2.5 microns in width or smaller, compared with <a href="/wiki/PM10" class="mw-redirect" title="PM10">PM10</a> which are classified as 10 microns in diameter or less. A study in California found that increased exposure to PM2.5 led to decreased sperm motility and increased abnormal morphology. Similarly, in Poland exposure to PM2.5 and PM10 led to an increase in the percentage of cells with immature <a href="/wiki/Chromatin" title="Chromatin">chromatin</a> (DNA that has not fully developed or has developed abnormally).<a href="#cite_note-:5-220">[220]</a> In Turkey, a study examined the fertility of men who work as toll collectors and are therefore exposed to high levels of traffic pollutants daily. Traffic pollution often has high levels of PM10 alongside <a href="/wiki/Carbon_monoxide" title="Carbon monoxide">carbon monoxide</a> and nitrogen oxides.<a href="#cite_note-:5-220">[220]</a> There were significant differences in <a href="/wiki/Sperm_count" class="mw-redirect" title="Sperm count">sperm count</a> and motility in this study group compared to a control group with limited air pollution exposure. In women, while overall effects on fertility do not appear significant there is an association between increased exposure to PM10 and early miscarriage. Exposure to smaller particulate matter, PM2.5, appears to have an effect on conception rates in women undergoing <a href="/wiki/In_vitro_fertilisation" title="In vitro fertilisation">IVF</a> but does not affect live birth rates.<a href="#cite_note-:02-215">[215]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ozone-structure.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Ozone-structure.png/220px-Ozone-structure.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="115" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/04/Ozone-structure.png 1.5x" data-file-width="282" data-file-height="147" /></a><figcaption>Ozone structure showing three oxygen atoms</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Ground-level_ozone_pollution">Ground-level ozone pollution</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Air_pollution&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Ground-level ozone pollution">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Ground-level_ozone" title="Ground-level ozone">Ground-level ozone</a> (O3), when in high concentrations, is regarded as an air pollutant and is often found in smog in industrial areas. There is limited research about the effect that ozone pollution has on fertility.<a href="#cite_note-:02-215">[215]</a> At present, there is no evidence to suggest that ozone exposure poses a deleterious effect on spontaneous fertility in either females or males. However, there have been studies which suggest that high levels of ozone pollution, often a problem in the summer months, exert an effect on in vitro fertilisation (IVF) outcomes. Within an IVF population, NOx and ozone pollutants were linked with reduced rates of live birth.<a href="#cite_note-:02-215">[215]</a> While most research on this topic is focused on the direct human exposure of air pollution, other studies have analysed the impact of air pollution on gametes and embryos within IVF laboratories. Multiple studies have reported a marked improvement in <a href="/wiki/Embryo_quality" title="Embryo quality">embryo quality</a>, <a href="/wiki/Implantation_(embryology)" title="Implantation (embryology)">implantation</a> and pregnancy rates after IVF laboratories have implemented air filters in a concerted effort to reduce levels of air pollution.<a href="#cite_note-:3-221">[221]</a> Therefore, ozone pollution is considered to have a negative impact on the success of <a href="/wiki/Assisted_reproductive_technology" title="Assisted reproductive technology">assisted reproductive technologies</a> (ART) when occurring at high levels. Ozone is thought to act in a biphasic manner where a positive effect on live birth is observed when ozone exposure is limited to before IVF embryo implantation. Conversely, a negative effect is demonstrated upon exposure to ozone after embryo implantation. However, after adjusting for NO2, the association between O3 and IVF live birth rate was no longer significant.<a href="#cite_note-222">[222]</a><a href="#cite_note-:4-223">[223]</a> In terms of male fertility, ozone is reported to cause a significant decrease in the concentration and count of sperm in semen after exposure.<a href="#cite_note-224">[224]</a> Similarly, sperm vitality, the proportion of live spermatozoa in a sample, was demonstrated to be diminished as a result of exposure to air pollution.<a href="#cite_note-:4-223">[223]</a> However, findings on the effect of ozone exposure on male fertility are somewhat discordant, highlighting the need for further research.<a href="#cite_note-:4-223">[223]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Children">Children</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Air_pollution&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Children">edit</a>]</div> Children and infants are among the most vulnerable to air pollution. Polluted air leads to the poisoning of millions of children under the age of 15, resulting in the death of some 600,000 children annually (543,000 under 5 years of age and 52,000 aged 5-15 years).<a href="#cite_note-:8-225">[225]</a> Children in low or middle income countries are exposed to higher levels of fine particulate matter than those in high income countries.<a href="#cite_note-:8-225">[225]</a> Health effects of air pollution on children include asthma, pneumonia and lower respiratory tract infections and low birth weight.<a href="#cite_note-:9-226">[226]</a> A study in Europe found that exposure to <a href="/wiki/Ultrafine_particle" title="Ultrafine particle">ultrafine</a> particles can increase blood pressure in children.<a href="#cite_note-UFPBPChildren-227">[227]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Prenatal_exposure">Prenatal exposure</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Air_pollution&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Prenatal exposure">edit</a>]</div> Prenatal exposure to polluted air has been linked to a variety of <a href="/wiki/Neurodevelopmental_disorder" title="Neurodevelopmental disorder">neurodevelopmental disorders</a> in children. For example, exposure to <a href="/wiki/Polycyclic_aromatic_hydrocarbon" title="Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon">polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons</a> (PAH) was associated with reduced IQ scores and symptoms of <a href="/wiki/Anxiety_disorder" title="Anxiety disorder">anxiety</a> and <a href="/wiki/Depression_(mood)" title="Depression (mood)">depression</a>.<a href="#cite_note-228">[228]</a> They can also lead to detrimental <a href="/wiki/Perinatal" class="mw-redirect" title="Perinatal">perinatal</a> health outcomes that are often fatal in developing countries.<a href="#cite_note-10.1371/journal.pmed.1003718-8">[8]</a> A 2014 study found that PAHs might play a role in the development of childhood <a href="/wiki/Attention_deficit_hyperactivity_disorder" title="Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder">attention deficit hyperactivity disorder</a> (ADHD).<a href="#cite_note-229">[229]</a> Researchers have found a correlation between air pollution and risk of <a href="/wiki/Autism_spectrum" class="mw-redirect" title="Autism spectrum">autism spectrum disorder</a> (ASD) diagnosis, although definitive causality has not yet been established. In Los Angeles, children living in areas with high levels of traffic-related air pollution were more likely to be diagnosed with autism between three–five years of age.<a href="#cite_note-230">[230]</a> A cohort study in Southern California linked in-utero exposure to near-roadway air pollution to an increased risk of ASD diagnosis<a href="#cite_note-231">[231]</a> and a study in Sweden concluded that exposure to PM2.5 during pregnancy was associated with ASD.<a href="#cite_note-232">[232]</a> A Danish study linked exposure to air pollution during infancy, but not during pregnancy, to an increased risk of ASD diagnosis.<a href="#cite_note-233">[233]</a> The connection between air pollution and neurodevelopmental disorders in children is thought to be related to epigenetic dysregulation of the primordial germ cells, embryo, and fetus during a critical period. Some PAHs are considered endocrine disruptors and are lipid soluble. When they build up in adipose tissue they can be transferred across the placenta can exert a <a href="/wiki/Genotoxicity" title="Genotoxicity">genotoxic</a> effect, cauding DNA damange and mutations.<a href="#cite_note-234">[234]</a> Air pollution has been associated with the prevalence of preterm births.<a href="#cite_note-235">[235]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Infants">Infants</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Air_pollution&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Infants">edit</a>]</div> Ambient levels of air pollution have been associated with <a href="/wiki/Preterm_birth" title="Preterm birth">preterm birth</a> and <a href="/wiki/Low_birth_weight" title="Low birth weight">low birth weight</a>. A 2014 WHO worldwide survey on maternal and perinatal health found a statistically significant association between low birth weights (LBW) and increased levels of exposure to PM2.5. Women in regions with greater than average PM2.5 levels had statistically significant higher odds of pregnancy resulting in a low-birth weight infant even when adjusted for country-related variables.<a href="#cite_note-236">[236]</a> The effect is thought to be from stimulating <a href="/wiki/Inflammation" title="Inflammation">inflammation</a> and increasing <a href="/wiki/Oxidative_stress" title="Oxidative stress">oxidative stress</a>. A study found that in 2010 exposure to PM2.5 was strongly associated with 18% of preterm births globally, which was approximately 2.7 million premature births. The countries with the highest air pollution associated preterm births were in South and East Asia, the Middle East, North Africa, and West sub-Saharan Africa.<a href="#cite_note-:0-237">[237]</a> In 2019, ambient particulate matter pollution in Africa resulted in at least 383,000 early deaths, according to new estimates of the cost of air pollution in the continent. This increased from 3.6% in 1990 to around 7.4% of all premature deaths in the area.<a href="#cite_note-238">[238]</a><a href="#cite_note-239">[239]</a><a href="#cite_note-240">[240]</a> The source of PM2.5 differs greatly by region. In South and East Asia, pregnant women are frequently exposed to indoor air pollution because of wood and other <a href="/wiki/Biomass_heating_system" title="Biomass heating system">biomass</a> fuels being used for cooking, which are responsible for more than 80% of regional pollution. In the Middle East, North Africa and West sub-Saharan Africa, fine PM comes from natural sources, such as <a href="/wiki/Dust_storm" title="Dust storm">dust storms</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:0-237">[237]</a> The United States had an estimated 50,000 preterm births associated with exposure to PM2.5 in 2010.<a href="#cite_note-:0-237">[237]</a> A study between 1988 and 1991 found a correlation between <a href="/wiki/Sulfur_dioxide" title="Sulfur dioxide">sulfur dioxide</a> (SO2) and total suspended particulates (TSP) and preterm births and low birth weights in Beijing. A group of 74,671 pregnant women, in four separate regions of Beijing, were monitored from early pregnancy to delivery along with daily air pollution levels of SO2 and TSP (along with other particulates). The estimated reduction in birth weight was 7.3 g for every 100 μg/m3 increase in <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1123817410">.mw-parser-output .template-chem2-su{display:inline-block;font-size:80%;line-height:1;vertical-align:-0.35em}.mw-parser-output .template-chem2-su>span{display:block;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output sub.template-chem2-sub{font-size:80%;vertical-align:-0.35em}.mw-parser-output sup.template-chem2-sup{font-size:80%;vertical-align:0.65em}</style>SO2 and 6.9 g for each 100 μg/m3 increase in TSP. These associations were statistically significant in both summer and winter, although summer was greater. The proportion of low birth weight attributable to air pollution, was 13%. This is the largest attributable risk ever reported for the known risk factors of low birth weight.<a href="#cite_note-241">[241]</a> Coal stoves, which are in 97% of homes, are a major source of air pollution in this area. Brauer et al. studied the relationship between air pollution and proximity to a highway with pregnancy outcomes in a Vancouver cohort of pregnant women using addresses to estimate exposure during pregnancy. Exposure to NO, NO2, CO, PM10 and PM2.5 were associated with infants born small for gestational age (SGA). Women living less than 50 meters away from an expressway or highway were 26% more likely to give birth to a SGA infant.<a href="#cite_note-242">[242]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Central_nervous_system">Central nervous system</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Air_pollution&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Central nervous system">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Brain_health_and_pollution" title="Brain health and pollution">Brain health and pollution</a> and <a href="/wiki/Neuroplastic_effects_of_pollution" class="mw-redirect" title="Neuroplastic effects of pollution">neuroplastic effects of pollution</a></div> Data is accumulating that air pollution exposure also affects the <a href="/wiki/Central_nervous_system" title="Central nervous system">central nervous system</a>.<a href="#cite_note-bos-243">[243]</a> Air pollution increases the risk of dementia in people over 50 years old.<a href="#cite_note-244">[244]</a> Indoor air pollution exposure during childhood may negatively affect cognitive function and neurodevelopment.<a href="#cite_note-245">[245]</a><a href="#cite_note-10.1016/j.pharmthera.2020.107523-246">[246]</a> <a href="#Prenatal_exposure">Prenatal exposure</a> may also affect neurodevelopment.<a href="#cite_note-247">[247]</a><a href="#cite_note-248">[248]</a> Studies show that air pollution is associated with a variety of developmental disabilities, oxidative stress, and <a href="/wiki/Neuro-inflammation" class="mw-redirect" title="Neuro-inflammation">neuro-inflammation</a> and that it may contribute to Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease.<a href="#cite_note-10.1016/j.pharmthera.2020.107523-246">[246]</a> Researchers found that early exposure to air pollution causes the same changes in the brain as <a href="/wiki/Autism" title="Autism">autism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Schizophrenia" title="Schizophrenia">schizophrenia</a> in mice. It also showed that air pollution also affected <a href="/wiki/Short-term_memory" title="Short-term memory">short-term memory</a>, learning ability, and <a href="/wiki/Impulsivity" title="Impulsivity">impulsivity</a>. In this study, air pollution had a larger negative impact on male mice than on females.<a href="#cite_note-249">[249]</a><a href="#cite_note-McEnaney-effects-250">[250]</a> Lead researcher on the study, Deborah Cory-Slechta, said that:<a href="#cite_note-251">[251]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"> When we looked closely at the <a href="/wiki/Ventricular_system" title="Ventricular system">ventricles</a>, we could see that the <a href="/wiki/White_matter" title="White matter">white matter</a> that normally surrounds them hadn't fully developed. It appears that <a href="/wiki/Inflammation" title="Inflammation">inflammation</a> had damaged those <a href="/wiki/Brain_cells" class="mw-redirect" title="Brain cells">brain cells</a> and prevented that region of the brain from developing, and the ventricles simply expanded to fill the space. Our findings add to the growing body of evidence that air pollution may play a role in autism, as well as in other <a href="/wiki/Neurodevelopmental_disorders" class="mw-redirect" title="Neurodevelopmental disorders">neurodevelopmental disorders</a>.</blockquote> Exposure to fine particulate matter can increase levels of <a href="/wiki/Cytokine" title="Cytokine">cytokines</a> - neurotransmitters produced in response to infection and inflammation that are also associated with depression and suicide. Pollution has been associated with inflammation of the brain, which may disrupt mood regulation. Heightened PM2.5 levels are linked to more self-reported depressive symptoms, and increases in daily suicide rates.<a href="#cite_note-252">[252]</a><a href="#cite_note-253">[253]</a> In 2015, experimental studies reported the detection of significant episodic (situational) cognitive impairment from impurities in indoor air breathed by test subjects who were not informed about changes in the air quality. Significant deficits were observed in the performance scores achieved in increasing concentrations of either <a href="/wiki/Volatile_organic_compound" title="Volatile organic compound">volatile organic compounds</a> (VOCs) or carbon dioxide, while keeping other factors constant. The highest impurity levels reached are not uncommon in some classroom or office environments.<a href="#cite_note-NYT-254">[254]</a><a href="#cite_note-EHP-255">[255]</a> Higher PM2.5 and CO2 concentrations were shown to be associated with slower response times and reduced accuracy in tests.<a href="#cite_note-256">[256]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Air_Quality_(PM_2.5)_Regional_Overview.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Air_Quality_%28PM_2.5%29_Regional_Overview.svg/220px-Air_Quality_%28PM_2.5%29_Regional_Overview.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Air_Quality_%28PM_2.5%29_Regional_Overview.svg/330px-Air_Quality_%28PM_2.5%29_Regional_Overview.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Air_Quality_%28PM_2.5%29_Regional_Overview.svg/440px-Air_Quality_%28PM_2.5%29_Regional_Overview.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="842" data-file-height="767" /></a><figcaption>PM2.5 Levels Across the World's 5 Most Populated Nations in 2019</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id=""Clean"_areas">"Clean" areas</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Air_pollution&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: "Clean" areas">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Share-above-who-pollution-guidelines_(OWID_0948).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Share-above-who-pollution-guidelines_%28OWID_0948%29.png/220px-Share-above-who-pollution-guidelines_%28OWID_0948%29.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="155" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Share-above-who-pollution-guidelines_%28OWID_0948%29.png/330px-Share-above-who-pollution-guidelines_%28OWID_0948%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Share-above-who-pollution-guidelines_%28OWID_0948%29.png/440px-Share-above-who-pollution-guidelines_%28OWID_0948%29.png 2x" data-file-width="850" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>Share of the population exposed to air pollution levels above WHO guidelines, 2017</figcaption></figure> Even in areas with relatively low levels of air pollution, public health effects can be significant and costly, since a large number of people breathe in such pollutants. A study found that even in areas of the U.S. where ozone and PM2.5 meet federal standards, <a href="/wiki/Medicare_(United_States)" title="Medicare (United States)">Medicare</a> recipients who are exposed to more air pollution have higher mortality rates.<a href="#cite_note-NEJM0617-257">[257]</a> Rural populations in India, like those in urban areas, are also exposed to high levels of air pollution.<a href="#cite_note-258">[258]</a> In 2020, scientists found that the <a href="/wiki/Planetary_boundary_layer" title="Planetary boundary layer">boundary layer air</a> over the Southern Ocean around Antarctica is 'unpolluted' by humans.<a href="#cite_note-259">[259]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Agricultural_effects">Agricultural effects</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Air_pollution&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Agricultural effects">edit</a>]</div> Various studies have estimated the impacts of air pollution on agriculture, especially ozone. A 2020 study showed that ozone pollution in California may reduce yields of certain perennial crops such as table grapes by as much as 22% per year, translating into economic damages of more than $1 billion per year.<a href="#cite_note-260">[260]</a> After air pollutants enter the agricultural environment, they not only directly affect agricultural production and quality, but also enter agricultural waters and soil.<a href="#cite_note-261">[261]</a> The COVID-19 induced lockdown served as a natural experiment to expose the close links between air quality and surface greenness. In India, the lockdown induced improvement in air quality, enhanced surface greenness and photosynthetic activity, with the positive response of vegetation to reduce air pollution was dominant in croplands.<a href="#cite_note-262">[262]</a> On the other hand, agriculture in its traditional form is one of the primary contributors to the emission of trace gases like atmospheric ammonia.<a href="#cite_note-263">[263]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Economic_effects">Economic effects</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Air_pollution&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Economic effects">edit</a>]</div> Air pollution costs the <a href="/wiki/World_economy" title="World economy">world economy</a> $5 trillion per year as a result of productivity losses and degraded quality of life.<a href="#cite_note-documents.worldbank.org-24">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-commondreams.org-25">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-Fortune2018-26">[26]</a> These productivity losses are caused by deaths due to diseases caused by air pollution. One out of ten deaths in 2013 was caused by diseases associated with air pollution and the problem is getting worse. A small improvement in air quality (1% reduction of ambient PM2.5 and ozone concentrations) would produce $29 million in annual savings in the lower <a href="/wiki/Fraser_Valley" title="Fraser Valley">Fraser Valley</a> region in 2010.<a href="#cite_note-264">[264]</a> This finding is based on health valuation of lethal (death) and sub-lethal (illness) affects. The problem is even more acute in the <a href="/wiki/Developing_world" class="mw-redirect" title="Developing world">developing world</a>. "Children under age 5 in lower-income countries are more than 60 times as likely to die from exposure to air pollution as children in high-income countries."<a href="#cite_note-documents.worldbank.org-24">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-commondreams.org-25">[25]</a> The report states that additional economic losses caused by air pollution, including health costs<a href="#cite_note-265">[265]</a> and the adverse effect on agricultural and other productivity were not calculated in the report, and thus the actual costs to the world economy are far higher than $5 trillion. A study published in 2022 found "a strong and significant connection between air pollution and construction site accidents" and that "a 10-ppb increase in NO2 levels increases the likelihood of an accident by as much as 25%".<a href="#cite_note-Lavy_Rachkovski_Yoresh_2022_p.-266">[266]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Other_effects">Other effects</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Air_pollution&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Other effects">edit</a>]</div> Artificial air pollution may be detectable on Earth from distant vantage points such as other planetary systems via <a href="/wiki/Technosignature#Atmospheric_analysis" title="Technosignature">atmospheric SETI</a> – including NO2 pollution levels and with telescopic technology close to today. It may also be possible to detect extraterrestrial civilizations this way.<a href="#cite_note-267">[267]</a><a href="#cite_note-268">[268]</a><a href="#cite_note-269">[269]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Historical_disasters">Historical disasters</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Air_pollution&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Historical disasters">edit</a>]</div> The world's worst short-term civilian pollution crisis was the 1984 <a href="/wiki/Bhopal_Disaster" class="mw-redirect" title="Bhopal Disaster">Bhopal Disaster</a> in India.<a href="#cite_note-270">[270]</a> Leaked industrial vapours from the Union Carbide factory, belonging to Union Carbide, Inc., U.S.A. (later bought by <a href="/wiki/Dow_Chemical_Company" title="Dow Chemical Company">Dow Chemical Company</a>), killed at least 3787 people and injured from 150,000 to 600,000. The United Kingdom suffered its worst air pollution event when the 4 December <a href="/wiki/Great_Smog" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Smog">Great Smog</a> of 1952 formed over London. In six days more than 4,000 died and more recent estimates put the figure at nearer 12,000.<a href="#cite_note-EHP_112_1-271">[271]</a> An <a href="/wiki/Sverdlovsk_anthrax_leak" title="Sverdlovsk anthrax leak">accidental leak of anthrax</a> spores from a <a href="/wiki/Biological_warfare" title="Biological warfare">biological warfare</a> laboratory in the former USSR in 1979 near Yekaterinburg (formerly Sverdlovsk) is believed to have caused at least 64 deaths.<a href="#cite_note-272">[272]</a> The worst single incident of air pollution to occur in the US occurred in <a href="/wiki/Donora,_Pennsylvania" title="Donora, Pennsylvania">Donora, Pennsylvania</a>, in late October 1948, when 20 people died and over 7,000 were injured.<a href="#cite_note-273">[273]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Reduction_and_regulation">Reduction and regulation</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Air_pollution&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Reduction and regulation">edit</a>]</div> Global depletion of the surrounding air pollution will require valiant leadership, a surplus of combined resources from the international community, and extensive societal changes.<a href="#cite_note-274">[274]</a> Pollution prevention seeks to prevent pollution such as air pollution and could include adjustments to industrial and business activities such as <a href="/wiki/Sustainable_design#Design_for_sustainable_manufacturing" title="Sustainable design">designing sustainable manufacturing processes (and the products' designs)</a><a href="#cite_note-275">[275]</a> and related legal regulations as well as efforts towards <a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_transition" class="mw-redirect" title="Renewable energy transition">renewable energy transitions</a>.<a href="#cite_note-276">[276]</a><a href="#cite_note-277">[277]</a> Efforts to reduce particulate matter in the air may result in better health.<a href="#cite_note-278">[278]</a> The <a href="/wiki/9-Euro-Ticket" title="9-Euro-Ticket">9-Euro-Ticket</a> scheme in Germany which allowed people to buy a monthly pass allowing use on all local and regional transport (trains, trams and busses) for 9 euro (€) for one month of unlimited travel saved 1.8 million tons of CO2 emissions during its three-month implementation from June to August 2022.<a href="#cite_note-279">[279]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pollution_control">Pollution control</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Air_pollution&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Pollution control">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Air_pollution_in_Ghana_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Air_pollution_in_Ghana_2.jpg/220px-Air_pollution_in_Ghana_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Air_pollution_in_Ghana_2.jpg/330px-Air_pollution_in_Ghana_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Air_pollution_in_Ghana_2.jpg/440px-Air_pollution_in_Ghana_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5184" data-file-height="3456" /></a><figcaption>Burning of items polluting Jamestown environment in <a href="/wiki/Accra,_Ghana" class="mw-redirect" title="Accra, Ghana">Accra, Ghana</a></figcaption></figure> Various pollution control technologies and strategies are available to reduce air pollution.<a href="#cite_note-Fensterstock1971-280">[280]</a><a href="#cite_note-Fensterstock1972-281">[281]</a> At its most basic level, <a href="/wiki/Land-use_planning" title="Land-use planning">land-use planning</a> is likely to involve zoning and transport infrastructure planning. In most developed countries, land-use planning is an important part of social policy, ensuring that land is used efficiently for the benefit of the wider economy and population, as well as to protect the environment.<a href="#cite_note-282">[282]</a> Stringent environmental regulations, effective control technologies and shift towards the renewable source of energy also helping countries like China and India to reduce their sulfur dioxide pollution.<a href="#cite_note-283">[283]</a> <a href="/wiki/Titanium_dioxide" title="Titanium dioxide">Titanium dioxide</a> has been researched for its ability to reduce air pollution. <a href="/wiki/Ultraviolet" title="Ultraviolet">Ultraviolet</a> light will release free electrons from material, thereby creating free radicals, which break up VOCs and <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410">NOx gases. One form is <a href="/wiki/Superhydrophilicity" title="Superhydrophilicity">superhydrophilic</a>.<a href="#cite_note-284">[284]</a> Pollution-eating <a href="/wiki/Nanoparticle" title="Nanoparticle">nanoparticles</a> placed near a busy road were shown to absorb toxic emission from around 20 cars each day.<a href="#cite_note-285">[285]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Energy_transition">Energy transition</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Air_pollution&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Energy transition">edit</a>]</div> Since a large share of air pollution is caused by combustion of fossil fuels such as coal and oil, the reduction of these fuels can reduce air pollution drastically. Most effective is the switch to clean power sources such as <a href="/wiki/Wind_power" title="Wind power">wind power</a>, <a href="/wiki/Solar_power" title="Solar power">solar power</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hydro_power" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydro power">hydro power</a> which do not cause air pollution.<a href="#cite_note-Jacobson-286">[286]</a> Efforts to reduce pollution from mobile sources includes expanding regulation to new sources (such as cruise and transport ships, farm equipment, and small gas-powered equipment such as <a href="/wiki/String_trimmer" title="String trimmer">string trimmers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chainsaw" title="Chainsaw">chainsaws</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Snowmobiles" class="mw-redirect" title="Snowmobiles">snowmobiles</a>), increased <a href="/wiki/Fuel_efficiency" title="Fuel efficiency">fuel efficiency</a> (such as through the use of <a href="/wiki/Hybrid_vehicle" title="Hybrid vehicle">hybrid vehicles</a>), conversion to cleaner fuels, and conversion to <a href="/wiki/Electric_vehicle" title="Electric vehicle">electric vehicles</a>. For example, buses in New Delhi, India, have run on <a href="/wiki/Compressed_natural_gas" title="Compressed natural gas">compressed natural gas</a> since 2000, to help eliminate the city's "pea-soup" smog.<a href="#cite_note-:9-226">[226]</a><a href="#cite_note-287">[287]</a> A very effective means to reduce air pollution is the <a href="/wiki/Energy_transition" title="Energy transition">transition</a> to <a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy" title="Renewable energy">renewable energy</a>. According to a study published in <a href="/wiki/Energy_and_Environmental_Science" class="mw-redirect" title="Energy and Environmental Science">Energy and Environmental Science</a> in 2015 the switch to <a href="/wiki/100%25_renewable_energy" title="100% renewable energy">100% renewable energy</a> in the United States would eliminate about 62,000 premature mortalities per year and about 42,000 in 2050, if no biomass were used. This would save about $600 billion in health costs a year due to reduced air pollution in 2050, or about 3.6% of the 2014 U.S. gross domestic product.<a href="#cite_note-Jacobson-286">[286]</a> Air quality improvement is a near-term benefit among the many societal benefits from <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_mitigation" title="Climate change mitigation">climate change mitigation</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Alternatives_to_pollution">Alternatives to pollution</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Air_pollution&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Alternatives to pollution">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Within_cities,_make_public_transport_more_efficient_and_ban_high-emission_vehicles..svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Within_cities%2C_make_public_transport_more_efficient_and_ban_high-emission_vehicles..svg/220px-Within_cities%2C_make_public_transport_more_efficient_and_ban_high-emission_vehicles..svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="311" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Within_cities%2C_make_public_transport_more_efficient_and_ban_high-emission_vehicles..svg/330px-Within_cities%2C_make_public_transport_more_efficient_and_ban_high-emission_vehicles..svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Within_cities%2C_make_public_transport_more_efficient_and_ban_high-emission_vehicles..svg/440px-Within_cities%2C_make_public_transport_more_efficient_and_ban_high-emission_vehicles..svg.png 2x" data-file-width="744" data-file-height="1052" /></a><figcaption>Support for a ban on high-emission vehicles in city centres in Europe, China and the US from respondents to the European Investment Bank Climate Survey</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:NET_tram_201-03.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/NET_tram_201-03.jpg/220px-NET_tram_201-03.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/NET_tram_201-03.jpg/330px-NET_tram_201-03.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/NET_tram_201-03.jpg/440px-NET_tram_201-03.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption>Support, use and infrastructure-expansion of forms of <a href="/wiki/Public_transport" title="Public transport">public transport</a> that do not cause air pollution may be a critical key alternative to pollution.</figcaption></figure> There are now practical alternatives to the principal causes of air pollution: <ul><li>Strategic substitution of air pollution sources in transport with lower-emission or, during the lifecycle, emission-free forms of <a href="/wiki/Public_transport" title="Public transport">public transport</a><a href="#cite_note-288">[288]</a><a href="#cite_note-289">[289]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bicycle_infrastructure" class="mw-redirect" title="Bicycle infrastructure">bicycle use and infrastructure</a> (as well as with remote work, reductions of work, relocations, and <a href="/wiki/Localism_(politics)" title="Localism (politics)">localizations</a>) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Phase-out_of_fossil_fuel_vehicles" title="Phase-out of fossil fuel vehicles">Phase-out of fossil fuel vehicles</a> is a critical component of a shift to <a href="/wiki/Sustainable_transport" title="Sustainable transport">sustainable transport</a>; however, similar infrastructure and design decisions like electric vehicles may be associated with similar pollution for production as well as mining and resource exploitation for large numbers of needed batteries as well as the energy for their recharging<a href="#cite_note-290">[290]</a><a href="#cite_note-291">[291]</a></li></ul></li> <li>Areas downwind (over 20 miles) of major airports have more than double total particulate emissions in air than other areas, even when factoring in areas with frequent ship calls, and heavy freeway and city traffic like Los Angeles.<a href="#cite_note-292">[292]</a> <a href="/wiki/Aviation_biofuel" title="Aviation biofuel">Aviation biofuel</a> mixed in with jetfuel at a 50/50 ratio can reduce jet derived cruise altitude particulate emissions by 50–70%, according to a <a href="/wiki/NASA" title="NASA">NASA</a> led 2017 study (however, this should imply ground level benefits to urban air pollution as well).<a href="#cite_note-293">[293]</a></li> <li>Ship propulsion and idling can be switched to much cleaner fuels like natural gas. (Ideally a <a href="/wiki/Renewable_natural_gas" title="Renewable natural gas">renewable source</a> but not practical yet)</li> <li>Combustion of fossil fuels for space heating can be replaced by using <a href="/wiki/Ground_source_heat_pumps" class="mw-redirect" title="Ground source heat pumps">ground source heat pumps</a> and <a href="/wiki/Seasonal_thermal_energy_storage" title="Seasonal thermal energy storage">seasonal thermal energy storage</a>.<a href="#cite_note-294">[294]</a></li> <li>Electricity generated from the combustion of fossil fuels can be replaced by nuclear and renewable energy. Heating and home stoves, which contribute significantly to regional air pollution, can be replaced with a much cleaner fossil fuel, such as natural gas, or, preferably, renewables, in poor countries.<a href="#cite_note-295">[295]</a><a href="#cite_note-296">[296]</a></li> <li>Motor vehicles driven by fossil fuels, a key factor in urban air pollution, can be replaced by electric vehicles. Though lithium supply and cost is a limitation, there are alternatives. Herding more people into clean public transit such as electric trains can also help. Nevertheless, even in emission-free electric vehicles, <a href="/wiki/Rubber_pollution" title="Rubber pollution">rubber tires produce significant amounts of air pollution</a> themselves, ranking as 13th worst pollutant in Los Angeles.<a href="#cite_note-297">[297]</a></li> <li>Reducing travel in vehicles can curb pollution. After Stockholm reduced vehicle traffic in the central city with a congestion tax, nitrogen dioxide and PM10 pollution declined, as did acute pediatric asthma attacks.<a href="#cite_note-NBERMar2018-298">[298]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anaerobic_digestion" title="Anaerobic digestion">Biodigesters</a> can be utilized in poor nations where <a href="/wiki/Slash_and_burn" class="mw-redirect" title="Slash and burn">slash and burn</a> is prevalent, turning a useless commodity into a source of income. The plants can be gathered and sold to a central authority that will break them down in a large modern biodigester, producing much needed energy to use.<a href="#cite_note-299">[299]</a></li> <li>Induced humidity and ventilation both can greatly dampen air pollution in enclosed spaces, which was found to be relatively high inside subway lines due to braking and friction and relatively less ironically inside transit buses than lower sitting passenger automobiles or subways.<a href="#cite_note-300">[300]</a></li></ul> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="#Sources">§ Sources</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Control_devices">Control devices</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Air_pollution&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Control devices">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Debris_netting.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Debris_netting.JPG/220px-Debris_netting.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Debris_netting.JPG/330px-Debris_netting.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Debris_netting.JPG/440px-Debris_netting.JPG 2x" data-file-width="5184" data-file-height="3456" /></a><figcaption>Tarps and netting are often used to reduce the amount of dust released from <a href="/wiki/Construction_site" class="mw-redirect" title="Construction site">construction sites</a>.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Atmospheric_pollution.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Atmospheric_pollution.jpg/220px-Atmospheric_pollution.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Atmospheric_pollution.jpg/330px-Atmospheric_pollution.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Atmospheric_pollution.jpg/440px-Atmospheric_pollution.jpg 2x" data-file-width="8000" data-file-height="5333" /></a><figcaption>Air pollution from a car</figcaption></figure> The following items are commonly used as pollution control devices in industry and transportation. They can either destroy contaminants or remove them from an exhaust stream before it is emitted into the atmosphere. <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ul><li>Particulate control <ul><li>Mechanical collectors (<a href="/wiki/Cyclonic_separation" title="Cyclonic separation">dust cyclones</a>, multicyclones)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrostatic_precipitator" title="Electrostatic precipitator">Electrostatic precipitators</a>: An electrostatic precipitator (ESP), or electrostatic air cleaner, is a particulate collection device that removes particles from a flowing gas (such as air), using the force of an induced electrostatic charge. Electrostatic precipitators are highly efficient filtration devices that minimally impede the flow of gases through the device, and can easily remove fine particulates such as dust and smoke from the air stream.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dust_collector#Types_of_baghouses" title="Dust collector">Baghouses</a>: Designed to handle heavy dust loads, a dust collector consists of a blower, dust filter, a filter-cleaning system, and a dust receptacle or dust removal system (distinguished from air cleaners which utilize disposable filters to remove the dust).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wet_scrubber" title="Wet scrubber">Particulate scrubbers</a>: A wet scrubber is a form of pollution control technology. The term describes a variety of devices that use pollutants from a furnace flue gas or from other gas streams. In a wet scrubber, the polluted gas stream is brought into contact with the scrubbing liquid, by spraying it with the liquid, by forcing it through a pool of liquid, or by some other contact method, so as to remove the pollutants.</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scrubber" title="Scrubber">Scrubbers</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baffle_spray_scrubber" title="Baffle spray scrubber">Baffle spray scrubber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyclonic_spray_scrubber" title="Cyclonic spray scrubber">Cyclonic spray scrubber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ejector_venturi_scrubber" class="mw-redirect" title="Ejector venturi scrubber">Ejector venturi scrubber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mechanically_aided_scrubber" title="Mechanically aided scrubber">Mechanically aided scrubber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spray_tower" title="Spray tower">Spray tower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wet_scrubber" title="Wet scrubber">Wet scrubber</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nitrogen_oxide" title="Nitrogen oxide"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410">NOx control</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/LO-NOx_burner" title="LO-NOx burner">LO-NOx burners</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selective_catalytic_reduction" title="Selective catalytic reduction">Selective catalytic reduction</a> (SCR)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selective_non-catalytic_reduction" title="Selective non-catalytic reduction">Selective non-catalytic reduction</a> (SNCR)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wet_scrubber" title="Wet scrubber">NOx scrubbers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exhaust_gas_recirculation" title="Exhaust gas recirculation">Exhaust gas recirculation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catalytic_converter" title="Catalytic converter">Catalytic converter</a> (also for VOC control)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volatile_organic_compound" title="Volatile organic compound">VOC abatement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adsorption" title="Adsorption">Adsorption systems</a>, using <a href="/wiki/Activated_carbon" title="Activated carbon">activated carbon</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Fluidized_bed_concentrator" title="Fluidized bed concentrator">Fluidized Bed Concentrator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gas_flare" title="Gas flare">Flares</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermal_oxidizer" title="Thermal oxidizer">Thermal oxidizers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catalytic_converter" title="Catalytic converter">Catalytic converters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biofilter" title="Biofilter">Biofilters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wet_scrubber" title="Wet scrubber">Absorption (scrubbing)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryogenic" class="mw-redirect" title="Cryogenic">Cryogenic</a> <a href="/wiki/Condenser_(heat_transfer)" title="Condenser (heat transfer)">condensers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vapor_recovery" title="Vapor recovery">Vapor recovery systems</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acid_gas" title="Acid gas">Acid gas</a>/<a href="/wiki/Sulfur_dioxide" title="Sulfur dioxide">SO2</a> control <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wet_scrubber" title="Wet scrubber">Wet scrubbers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scrubber#Dry_scrubbing" title="Scrubber">Dry scrubbers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flue-gas_desulfurization" title="Flue-gas desulfurization">Flue-gas desulfurization</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mercury_(element)" title="Mercury (element)">Mercury</a> control <ul><li>Sorbent injection technology</li> <li>Electro-catalytic oxidation (ECO)</li> <li>K-Fuel</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dioxins_and_dioxin-like_compounds" title="Dioxins and dioxin-like compounds">Dioxin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Furan" title="Furan">furan</a> control</li> <li>Miscellaneous associated equipment <ul><li>Source capturing systems</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continuous_emissions_monitoring_system" title="Continuous emissions monitoring system">Continuous emissions monitoring systems</a> (CEMS)</li></ul></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Monitoring">Monitoring</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Air_pollution&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Monitoring">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Smart_city" title="Smart city">Smart city</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Air_pollution_measurement" title="Air pollution measurement">Air pollution measurement</a> and <a href="/wiki/Environmental_monitoring" title="Environmental monitoring">Environmental monitoring</a></div><a href="/wiki/Spatiotemporal_pattern" title="Spatiotemporal pattern">Spatiotemporal</a> monitoring of air quality may be necessary for improving air quality, and thereby the health and safety of the public, and assessing impacts of interventions.<a href="#cite_note-301">[301]</a> Such monitoring is done to different extents with different regulatory requirements with discrepant regional coverage by a variety of organizations and governance entities such as using a variety of technologies for use of the data and sensing such mobile <a href="/wiki/Internet_of_things" title="Internet of things">IoT</a> sensors,<a href="#cite_note-302">[302]</a><a href="#cite_note-303">[303]</a> <a href="/wiki/Earth_observation_satellite#Environmental_monitoring" title="Earth observation satellite">satellites</a>,<a href="#cite_note-304">[304]</a><a href="#cite_note-305">[305]</a><a href="#cite_note-306">[306]</a> and monitoring stations.<a href="#cite_note-307">[307]</a><a href="#cite_note-308">[308]</a> Some websites attempt to map air pollution levels using available data.<a href="#cite_note-309">[309]</a><a href="#cite_note-310">[310]</a><a href="#cite_note-311">[311]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Air_quality_modeling">Air quality modeling</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Air_pollution&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Air quality modeling">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Air_quality_modeling" class="mw-redirect" title="Air quality modeling">Air quality modeling</a></div> Numerical models either on a global scale using tools such as GCMs (<a href="/wiki/General_circulation_model" title="General circulation model">general circulation models</a> coupled with a pollution module) or CTMs (<a href="/wiki/Chemical_transport_model" title="Chemical transport model">Chemical transport model</a>) can be used to simulate the levels of different pollutants in the atmosphere. These tools can have several types (<a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_model" title="Atmospheric model">Atmospheric model</a>) and different uses. These models can be used in forecast mode which can help policy makers to decide on appropriate actions when an air pollution episode is detected. They can also be used for climate modeling including evolution of air quality in the future, for example the IPCC (<a href="/wiki/Intergovernmental_Panel_on_Climate_Change" title="Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change">Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change</a>) provides climate simulations including air quality assessments in their reports (latest report accessible through their <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ipcc.ch/">site</a>). <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Regulations">Regulations</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Air_pollution&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: Regulations">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Air_quality_law" title="Air quality law">Air quality law</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cairo_in_smog.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Cairo_in_smog.jpg/220px-Cairo_in_smog.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Cairo_in_smog.jpg/330px-Cairo_in_smog.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Cairo_in_smog.jpg/440px-Cairo_in_smog.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1183" data-file-height="887" /></a><figcaption>Smog in <a href="/wiki/Cairo" title="Cairo">Cairo</a></figcaption></figure> In general, there are two types of air quality standards. The first class of standards (such as the U.S. <a href="/wiki/National_Ambient_Air_Quality_Standards" title="National Ambient Air Quality Standards">National Ambient Air Quality Standards</a> and E.U. Air Quality Directive<a href="#cite_note-312">[312]</a>) set maximum atmospheric concentrations for specific pollutants. Environmental agencies enact regulations which are intended to result in attainment of these target levels. The second class (such as the North American <a href="/wiki/Air_quality_index" title="Air quality index">air quality index</a>) take the form of a scale with various thresholds, which is used to communicate to the public the relative risk of outdoor activity. The scale may or may not distinguish between different pollutants. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Canada">Canada</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Air_pollution&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: Canada">edit</a>]</div> In Canada, air pollution and associated health risks are measured with the <a href="/wiki/Air_Quality_Health_Index_(Canada)" title="Air Quality Health Index (Canada)">Air Quality Health Index</a> (AQHI).<a href="#cite_note-313">[313]</a> It is a health protection tool used to make decisions to reduce short-term exposure to air pollution by adjusting activity levels during increased levels of air pollution. The AQHI is a federal program jointly coordinated by <a href="/wiki/Health_Canada" title="Health Canada">Health Canada</a> and <a href="/wiki/Environment_Canada" class="mw-redirect" title="Environment Canada">Environment Canada</a>. However, the AQHI program would not be possible without the commitment and support of the provinces, municipalities and <a href="/wiki/Non-governmental_organization" title="Non-governmental organization">NGOs</a>. From air quality monitoring to health <a href="/wiki/Risk_communication" title="Risk communication">risk communication</a> and community engagement, local partners are responsible for the vast majority of work related to AQHI implementation. The AQHI provides a number from 1 to 10+ to indicate the level of health risk associated with local air quality. Occasionally, when the amount of air pollution is abnormally high, the number may exceed 10. The AQHI provides a local air quality current value as well as a local air quality maximums forecast for today, tonight and tomorrow and provides associated health advice. <table style="margin:auto; background:Black; color:White;"> <tbody><tr style="text-align:center;"> <td style="width:35px; height:35px; background:#9cf;">1</td> <td style="text-align:center; width:35px; height:35px; background:#6cf;">2</td> <td style="text-align:center; width:35px; height:35px; background:#0cf;">3</td> <td style="text-align:center; width:35px; height:35px; background:#9cc;">4</td> <td style="height:35px; height:35px; text-align:center; width:35px; text-align:center; width:35px; background:#999;">5</td> <td style="text-align:center; width:35px; height:35px; background:#996;">6</td> <td style="text-align:center; width:35px; height:35px; background:#960;">7</td> <td style="text-align:center; width:35px; height:35px; background:#963;">8</td> <td style="width:18px; width:35px; text-align:center; text-align:center; height:35px; background:#930;">9</td> <td style="width:18px; width:35px; text-align:center; text-align:center; height:35px; background:#600;">10</td> <td style="text-align:center; width:35px; height:35px; background:#f00;">+ </td></tr></tbody></table> <table style="margin:auto; background:white; color:black;"> <tbody><tr> <td>Risk:</td> <td>Low (1–3)</td> <td>Moderate (4–6)</td> <td>High (7–10)</td> <td>Very high (above 10) </td></tr></tbody></table> As it is now known that even low levels of air pollution can trigger discomfort for the sensitive population, the index has been developed as a continuum: The higher the number, the greater the health risk and need to take precautions. The index describes the level of health risk associated with this number as 'low', 'moderate', 'high' or 'very high', and suggests steps that can be taken to reduce exposure.<a href="#cite_note-314">[314]</a> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2">Health risk</th> <th rowspan="2">Air Quality Health Index</th> <th colspan="2" style="text-align: center;">Health messages<a href="#cite_note-315">[315]</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th>At risk population</th> <th>General population </th></tr> <tr> <td>Low</td> <td>1–3</td> <td>Enjoy your usual outdoor activities.</td> <td>Ideal air quality for outdoor activities </td></tr> <tr> <td>Moderate</td> <td>4–6</td> <td>Consider reducing or rescheduling strenuous activities outdoors if you are experiencing symptoms.</td> <td>No need to modify your usual outdoor activities unless you experience symptoms such as coughing and throat irritation. </td></tr> <tr> <td>High</td> <td>7–10</td> <td>Reduce or reschedule strenuous activities outdoors. Children and the elderly should also take it easy.</td> <td>Consider reducing or rescheduling strenuous activities outdoors if you experience symptoms such as coughing and throat irritation. </td></tr> <tr> <td>Very high</td> <td>Above 10</td> <td>Avoid strenuous activities outdoors. <a href="/wiki/Children" class="mw-redirect" title="Children">Children</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Elderly" class="mw-redirect" title="Elderly">elderly</a> should also avoid outdoor physical exertion and should stay indoors.</td> <td>Reduce or reschedule strenuous activities outdoors, especially if you experience symptoms such as coughing and throat irritation. </td></tr></tbody></table> The measurement is based on the observed relationship of <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen_dioxide" title="Nitrogen dioxide">nitrogen dioxide</a> (NO2), ground-level ozone (O3) and particulates (PM2.5) with mortality, from an analysis of several Canadian cities. Significantly, all three of these pollutants can pose health risks, even at low levels of exposure, especially among those with pre-existing health problems. When developing the AQHI, Health Canada's original analysis of health effects included five major air pollutants: particulates, <a href="/wiki/Ozone" title="Ozone">ozone</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen_dioxide" title="Nitrogen dioxide">nitrogen dioxide</a> (NO2), as well as <a href="/wiki/Sulfur_dioxide" title="Sulfur dioxide">sulfur dioxide</a> (SO2), and <a href="/wiki/Carbon_monoxide" title="Carbon monoxide">carbon monoxide</a> (CO). The latter two pollutants provided little information in predicting health effects and were removed from the AQHI formulation. The AQHI does not measure the effects of odour, pollen, dust, heat or humidity. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Germany">Germany</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Air_pollution&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: Germany">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/TA_Luft" title="TA Luft">TA Luft</a> is the German air quality regulation.<a href="#cite_note-316">[316]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Governing_urban_air_pollution">Governing urban air pollution</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Air_pollution&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: Governing urban air pollution">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Phase-out_of_fossil_fuel_vehicles#Cities_and_territories" title="Phase-out of fossil fuel vehicles">Phase-out of fossil fuel vehicles § Cities and territories</a></div> In Europe, Council Directive 96/62/EC on ambient air quality assessment and management provides a common strategy against which <a href="/wiki/Member_states" class="mw-redirect" title="Member states">member states</a> can "set objectives for ambient air quality in order to avoid, prevent or reduce harmful effects on human health and the environment ... and improve air quality where it is unsatisfactory".<a href="#cite_note-Europa1996-317">[317]</a> In July 2008, in the case Dieter Janecek v. Freistaat Bayern, the <a href="/wiki/European_Court_of_Justice" title="European Court of Justice">European Court of Justice</a> ruled that under this directive<a href="#cite_note-Europa1996-317">[317]</a> citizens have the right to require national authorities to implement a short term action plan that aims to maintain or achieve compliance to air quality limit values.<a href="#cite_note-CURIA_2008-318">[318]</a><a href="#cite_note-319">[319]</a> This important case law appears to confirm the role of the EC as centralised regulator to European nation-states as regards air pollution control. It places a <a href="/wiki/Supranational_law" title="Supranational law">supranational</a> legal obligation on the UK to protect its citizens from dangerous levels of air pollution, furthermore superseding national interests with those of the citizen. In 2010, the <a href="/wiki/European_Commission" title="European Commission">European Commission</a> (EC) threatened the UK with legal action against the successive breaching of <a href="/wiki/PM10" class="mw-redirect" title="PM10">PM10</a> limit values.<a href="#cite_note-320">[320]</a> The UK government has identified that if fines are imposed, they could cost the nation upwards of £300 million per year.<a href="#cite_note-HoC_Air_Quality_Report_2010-321">[321]</a> In March 2011, the Greater London Built-up Area remained the only UK region in breach of the EC's limit values, and was given three months to implement an emergency action plan aimed at meeting the EU Air Quality Directive.<a href="#cite_note-Guardian2011-322">[322]</a> The City of London has dangerous levels of PM10 concentrations, estimated to cause 3000 deaths per year within the city.<a href="#cite_note-323">[323]</a> As well as the threat of EU fines, in 2010 it was threatened with legal action for scrapping the western <a href="/wiki/Congestion_charge" class="mw-redirect" title="Congestion charge">congestion charge</a> zone, which is claimed to have led to an increase in air pollution levels.<a href="#cite_note-324">[324]</a> In response to these charges, mayor of London <a href="/wiki/Boris_Johnson" title="Boris Johnson">Boris Johnson</a> has criticised the current need for European cities to communicate with Europe through their nation state's <a href="/wiki/Central_government" title="Central government">central government</a>, arguing that in future "A great city like London" should be permitted to bypass its government and deal directly with the European Commission regarding its air quality action plan.<a href="#cite_note-Guardian2011-322">[322]</a> This can be interpreted as recognition that cities can transcend the traditional national government organisational hierarchy and develop solutions to air pollution using global governance networks, for example through transnational relations. Transnational relations include but are not exclusive to national governments and intergovernmental organisations,<a href="#cite_note-Kappen-325">[325]</a> allowing sub-national actors including cities and regions to partake in air pollution control as independent actors. Global city partnerships can be built into networks, for example the <a href="/wiki/C40_Cities_Climate_Leadership_Group" title="C40 Cities Climate Leadership Group">C40 Cities Climate Leadership Group</a>, of which London is a member. The C40 is a public 'non-state' network of the world's leading cities that aims to curb their greenhouse emissions.<a href="#cite_note-pattberg-326">[326]</a> The C40 has been identified as 'governance from the middle' and is an alternative to intergovernmental policy.<a href="#cite_note-327">[327]</a> It has the potential to improve urban air quality as participating cities "exchange information, learn from best practices and consequently mitigate carbon dioxide emissions independently from national government decisions".<a href="#cite_note-pattberg-326">[326]</a> A criticism of the C40 network is that its exclusive nature limits influence to participating cities and risks drawing resources away from less powerful city and regional actors. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Indigenous_people">Indigenous people</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Air_pollution&action=edit&section=47" title="Edit section: Indigenous people">edit</a>]</div> Because Indigenous people<a href="#cite_note-328">[328]</a> frequently experience a disproportionate share of the effects of environmental degradation and climate change, even while they have made very little contribution to the processes causing these changes, environmental justice is especially important to them. Indigenous peoples have been marginalized and their lands and resources have been exploited as a result of historical and continuing colonization, institutional injustices, and inequality. Indigenous groups frequently lack the political and financial clout to influence policy decisions that impact their lands and means of subsistence or to lessen the effects of climate change. This makes the already-existing inequalities in these communities' social, economic, and health conditions worse. Furthermore, traditional ecological knowledge and Indigenous knowledge systems provide insightful information about sustainable resource management and climate change adaptation techniques. To promote persistence and environmental justice, Indigenous viewpoints must be acknowledged and integrated into efforts to mitigate the effects of climate change and adapt to them. Combating climate change necessitates an all-encompassing strategy that recognizes the interdependence of social, economic, and environmental elements. This entails defending treaty rights, advancing Indigenous sovereignty and self-determination, and aiding Indigenous-led projects for sustainable development and environmental preservation. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Hotspots">Hotspots</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Air_pollution&action=edit&section=48" title="Edit section: Hotspots">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Toxic_hotspot" title="Toxic hotspot">Toxic hotspot</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Cancer_alley" class="mw-redirect" title="Cancer alley">Cancer alley</a> and <a href="/wiki/Superfund" title="Superfund">Superfund</a></div> Air pollution hotspots are areas where air pollution emissions expose individuals to increased negative health effects.<a href="#cite_note-329">[329]</a> They are particularly common in highly populated, urban areas, where there may be a combination of stationary sources (e.g. industrial facilities) and mobile sources (e.g. cars and trucks) of pollution. Emissions from these sources can cause <a href="/wiki/Respiratory_disease" title="Respiratory disease">respiratory disease</a>, childhood <a href="/wiki/Asthma" title="Asthma">asthma</a>,<a href="#cite_note-:1-141">[141]</a> <a href="/wiki/Cancer" title="Cancer">cancer</a>, and other health problems. Fine particulate matter such as <a href="/wiki/Diesel_exhaust" title="Diesel exhaust">diesel soot</a>, which contributes to more than 3.2 million premature deaths around the world each year, is a significant problem. It is very small and can lodge itself within the lungs and enter the bloodstream. Diesel soot is concentrated in densely populated areas, and one in six people in the U.S. live near a diesel pollution hot spot.<a href="#cite_note-330">[330]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox" style="width: 220px; clear: right; float:right;margin:0 0 1.5em 1.5em"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:115%">External videos</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="text-align: left"><img alt="video icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/16px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/24px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/32px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://airvisual.com/earth">AirVisual Earth</a> – realtime map of global wind and air pollution<a href="#cite_note-331">[331]</a></td></tr></tbody></table> While air pollution hotspots affect a variety of populations, some groups are more likely to be located in hotspots. Previous studies have shown disparities in exposure to pollution by race and/or income. <a href="/wiki/Hazard" title="Hazard">Hazardous</a> land uses (toxic storage and disposal facilities, manufacturing facilities, major roadways) tend to be located where property values and income levels are low. Low <a href="/wiki/Socioeconomic" class="mw-redirect" title="Socioeconomic">socioeconomic</a> status can be a proxy for other kinds of <a href="/wiki/Social_vulnerability" title="Social vulnerability">social vulnerability</a>, including race, a lack of ability to influence regulation and a lack of ability to move to neighborhoods with less environmental pollution. These communities bear a disproportionate burden of environmental pollution and are more likely to face health risks such as <a href="/wiki/Cancer" title="Cancer">cancer</a> or <a href="/wiki/Asthma" title="Asthma">asthma</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Drury-332">[332]</a> Studies show that patterns in race and income disparities not only indicate a higher exposure to pollution but also higher risk of adverse health outcomes.<a href="#cite_note-Morello-Frosch_2011-333">[333]</a> Communities characterized by low <a href="/wiki/Socioeconomic" class="mw-redirect" title="Socioeconomic">socioeconomic</a> status and racial minorities can be more vulnerable to cumulative adverse health impacts resulting from elevated exposure to pollutants than more privileged communities.<a href="#cite_note-Morello-Frosch_2011-333">[333]</a> Blacks and Latinos generally face more pollution than Whites and Asians, and low-income communities bear a higher burden of risk than affluent ones.<a href="#cite_note-Drury-332">[332]</a> Racial discrepancies are particularly distinct in suburban areas of the Southern United States and metropolitan areas of the Midwestern and Western United States.<a href="#cite_note-334">[334]</a> Residents in public housing, who are generally low-income and cannot move to healthier neighborhoods, are highly affected by nearby <a href="/wiki/Refinery" title="Refinery">refineries</a> and chemical plants.<a href="#cite_note-335">[335]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Cities">Cities</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Air_pollution&action=edit&section=49" title="Edit section: Cities">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_most_polluted_cities_in_the_world_by_particulate_matter_concentration" class="mw-redirect" title="List of most polluted cities in the world by particulate matter concentration">List of most polluted cities in the world by particulate matter concentration</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/List_of_least_polluted_cities_by_particulate_matter_concentration" class="mw-redirect" title="List of least polluted cities by particulate matter concentration">List of least polluted cities by particulate matter concentration</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Global_air_pollution_map.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Global_air_pollution_map.png/300px-Global_air_pollution_map.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="153" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Global_air_pollution_map.png/450px-Global_air_pollution_map.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Global_air_pollution_map.png/600px-Global_air_pollution_map.png 2x" data-file-width="2753" data-file-height="1400" /></a><figcaption>Nitrogen dioxide concentrations as measured from satellite 2002–2004</figcaption></figure> Air pollution is usually concentrated in densely populated <a href="/wiki/Metropolitan_area" title="Metropolitan area">metropolitan areas</a>, especially in developing countries where cities are experiencing rapid growth and environmental regulations are relatively lax or nonexistent. Urbanization leads to a rapid rise in premature <a href="/wiki/Mortality_rate" title="Mortality rate">mortality</a> due to anthropogenic air pollution in fast-growing tropical cities.<a href="#cite_note-336">[336]</a> However, even populated areas in developed countries attain unhealthy levels of pollution, with Los Angeles and Rome being two examples.<a href="#cite_note-337">[337]</a> Between 2002 and 2011 the incidence of lung cancer in Beijing near doubled. While smoking remains the leading cause of lung cancer in China, the number of smokers is falling while lung cancer rates are rising .<a href="#cite_note-338">[338]</a> <table class="wikitable"> <caption><a href="#cite_note-339">[339]</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>World's Most Polluted Cities 2020 </th> <th>2020 Average </th> <th>2019 Average </th></tr> <tr> <td>Hotan, China </td> <td>110.2 </td> <td>110.1 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Ghaziabad, India </td> <td>106.6 </td> <td>110.2 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Bulandshahr, India </td> <td>98.4 </td> <td>89.4 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Bisrakh Jalalpur, India </td> <td>96.0 </td> <td>- </td></tr> <tr> <td>Bhiwadi, India </td> <td>95.5 </td> <td>83.4 </td></tr></tbody></table> Tehran was declared the most polluted city in the world on May 24, 2022.<a href="#cite_note-340">[340]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Projections">Projections</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Air_pollution&action=edit&section=50" title="Edit section: Projections">edit</a>]</div> In a 2019 projection, by 2030 half of the world's pollution emissions could be generated by Africa.<a href="#cite_note-341">[341]</a> Potential contributors to such an outcome include increased burning activities (such as the burning of open waste), traffic, agri-food and chemical industries, sand dust from the Sahara, and overall <a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_Africa" title="Demographics of Africa">population growth</a>. In a 2012 study, by 2050 outdoor air pollution (particulate matter and ground-level ozone) is projected to become the top cause of environmentally related deaths worldwide.<a href="#cite_note-342">[342]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Air_pollution&action=edit&section=51" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><a href="/wiki/File:Change_in_Average_Temperature.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Change_in_Average_Temperature.svg/32px-Change_in_Average_Temperature.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Change_in_Average_Temperature.svg/48px-Change_in_Average_Temperature.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Change_in_Average_Temperature.svg/64px-Change_in_Average_Temperature.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="960" data-file-height="816" /></a><a href="/wiki/Portal:Global_warming" class="mw-redirect" title="Portal:Global warming">Global warming portal</a></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><a href="/wiki/File:Leaf_1_web.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Leaf_1_web.jpg/32px-Leaf_1_web.jpg" decoding="async" width="32" height="24" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Leaf_1_web.jpg/48px-Leaf_1_web.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Leaf_1_web.jpg/64px-Leaf_1_web.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="768" /></a><a href="/wiki/Portal:Plants" title="Portal:Plants">Plants portal</a></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><a href="/wiki/File:Tree_template.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Tree_template.svg/28px-Tree_template.svg.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Tree_template.svg/42px-Tree_template.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Tree_template.svg/56px-Tree_template.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></a><a href="/wiki/Portal:Trees" title="Portal:Trees">Trees portal</a></li></ul> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><div class="div-col div-col-small"> Source <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beehive_burner" title="Beehive burner">Beehive burner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bottom_ash" title="Bottom ash">Bottom ash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concrete#Concrete_–_health_and_safety" title="Concrete">Concrete#Concrete – health and safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diwali#Air_pollution_Air_Pollution_in_India_due_to_Diwali" title="Diwali">Diwali-related air pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flue-gas_emissions_from_fossil-fuel_combustion" class="mw-redirect" title="Flue-gas emissions from fossil-fuel combustion">Flue-gas emissions from fossil-fuel combustion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_impacts_of_sawdust" title="Health impacts of sawdust">Health impacts of sawdust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joss_paper" title="Joss paper">Joss paper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metal_working" class="mw-redirect" title="Metal working">Metal working</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mining" title="Mining">Mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-exhaust_emissions" title="Non-exhaust emissions">Non-exhaust emissions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_tool" title="Power tool">Power tool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rubber_pollution" title="Rubber pollution">Rubber pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slag" title="Slag">Slag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smelting" title="Smelting">Smelting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tire_fire" title="Tire fire">Tire fire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welding" title="Welding">Welding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wood_ash" title="Wood ash">Wood ash</a></li></ul> Measurement <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air_pollutant_concentrations" title="Air pollutant concentrations">Air pollutant concentrations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Air_pollution_measurement" title="Air pollution measurement">Air pollution measurement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organic_molecular_tracers" title="Organic molecular tracers">Organic molecular tracers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intake_fraction" title="Intake fraction">Intake fraction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Particulate_matter_sampler" title="Particulate matter sampler">Particulate matter sampler</a></li></ul> Others <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air_stagnation" title="Air stagnation">Air stagnation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ASEAN_Agreement_on_Transboundary_Haze_Pollution" title="ASEAN Agreement on Transboundary Haze Pollution">ASEAN Agreement on Transboundary Haze Pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asian_brown_cloud" title="Asian brown cloud">Asian brown cloud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_chemistry" title="Atmospheric chemistry">Atmospheric chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/BenMAP" title="BenMAP">BenMAP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Best_Available_Control_Technology" class="mw-redirect" title="Best Available Control Technology">Best Available Control Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_load" title="Critical load">Critical load</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emission_standard" title="Emission standard">Emission standard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emissions_%26_Generation_Resource_Integrated_Database" title="Emissions & Generation Resource Integrated Database">Emissions & Generation Resource Integrated Database</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_agreement" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental agreement">Environmental agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_racism" title="Environmental racism">Environmental racism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exposome" title="Exposome">Exposome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_Atmosphere_Watch" title="Global Atmosphere Watch">Global Atmosphere Watch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_dimming" title="Global dimming">Global dimming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Smog" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Smog">Great Smog</a> of London</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haze" title="Haze">Haze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_Effects_Institute" title="Health Effects Institute">Health Effects Institute</a> (HEI)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indicator_value" title="Indicator value">Indicator value</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Agency_for_Research_on_Cancer" title="International Agency for Research on Cancer">International Agency for Research on Cancer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Day_of_Clean_Air_for_Blue_Skies" title="International Day of Clean Air for Blue Skies">International Day of Clean Air for Blue Skies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyoto_Protocol" title="Kyoto Protocol">Kyoto Protocol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Light_water_reactor_sustainability" class="mw-redirect" title="Light water reactor sustainability">Light water reactor sustainability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_accidents_and_disasters_by_death_toll#Smog" title="List of accidents and disasters by death toll">List of smogs by death toll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lowest_Achievable_Emissions_Rate" class="mw-redirect" title="Lowest Achievable Emissions Rate">Lowest Achievable Emissions Rate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NASA_Clean_Air_Study" title="NASA Clean Air Study">NASA Clean Air Study</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NIEHS" class="mw-redirect" title="NIEHS">NIEHS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phytoremediation" title="Phytoremediation">Phytoremediation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polluter_pays_principle" title="Polluter pays principle">Polluter pays principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regulation_of_greenhouse_gases_under_the_Clean_Air_Act" title="Regulation of greenhouse gases under the Clean Air Act">Regulation of greenhouse gases under the Clean Air Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silicosis#Prevention" title="Silicosis">Silicosis#Prevention</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Air_pollution&action=edit&section=52" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Air_pollution-1">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Air_pollution_1-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Air_pollution_1-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Air_pollution_1-2">c</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output 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The Big Smoke: A History of Air Pollution in London Since Medieval Times. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-136-70329-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-136-70329-4"><bdi>978-1-136-70329-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Big+Smoke%3A+A+History+of+Air+Pollution+in+London+Since+Medieval+Times&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=978-1-136-70329-4&rft.aulast=Brimblecombe&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAir+pollution" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrimblecombe1995" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Peter_Brimblecombe" title="Peter Brimblecombe">Brimblecombe P</a> (1995). "1: History of air pollution". In Singh H (ed.). Composition, chemistry, and climate of the atmosphere. New York: John Wiley & Sons. pp. 1–18. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-471-28514-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-471-28514-4"><bdi>978-0-471-28514-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/43084000">43084000</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=1%3A+History+of+air+pollution&rft.btitle=Composition%2C+chemistry%2C+and+climate+of+the+atmosphere&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=1-18&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=1995&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F43084000&rft.isbn=978-0-471-28514-4&rft.aulast=Brimblecombe&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAir+pollution" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrimblecombeMakra2005" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Peter_Brimblecombe" title="Peter Brimblecombe">Brimblecombe P</a>, <a href="/wiki/L%C3%A1szl%C3%B3_Makra" title="László Makra">Makra L</a> (2005). "Selections from the history of environmental pollution, with special attention to air pollution. Part 2*: From medieval times to the 19th century". <a href="/w/index.php?title=International_Journal_of_Environment_and_Pollution&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="International Journal of Environment and Pollution (page does not exist)">International Journal of Environment and Pollution</a>. 23 (4): 351–67. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1504%2Fijep.2005.007599">10.1504/ijep.2005.007599</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Environment+and+Pollution&rft.atitle=Selections+from+the+history+of+environmental+pollution%2C+with+special+attention+to+air+pollution.+Part+2%2A%3A+From+medieval+times+to+the+19th+century&rft.volume=23&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=351-67&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1504%2Fijep.2005.007599&rft.aulast=Brimblecombe&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft.au=Makra%2C+L%C3%A1szl%C3%B3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAir+pollution" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Cherni, Judith A. Economic Growth versus the Environment: The Politics of Wealth, Health and Air Pollution (2002) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150213161206/https://www.questia.com/library/102251606/economic-growth-versus-the-environment-the-politics">online</a></li> <li>Corton, Christine L. London Fog: The Biography (2015)</li> <li>Currie, Donya. "WHO: Air Pollution a Continuing Health Threat in World's Cities", The Nation's Health (February 2012) 42#1 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150402122918/https://www.questia.com/article/1G1-280406027/who-air-pollution-a-continuing-health-threat-in-world-s">online</a></li> <li>Dewey, Scott Hamilton. Don't Breathe the Air: Air Pollution and US Environmental Politics, 1945–1970 (Texas A & M University Press, 2000)</li> <li>Gonzalez, George A. The politics of air pollution: Urban growth, ecological modernization, and symbolic inclusion (SUNY Press, 2012)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrinder1978" class="citation journal cs1">Grinder RD (1978). "From Insurgency to Efficiency: The Smoke Abatement Campaign in Pittsburgh before World War I.". Western Pennsylvania Historical Magazine. 61 (3): 187–202.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Western+Pennsylvania+Historical+Magazine&rft.atitle=From+Insurgency+to+Efficiency%3A+The+Smoke+Abatement+Campaign+in+Pittsburgh+before+World+War+I.&rft.volume=61&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=187-202&rft.date=1978&rft.aulast=Grinder&rft.aufirst=Robert+Dale&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAir+pollution" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Grinder, Robert Dale. "The Battle for Clean Air: The Smoke Problem in Post-Civil War America" in Martin V. Melosi, ed., Pollution & Reform in American Cities, 1870–1930 (1980), pp. 83–103.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKumarPirjolaKetzelHarrison2013" class="citation journal cs1">Kumar P, Pirjola L, Ketzel M, Harrison RM (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openresearch.surrey.ac.uk/view/pdfCoverPage?instCode=44SUR_INST&filePid=13140580700002346&download=true">"Nanoparticle emissions from 11 non-vehicle exhaust sources – A review"</a>. Atmospheric Environment. 67. Elsevier BV: 252–277. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2013AtmEn..67..252K">2013AtmEn..67..252K</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.atmosenv.2012.11.011">10.1016/j.atmosenv.2012.11.011</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1352-2310">1352-2310</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Atmospheric+Environment&rft.atitle=Nanoparticle+emissions+from+11+non-vehicle+exhaust+sources+%E2%80%93+A+review&rft.volume=67&rft.pages=252-277&rft.date=2013&rft.issn=1352-2310&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.atmosenv.2012.11.011&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2013AtmEn..67..252K&rft.aulast=Kumar&rft.aufirst=Prashant&rft.au=Pirjola%2C+Liisa&rft.au=Ketzel%2C+Matthias&rft.au=Harrison%2C+Roy+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopenresearch.surrey.ac.uk%2Fview%2FpdfCoverPage%3FinstCode%3D44SUR_INST%26filePid%3D13140580700002346%26download%3Dtrue&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAir+pollution" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLundqvist1980" class="citation book cs1">Lundqvist LJ (1980). The Hare and the Tortoise: Clean Air Policy in the US and Sweden. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-472-09310-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-472-09310-6"><bdi>978-0-472-09310-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Hare+and+the+Tortoise%3A+Clean+Air+Policy+in+the+US+and+Sweden&rft.place=Ann+Arbor%2C+MI&rft.pub=University+of+Michigan+Press&rft.date=1980&rft.isbn=978-0-472-09310-6&rft.aulast=Lundqvist&rft.aufirst=Lennart+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAir+pollution" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Mingle, Jonathan, "Our Lethal Air" [review of Gary Fuller, The Invisible Killer...; Beth Gardiner, Choked...; Tim Smedley, Clearing the Air...; <a href="/wiki/U.S._Environmental_Protection_Agency" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Environmental Protection Agency">U.S. Environmental Protection Agency</a>, Integrated Science Assessment for <a href="/wiki/Particulate_Matter" class="mw-redirect" title="Particulate Matter">Particulate Matter</a> (External Review Draft, 2018); and Chartered Clean Air Scientific Advisory Committee, Letter to EPA Administrator on the EPA's Integrated Science Assessment for Particulate Matter, 11 April 2019], <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Review_of_Books" title="The New York Review of Books">The New York Review of Books</a>, vol. LXVI, no. 14 (26 September 2019), pp. 64–66, 68. "Today, 91 percent of people worldwide live in areas where air pollution levels exceed the World Health Organization's recommended limits. ... [T]here is no safe level of exposure to fine <a href="/wiki/Particulate_matter" class="mw-redirect" title="Particulate matter">particulate matter</a>. ... Most of these fine particles are a by-product of ... burning ... <a href="/wiki/Coal" title="Coal">coal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gasoline" title="Gasoline">gasoline</a>, <a href="/wiki/Diesel_fuel" title="Diesel fuel">diesel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wood" title="Wood">wood</a>, <a href="/wiki/Garbage" title="Garbage">trash</a> ... These particles can get past the defenses of our <a href="/wiki/Upper_airways" class="mw-redirect" title="Upper airways">upper airways</a> to penetrate deep into our <a href="/wiki/Lung" title="Lung">lungs</a> and reach the <a href="/wiki/Pulmonary_alveolus" title="Pulmonary alveolus">alveoli</a> ... From there, they cross into the <a href="/wiki/Bloodstream" class="mw-redirect" title="Bloodstream">bloodstream</a> and spread throughout the body. They can travel through the <a href="/wiki/Nose" title="Nose">nose</a>, up the <a href="/wiki/Olfactory_nerve" title="Olfactory nerve">olfactory nerve</a>, and lodge ... in the <a href="/wiki/Brain" title="Brain">brain</a>. They can form deposits on the lining of <a href="/wiki/Arteries" class="mw-redirect" title="Arteries">arteries</a>, constricting <a href="/wiki/Blood_vessels" class="mw-redirect" title="Blood vessels">blood vessels</a> and raising the likelihood of ... <a href="/wiki/Stroke" title="Stroke">strokes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Heart_attack" class="mw-redirect" title="Heart attack">heart attacks</a>. [T]hey exacerbate respiratory illnesses like <a href="/wiki/Asthma" title="Asthma">asthma</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chronic_obstructive_pulmonary_disease" title="Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease">chronic obstructive pulmonary disease</a> ... There's ... evidence linking air pollution exposure to an increased risk of <a href="/wiki/Alzheimer%27s_disease" title="Alzheimer's disease">Alzheimer's</a> and other forms of <a href="/wiki/Dementia" title="Dementia">dementia</a>." (p. 64.)</li> <li>Mosley, Stephen. The chimney of the world: a history of smoke pollution in Victorian and Edwardian Manchester. Routledge, 2013.</li> <li>Schreurs, Miranda A. Environmental Politics in Japan, Germany, and the United States (Cambridge University Press, 2002) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141003113536/https://www.questia.com/library/108673238/environmental-politics-in-japan-germany-and-the">online</a></li> <li>Thorsheim, Peter. Inventing Pollution: Coal, Smoke, and Culture in Britain since 1800 (2009)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Air_pollution&action=edit&section=54" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> 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class="external text" href="https://www.nrdc.org/stories/air-pollution-everything-you-need-know">Air Pollution: Everything You Need to Know</a> Guide by the Natural Resources Defense Council (NRDC)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://aqicn.org/map/world/">Global real-time air quality index map</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.airnow.gov/aqi/aqi-basics/">Air Quality Index (AQI) Basics</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.airnow.gov/aqi/aqi-calculator/">AQI Calculator</a> AQI to Concentration and Concentration to AQI for five pollutants</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.unep.org/explore-topics/resource-efficiency/what-we-do/cities/urban-environmental-planning">UNEP Urban environmental planning</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ec.europa.eu/environment/air/quality/index.htm">European Commission > Environment > Air > Air Quality</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110927100158/http://www.who.int/phe/health_topics/outdoorair/databases/en/index.html">Database: outdoor air pollution in cities</a> from the World Health Organization</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/comeap-mortality-effects-of-long-term-exposure-to-particulate-air-pollution-in-the-uk">The Mortality Effects of Long-Term Exposure to Particulate Air Pollution in the United Kingdom</a>, UK Committee on the Medical Effects of Air Pollution, 2010.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.epa.gov/haps/">Hazardous air pollutants</a> | <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.epa.gov/haps/what-are-hazardous-air-pollutants">What are hazardous pollutants</a> at EPA.gov</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style 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href="/wiki/Chlorofluorocarbon" title="Chlorofluorocarbon">Chlorofluorocarbon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Combustion" title="Combustion">Combustion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biofuel" title="Biofuel">Biofuel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biomass" title="Biomass">Biomass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joss_paper" title="Joss paper">Joss paper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_burning_of_waste" title="Open burning of waste">Open burning of waste</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Construction" title="Construction">Construction</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Renovation" title="Renovation">Renovation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demolition" title="Demolition">Demolition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exhaust_gas" title="Exhaust gas">Exhaust gas</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diesel_exhaust" title="Diesel exhaust">Diesel exhaust</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haze" title="Haze">Haze</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Smoke" title="Smoke">Smoke</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indoor_air_quality" title="Indoor air quality">Indoor air quality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internal_combustion_engine" title="Internal combustion engine">Internal combustion engine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_dimming" title="Global dimming">Global dimming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_distillation" title="Global distillation">Global distillation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mining" title="Mining">Mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ozone_depletion" title="Ozone depletion">Ozone depletion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Particulates" title="Particulates">Particulates</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asbestos" title="Asbestos">Asbestos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metal_working" class="mw-redirect" title="Metal working">Metal working</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oil_refining" class="mw-redirect" title="Oil refining">Oil refining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wood_dust" class="mw-redirect" title="Wood dust">Wood dust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welding" title="Welding">Welding</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persistent_organic_pollutant" title="Persistent organic pollutant">Persistent organic pollutant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smelting" title="Smelting">Smelting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smog" title="Smog">Smog</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soot" title="Soot">Soot</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_carbon" title="Black carbon">Black carbon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volatile_organic_compound" title="Volatile organic compound">Volatile organic compound</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waste" title="Waste">Waste</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#fadcc5;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Biological_pollution" title="Biological pollution">Biological</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biological_hazard" title="Biological hazard">Biological hazard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_pollution" title="Genetic pollution">Genetic pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Introduced_species" title="Introduced species">Introduced species</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Invasive_species" title="Invasive species">Invasive species</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#fadcc5;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;">Digital</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Information_pollution" title="Information pollution">Information pollution</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#fadcc5;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_radiation_and_health" title="Electromagnetic radiation and health">Electromagnetic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Light_pollution" title="Light pollution">Light</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_light_pollution" title="Ecological light pollution">Ecological light pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overillumination" class="mw-redirect" title="Overillumination">Overillumination</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radio_spectrum_pollution" title="Radio spectrum pollution">Radio spectrum pollution</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#fadcc5;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;">Natural</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ozone" title="Ozone">Ozone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radium_and_radon_in_the_environment" title="Radium and radon in the environment">Radium and radon in the environment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volcanic_ash" title="Volcanic ash">Volcanic ash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildfire" title="Wildfire">Wildfire</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#fadcc5;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Noise_pollution" title="Noise pollution">Noise</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_transport" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of transport">Transportation</a> <ul><li>Land</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_shipping" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of shipping">Water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_aviation" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of aviation">Air</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rail_transport" title="Rail transport">Rail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_transport" title="Sustainable transport">Sustainable transport</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urbanization" title="Urbanization">Urban</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sonar" title="Sonar">Sonar</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marine_mammals_and_sonar" title="Marine mammals and sonar">Marine mammals and sonar</a></li></ul></li> <li>Industrial</li> <li>Military</li> <li>Abstract</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noise_control" title="Noise control">Noise control</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#fadcc5;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Radioactive_contamination" title="Radioactive contamination">Radiation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Actinides_in_the_environment" title="Actinides in the environment">Actinides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioremediation_of_radioactive_waste" title="Bioremediation of radioactive waste">Bioremediation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fission_product" title="Nuclear fission product">Nuclear fission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fallout" title="Nuclear fallout">Nuclear fallout</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutonium_in_the_environment" title="Plutonium in the environment">Plutonium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acute_radiation_syndrome" title="Acute radiation syndrome">Poisoning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_radioactivity" title="Environmental radioactivity">Radioactivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uranium_in_the_environment" title="Uranium in the environment">Uranium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_radiation_and_health" title="Electromagnetic radiation and health">Electromagnetic radiation and health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radioactive_waste" title="Radioactive waste">Radioactive waste</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#fadcc5;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Soil_contamination" title="Soil contamination">Soil</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_pollution" title="Agricultural pollution">Agricultural pollution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Herbicide" title="Herbicide">Herbicides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manure_management" title="Manure management">Manure waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pesticide" title="Pesticide">Pesticides</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_degradation" title="Land degradation">Land degradation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioremediation" title="Bioremediation">Bioremediation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_defecation" title="Open defecation">Open defecation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrical_resistance_heating" title="Electrical resistance heating">Electrical resistance heating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_guideline_value" title="Soil guideline value">Soil guideline values</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phytoremediation" title="Phytoremediation">Phytoremediation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#fadcc5;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;">Solid waste</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Advertising_mail" title="Advertising mail">Advertising mail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biodegradable_waste" title="Biodegradable waste">Biodegradable waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brown_waste" title="Brown waste">Brown waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electronic_waste" title="Electronic waste">Electronic waste</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battery_recycling" title="Battery recycling">Battery recycling</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foam_food_container" title="Foam food container">Foam food container</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_loss_and_waste" title="Food loss and waste">Food waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_waste" title="Green waste">Green waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hazardous_waste" title="Hazardous waste">Hazardous waste</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biomedical_waste" title="Biomedical waste">Biomedical waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_waste" title="Chemical waste">Chemical waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Construction_waste" title="Construction waste">Construction waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lead_poisoning" title="Lead poisoning">Lead poisoning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mercury_poisoning" title="Mercury poisoning">Mercury poisoning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toxic_waste" title="Toxic waste">Toxic waste</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_waste" title="Industrial waste">Industrial waste</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lead_smelting" title="Lead smelting">Lead smelting</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Litter" title="Litter">Litter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_mining" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of mining">Mining</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coal_mining" title="Coal mining">Coal mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gold_mining" title="Gold mining">Gold mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surface_mining" title="Surface mining">Surface mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep_sea_mining" title="Deep sea mining">Deep sea mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tailings" title="Tailings">Mining waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uranium_mining" title="Uranium mining">Uranium mining</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Municipal_solid_waste" title="Municipal solid waste">Municipal solid waste</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Garbage" title="Garbage">Garbage</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollution_from_nanomaterials" title="Pollution from nanomaterials">Nanomaterials</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plastic_pollution" title="Plastic pollution">Plastic pollution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Microplastics" title="Microplastics">Microplastics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Packaging_waste" title="Packaging waste">Packaging waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-consumer_waste" title="Post-consumer waste">Post-consumer waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waste_management" title="Waste management">Waste management</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Landfill" title="Landfill">Landfill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermal_treatment" title="Thermal treatment">Thermal treatment</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#fadcc5;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Space_debris" title="Space debris"> Space</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Satellite" title="Satellite">Satellite</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#fadcc5;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Visual_pollution" title="Visual pollution">Visual</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air_travel" title="Air travel">Air travel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clutter_(advertising)" title="Clutter (advertising)">Clutter (advertising)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traffic_sign" title="Traffic sign">Traffic signs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overhead_power_line" title="Overhead power line">Overhead power lines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vandalism" title="Vandalism">Vandalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#fadcc5;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_war" title="Environmental impact of war">War</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_warfare" title="Chemical warfare">Chemical warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbicidal_warfare" title="Herbicidal warfare">Herbicidal warfare</a> (<a href="/wiki/Agent_Orange" title="Agent Orange">Agent Orange</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_holocaust" title="Nuclear holocaust">Nuclear holocaust</a> (<a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fallout" title="Nuclear fallout">Nuclear fallout</a> - <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_famine" title="Nuclear famine">nuclear famine</a> - <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_winter" title="Nuclear winter">nuclear winter</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scorched_earth" title="Scorched earth">Scorched earth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unexploded_ordnance" title="Unexploded ordnance">Unexploded ordnance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_and_environmental_law" title="War and environmental law">War and environmental law</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#fadcc5;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Water_pollution" title="Water pollution">Water</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_wastewater_treatment" title="Agricultural wastewater treatment">Agricultural wastewater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_pollution" title="Biological pollution">Biological pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waterborne_diseases" class="mw-redirect" title="Waterborne diseases">Diseases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eutrophication" title="Eutrophication">Eutrophication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Firewater_(fire_fighting)" title="Firewater (fire fighting)">Firewater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freshwater_environmental_quality_parameters" title="Freshwater environmental quality parameters">Freshwater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Groundwater_pollution" title="Groundwater pollution">Groundwater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypoxia_(environmental)" title="Hypoxia (environmental)">Hypoxia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_wastewater_treatment" title="Industrial wastewater treatment">Industrial wastewater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_pollution" title="Marine pollution">Marine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marine_debris" title="Marine debris">debris</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_monitoring" title="Environmental monitoring">Monitoring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonpoint_source_pollution" title="Nonpoint source pollution">Nonpoint source pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nutrient_pollution" title="Nutrient pollution">Nutrient pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_acidification" title="Ocean acidification">Ocean acidification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oil_exploitation" class="mw-redirect" title="Oil exploitation">Oil exploitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oil_exploration" class="mw-redirect" title="Oil exploration">Oil exploration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oil_spill" title="Oil spill">Oil spill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_pharmaceuticals_and_personal_care_products" title="Environmental impact of pharmaceuticals and personal care products">Pharmaceuticals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sewage" title="Sewage">Sewage</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Septic_tank" title="Septic tank">Septic tanks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pit_latrine" title="Pit latrine">Pit latrine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_shipping" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of shipping">Shipping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_stagnation" title="Water stagnation">Stagnation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sulfur_water" title="Sulfur water">Sulfur water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surface_runoff" title="Surface runoff">Surface runoff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermal_pollution" title="Thermal pollution">Thermal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turbidity" title="Turbidity">Turbidity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_runoff" title="Urban runoff">Urban runoff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_quality" title="Water quality">Water quality</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#fadcc5;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;">Topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pollutant" title="Pollutant">Pollutants</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Heavy_metals" class="mw-redirect" title="Heavy metals">Heavy metals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paint" title="Paint">Paint</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brain_health_and_pollution" title="Brain health and pollution">Brain health and pollution</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#fadcc5;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;">Misc</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Area_source_pollution" title="Area source pollution">Area source</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Debris" title="Debris">Debris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dust" title="Dust">Dust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garbology" title="Garbology">Garbology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legacy_pollution" title="Legacy pollution">Legacy pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Midden" title="Midden">Midden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Point_source_pollution" title="Point source pollution">Point source</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waste" title="Waste">Waste</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#fadcc5;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;">Responses</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cleaner_production" title="Cleaner production">Cleaner production</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_ecology" title="Industrial ecology">Industrial ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollution_haven_hypothesis" title="Pollution haven hypothesis">Pollution haven hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollutant_release_and_transfer_register" title="Pollutant release and transfer register">Pollutant release and transfer register</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polluter_pays_principle" title="Polluter pays principle">Polluter pays principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollution_control" class="mw-redirect" title="Pollution control">Pollution control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waste_minimisation" title="Waste minimisation">Waste minimisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zero_waste" title="Zero waste">Zero waste</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#fadcc5;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Category:Pollution-related_lists" title="Category:Pollution-related lists">Lists</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_pollution-related_diseases" title="List of pollution-related diseases">Diseases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_environmental_laws_by_country" title="List of environmental laws by country">Law by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_most-polluted_cities_by_particulate_matter_concentration" title="List of most-polluted cities by particulate matter concentration">Most polluted cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_least_polluted_cities_by_particulate_matter_concentration" class="mw-redirect" title="List of least polluted cities by particulate matter concentration">Least polluted cities by PM2.5</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_air_pollution" title="List of countries by air pollution">Most polluted countries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_international_environmental_agreements" title="List of international environmental agreements">Treaties</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background:#fadcc5"><div><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Pollution" title="Category:Pollution">Categories</a> (<a href="/wiki/Category:Pollution_by_country" title="Category:Pollution by country">by country</a>) <img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:pollution" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:pollution">Commons</a> <img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/16px-People_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/24px-People_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/32px-People_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Environment" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Environment">WikiProject Environment</a> <img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/16px-People_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/24px-People_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/32px-People_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Ecology" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Ecology">WikiProject Ecology</a> <a href="/wiki/File:Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg/32px-Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg" decoding="async" width="32" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg/48px-Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg/64px-Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="700" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Environment" title="Portal:Environment">Environment portal</a> <img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Earth_Day_Flag.png/32px-Earth_Day_Flag.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="21" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Earth_Day_Flag.png/48px-Earth_Day_Flag.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Earth_Day_Flag.png/64px-Earth_Day_Flag.png 2x" data-file-width="6000" data-file-height="4000" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Ecology" title="Portal:Ecology">Ecology portal</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Asia_pollution_topics" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Asia_Pollution" title="Template:Asia Pollution"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Asia_Pollution" title="Template talk:Asia Pollution"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Asia_Pollution" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Asia Pollution"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Asia_pollution_topics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Asia pollution topics</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Air pollution</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Notable incidents</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Dust_storm" title="Dust storm">Dust storm</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2010_China_drought_and_dust_storms" title="2010 China drought and dust storms">2010 China dust storms</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Wildfires" class="mw-redirect" title="Wildfires">Forest fires</a> and <a href="/wiki/Haze" title="Haze">haze</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1997_Southeast_Asian_haze" title="1997 Southeast Asian haze">1997 SEA haze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1997_Indonesian_forest_fires" title="1997 Indonesian forest fires">1997 Indonesian forest fires</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2005_Malaysian_haze" title="2005 Malaysian haze">2005 Malaysian haze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2006_Southeast_Asian_haze" title="2006 Southeast Asian haze">2006 SEA haze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2009_Southeast_Asian_haze" title="2009 Southeast Asian haze">2009 SEA haze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2010_Southeast_Asian_haze" title="2010 Southeast Asian haze">2010 SEA haze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2013_Southeast_Asian_haze" title="2013 Southeast Asian haze">2013 SEA haze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2015_Southeast_Asian_haze" title="2015 Southeast Asian haze">2015 SEA haze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2016_Malaysian_haze" title="2016 Malaysian haze">2016 Malaysian haze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2016_Southeast_Asian_haze" title="2016 Southeast Asian haze">2016 SEA haze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2017_Southeast_Asian_haze" title="2017 Southeast Asian haze">2017 SEA haze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2019_Southeast_Asian_haze" title="2019 Southeast Asian haze">2019 SEA haze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2019_Vietnam_forest_fires" title="2019 Vietnam forest fires">2019 Vietnam forest fires</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2024_Indo-Pakistani_smog" class="mw-redirect" title="2024 Indo-Pakistani smog">2024 Indo-Pakistani smog</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Radioactive_contamination" title="Radioactive contamination">Air radioactive contamination</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1982_Bukit_Merah_radioactive_pollution" title="1982 Bukit Merah radioactive pollution">1982 Bukit Merah radioactive pollution</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By countries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air_pollution_in_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Air pollution in China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Air_pollution_in_Hong_Kong" title="Air pollution in Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Air_pollution_in_India" title="Air pollution in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Air_pollution_in_Macau" title="Air pollution in Macau">Macau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Air_pollution_in_Malaysia" title="Air pollution in Malaysia">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Air_pollution_in_Taiwan" title="Air pollution in Taiwan">Taiwan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Recurrent issues</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asian_brown_cloud" title="Asian brown cloud">Asian brown cloud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asian_Dust" title="Asian Dust">Asian Dust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shamal_(wind)" title="Shamal (wind)">Shamal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southeast_Asian_haze" title="Southeast Asian haze">Southeast Asian haze</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Counter-measures</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/ASEAN_Agreement_on_Transboundary_Haze_Pollution" title="ASEAN Agreement on Transboundary Haze Pollution">ASEAN Agreement on Transboundary Haze Pollution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Haze" title="Operation Haze">Operation Haze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollutant_Standards_Index" title="Pollutant Standards Index">Pollutant Standards Index</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Green_Wall_(China)" title="Great Green Wall (China)">Great Green Wall (China)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Water_pollution" title="Water pollution">Water pollution</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Notable incidents</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Radioactive_contamination" title="Radioactive contamination">Water radioactive contamination</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fukushima_Daiichi_nuclear_disaster" class="mw-redirect" title="Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster">2011 Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Marine_pollution" title="Marine pollution">Marine pollution</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2016_Vietnam_marine_life_disaster" title="2016 Vietnam marine life disaster">2016 Vietnam marine life disaster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2019_Kim_Kim_River_toxic_pollution" title="2019 Kim Kim River toxic pollution">2019 Kim Kim River toxic pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollution_of_the_Pasig_River" title="Pollution of the Pasig River">Pollution of the Pasig River</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By countries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Water_pollution_in_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Water pollution in China">China</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_China" title="Water supply and sanitation in China">Water crisis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_pollution_in_India" title="Water pollution in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_pollution_in_Japan" class="mw-redirect" title="Water pollution in Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_pollution_in_the_Philippines" class="mw-redirect" title="Water pollution in the Philippines">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_pollution_in_Vietnam" class="mw-redirect" title="Water pollution in Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Environmental_science" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Environmental_science" title="Template:Environmental science"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Environmental_science" title="Template talk:Environmental science"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Environmental_science" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Environmental science"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Environmental_science" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Environmental_science" title="Environmental science">Environmental science</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Main fields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_science" title="Atmospheric science">Atmospheric science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biogeochemistry" title="Biogeochemistry">Biogeochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecology" title="Ecology">Ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_chemistry" title="Environmental chemistry">Environmental chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth_science" title="Earth science">Geosciences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrology" title="Hydrology">Hydrology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limnology" title="Limnology">Limnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanography" title="Oceanography">Oceanography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_soil_science" title="Environmental soil science">Soil science</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="5" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/File:The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg/100px-The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg/150px-The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg/200px-The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="3002" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related fields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biology" title="Biology">Biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemistry" title="Chemistry">Chemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Green_chemistry" title="Green chemistry">green</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_economics" title="Ecological economics">Ecological economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_design" title="Environmental design">Environmental design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_economics" title="Environmental economics">Environmental economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_engineering" title="Environmental engineering">Environmental engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_health" title="Environmental health">Environmental health</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_epidemiology" title="Environmental epidemiology">epidemiology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_studies" title="Environmental studies">Environmental studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_humanities" title="Environmental humanities">Environmental humanities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_statistics" title="Environmental statistics">Environmental statistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_toxicology" title="Environmental toxicology">Environmental toxicology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geodesy" title="Geodesy">Geodesy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">Physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radioecology" title="Radioecology">Radioecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainability_science" title="Sustainability science">Sustainability science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_ecology" title="Systems ecology">Systems ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_ecology" title="Urban ecology">Urban ecology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Applications</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Energy_conservation" title="Energy conservation">Energy conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_technology" title="Environmental technology">Environmental technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_resource_management" title="Natural resource management">Natural resource management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollution_control" class="mw-redirect" title="Pollution control">Pollution control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_transport" title="Public transport">Public transport encouragement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recycling" title="Recycling">Recycling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_remediation" title="Environmental remediation">Remediation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy" title="Renewable energy">Renewable energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Road_ecology" title="Road ecology">Road ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sewage_treatment" title="Sewage treatment">Sewage treatment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_metabolism" title="Urban metabolism">Urban metabolism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_purification" title="Water purification">Water purification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waste_management" title="Waste management">Waste management</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_environmental_degrees" title="List of environmental degrees">Degrees</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_environmental_journals#Environmental_sciences" title="List of environmental journals">Journals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_environmental_research_institutes" title="List of environmental research institutes">Research institutes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_environmental_science" title="Glossary of environmental science">Glossary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_years_in_the_environment" title="List of years in the environment">Environment by year</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_the_environment" title="Human impact on the environment">Human impact on the environment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainability" title="Sustainability">Sustainability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technogaianism" title="Technogaianism">Technogaianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Environmental_science" title="Category:Environmental science">Category</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Environmental_scientists" title="Category:Environmental scientists">scientists</a></li></ul></li> <li><img alt="" 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Public_health" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Public_health" title="Template:Public health"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Public_health" title="Template talk:Public health"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Public_health" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Public health"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Public_health" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Public_health" title="Public health">Public health</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Auxology" title="Auxology">Auxology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_hazard" title="Biological hazard">Biological hazard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chief_Medical_Officer" class="mw-redirect" title="Chief Medical Officer">Chief Medical Officer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_competence_in_health_care" class="mw-redirect" title="Cultural competence in health care">Cultural competence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deviance_(sociology)" title="Deviance (sociology)">Deviance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_health" title="Environmental health">Environmental health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugenics" title="Eugenics">Eugenics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_eugenics" title="History of eugenics">History of</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_eugenics" title="New eugenics">Liberal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euthenics" title="Euthenics">Euthenics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_health_genomics" title="Public health genomics">Genomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Globalization_and_disease" title="Globalization and disease">Globalization and disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harm_reduction" title="Harm reduction">Harm reduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_economics" title="Health economics">Health economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_literacy" title="Health literacy">Health literacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_policy" title="Health policy">Health policy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Health_system" title="Health system">Health system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_care_reform" title="Health care reform">Health care reform</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Housing_First" title="Housing First">Housing First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_right_to_water_and_sanitation" title="Human right to water and sanitation">Human right to water and sanitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Management_of_depression" title="Management of depression">Management of depression</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Public_health_law" title="Public health law">Public health law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_public_health_institutes" class="mw-redirect" title="National public health institutes">National public health institute</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_politics" title="Health politics">Health politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labor_rights" title="Labor rights">Labor rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maternal_health" title="Maternal health">Maternal health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_anthropology" title="Medical anthropology">Medical anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_sociology" title="Medical sociology">Medical sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mental_health" title="Mental health">Mental health</a> (<a href="/wiki/Minister_of_Mental_Health" title="Minister of Mental Health">Ministers</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_safety_and_health" title="Occupational safety and health">Occupational safety and health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmaceutical_policy" title="Pharmaceutical policy">Pharmaceutical policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollution" title="Pollution">Pollution</a> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Air</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_pollution" title="Water pollution">Water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_pollution" class="mw-redirect" title="Soil pollution">Soil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radioactive_contamination" title="Radioactive contamination">Radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Light_pollution" title="Light pollution">Light</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prisoners%27_rights" title="Prisoners' rights">Prisoners' rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_health_intervention" title="Public health intervention">Public health intervention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_health_laboratory" title="Public health laboratory">Public health laboratory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_food" title="Right to food">Right to food</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_health" title="Right to health">Right to health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_housing" title="Right to housing">Right to housing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_rest_and_leisure" title="Right to rest and leisure">Right to rest and leisure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_sit" title="Right to sit">Right to sit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Security_of_person" title="Security of person">Security of person</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_and_reproductive_health" title="Sexual and reproductive health">Sexual and reproductive health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_psychology" title="Social psychology">Social psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_health_and_illness" title="Sociology of health and illness">Sociology of health and illness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unisex_changing_rooms" title="Unisex changing rooms">Unisex changing rooms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unisex_public_toilets" class="mw-redirect" title="Unisex public toilets">Unisex public toilets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Workers%27_right_to_access_the_toilet" title="Workers' right to access the toilet">Workers' right to access the toilet</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Preventive_healthcare" title="Preventive healthcare">Preventive healthcare</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behavior_change_(public_health)" title="Behavior change (public health)">Behavior change</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behavioural_change_theories" title="Behavioural change theories">Theories</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_planning" title="Family planning">Family planning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_promotion" title="Health promotion">Health promotion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_nutrition" title="Human nutrition">Human nutrition</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Healthy_diet" title="Healthy diet">Healthy diet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Preventive_nutrition" title="Preventive nutrition">Preventive nutrition</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hygiene" title="Hygiene">Hygiene</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Food_safety" title="Food safety">Food safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hand_washing" title="Hand washing">Hand washing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infection_control" class="mw-redirect" title="Infection control">Infection control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oral_hygiene" title="Oral hygiene">Oral hygiene</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_safety_and_health" title="Occupational safety and health">Occupational safety and health</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_factors_and_ergonomics" class="mw-redirect" title="Human factors and ergonomics">Human factors and ergonomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_hygiene" title="Occupational hygiene">Hygiene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drug_policy" title="Drug policy">Controlled Drugs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Injury_prevention" title="Injury prevention">Injury prevention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_medicine" title="Occupational medicine">Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_health_nursing" title="Occupational health nursing">Nursing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patient_safety" title="Patient safety">Patient safety</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Patient_safety_organization" title="Patient safety organization">Organization</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacovigilance" title="Pharmacovigilance">Pharmacovigilance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safe_sex" title="Safe sex">Safe sex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanitation" title="Sanitation">Sanitation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emergency_sanitation" title="Emergency sanitation">Emergency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fecal%E2%80%93oral_route" title="Fecal–oral route">Fecal–oral transmission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_defecation" title="Open defecation">Open defecation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanitary_sewer" title="Sanitary sewer">Sanitary sewer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waterborne_diseases" class="mw-redirect" title="Waterborne diseases">Waterborne diseases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanitation_worker" title="Sanitation worker">Worker</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_hygiene" title="School hygiene">School hygiene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smoking_cessation" title="Smoking cessation">Smoking cessation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaccination" title="Vaccination">Vaccination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vector_control" title="Vector control">Vector control</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Population_health" title="Population health">Population health</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biostatistics" title="Biostatistics">Biostatistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_mortality" title="Child mortality">Child mortality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_health" title="Community health">Community health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epidemiology" title="Epidemiology">Epidemiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_health" title="Global health">Global health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_impact_assessment" title="Health impact assessment">Health impact assessment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_system" title="Health system">Health system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infant_mortality" title="Infant mortality">Infant mortality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_open-source_health_software" title="List of open-source health software">Open-source healthcare software</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multimorbidity" title="Multimorbidity">Multimorbidity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_health_informatics" title="Public health informatics">Public health informatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_determinants_of_health" title="Social determinants of health">Social determinants of health</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Commercial_determinants_of_health" title="Commercial determinants of health">Commercial determinants of health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_equity" title="Health equity">Health equity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Race_and_health" title="Race and health">Race and health</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_medicine" title="Social medicine">Social medicine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Biological and epidemiological statistics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Case%E2%80%93control_study" title="Case–control study">Case–control study</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Randomized_controlled_trial" title="Randomized controlled trial">Randomized controlled trial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relative_risk" title="Relative risk">Relative risk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statistical_hypothesis_testing" class="mw-redirect" title="Statistical hypothesis testing">Statistical hypothesis testing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Analysis_of_variance" title="Analysis of variance">Analysis of variance (ANOVA)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regression_analysis" title="Regression analysis">Regression analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ROC_curve" class="mw-redirect" title="ROC curve">ROC curve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Student%27s_t-test" title="Student's t-test">Student's t-test</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Z-test" title="Z-test">Z-test</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_statistical_packages" class="mw-redirect" title="List of statistical packages">Statistical software</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Infectious and epidemic disease prevention</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asymptomatic_carrier" title="Asymptomatic carrier">Asymptomatic carrier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epidemic" title="Epidemic">Epidemics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_epidemics_and_pandemics" title="List of epidemics and pandemics">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Notifiable_disease" title="Notifiable disease">Notifiable diseases</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_notifiable_diseases" title="List of notifiable diseases">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_health_surveillance" title="Public health surveillance">Public health surveillance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Disease_surveillance" title="Disease surveillance">Disease surveillance</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quarantine" title="Quarantine">Quarantine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexually_transmitted_infection" title="Sexually transmitted infection">Sexually transmitted infection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_distancing" title="Social distancing">Social distancing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_disease" title="Tropical disease">Tropical disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaccine_trial" title="Vaccine trial">Vaccine trial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/WASH" title="WASH">WASH</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Food hygiene and safety management</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Food <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Food_additive" title="Food additive">Additive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_chemistry" title="Food chemistry">Chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_engineering" title="Food engineering">Engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_microbiology" title="Food microbiology">Microbiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_processing" title="Food processing">Processing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_safety" title="Food safety">Safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Food_safety_scandals" title="Category:Food safety scandals">Safety scandals</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Good_agricultural_practice" title="Good agricultural practice">Good agricultural practice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Good_manufacturing_practice" title="Good manufacturing practice">Good manufacturing practice</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/HACCP" class="mw-redirect" title="HACCP">HACCP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_22000" title="ISO 22000">ISO 22000</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Health behavioral sciences</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diffusion_of_innovations" title="Diffusion of innovations">Diffusion of innovations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_belief_model" title="Health belief model">Health belief model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_communication" title="Health communication">Health communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_psychology" title="Health psychology">Health psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positive_deviance" title="Positive deviance">Positive deviance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PRECEDE%E2%80%93PROCEED_model" title="PRECEDE–PROCEED model">PRECEDE–PROCEED model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_cognitive_theory" title="Social cognitive theory">Social cognitive theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_norms_approach" title="Social norms approach">Social norms approach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_planned_behavior" title="Theory of planned behavior">Theory of planned behavior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transtheoretical_model" title="Transtheoretical model">Transtheoretical model</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organizations, education and history</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Caribbean <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Caribbean_Public_Health_Agency" title="Caribbean Public Health Agency">Caribbean Public Health Agency</a></li></ul></li> <li>China <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Center_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention" title="Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention">Center for Disease Control and Prevention</a></li></ul></li> <li>Europe <ul><li><a href="/wiki/European_Centre_for_Disease_Prevention_and_Control" title="European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control">Centre for Disease Prevention and Control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Parliament_Committee_on_the_Environment,_Public_Health_and_Food_Safety" title="European Parliament Committee on the Environment, Public Health and Food Safety">Committee on the Environment, Public Health and Food Safety</a></li></ul></li> <li>India <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Health_and_Family_Welfare" title="Ministry of Health and Family Welfare">Ministry of Health and Family Welfare</a></li></ul></li> <li>Canada <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Health_Canada" title="Health Canada">Health Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_Health_Agency_of_Canada" title="Public Health Agency of Canada">Public Health Agency</a></li></ul></li> <li>U.S. <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Centers_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention" title="Centers for Disease Control and Prevention">Centers for Disease Control and Prevention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_departments_in_the_United_States" title="Health departments in the United States">Health departments in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_on_Education_for_Public_Health" title="Council on Education for Public Health">Council on Education for Public Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Public_Health_Service" title="United States Public Health Service">Public Health Service</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization">World Health Organization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Toilet_Organization" title="World Toilet Organization">World Toilet Organization</a></li> <li>(<a href="/wiki/List_of_national_public_health_agencies" title="List of national public health agencies">Full list</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Education</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Health_education" title="Health education">Health education</a></li> <li>Higher education <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Science_in_Public_Health" title="Bachelor of Science in Public Health">Bachelor of Science in Public Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Public_Health" title="Doctor of Public Health">Doctor of Public Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Professional_degrees_of_public_health" title="Professional degrees of public health">Professional degrees of public health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Schools_of_public_health" title="Category:Schools of public health">Schools of public health</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">History</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sara_Josephine_Baker" title="Sara Josephine Baker">Sara Josephine Baker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Jay_Crumbine" title="Samuel Jay Crumbine">Samuel Jay Crumbine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Rogers_Darnall" title="Carl Rogers Darnall">Carl Rogers Darnall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Lister" title="Joseph Lister">Joseph Lister</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Margaret_Sanger" title="Margaret Sanger">Margaret Sanger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Snow_(physician)" class="mw-redirect" title="John Snow (physician)">John Snow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Mallon" title="Mary Mallon">Typhoid Mary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radium_Girls" title="Radium Girls">Radium Girls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germ_theory_of_disease" title="Germ theory of disease">Germ theory of disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_hygiene_movement" title="Social hygiene movement">Social hygiene movement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Public_health" title="Category:Public health">Category</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Public_health" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Public health">Commons</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/16px-People_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/24px-People_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/32px-People_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Nursing" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Nursing">WikiProject</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Natural_resources" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Natural_resources" title="Template:Natural resources"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Natural_resources" title="Template talk:Natural resources"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Natural_resources" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Natural resources"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Natural_resources" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Natural_resource" title="Natural resource">Natural resources</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Atmosphere_of_Earth" title="Atmosphere of Earth">Air</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.0em;font-weight:normal;"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Pollution / quality</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_Ambient_Air_Quality_Standards" title="National Ambient Air Quality Standards">Ambient standards (US)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Air_quality_index" title="Air quality index">Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indoor_air_quality" title="Indoor air quality">Indoor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Air_quality_law" title="Air quality law">Law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Clean_Air_Act_(United_States)" title="Clean Air Act (United States)">Clean Air Act (US)</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ozone_depletion" title="Ozone depletion">Ozone depletion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.0em;font-weight:normal;">Emissions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Airshed" title="Airshed">Airshed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emissions_trading" title="Emissions trading">Trading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reducing_emissions_from_deforestation_and_forest_degradation" class="mw-redirect" title="Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation">Deforestation (REDD)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Energy" title="Energy">Energy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bioenergy" title="Bioenergy">Bio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_law" title="Energy law">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_resources" class="mw-redirect" title="Energy resources">Resources</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel" title="Fossil fuel">Fossil fuels</a> (<a href="/wiki/Fuel_gas" title="Fuel gas">gas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Peak_coal" title="Peak coal">peak coal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Peak_gas" title="Peak gas">peak gas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Peak_oil" title="Peak oil">peak oil</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geothermal_energy" title="Geothermal energy">Geothermal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydropower" title="Hydropower">Hydro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power" title="Nuclear power">Nuclear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_energy" title="Solar energy">Solar</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sunlight" title="Sunlight">sunlight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shade_(shadow)" title="Shade (shadow)">shade</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind_power" title="Wind power">Wind</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Land" title="Land">Land</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_land" title="Agricultural land">Agricultural</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arable_land" title="Arable land">arable</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Peak_farmland" title="Peak farmland">peak farmland</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_degradation" title="Land degradation">Degradation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Field_(agriculture)" title="Field (agriculture)">Field</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscape" title="Landscape">Landscape</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cityscape" title="Cityscape">cityscape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seascape" title="Seascape">seascape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soundscape" title="Soundscape">soundscape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viewshed" title="Viewshed">viewshed</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_law" title="Land law">Law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Property_law" title="Property law">property</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_management" title="Land management">Management</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Habitat_conservation" title="Habitat conservation">habitat conservation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mineral" title="Mineral">Minerals</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gemstone" title="Gemstone">gemstone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_mineral" title="Industrial mineral">industrial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ore" title="Ore">ore</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Metal" title="Metal">metal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mining" title="Mining">mining</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mining_law" title="Mining law">law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sand_mining" title="Sand mining">sand</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peak_minerals" title="Peak minerals">peak</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Peak_copper" class="mw-redirect" title="Peak copper">copper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peak_phosphorus" class="mw-redirect" title="Peak phosphorus">phosphorus</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mineral_rights" title="Mineral rights">rights</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil" title="Soil">Soil</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Soil_conservation" title="Soil conservation">conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_fertility" title="Soil fertility">fertility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_health" title="Soil health">health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_resilience" title="Soil resilience">resilience</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_use" title="Land use">Use</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Land-use_planning" title="Land-use planning">planning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_space_reserve" title="Open space reserve">reserve</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Life" title="Life">Life</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">Biodiversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioprospecting" title="Bioprospecting">Bioprospecting</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biopiracy" title="Biopiracy">biopiracy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosphere" title="Biosphere">Biosphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bushfood" class="mw-redirect" title="Bushfood">Bushfood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bushmeat" title="Bushmeat">Bushmeat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fishery" title="Fishery">Fisheries</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_fisheries" title="Climate change and fisheries">climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fisheries_law" title="Fisheries law">law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fisheries_management" title="Fisheries management">management</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest" title="Forest">Forests</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Forest_genetic_resources" title="Forest genetic resources">genetic resources</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forestry_law" title="Forestry law">law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest_management" title="Forest management">management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-timber_forest_product" title="Non-timber forest product">non-timber products</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Game_(food)" class="mw-redirect" title="Game (food)">Game</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Game_law" title="Game law">law</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_conservation" title="Marine conservation">Marine conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meadow" title="Meadow">Meadow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pasture" title="Pasture">Pasture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant" title="Plant">Plants</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plant_Treaty" class="mw-redirect" title="Plant Treaty">FAO Plant Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food" title="Food">food</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_genetic_resources" title="Plant genetic resources">genetic resources</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gene_bank" title="Gene bank">gene banks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_plants_used_in_herbalism" title="List of plants used in herbalism">herbal medicines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UPOV" class="mw-redirect" title="UPOV">UPOV Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wood" title="Wood">wood</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rangeland" title="Rangeland">Rangeland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seed_bank" title="Seed bank">Seed bank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildlife" title="Wildlife">Wildlife</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wildlife_conservation" title="Wildlife conservation">conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildlife_management" title="Wildlife management">management</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Water" title="Water">Water</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.0em;font-weight:normal;">Types / location</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aquifer" title="Aquifer">Aquifer</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aquifer_storage_and_recovery" title="Aquifer storage and recovery">storage and recovery</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drinking_water" title="Drinking water">Drinking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fresh_water" title="Fresh water">Fresh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Groundwater" title="Groundwater">Groundwater</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Groundwater_pollution" title="Groundwater pollution">pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Groundwater_recharge" title="Groundwater recharge">recharge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Groundwater_remediation" title="Groundwater remediation">remediation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrosphere" title="Hydrosphere">Hydrosphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice" title="Ice">Ice</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iceberg" title="Iceberg">bergs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glacier" title="Glacier">glacial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polar_ice_cap" title="Polar ice cap">polar</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irrigation" title="Irrigation">Irrigation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Huerta" title="Huerta">huerta</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_resources" title="Marine resources">Marine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rain" title="Rain">Rain</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rainwater_harvesting" title="Rainwater harvesting">harvesting</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stormwater" title="Stormwater">Stormwater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surface_water" title="Surface water">Surface water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sewage" title="Sewage">Sewage</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reclaimed_water" title="Reclaimed water">reclaimed water</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drainage_basin" title="Drainage basin">Watershed</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.0em;font-weight:normal;">Aspects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Desalination" title="Desalination">Desalination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flood" title="Flood">Floods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Water law">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leaching_(agriculture)" title="Leaching (agriculture)">Leaching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanitation" title="Sanitation">Sanitation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Improved_sanitation" title="Improved sanitation">improved</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_scarcity" title="Water scarcity">Scarcity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_security" title="Water security">Security</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply" title="Water supply">Supply</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_efficiency" title="Water efficiency">Efficiency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_conflict" title="Water conflict">Conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_conservation" title="Water conservation">Conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peak_water" title="Peak water">Peak water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_pollution" title="Water pollution">Pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_privatization" title="Water privatization">Privatization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_quality" title="Water quality">Quality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_right" title="Water right">Right</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_resources" title="Water resources">Resources</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Improved_water_source" title="Improved water source">improved</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_resource_policy" title="Water resource policy">policy</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Commons" title="Commons">Commons</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Enclosure" title="Enclosure">enclosure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_commons" title="Global commons">global</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_land" title="Common land">land</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tragedy_of_the_commons" title="Tragedy of the commons">tragedy of</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_resource_economics" title="Natural resource economics">Economics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_economics" title="Ecological economics">ecological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_(economics)" title="Land (economics)">land</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_services" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecosystem services">Ecosystem services</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exploitation_of_natural_resources" title="Exploitation of natural resources">Exploitation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Overexploitation" title="Overexploitation">overexploitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth_Overshoot_Day" title="Earth Overshoot Day">Earth Overshoot Day</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_resource_management" title="Natural resource management">Management</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adaptive_management" title="Adaptive management">adaptive</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_capital" title="Natural capital">Natural capital</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Natural_capital_accounting" title="Natural capital accounting">accounting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_good" title="Environmental good">good</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_heritage" title="Natural heritage">Natural heritage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature_reserve" title="Nature reserve">Nature reserve</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Remnant_natural_area" title="Remnant natural area">remnant natural area</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_ecology" title="Systems ecology">Systems ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_ecology" title="Urban ecology">Urban ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilderness" title="Wilderness">Wilderness</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.0em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Resource" title="Resource">Resource</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Common-pool_resource" title="Common-pool resource">Common-pool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_resource" class="mw-redirect" title="Conflict resource">Conflict (perpetuation)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resource_curse" title="Resource curse">Curse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resource_depletion" title="Resource depletion">Depletion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resource_extraction" class="mw-redirect" title="Resource extraction">Extraction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resource_nationalism" title="Resource nationalism">Nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_resource" title="Renewable resource">Renewable</a> / <a href="/wiki/Non-renewable_resource" title="Non-renewable resource">Non-renewable</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" 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