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class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Early_life" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_life"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Early life</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_life-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Formal_education" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Formal_education"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Formal education</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Formal_education-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Teaching_career" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Teaching_career"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Teaching career</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Teaching_career-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li 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</li> <li id="toc-Personality_and_beliefs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Personality_and_beliefs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Personality and beliefs</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Personality_and_beliefs-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Personality and beliefs subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Personality_and_beliefs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Character" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Character"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Character</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Character-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Religious_views" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Religious_views"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Religious views</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Religious_views-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Published_works" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Published_works"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Published works</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Published_works-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Published works subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Published_works-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-The_Theory_of_Moral_Sentiments" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Theory_of_Moral_Sentiments"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span><i>The Theory of Moral Sentiments</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Theory_of_Moral_Sentiments-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Wealth_of_Nations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Wealth_of_Nations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span><i>The Wealth of Nations</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Wealth_of_Nations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_works" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_works"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Other works</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_works-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Legacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Legacy</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Legacy-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Legacy subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Legacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-In_economics_and_moral_philosophy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_economics_and_moral_philosophy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>In economics and moral philosophy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_economics_and_moral_philosophy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_British_imperial_debates" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_British_imperial_debates"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>In British imperial debates</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_British_imperial_debates-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Portraits,_monuments,_and_banknotes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Portraits,_monuments,_and_banknotes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Portraits, monuments, and banknotes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Portraits,_monuments,_and_banknotes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Panmure_House" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Panmure_House"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Panmure House</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Panmure_House-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-As_a_symbol_of_free-market_economics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#As_a_symbol_of_free-market_economics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.5</span> <span>As a symbol of free-market economics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-As_a_symbol_of_free-market_economics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Informational_notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Informational_notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Informational notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Informational_notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Citations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Adam Smith</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 157 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-157" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">157 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Adam Smith" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Adam Smith" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8A%A0%E1%8B%B3%E1%88%9D_%E1%88%B5%E1%88%9A%E1%88%B5" title="አዳም ስሚስ – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="አዳም ስሚስ" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>አማርኛ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-anp mw-list-item"><a href="https://anp.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%90%E0%A4%A1%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%AE_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A5" title="ऐडेम स्मिथ – Angika" lang="anp" hreflang="anp" data-title="ऐडेम स्मिथ" data-language-autonym="अंगिका" data-language-local-name="Angika" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>अंगिका</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A2%D8%AF%D9%85_%D8%B3%D9%85%D9%8A%D8%AB" title="آدم سميث – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="آدم سميث" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Adam Smith" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%8F%E0%A6%A1%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AE_%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A5" title="এডাম স্মিথ – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="এডাম স্মিথ" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>অসমীয়া</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Adam Smith" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-awa mw-list-item"><a href="https://awa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%8F%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%AE_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A5" title="एडम स्मिथ – Awadhi" lang="awa" hreflang="awa" data-title="एडम स्मिथ" data-language-autonym="अवधी" data-language-local-name="Awadhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>अवधी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Adam Smith" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Avañe'ẽ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ay mw-list-item"><a href="https://ay.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith – Aymara" lang="ay" hreflang="ay" data-title="Adam Smith" data-language-autonym="Aymar aru" data-language-local-name="Aymara" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aymar aru</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam_Smit" title="Adam Smit – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Adam Smit" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A2%D8%AF%D8%A7%D9%85_%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%B3%D9%85%DB%8C%D8%AA" title="آدام ایسمیت – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="آدام ایسمیت" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%85%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A1%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AE_%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A5" title="অ্যাডাম স্মিথ – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="অ্যাডাম স্মিথ" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Adam Smith" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BC_%D0%A1%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%82" title="Адам Смит – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Адам Смит" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BC_%D0%A1%D0%BC%D1%96%D1%82" title="Адам Сміт – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Адам Сміт" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BC_%D0%A1%D1%8C%D0%BC%D1%96%D1%82" title="Адам Сьміт – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Адам Сьміт" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%8F%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%AE_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A5" title="एडम स्मिथ – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="एडम स्मिथ" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>भोजपुरी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BC_%D0%A1%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%82" title="Адам Смит – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Адам Смит" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Adam Smith" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Adam Smith" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Adam Smith" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BC_%D0%A1%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%82" title="Адам Смит – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Адам Смит" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Adam Smith" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-co mw-list-item"><a href="https://co.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith – Corsican" lang="co" hreflang="co" data-title="Adam Smith" data-language-autonym="Corsu" data-language-local-name="Corsican" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Corsu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Adam Smith" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Adam Smith" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Adam Smith" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dty mw-list-item"><a href="https://dty.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%8F%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%AE_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A5" title="एडम स्मिथ – Doteli" lang="dty" hreflang="dty" data-title="एडम स्मिथ" data-language-autonym="डोटेली" data-language-local-name="Doteli" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>डोटेली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Adam Smith" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%86%CE%BD%CF%84%CE%B1%CE%BC_%CE%A3%CE%BC%CE%B9%CE%B8" title="Άνταμ Σμιθ – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Άνταμ Σμιθ" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-myv mw-list-item"><a href="https://myv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BC_%D0%A1%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%82" title="Адам Смит – Erzya" lang="myv" hreflang="myv" data-title="Адам Смит" data-language-autonym="Эрзянь" data-language-local-name="Erzya" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Эрзянь</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Adam Smith" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Adam Smith" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ext mw-list-item"><a href="https://ext.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith – Extremaduran" lang="ext" hreflang="ext" data-title="Adam Smith" data-language-autonym="Estremeñu" data-language-local-name="Extremaduran" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Estremeñu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Adam Smith" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A2%D8%AF%D8%A7%D9%85_%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%85%DB%8C%D8%AA" title="آدام اسمیت – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="آدام اسمیت" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Adam Smith" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Fiji Hindi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fo mw-list-item"><a href="https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith – Faroese" lang="fo" hreflang="fo" data-title="Adam Smith" data-language-autonym="Føroyskt" data-language-local-name="Faroese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Føroyskt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Adam Smith" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Adam Smith" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Adam Smith" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gv mw-list-item"><a href="https://gv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith – Manx" lang="gv" hreflang="gv" data-title="Adam Smith" data-language-autonym="Gaelg" data-language-local-name="Manx" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaelg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Adam Smith" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gàidhlig</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Adam Smith" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gu mw-list-item"><a href="https://gu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AA%86%E0%AA%A6%E0%AA%AE_%E0%AA%B8%E0%AB%8D%E0%AA%AE%E0%AA%BF%E0%AA%A5" title="આદમ સ્મિથ – Gujarati" lang="gu" hreflang="gu" data-title="આદમ સ્મિથ" data-language-autonym="ગુજરાતી" data-language-local-name="Gujarati" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ગુજરાતી</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-guw mw-list-item"><a href="https://guw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith – Gun" lang="guw" hreflang="guw" data-title="Adam Smith" data-language-autonym="Gungbe" data-language-local-name="Gun" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gungbe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%95%A0%EB%8D%A4_%EC%8A%A4%EB%AF%B8%EC%8A%A4" title="애덤 스미스 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="애덤 스미스" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Adam Smith" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hausa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B1%D5%A4%D5%A1%D5%B4_%D5%8D%D5%B4%D5%AB%D5%A9" title="Ադամ Սմիթ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Ադամ Սմիթ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%8F%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%AE_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A5" title="एडम स्मिथ – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="एडम स्मिथ" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Adam Smith" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Adam Smith" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="Adam Smith" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="Iloko" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ilokano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Adam Smith" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Adam Smith" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-os mw-list-item"><a href="https://os.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%82,_%D0%90%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BC" title="Смит, Адам – Ossetic" lang="os" hreflang="os" data-title="Смит, Адам" data-language-autonym="Ирон" data-language-local-name="Ossetic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ирон</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Adam Smith" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Adam Smith" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%93%D7%9D_%D7%A1%D7%9E%D7%99%D7%AA" title="אדם סמית – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="אדם סמית" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Adam Smith" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kbp mw-list-item"><a href="https://kbp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith – Kabiye" lang="kbp" hreflang="kbp" data-title="Adam Smith" data-language-autonym="Kabɩyɛ" data-language-local-name="Kabiye" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kabɩyɛ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%86%E0%B2%A1%E0%B2%AE%E0%B3%8D_%E0%B2%B8%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%AE%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%A4%E0%B3%8D" title="ಆಡಮ್ ಸ್ಮಿತ್ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಆಡಮ್ ಸ್ಮಿತ್" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%90%E1%83%93%E1%83%90%E1%83%9B_%E1%83%A1%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98%E1%83%97%E1%83%98" title="ადამ სმითი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ადამ სმითი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BC_%D0%A1%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%82" title="Адам Смит – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Адам Смит" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith – Cornish" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="Adam Smith" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="Cornish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kernowek</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Adam Smith" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Adam Smith" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BC_%D0%A1%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%82" title="Адам Смит – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Адам Смит" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adamus_Smith" title="Adamus Smith – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Adamus Smith" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%80dams_Smits" title="Ādams Smits – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Ādams Smits" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Adam Smith" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lëtzebuergesch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Adam Smith" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Adam Smith" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Limburgs</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Adam Smith" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingua Franca Nova</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-olo mw-list-item"><a href="https://olo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith – Livvi-Karelian" lang="olo" hreflang="olo" data-title="Adam Smith" data-language-autonym="Livvinkarjala" data-language-local-name="Livvi-Karelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Livvinkarjala</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jbo mw-list-item"><a href="https://jbo.wikipedia.org/wiki/.adam._smit." title=".adam. smit. – Lojban" lang="jbo" hreflang="jbo" data-title=".adam. smit." data-language-autonym="La .lojban." data-language-local-name="Lojban" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>La .lojban.</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Adam Smith" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lombard</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Adam Smith" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mai mw-list-item"><a href="https://mai.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%8F%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%AE_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A5" title="एडम स्मिथ – Maithili" lang="mai" hreflang="mai" data-title="एडम स्मिथ" data-language-autonym="मैथिली" data-language-local-name="Maithili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मैथिली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BC_%D0%A1%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%82" title="Адам Смит – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Адам Смит" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Adam Smith" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%86%E0%B4%A1%E0%B4%82_%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AE%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D" title="ആഡം സ്മിത്ത് – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ആഡം സ്മിത്ത്" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A5%B2%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%AE_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A5" title="ॲडम स्मिथ – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="ॲडम स्मिथ" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%90%E1%83%93%E1%83%90%E1%83%9B_%E1%83%A1%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98%E1%83%97%E1%83%98" title="ადამ სმითი – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="ადამ სმითი" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%AF%D9%85_%D8%B3%D9%85%D9%8A%D8%AB" title="ادم سميث – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="ادم سميث" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A2%D8%AF%D8%A7%D9%85_%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%85%DB%8C%D8%AA" title="آدام اسمیت – Mazanderani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="آدام اسمیت" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="Mazanderani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مازِرونی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Adam Smith" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-min mw-list-item"><a href="https://min.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith – Minangkabau" lang="min" hreflang="min" data-title="Adam Smith" data-language-autonym="Minangkabau" data-language-local-name="Minangkabau" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Minangkabau</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl mw-list-item"><a href="https://mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith – Mirandese" lang="mwl" hreflang="mwl" data-title="Adam Smith" data-language-autonym="Mirandés" data-language-local-name="Mirandese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Mirandés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BC_%D0%A1%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%82" title="Адам Смит – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Адам Смит" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%A1%E1%80%80%E1%80%BA%E1%80%92%E1%80%99%E1%80%BA_%E1%80%85%E1%80%99%E1%80%85%E1%80%BA" title="အက်ဒမ် စမစ် – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="အက်ဒမ် စမစ်" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Adam Smith" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%8F%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%AE_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A5" title="एडम स्मिथ – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="एडम स्मिथ" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%A2%E3%83%80%E3%83%A0%E3%83%BB%E3%82%B9%E3%83%9F%E3%82%B9" title="アダム・スミス – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="アダム・スミス" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce mw-list-item"><a href="https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%82,_%D0%90%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BC" title="Смит, Адам – Chechen" lang="ce" hreflang="ce" data-title="Смит, Адам" data-language-autonym="Нохчийн" data-language-local-name="Chechen" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Нохчийн</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Adam Smith" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Adam Smith" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Adam Smith" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-or mw-list-item"><a href="https://or.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AC%86%E0%AC%A1%E0%AC%BE%E0%AC%AE%E0%AD%8D_%E0%AC%B8%E0%AD%8D%E0%AC%AE%E0%AC%BF%E0%AC%A5%E0%AD%8D" title="ଆଡାମ୍ ସ୍ମିଥ୍ – Odia" lang="or" hreflang="or" data-title="ଆଡାମ୍ ସ୍ମିଥ୍" data-language-autonym="ଓଡ଼ିଆ" data-language-local-name="Odia" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ଓଡ଼ିଆ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Adam Smith" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%90%E0%A8%A1%E0%A8%AE_%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%AE%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%A5" title="ਐਡਮ ਸਮਿਥ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਐਡਮ ਸਮਿਥ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%DB%8C%DA%88%D9%85_%D8%B3%D9%85%D8%AA%DA%BE" title="ایڈم سمتھ – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="ایڈم سمتھ" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%AF%D9%85_%D8%B3%D9%85%DB%90%D8%AA" title="ادم سمېت – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="ادم سمېت" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Adam Smith" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Piemontèis</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Adam Smith" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Plattdüütsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Adam Smith" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Adam Smith" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kaa mw-list-item"><a href="https://kaa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith – Kara-Kalpak" lang="kaa" hreflang="kaa" data-title="Adam Smith" data-language-autonym="Qaraqalpaqsha" data-language-local-name="Kara-Kalpak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Qaraqalpaqsha</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-crh mw-list-item"><a href="https://crh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam_Smit" title="Adam Smit – Crimean Tatar" lang="crh" hreflang="crh" data-title="Adam Smit" data-language-autonym="Qırımtatarca" data-language-local-name="Crimean Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Qırımtatarca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Adam Smith" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rm mw-list-item"><a href="https://rm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith – Romansh" lang="rm" hreflang="rm" data-title="Adam Smith" data-language-autonym="Rumantsch" data-language-local-name="Romansh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Rumantsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Adam Smith" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Runa Simi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BC_%D0%A1%D0%BC%D1%96%D1%82" title="Адам Сміт – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Адам Сміт" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русиньскый</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%82,_%D0%90%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BC" title="Смит, Адам – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Смит, Адам" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BC_%D0%A1%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%82" title="Адам Смит – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Адам Смит" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Саха тыла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-szy mw-list-item"><a href="https://szy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ya-tang-se-mi-si" title="Ya-tang-se-mi-si – Sakizaya" lang="szy" hreflang="szy" data-title="Ya-tang-se-mi-si" data-language-autonym="Sakizaya" data-language-local-name="Sakizaya" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sakizaya</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa mw-list-item"><a href="https://sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%8F%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%AE_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A5" title="एडम स्मिथ – Sanskrit" lang="sa" hreflang="sa" data-title="एडम स्मिथ" data-language-autonym="संस्कृतम्" data-language-local-name="Sanskrit" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>संस्कृतम्</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sat mw-list-item"><a href="https://sat.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%B1%AE%E1%B1%B0%E1%B1%9F%E1%B1%A2_%E1%B1%A4%E1%B1%A5%E1%B1%A2%E1%B1%A4%E1%B1%9B%E1%B1%B7" title="ᱮᱰᱟᱢ ᱤᱥᱢᱤᱛᱷ – Santali" lang="sat" hreflang="sat" data-title="ᱮᱰᱟᱢ ᱤᱥᱢᱤᱛᱷ" data-language-autonym="ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ" data-language-local-name="Santali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Adam Smith" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Adam Smith" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Adam Smith" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sicilianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%87%E0%B6%A9%E0%B6%B8%E0%B7%8A_%E0%B7%83%E0%B7%8A%E0%B6%B8%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%AD%E0%B7%8A" title="ඇඩම් ස්මිත් – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="ඇඩම් ස්මිත්" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Adam Smith" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Adam Smith" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Adam Smith" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A6%D8%A7%D8%AF%DB%95%D9%85_%D8%B3%D9%85%DB%8C%D8%AA" title="ئادەم سمیت – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="ئادەم سمیت" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BC_%D0%A1%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%82" title="Адам Смит – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Адам Смит" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Adam Smith" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Adam Smith" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Adam Smith" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Adam Smith" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%86%E0%AE%9F%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%8D" title="ஆடம் சிமித் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="ஆடம் சிமித்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kab mw-list-item"><a href="https://kab.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith – Kabyle" lang="kab" hreflang="kab" data-title="Adam Smith" data-language-autonym="Taqbaylit" data-language-local-name="Kabyle" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Taqbaylit</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam_Smit" title="Adam Smit – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Adam Smit" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%86%E0%B0%A1%E0%B0%82_%E0%B0%B8%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%AE%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%A4%E0%B1%8D" title="ఆడం స్మిత్ – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="ఆడం స్మిత్" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%94%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%A1_%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%98" title="อดัม สมิธ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="อดัม สมิธ" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BC_%D0%A1%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%82" title="Адам Смит – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Адам Смит" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Adam Smith" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BC_%D0%A1%D0%BC%D1%96%D1%82" title="Адам Сміт – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Адам Сміт" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A2%D8%AF%D9%85_%D8%B3%D9%85%D8%AA%DA%BE" title="آدم سمتھ – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="آدم سمتھ" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vep mw-list-item"><a href="https://vep.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smit_Adam" title="Smit Adam – Veps" lang="vep" hreflang="vep" data-title="Smit Adam" data-language-autonym="Vepsän kel’" data-language-local-name="Veps" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vepsän kel’</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Adam Smith" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vo mw-list-item"><a href="https://vo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith – Volapük" lang="vo" hreflang="vo" data-title="Adam Smith" data-language-autonym="Volapük" data-language-local-name="Volapük" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Volapük</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fiu-vro mw-list-item"><a href="https://fiu-vro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smithi_Adam" title="Smithi Adam – Võro" lang="vro" hreflang="vro" data-title="Smithi Adam" data-language-autonym="Võro" data-language-local-name="Võro" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Võro</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%96%AF%E5%AF%86%E4%BA%9E%E4%B8%B9" title="斯密亞丹 – Literary Chinese" lang="lzh" hreflang="lzh" data-title="斯密亞丹" data-language-autonym="文言" data-language-local-name="Literary Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>文言</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vls mw-list-item"><a href="https://vls.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith – West Flemish" lang="vls" hreflang="vls" data-title="Adam Smith" data-language-autonym="West-Vlams" data-language-local-name="West Flemish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>West-Vlams</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Adam Smith" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BA%9A%E5%BD%93%C2%B7%E6%96%AF%E5%AF%86" title="亚当·斯密 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="亚当·斯密" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%93%D7%9D_%D7%A1%D7%9E%D7%99%D7%98" title="אדם סמיט – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="אדם סמיט" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ייִדיש</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yo mw-list-item"><a href="https://yo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith – Yoruba" lang="yo" hreflang="yo" data-title="Adam Smith" data-language-autonym="Yorùbá" data-language-local-name="Yoruba" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Yorùbá</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BA%9E%E7%95%B6%E5%8F%B2%E5%AF%86%E5%A4%AB" title="亞當史密夫 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="亞當史密夫" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq mw-list-item"><a href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith – Zazaki" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" data-title="Adam Smith" data-language-autonym="Zazaki" data-language-local-name="Zazaki" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Zazaki</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bat-smg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bat-smg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adams_Smits" title="Adams Smits – Samogitian" lang="sgs" hreflang="sgs" data-title="Adams Smits" data-language-autonym="Žemaitėška" data-language-local-name="Samogitian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Žemaitėška</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BA%9A%E5%BD%93%C2%B7%E6%96%AF%E5%AF%86" title="亚当·斯密 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="亚当·斯密" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-btm mw-list-item"><a href="https://btm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith – Batak Mandailing" lang="btm" hreflang="btm" data-title="Adam Smith" data-language-autonym="Batak Mandailing" data-language-local-name="Batak Mandailing" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Batak Mandailing</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q9381#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div 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							cdx-button--size-medium cdx-button--icon-only cdx-dialog__header__close-button" aria-label="Close" onclick="document.getElementById("mw-fr-revision-details").style.display = "none";" type="submit"><span class="cdx-icon cdx-icon--medium
							cdx-fr-css-icon--close"></span></button></header><div class="cdx-dialog__body">This is the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Pending_changes" title="Wikipedia:Pending changes">latest accepted revision</a>, <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Log&type=review&page=Adam_Smith">reviewed</a> on <i>19 November 2024</i>.</div></div><div tabindex="0"></div></div></div></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Scottish economist and philosopher (1723–1790)</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the Scottish economist and philosopher. For other people named Adam Smith, see <a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Adam Smith (disambiguation)">Adam Smith (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox biography vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:125%;"><div class="fn">Adam Smith</div><div class="honorific-suffix" style="font-size: 77%; font-weight: normal;"><span class="nobold noexcerpt nowraplinks" style="font-size:;"><span style="font-size: 100%;"><a href="/wiki/Fellow_of_the_Royal_Society" title="Fellow of the Royal Society">FRS</a></span> <span style="font-size: 100%;"><a href="/wiki/Fellow_of_the_Royal_Society_of_Edinburgh" class="mw-redirect" title="Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh">FRSE</a></span> <span style="font-size: 100%;"><a href="/wiki/Fellow_of_the_Royal_Society_of_Arts" class="mw-redirect" title="Fellow of the Royal Society of Arts">FRSA</a></span></span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Adam_Smith_The_Muir_portrait.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A portrait of Adam Smith" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Adam_Smith_The_Muir_portrait.jpg/220px-Adam_Smith_The_Muir_portrait.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="268" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Adam_Smith_The_Muir_portrait.jpg/330px-Adam_Smith_The_Muir_portrait.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Adam_Smith_The_Muir_portrait.jpg/440px-Adam_Smith_The_Muir_portrait.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1893" data-file-height="2307" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">Posthumous <i>Muir portrait</i>, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1800</span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Born</th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="circa">c.</span><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 16 June</span> [<a href="/wiki/Old_Style_and_New_Style_dates" title="Old Style and New Style dates">O.S.</a> <span title="circa">c.</span><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 5 June</span>] 1723<sup id="cite_ref-baptism_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-baptism-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><br /><div style="display:inline" class="birthplace"><a href="/wiki/Kirkcaldy" title="Kirkcaldy">Kirkcaldy</a>, Fife, Scotland</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Died</th><td class="infobox-data">17 July 1790<span style="display:none">(1790-07-17)</span> (aged 67)<br /><div style="display:inline" class="deathplace"><a href="/wiki/Edinburgh" title="Edinburgh">Edinburgh</a>, Scotland</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Alma mater</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Glasgow" title="University of Glasgow">University of Glasgow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balliol_College,_Oxford" title="Balliol College, Oxford">Balliol College, Oxford</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><span style="white-space:nowrap;">Notable work</span></th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Theory_of_Moral_Sentiments" title="The Theory of Moral Sentiments">The Theory of Moral Sentiments</a></i> (1759)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Wealth_of_Nations" title="The Wealth of Nations">The Wealth of Nations</a></i> (1776)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Era</th><td class="infobox-data category"><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_period" title="Early modern period">Early modern period</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Region</th><td class="infobox-data category"><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western philosophy</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Main interests</div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">Political philosophy</a>, ethics, economics</td></tr><tr class="note"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Notable ideas</div></th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_economics" title="Classical economics">Classical economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_market" title="Free market">Free market</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Division_of_labour" title="Division of labour">Division of labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Absolute_advantage" title="Absolute advantage">Absolute advantage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invisible_hand" title="Invisible hand">Invisible hand</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header">Signature</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><span class="infobox-signature skin-invert" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Adam_Smith_signature_1783.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Adam_Smith_signature_1783.svg/150px-Adam_Smith_signature_1783.svg.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="23" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Adam_Smith_signature_1783.svg/225px-Adam_Smith_signature_1783.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Adam_Smith_signature_1783.svg/300px-Adam_Smith_signature_1783.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="585" data-file-height="89" /></a></span></td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline 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class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Supply-demand-equilibrium.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Supply-demand-equilibrium.svg/120px-Supply-demand-equilibrium.svg.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Supply-demand-equilibrium.svg/180px-Supply-demand-equilibrium.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Supply-demand-equilibrium.svg/240px-Supply-demand-equilibrium.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="217" data-file-height="217" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_economic_thought" title="History of economic thought">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_economics" title="Outline of economics">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_economics_articles" title="Index of economics articles">Index</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td 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href="/wiki/Welfare_economics" title="Welfare economics">Welfare</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;;color: var(--color-base)">Notable <a href="/wiki/Economist" title="Economist">economists</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_de_Mandeville" class="mw-redirect" title="Bernard de Mandeville">de Mandeville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Quesnay" title="François Quesnay">Quesnay</a></li> <li>Smith</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Robert_Malthus" title="Thomas Robert Malthus">Malthus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Say" title="Jean-Baptiste Say">Say</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Ricardo" title="David Ricardo">Ricardo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Heinrich_von_Th%C3%BCnen" title="Johann Heinrich von Thünen">von Thünen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_List" title="Friedrich List">List</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Bastiat" title="Frédéric Bastiat">Bastiat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antoine_Augustin_Cournot" title="Antoine Augustin Cournot">Cournot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">Mill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermann_Heinrich_Gossen" title="Hermann Heinrich Gossen">Gossen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Marx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L%C3%A9on_Walras" title="Léon Walras">Walras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Stanley_Jevons" title="William Stanley Jevons">Jevons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_George" title="Henry George">George</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Menger" title="Carl Menger">Menger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Marshall" title="Alfred Marshall">Marshall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Ysidro_Edgeworth" title="Francis Ysidro Edgeworth">Edgeworth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Bates_Clark" title="John Bates Clark">Clark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vilfredo_Pareto" title="Vilfredo Pareto">Pareto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugen_von_B%C3%B6hm-Bawerk" title="Eugen von Böhm-Bawerk">von Böhm-Bawerk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_von_Wieser" title="Friedrich von Wieser">von Wieser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thorstein_Veblen" title="Thorstein Veblen">Veblen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irving_Fisher" title="Irving Fisher">Fisher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Cecil_Pigou" title="Arthur Cecil Pigou">Pigou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eli_Heckscher" title="Eli Heckscher">Heckscher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_von_Mises" title="Ludwig von Mises">von Mises</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Schumpeter" title="Joseph Schumpeter">Schumpeter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Maynard_Keynes" title="John Maynard Keynes">Keynes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frank_Knight" title="Frank Knight">Knight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Polanyi" title="Karl Polanyi">Polanyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ragnar_Frisch" title="Ragnar Frisch">Frisch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piero_Sraffa" title="Piero Sraffa">Sraffa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gunnar_Myrdal" title="Gunnar Myrdal">Myrdal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Hayek" title="Friedrich Hayek">Hayek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Micha%C5%82_Kalecki" title="Michał Kalecki">Kalecki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_R%C3%B6pke" title="Wilhelm Röpke">Röpke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simon_Kuznets" title="Simon Kuznets">Kuznets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jan_Tinbergen" title="Jan Tinbergen">Tinbergen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joan_Robinson" title="Joan Robinson">Robinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_von_Neumann" title="John von Neumann">von Neumann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Hicks" title="John Hicks">Hicks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oskar_R._Lange" title="Oskar R. Lange">Lange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wassily_Leontief" title="Wassily Leontief">Leontief</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Kenneth_Galbraith" title="John Kenneth Galbraith">Galbraith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tjalling_Koopmans" title="Tjalling Koopmans">Koopmans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/E._F._Schumacher" title="E. F. Schumacher">Schumacher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Milton_Friedman" title="Milton Friedman">Friedman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Samuelson" title="Paul Samuelson">Samuelson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_A._Simon" title="Herbert A. Simon">Simon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_M._Buchanan" title="James M. Buchanan">Buchanan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Arrow" title="Kenneth Arrow">Arrow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Baumol" title="William Baumol">Baumol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Solow" title="Robert Solow">Solow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murray_Rothbard" title="Murray Rothbard">Rothbard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alan_Greenspan" title="Alan Greenspan">Greenspan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Sowell" title="Thomas Sowell">Sowell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gary_Becker" title="Gary Becker">Becker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elinor_Ostrom" title="Elinor Ostrom">Ostrom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amartya_Sen" title="Amartya Sen">Sen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Lucas_Jr." title="Robert Lucas Jr.">Lucas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stiglitz" title="Joseph Stiglitz">Stiglitz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Thaler" title="Richard Thaler">Thaler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans-Hermann_Hoppe" title="Hans-Hermann Hoppe">Hoppe</a></li> <li><a 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p>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output table:not(.notheme) .tmp-color{color:inherit!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output div:not(.notheme)>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output p>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output table:not(.notheme) .tmp-color{color:inherit!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">This article is part of a series on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background:#F5DD00; padding-top:0.25em; font-size:160%; font-weight:normal; color:black; line-height:1em"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:#000">Libertarianism<br />in Scotland</span></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Coat_of_arms_of_the_United_Kingdom_in_Scotland.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Coat_of_arms_of_the_United_Kingdom_in_Scotland.svg/90px-Coat_of_arms_of_the_United_Kingdom_in_Scotland.svg.png" decoding="async" width="90" height="87" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Coat_of_arms_of_the_United_Kingdom_in_Scotland.svg/135px-Coat_of_arms_of_the_United_Kingdom_in_Scotland.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Coat_of_arms_of_the_United_Kingdom_in_Scotland.svg/180px-Coat_of_arms_of_the_United_Kingdom_in_Scotland.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1550" data-file-height="1500" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; border-top:1px solid #AAA; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">History</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment#Scotland" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; border-top:1px solid #AAA; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">People</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mark_Meechan" title="Mark Meechan">Count Dankula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">Hume</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Smith</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; border-top:1px solid #AAA; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Organizations</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_Independence_Party" class="mw-redirect" title="United Kingdom Independence Party">UKIP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_Libertarian_Party" title="Scottish Libertarian Party">Scottish Libertarian Party</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; border-top:1px solid #AAA; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Works</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Wealth_of_Nations" title="The Wealth of Nations">The Wealth of Nations</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1776)</span></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below plainlist" style="padding-bottom:0.22em; border-top:1px solid #AAA; border-bottom:1px solid #AAA"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="diagram" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Libertarianism-groups-diagram.png/16px-Libertarianism-groups-diagram.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Libertarianism-groups-diagram.png/24px-Libertarianism-groups-diagram.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Libertarianism-groups-diagram.png/32px-Libertarianism-groups-diagram.png 2x" data-file-width="647" data-file-height="647" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Libertarianism" title="Portal:Libertarianism">Libertarianism portal</a></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Flag_of_Scotland.svg/16px-Flag_of_Scotland.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Flag_of_Scotland.svg/24px-Flag_of_Scotland.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Flag_of_Scotland.svg/32px-Flag_of_Scotland.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Scotland" title="Portal:Scotland">Scotland portal</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Libertarianism_in_Scotland" title="Template:Libertarianism in Scotland"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Libertarianism_in_Scotland" title="Template talk:Libertarianism in Scotland"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Libertarianism_in_Scotland" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Libertarianism in Scotland"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Adam Smith</b> <span class="nobold noexcerpt nowraplinks" style="font-size:;"><span style="font-size: 100%;"><a href="/wiki/Fellow_of_the_Royal_Society" title="Fellow of the Royal Society">FRS</a></span> <span style="font-size: 100%;"><a href="/wiki/Fellow_of_the_Royal_Society_of_Edinburgh" class="mw-redirect" title="Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh">FRSE</a></span> <span style="font-size: 100%;"><a href="/wiki/Fellow_of_the_Royal_Society_of_Arts" class="mw-redirect" title="Fellow of the Royal Society of Arts">FRSA</a></span></span> (baptised 16 June [<a href="/wiki/Old_Style_and_New_Style_dates" title="Old Style and New Style dates">O.S.</a> 5 June] 1723<sup id="cite_ref-baptism_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-baptism-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> – 17 July 1790) was a Scottish<sup id="cite_ref-note_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> economist and philosopher who was a pioneer in the thinking of <a href="/wiki/Political_economy" title="Political economy">political economy</a> and key figure during the <a href="/wiki/Scottish_Enlightenment" title="Scottish Enlightenment">Scottish Enlightenment</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Seen by some as "The Father of Economics"<sup id="cite_ref-AS1_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AS1-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or "The Father of Capitalism",<sup id="cite_ref-AS2_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AS2-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> he wrote two classic works, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Theory_of_Moral_Sentiments" title="The Theory of Moral Sentiments">The Theory of Moral Sentiments</a></i> (1759) and <i><a href="/wiki/The_Wealth_of_Nations" title="The Wealth of Nations">An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations</a></i> (1776). The latter, often abbreviated as <i>The Wealth of Nations</i>, is considered his <i><a href="/wiki/Magnum_opus" class="mw-redirect" title="Magnum opus">magnum opus</a></i> and the first modern work that treats economics as a comprehensive system and an academic discipline. Smith refuses to explain the distribution of wealth and power in terms of <a href="/wiki/God%27s_will" class="mw-redirect" title="God's will">God's will</a> and instead appeals to natural, political, social, economic, legal, environmental and technological factors and the interactions among them. Among other economic theories, the work introduced Smith's idea of <a href="/wiki/Absolute_advantage" title="Absolute advantage">absolute advantage</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Smith studied <a href="/wiki/Social_philosophy" title="Social philosophy">social philosophy</a> at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Glasgow" title="University of Glasgow">University of Glasgow</a> and at <a href="/wiki/Balliol_College,_Oxford" title="Balliol College, Oxford">Balliol College, Oxford</a>, where he was one of the first students to benefit from scholarships set up by fellow Scot <a href="/wiki/John_Snell" title="John Snell">John Snell</a>. After graduating, he delivered a successful series of public lectures at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Edinburgh" title="University of Edinburgh">University of Edinburgh</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> leading him to collaborate with <a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a> during the Scottish Enlightenment. Smith obtained a professorship at Glasgow, teaching moral philosophy and during this time, wrote and published <i>The Theory of Moral Sentiments</i>. In his later life, he took a tutoring position that allowed him to travel throughout Europe, where he met other intellectual leaders of his day. </p><p>As a reaction to the common policy of protecting national markets and merchants through minimizing imports and maximizing exports, what came to be known as <a href="/wiki/Mercantilism" title="Mercantilism">mercantilism</a>, Smith laid the foundations of classical <a href="/wiki/Free_market" title="Free market">free market</a> economic theory. <i>The Wealth of Nations</i> was a precursor to the modern academic discipline of economics. In this and other works, he developed the concept of <a href="/wiki/Division_of_labour#Adam_Smith" title="Division of labour">division of labour</a> and expounded upon how <a href="/wiki/Rational_egoism" title="Rational egoism">rational self-interest</a> and competition can lead to economic prosperity. Smith was controversial in his day and his general approach and writing style were often satirised by writers such as <a href="/wiki/Horace_Walpole" title="Horace Walpole">Horace Walpole</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Biography">Biography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Adam_Smith&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Biography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_life">Early life</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Adam_Smith&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Early life"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Smith was born in <a href="/wiki/Kirkcaldy" title="Kirkcaldy">Kirkcaldy</a>, in <a href="/wiki/Fife" title="Fife">Fife</a>, Scotland. His father, Adam Smith senior, was a Scottish <a href="/wiki/Society_of_Writers_to_Her_Majesty%27s_Signet" class="mw-redirect" title="Society of Writers to Her Majesty's Signet">Writer to the Signet</a> (senior <a href="/wiki/Scots_law#Legal_profession" title="Scots law">solicitor</a>), <a href="/wiki/Advocate#Scotland" title="Advocate">advocate</a> and <a href="/wiki/Prosecutor#Scotland" title="Prosecutor">prosecutor</a> (judge advocate) and also served as <a href="/wiki/Comptroller" title="Comptroller">comptroller</a> of the customs in Kirkcaldy.<sup id="cite_ref-rae_1895_1_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rae_1895_1-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Smith's mother was born Margaret Douglas, daughter of the landed Robert Douglas of Strathendry, also in Fife; she married Smith's father in 1720. Two months before Smith was born, his father died, leaving his mother a widow.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The date of Smith's baptism into the <a href="/wiki/Church_of_Scotland" title="Church of Scotland">Church of Scotland</a> at Kirkcaldy was 5 June 1723<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and this has often been treated as if it were also his date of birth,<sup id="cite_ref-rae_1895_1_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rae_1895_1-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which is unknown. </p><p>Although few events in Smith's early childhood are known, the Scottish journalist <a href="/wiki/John_Rae_(biographer)" title="John Rae (biographer)">John Rae</a>, Smith's biographer, recorded that Smith was abducted by <a href="/wiki/Romani_people" title="Romani people">Romani</a> at the age of three and released when others went to rescue him.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>b<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Smith was close to his mother, who probably encouraged him to pursue his scholarly ambitions.<sup id="cite_ref-Bussing-Burks_2003_39_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bussing-Burks_2003_39-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He attended the <a href="/wiki/Burgh_School_of_Kirkcaldy" class="mw-redirect" title="Burgh School of Kirkcaldy">Burgh School of Kirkcaldy</a>—characterised by Rae as "one of the best secondary schools of Scotland at that period"<sup id="cite_ref-rae_1895_5_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rae_1895_5-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>—from 1729 to 1737, he learned <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a>, mathematics, history, and writing.<sup id="cite_ref-Bussing-Burks_2003_39_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bussing-Burks_2003_39-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Formal_education">Formal education</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Adam_Smith&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Formal education"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Smith entered the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Glasgow" title="University of Glasgow">University of Glasgow</a> at age 14 and studied moral philosophy under <a href="/wiki/Francis_Hutcheson_(philosopher)" title="Francis Hutcheson (philosopher)">Francis Hutcheson</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Bussing-Burks_2003_39_16-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bussing-Burks_2003_39-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Here he developed his passion for the philosophical concepts of <a href="/wiki/Reason" title="Reason">reason</a>, civilian <a href="/wiki/Liberty" title="Liberty">liberties</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Free_speech" class="mw-redirect" title="Free speech">free speech</a>. In 1740, he was the graduate scholar presented to undertake postgraduate studies at <a href="/wiki/Balliol_College,_Oxford" title="Balliol College, Oxford">Balliol College, Oxford</a>, under the <a href="/wiki/Snell_Exhibition" title="Snell Exhibition">Snell Exhibition</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Smith considered the teaching at Glasgow to be far superior to that at Oxford, which he found intellectually stifling.<sup id="cite_ref-Bussing-Burks_2003_41_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bussing-Burks_2003_41-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Book V, Chapter II of <i>The Wealth of Nations</i>, he wrote: "In the University of Oxford, the greater part of the public professors have, for these many years, given up altogether even the pretence of teaching." Smith is also reported to have complained to friends that Oxford officials once discovered him reading a copy of David Hume's <i><a href="/wiki/A_Treatise_of_Human_Nature" title="A Treatise of Human Nature">A Treatise of Human Nature</a></i>, and they subsequently confiscated his book and punished him severely for reading it.<sup id="cite_ref-rae_1895_5_13-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rae_1895_5-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-rae_1895_24_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rae_1895_24-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Buchholz_1999_12_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Buchholz_1999_12-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to William Robert Scott, "The Oxford of [Smith's] time gave little if any help towards what was to be his lifework."<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nevertheless, he took the opportunity while at Oxford to teach himself several subjects by reading many books from the shelves of the large <a href="/wiki/Bodleian_Library" title="Bodleian Library">Bodleian Library</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-rae_1895_22_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rae_1895_22-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When Smith was not studying on his own, his time at Oxford was not a happy one, according to his letters.<sup id="cite_ref-rae_1895_24–25_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rae_1895_24–25-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Near the end of his time there, he began suffering from shaking fits, probably the symptoms of a nervous breakdown.<sup id="cite_ref-Bussing-Burks_2003_42_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bussing-Burks_2003_42-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He left Oxford University in 1746, before his scholarship ended.<sup id="cite_ref-Bussing-Burks_2003_42_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bussing-Burks_2003_42-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In Book V of <i>The Wealth of Nations</i>, Smith comments on the low quality of instruction and the meager intellectual activity at <a href="/wiki/List_of_universities_in_England" title="List of universities in England">English universities</a>, when compared to their Scottish counterparts. He attributes this both to the rich endowments of the colleges at Oxford and <a href="/wiki/University_of_Cambridge" title="University of Cambridge">Cambridge</a>, which made the income of professors independent of their ability to attract students, and to the fact that distinguished <a href="/wiki/Intellectual#Man_of_Letters" title="Intellectual">men of letters</a> could make an even more comfortable living as ministers of the <a href="/wiki/Church_of_England" title="Church of England">Church of England</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Buchholz_1999_12_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Buchholz_1999_12-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Adam_Smith%27s_mother.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Adam_Smith%27s_mother.JPG/170px-Adam_Smith%27s_mother.JPG" decoding="async" width="170" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Adam_Smith%27s_mother.JPG/255px-Adam_Smith%27s_mother.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Adam_Smith%27s_mother.JPG/340px-Adam_Smith%27s_mother.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="2560" /></a><figcaption>Portrait of Smith's mother, Margaret Douglas</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Teaching_career">Teaching career</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Adam_Smith&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Teaching career"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Smith began delivering public lectures in 1748 at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Edinburgh" title="University of Edinburgh">University of Edinburgh</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> sponsored by the Philosophical Society of Edinburgh under the patronage of <a href="/wiki/Henry_Home,_Lord_Kames" title="Henry Home, Lord Kames">Lord Kames</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-rae_1895_30_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rae_1895_30-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His lecture topics included <a href="/wiki/Rhetoric" title="Rhetoric">rhetoric</a> and <i><a href="/wiki/Belles-lettres" title="Belles-lettres">belles-lettres</a></i>,<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and later the subject of "the progress of opulence". On this latter topic, he first expounded his economic philosophy of "the obvious and simple system of <a href="/wiki/Natural_and_legal_rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Natural and legal rights">natural liberty</a>". While Smith was not adept at <a href="/wiki/Public_speaking" title="Public speaking">public speaking</a>, his lectures met with success.<sup id="cite_ref-Bussing-Burks_2003_43_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bussing-Burks_2003_43-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1750, Smith met the philosopher David Hume, who was his senior by more than a decade. In their writings covering history, politics, philosophy, economics, and religion, Smith and Hume shared closer intellectual and personal bonds than with other important figures of the Scottish Enlightenment.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1751, Smith earned a professorship at Glasgow University teaching <a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">logic</a> courses, and in 1752, he was elected a member of the Philosophical Society of Edinburgh, having been introduced to the society by Lord Kames. When the <a href="/wiki/Professor_of_Moral_Philosophy_(Glasgow)" title="Professor of Moral Philosophy (Glasgow)">head of Moral Philosophy in Glasgow</a> died the next year, Smith took over the position.<sup id="cite_ref-Bussing-Burks_2003_43_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bussing-Burks_2003_43-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He worked as an academic for the next 13 years, which he characterised as "by far the most useful and therefore by far the happiest and most honorable period [of his life]".<sup id="cite_ref-rae_1895_42_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rae_1895_42-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Smith published <i><a href="/wiki/The_Theory_of_Moral_Sentiments" title="The Theory of Moral Sentiments">The Theory of Moral Sentiments</a></i> in 1759, embodying some of his Glasgow lectures. This work was concerned with how human morality depends on sympathy between agent and spectator, or the individual and other members of society. Smith defined "mutual sympathy" as the basis of <a href="/wiki/Moral_sense_theory" title="Moral sense theory">moral sentiments</a>. He based his explanation, not on a special "moral sense" as the <a href="/wiki/Anthony_Ashley-Cooper,_3rd_Earl_of_Shaftesbury" title="Anthony Ashley-Cooper, 3rd Earl of Shaftesbury">Third Lord Shaftesbury</a> and Hutcheson had done, nor on <a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">utility</a> as Hume did, but on mutual sympathy, a term best captured in modern parlance by the 20th-century concept of <a href="/wiki/Empathy" title="Empathy">empathy</a>, the capacity to recognise feelings that are being experienced by another being. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fran%C3%A7ois_Quesnay.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A drawing of a man sitting down" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Fran%C3%A7ois_Quesnay.jpg/170px-Fran%C3%A7ois_Quesnay.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="216" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Fran%C3%A7ois_Quesnay.jpg/255px-Fran%C3%A7ois_Quesnay.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Fran%C3%A7ois_Quesnay.jpg/340px-Fran%C3%A7ois_Quesnay.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1543" data-file-height="1961" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Quesnay" title="François Quesnay">François Quesnay</a>, one of the leaders of the <a href="/wiki/Physiocracy" title="Physiocracy">physiocratic</a> school of thought</figcaption></figure> <p>Following the publication of <i>The Theory of Moral Sentiments</i>, Smith became so popular that many wealthy students left their schools in other countries to enroll at Glasgow to learn under Smith.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At this time, Smith began to give more attention to <a href="/wiki/Jurisprudence" title="Jurisprudence">jurisprudence</a> and economics in his lectures and less to his theories of morals.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, Smith lectured that the cause of increase in national wealth is labour, rather than the nation's quantity of gold or silver, which is the basis for <a href="/wiki/Mercantilism" title="Mercantilism">mercantilism</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Economic_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Economic theory">economic theory</a> that dominated Western European economic policies at the time.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1762, the University of Glasgow conferred on Smith the title of <a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Law" title="Doctor of Law">Doctor of Laws</a> (LL.D.).<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At the end of 1763, he obtained an offer from British chancellor of the Exchequer <a href="/wiki/Charles_Townshend" title="Charles Townshend">Charles Townshend</a>—who had been introduced to Smith by David Hume—to tutor his stepson, <a href="/wiki/Henry_Scott,_3rd_Duke_of_Buccleuch" title="Henry Scott, 3rd Duke of Buccleuch">Henry Scott</a>, the young Duke of Buccleuch as preparation for a career in international politics. Smith resigned from his professorship in 1764 to take the tutoring position. He subsequently attempted to return the fees he had collected from his students because he had resigned partway through the term, but his students refused.<sup id="cite_ref-Buchholz_1999_16_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Buchholz_1999_16-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tutoring,_travels,_European_intellectuals"><span id="Tutoring.2C_travels.2C_European_intellectuals"></span>Tutoring, travels, European intellectuals</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Adam_Smith&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Tutoring, travels, European intellectuals"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Smith's tutoring job entailed touring Europe with Scott, during which time he educated Scott on a variety of subjects. He was paid <a href="/wiki/Pound_sterling" title="Pound sterling">£</a>300 per year (plus expenses) along with a £300 per year pension; roughly twice his former income as a teacher.<sup id="cite_ref-Buchholz_1999_16_36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Buchholz_1999_16-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Smith first travelled as a tutor to <a href="/wiki/Toulouse" title="Toulouse">Toulouse</a>, France, where he stayed for a year and a half. According to his own account, he found Toulouse to be somewhat boring, having written to Hume that he "had begun to write a book to pass away the time".<sup id="cite_ref-Buchholz_1999_16_36-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Buchholz_1999_16-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After touring the south of France, the group moved to <a href="/wiki/Geneva" title="Geneva">Geneva</a>, where Smith met with the philosopher <a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Allan_Ramsay_-_David_Hume,_1711_-_1776._Historian_and_philosopher_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Philosopher David Hume, painting" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Allan_Ramsay_-_David_Hume%2C_1711_-_1776._Historian_and_philosopher_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/170px-Allan_Ramsay_-_David_Hume%2C_1711_-_1776._Historian_and_philosopher_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="202" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Allan_Ramsay_-_David_Hume%2C_1711_-_1776._Historian_and_philosopher_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/255px-Allan_Ramsay_-_David_Hume%2C_1711_-_1776._Historian_and_philosopher_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Allan_Ramsay_-_David_Hume%2C_1711_-_1776._Historian_and_philosopher_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/340px-Allan_Ramsay_-_David_Hume%2C_1711_-_1776._Historian_and_philosopher_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3365" data-file-height="4001" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a> was a friend and contemporary of Smith's.</figcaption></figure> <p>From Geneva, the party moved to Paris. Here, Smith met American publisher and diplomat <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Benjamin Franklin</a>, who a few years later would lead the opposition in the American colonies against four British resolutions from Charles Townshend (in history known as the <a href="/wiki/Townshend_Acts" title="Townshend Acts">Townshend Acts</a>), which threatened American colonial self-government and imposed revenue duties on a number of items necessary to the colonies. Smith discovered the <a href="/wiki/Physiocracy" title="Physiocracy">Physiocracy</a> school founded by <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Quesnay" title="François Quesnay">François Quesnay</a> and discussed with their intellectuals.<sup id="cite_ref-Buchholz_17_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Buchholz_17-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Physiocrats were opposed to <a href="/wiki/Mercantilism" title="Mercantilism">mercantilism</a>, the dominating economic theory of the time, illustrated in their motto <i><a href="/wiki/Laissez-faire" title="Laissez-faire">Laissez faire et laissez passer, le monde va de lui même!</a></i> (Let do and let pass, the world goes on by itself!). </p><p>The wealth of France had been virtually depleted by <a href="/wiki/Louis_XIV_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Louis XIV of France">Louis XIV</a><sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>c<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Louis_XV_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Louis XV of France">Louis XV</a> in ruinous wars,<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>d<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and was further exhausted in aiding the <a href="/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War" title="American Revolutionary War">American revolutionary soldiers</a>, against the British. Given that the British economy of the day yielded an income distribution that stood in contrast to that which existed in France, Smith concluded that "with all its imperfections, [the Physiocratic school] is perhaps the nearest approximation to the truth that has yet been published upon the subject of political economy."<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The distinction between productive versus unproductive labour—the physiocratic <i>classe steril</i>—was a predominant issue in the development and understanding of what would become classical economic theory. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Later_years">Later years</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Adam_Smith&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Later years"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1766, Henry Scott's younger brother died in Paris, and Smith's tour as a tutor ended shortly thereafter.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Smith returned home that year to Kirkcaldy, and he devoted much of the next decade to writing his <i>magnum opus</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There, he befriended <a href="/wiki/Henry_Moyes" title="Henry Moyes">Henry Moyes</a>, a young blind man who showed precocious aptitude. Smith secured the patronage of David Hume and <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Reid" title="Thomas Reid">Thomas Reid</a> in the young man's education.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In May 1767, Smith was elected fellow of the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Society_of_London" class="mw-redirect" title="Royal Society of London">Royal Society of London</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and was elected a member of the <a href="/wiki/The_Club_(dining_club)" title="The Club (dining club)">Literary Club</a> in 1775. <i>The Wealth of Nations</i> was published in 1776 and was an instant success, selling out its first edition in only six months.<sup id="cite_ref-Buchholz_19_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Buchholz_19-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1778, Smith was appointed to a post as commissioner of customs in Scotland and went to live with his mother (who died in 1784)<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in <a href="/wiki/Panmure_House_(Edinburgh)" title="Panmure House (Edinburgh)">Panmure House</a> in Edinburgh's <a href="/wiki/Canongate" class="mw-redirect" title="Canongate">Canongate</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Five years later, as a member of the Philosophical Society of Edinburgh when it received its royal charter, he automatically became one of the founding members of the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Society_of_Edinburgh" title="Royal Society of Edinburgh">Royal Society of Edinburgh</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> From 1787 to 1789, he occupied the honorary position of Lord <a href="/wiki/Rector_of_the_University_of_Glasgow" title="Rector of the University of Glasgow">Rector of the University of Glasgow</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Death">Death</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Adam_Smith&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Death"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kirkcaldy_High_Street_Adam_Smith_Plaque.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A plaque of Smith" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Kirkcaldy_High_Street_Adam_Smith_Plaque.png/170px-Kirkcaldy_High_Street_Adam_Smith_Plaque.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="222" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Kirkcaldy_High_Street_Adam_Smith_Plaque.png/255px-Kirkcaldy_High_Street_Adam_Smith_Plaque.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Kirkcaldy_High_Street_Adam_Smith_Plaque.png/340px-Kirkcaldy_High_Street_Adam_Smith_Plaque.png 2x" data-file-width="675" data-file-height="880" /></a><figcaption>A commemorative plaque for Smith is located in Smith's home town of <a href="/wiki/Kirkcaldy" title="Kirkcaldy">Kirkcaldy</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Smith died in the northern wing of Panmure House in Edinburgh on 17 July 1790 after a painful illness. His body was buried in the <a href="/wiki/Canongate_Kirkyard" title="Canongate Kirkyard">Canongate Kirkyard</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On his deathbed, Smith expressed disappointment that he had not achieved more.<sup id="cite_ref-Bussing-Burks_2003_53_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bussing-Burks_2003_53-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Smith's literary executors were two friends from the Scottish academic world: the physicist and chemist <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Black" title="Joseph Black">Joseph Black</a> and the pioneering geologist <a href="/wiki/James_Hutton" title="James Hutton">James Hutton</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-buchan_2006_25_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-buchan_2006_25-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Smith left behind many notes and some unpublished material, but gave instructions to destroy anything that was not fit for publication.<sup id="cite_ref-buchan_2006_88_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-buchan_2006_88-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He mentioned an early unpublished <i>History of Astronomy</i> as probably suitable, and it duly appeared in 1795, along with other material such as <i><a href="/wiki/Essays_on_Philosophical_Subjects" title="Essays on Philosophical Subjects">Essays on Philosophical Subjects</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-buchan_2006_25_54-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-buchan_2006_25-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Smith's library went by his will to <a href="/wiki/David_Douglas,_Lord_Reston" title="David Douglas, Lord Reston">David Douglas, Lord Reston</a> (son of his cousin Colonel Robert Douglas of Strathendry, Fife), who lived with Smith.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBonar1894xiv_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBonar1894xiv-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was eventually divided between his two surviving children, Cecilia Margaret (Mrs. Cunningham) and David Anne (Mrs. Bannerman). On the death in 1878 of her husband, the Reverend W. B. Cunningham of Prestonpans, Mrs. Cunningham sold some of the books. The remainder passed to her son, Professor <a href="/wiki/Robert_Oliver_Cunningham" title="Robert Oliver Cunningham">Robert Oliver Cunningham</a> of Queen's College, Belfast, who presented a part to the library of Queen's College. After his death, the remaining books were sold. On the death of Mrs. Bannerman in 1879, her portion of the library went intact to the New College (of the Free Church) in <a href="/wiki/Edinburgh" title="Edinburgh">Edinburgh</a> and the collection was transferred to the University of Edinburgh Main Library in 1972. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Personality_and_beliefs">Personality and beliefs</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Adam_Smith&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Personality and beliefs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Character">Character</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Adam_Smith&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Character"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:AdamSmith1790b.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A drawing of a man standing up, with one hand holding a cane and the other pointing at a book" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/AdamSmith1790b.jpg/220px-AdamSmith1790b.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="327" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/AdamSmith1790b.jpg/330px-AdamSmith1790b.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/AdamSmith1790b.jpg/440px-AdamSmith1790b.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2288" data-file-height="3401" /></a><figcaption>Portrait of Smith by <a href="/wiki/John_Kay_(caricaturist)" title="John Kay (caricaturist)">John Kay</a>, 1790</figcaption></figure> <p>Not much is known about Smith's personal views beyond what can be deduced from his published articles. His personal papers were destroyed after his death, per his request.<sup id="cite_ref-buchan_2006_88_55-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-buchan_2006_88-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He never married,<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and seems to have maintained a close relationship with his mother, with whom he lived after his return from France and who died six years before him.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Smith was described by several of his contemporaries and biographers as comically absent-minded, with peculiar habits of speech and gait, and a smile of "inexpressible benignity".<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He was known to talk to himself,<sup id="cite_ref-Bussing-Burks_2003_53_53-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bussing-Burks_2003_53-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> a habit that began during his childhood when he would smile in rapt conversation with invisible companions.<sup id="cite_ref-skousen_2001_32_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-skousen_2001_32-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He also had occasional spells of imaginary illness,<sup id="cite_ref-Bussing-Burks_2003_53_53-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bussing-Burks_2003_53-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and he is reported to have had books and papers placed in tall stacks in his study.<sup id="cite_ref-skousen_2001_32_60-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-skousen_2001_32-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to one story, Smith took Charles Townshend on a tour of a <a href="/wiki/Tanning_(leather)" title="Tanning (leather)">tanning</a> factory, and while discussing <a href="/wiki/Free_trade" title="Free trade">free trade</a>, Smith walked into a huge <a href="/wiki/Tanning_(leather)" title="Tanning (leather)">tanning pit</a> from which he needed help to escape.<sup id="cite_ref-Buchholz_14_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Buchholz_14-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He is also said to have put bread and butter into a teapot, drunk the concoction, and declared it to be the worst cup of tea he had ever had. According to another account, Smith distractedly went out walking in his nightgown and ended up 15 miles (24 km) outside of town, before nearby church bells brought him back to reality.<sup id="cite_ref-skousen_2001_32_60-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-skousen_2001_32-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Buchholz_14_61-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Buchholz_14-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/James_Boswell" title="James Boswell">James Boswell</a>, who was a student of Smith's at Glasgow University, and later knew him at the <a href="/wiki/The_Club_(Literary_Club)" class="mw-redirect" title="The Club (Literary Club)">Literary Club</a>, says that Smith thought that speaking about his ideas in conversation might reduce the sale of his books, so his conversation was unimpressive. According to Boswell, he once told <a href="/wiki/Joshua_Reynolds" title="Joshua Reynolds">Sir Joshua Reynolds</a>, that "he made it a rule when in company never to talk of what he understood".<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Smith has been alternatively described as someone who "had a large nose, bulging eyes, a protruding lower lip, a nervous twitch, and a speech impediment" and one whose "countenance was manly and agreeable".<sup id="cite_ref-Buchholz_1999_12_20-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Buchholz_1999_12-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Smith is said to have acknowledged his looks at one point, saying, "I am a beau in nothing but my books."<sup id="cite_ref-Buchholz_1999_12_20-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Buchholz_1999_12-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Smith rarely sat for portraits,<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> so almost all depictions of him created during his lifetime were drawn from memory. The best-known portraits of Smith are the profile by <a href="/wiki/James_Tassie" title="James Tassie">James Tassie</a> and two <a href="/wiki/Etching" title="Etching">etchings</a> by <a href="/wiki/John_Kay_(caricaturist)" title="John Kay (caricaturist)">John Kay</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The line engravings produced for the covers of 19th-century reprints of <i>The Wealth of Nations</i> were based largely on Tassie's medallion.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Religious_views">Religious views</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Adam_Smith&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Religious views"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Considerable scholarly debate has occurred about the nature of Smith's religious views. His father had shown a strong interest in Christianity and belonged to the moderate wing of the <a href="/wiki/Church_of_Scotland" title="Church of Scotland">Church of Scotland</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the fact that he received the Snell Exhibition suggests that he may have gone to Oxford with the intention of pursuing a career in the Church of England.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Anglo-American economist <a href="/wiki/Ronald_Coase" title="Ronald Coase">Ronald Coase</a> challenged the view that Smith was a <a href="/wiki/Deist" class="mw-redirect" title="Deist">deist</a>, based on the fact that Smith's writings never explicitly invoke God as an explanation of the harmonies of the natural or the human worlds.<sup id="cite_ref-Coase_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Coase-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Coase, though Smith does sometimes refer to the "<a href="/wiki/Great_Architect_of_the_Universe" title="Great Architect of the Universe">Great Architect of the Universe</a>", later scholars such as <a href="/wiki/Jacob_Viner" title="Jacob Viner">Jacob Viner</a> have "very much exaggerated the extent to which Adam Smith was committed to a belief in a personal God",<sup id="cite_ref-Coase-God_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Coase-God-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> a belief for which Coase finds little evidence in passages such as the one in the <i>Wealth of Nations</i> in which Smith writes that the curiosity of mankind about the "great phenomena of nature", such as "the generation, the life, growth, and dissolution of plants and animals", has led men to "enquire into their causes", and that "superstition first attempted to satisfy this curiosity, by referring all those wonderful appearances to the immediate agency of the gods. Philosophy afterwards endeavoured to account for them, from more familiar causes, or from such as mankind were better acquainted with than the agency of the gods".<sup id="cite_ref-Coase-God_70-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Coase-God-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some authors argue that Smith's social and economic philosophy is inherently theological and that his entire model of social order is logically dependent on the notion of God's action in nature.<sup id="cite_ref-hidden_theology_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hidden_theology-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Brendan Long argues that Smith was a <a href="/wiki/Theism" title="Theism">theist</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> whereas according to professor Gavin Kennedy, Smith was "in some sense" a Christian.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Smith was also a close friend of <a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a>, who, despite <a href="/wiki/David_Hume#Religious_views" title="David Hume">debate about his religious views in modern scholarship</a>, was commonly characterised in his own time as an <a href="/wiki/Atheist" class="mw-redirect" title="Atheist">atheist</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-hume_on_religion_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hume_on_religion-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The publication in 1777 of Smith's letter to <a href="/wiki/William_Strahan_(publisher)" title="William Strahan (publisher)">William Strahan</a>, in which he described Hume's courage in the face of death in spite of his irreligiosity, attracted considerable controversy.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Published_works">Published works</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Adam_Smith&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Published works"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Theory_of_Moral_Sentiments"><i>The Theory of Moral Sentiments</i></h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Adam_Smith&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: The Theory of Moral Sentiments"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/The_Theory_of_Moral_Sentiments" title="The Theory of Moral Sentiments">The Theory of Moral Sentiments</a></div> <p>In 1759, Smith published his first work, <i>The Theory of Moral Sentiments,</i> sold by co-publishers <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Millar" title="Andrew Millar">Andrew Millar</a> of London and Alexander Kincaid of Edinburgh.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Smith continued making extensive revisions to the book until his death.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>e<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although <i>The Wealth of Nations</i> is widely regarded as Smith's most influential work, Smith himself is believed to have considered <i>The Theory of Moral Sentiments</i> to be a superior work.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the work, Smith critically examines the moral thinking of his time, and suggests that conscience arises from dynamic and interactive social relationships through which people seek "mutual sympathy of sentiments."<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His goal in writing the work was to explain the source of mankind's ability to form moral judgment, given that people begin life with no moral sentiments at all. Smith proposes a theory of sympathy, in which the act of observing others and seeing the judgments they form of both others and oneself makes people aware of themselves and how others perceive their behaviour. The feedback received by an individual from perceiving (or imagining) others' judgment creates an incentive to achieve "mutual sympathy of sentiments" with them and leads people to develop habits, and then principles, of behaviour, which come to constitute one's conscience.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some scholars have perceived a conflict between <i>The Theory of Moral Sentiments</i> and <i>The Wealth of Nations</i>; the former emphasises sympathy for others, while the latter focuses on the role of self-interest.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In recent years, however, some scholars<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> of Smith's work have argued that no contradiction exists. They contend that in <i>The Theory of Moral Sentiments</i>, Smith develops a theory of psychology in which individuals seek the approval of the "impartial spectator" as a result of a natural desire to have outside observers sympathise with their sentiments. Rather than viewing <i>The Theory of Moral Sentiments</i> and <i>The Wealth of Nations</i> as presenting incompatible views of human nature, some Smith scholars regard the works as emphasising different aspects of human nature that vary depending on the situation. In the first part – <i>The Theory of Moral Sentiments</i> – he laid down the foundation of his vision of humanity and society. In the second – <i>The Wealth of Nations</i> – he elaborated on the virtue of prudence, which for him meant the relations between people in the private sphere of the economy. It was his plan to further elaborate on the virtue of justice in the third book.<sup id="cite_ref-The_Theory_of_Moral_Sentiments_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-The_Theory_of_Moral_Sentiments-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/James_Otteson" title="James Otteson">Otteson</a> argues that both books are Newtonian in their methodology and deploy a similar "market model" for explaining the creation and development of large-scale human social orders, including morality, economics, as well as language.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Robert_Ekelund" title="Robert Ekelund">Ekelund</a> and Hebert offer a differing view, observing that self-interest is present in both works and that "in the former, sympathy is the moral faculty that holds self-interest in check, whereas in the latter, competition is the economic faculty that restrains self-interest."<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Wealth_of_Nations"><i>The Wealth of Nations</i></h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Adam_Smith&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: The Wealth of Nations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/The_Wealth_of_Nations" title="The Wealth of Nations">The Wealth of Nations</a></div> <p>Disagreement exists between classical and neoclassical economists about the central message of Smith's most influential work: <i>An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations</i> (1776). Neoclassical economists emphasise Smith's <a href="/wiki/Invisible_hand" title="Invisible hand">invisible hand</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> a concept mentioned in the middle of his work – Book IV, Chapter II – and classical economists believe that Smith stated his programme for promoting the "wealth of nations" in the first sentences, which attributes the growth of wealth and prosperity to the division of labour. He elaborated on the virtue of prudence, which for him meant the relations between people in the private sphere of the economy. He planned to further elaborate on the virtue of justice in the third book.<sup id="cite_ref-The_Theory_of_Moral_Sentiments_86-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-The_Theory_of_Moral_Sentiments-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Smith used the term "the invisible hand" in "History of Astronomy"<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> referring to "the invisible hand of Jupiter", and once in each of his <i><a href="/wiki/The_Theory_of_Moral_Sentiments" title="The Theory of Moral Sentiments">The Theory of Moral Sentiments</a></i><sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (1759) and <i>The Wealth of Nations</i><sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (1776). This last statement about "an invisible hand" has been interpreted in numerous ways. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:19th-century_building_at_location_where_Adam_Smith_lived,_1767-1776.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A brown building" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/19th-century_building_at_location_where_Adam_Smith_lived%2C_1767-1776.jpg/220px-19th-century_building_at_location_where_Adam_Smith_lived%2C_1767-1776.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/19th-century_building_at_location_where_Adam_Smith_lived%2C_1767-1776.jpg/330px-19th-century_building_at_location_where_Adam_Smith_lived%2C_1767-1776.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/19th-century_building_at_location_where_Adam_Smith_lived%2C_1767-1776.jpg/440px-19th-century_building_at_location_where_Adam_Smith_lived%2C_1767-1776.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3264" data-file-height="2448" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith_House" title="Adam Smith House">Later building on the site</a> where Smith wrote <i>The Wealth of Nations</i></figcaption></figure> <blockquote><p>As every individual, therefore, endeavours as much as he can both to employ his capital in the support of domestic industry, and so to direct that industry that its produce may be of the greatest value; every individual necessarily labours to render the annual revenue of the society as great as he can. He generally, indeed, neither intends to promote the public interest, nor knows how much he is promoting it. By preferring the support of domestic to that of foreign industry, he intends only his own security; and by directing that industry in such a manner as its produce may be of the greatest value, he intends only his own gain, and he is in this, as in many other cases, led by an invisible hand to promote an end which was no part of his intention. Nor is it always the worse for the society that it was no part of it. By pursuing his own interest he frequently promotes that of the society more effectually than when he really intends to promote it. I have never known much good done by those who affected to trade for the public good. It is an affectation, indeed, not very common among merchants, and very few words need be employed in dissuading them from it.</p></blockquote> <p>Those who regard that statement as Smith's central message also quote frequently Smith's dictum:<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <blockquote><p>It is not from the benevolence of the butcher, the brewer, or the baker, that we expect our dinner, but from their regard to their own interest. We address ourselves, not to their humanity but to their self-love, and never talk to them of our own necessities but of their advantages.</p></blockquote><p>However, in <i>The Theory of Moral Sentiments</i> he had a more sceptical approach to self-interest as driver of behaviour:</p><blockquote><p>How selfish soever man may be supposed, there are evidently some principles in his nature, which interest him in the fortune of others, and render their happiness necessary to him, though he derives nothing from it except the pleasure of seeing it.</p></blockquote><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Wealth_of_Nations.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="The first page of a book" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Wealth_of_Nations.jpg/170px-Wealth_of_Nations.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="203" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Wealth_of_Nations.jpg/255px-Wealth_of_Nations.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Wealth_of_Nations.jpg/340px-Wealth_of_Nations.jpg 2x" data-file-width="376" data-file-height="450" /></a><figcaption>The first page of <i>The Wealth of Nations</i>, 1776 London edition</figcaption></figure> <p>In relation to <a href="/wiki/Bernard_Mandeville" title="Bernard Mandeville">Mandeville</a>'s contention that "Private Vices ... may be turned into Public Benefits",<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Smith's belief that when an individual pursues his self-interest under conditions of justice, he unintentionally promotes the good of society. Self-interested competition in the free market, he argued, would tend to benefit society as a whole by keeping prices low, while still building in an incentive for a wide variety of goods and services. Nevertheless, he was wary of businessmen and warned of their "conspiracy against the public or in some other contrivance to raise prices."<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Again and again, Smith warned of the collusive nature of business interests, which may form cabals or <a href="/wiki/Monopoly" title="Monopoly">monopolies</a>, fixing the highest price "which can be squeezed out of the buyers."<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Smith also warned that a business-dominated political system would allow a conspiracy of businesses and industry against consumers, with the former scheming to influence politics and legislation. Smith states that the interest of manufacturers and merchants "in any particular branch of trade or manufactures, is always in some respects different from, and even opposite to, that of the public ... The proposal of any new law or regulation of commerce which comes from this order, ought always to be listened to with great precaution, and ought never be adopted till after having been long and carefully examined, not only with the most scrupulous but with the most suspicious attention."<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus Smith's chief worry seems to be when business is given special protections or privileges from government; by contrast, in the absence of such special political favours, he believed that business activities were generally beneficial to the whole society: </p> <blockquote><p>It is the great multiplication of the production of all the different arts, in consequence of the division of labour, which occasions, in a well-governed society, that universal opulence which extends itself to the lowest ranks of the people. Every workman has a great quantity of his own work to dispose of beyond what he himself has occasion for; and every other workman being exactly in the same situation, he is enabled to exchange a great quantity of his own goods for a great quantity, or, what comes to the same thing, for the price of a great quantity of theirs. He supplies them abundantly with what they have occasion for, and they accommodate him as amply with what he has occasion for, and a general plenty diffuses itself through all the different ranks of society. (<i>The Wealth of Nations,</i> I.i.10)</p></blockquote> <p>The neoclassical interest in Smith's statement about "an invisible hand" originates in the possibility of seeing it as a precursor of <a href="/wiki/Neoclassical_economics" title="Neoclassical economics">neoclassical economics</a> and its concept of <a href="/wiki/General_equilibrium_theory" title="General equilibrium theory">general equilibrium</a>; <a href="/wiki/Paul_Samuelson" title="Paul Samuelson">Samuelson</a>'s "Economics" refers six times to Smith's "invisible hand". To emphasise this connection, Samuelson<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> quotes Smith's "invisible hand" statement substituting "general interest" for "public interest". Samuelson<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> concludes: "Smith was unable to prove the essence of his invisible-hand doctrine. Indeed, until the 1940s, no one knew how to prove, even to state properly, the kernel of truth in this proposition about perfectly competitive market." </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Smith_-_Inquiry_into_the_nature_and_causes_of_the_wealth_of_nations,_1922_-_5231847.tif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Smith_-_Inquiry_into_the_nature_and_causes_of_the_wealth_of_nations%2C_1922_-_5231847.tif/lossy-page1-170px-Smith_-_Inquiry_into_the_nature_and_causes_of_the_wealth_of_nations%2C_1922_-_5231847.tif.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="270" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Smith_-_Inquiry_into_the_nature_and_causes_of_the_wealth_of_nations%2C_1922_-_5231847.tif/lossy-page1-255px-Smith_-_Inquiry_into_the_nature_and_causes_of_the_wealth_of_nations%2C_1922_-_5231847.tif.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Smith_-_Inquiry_into_the_nature_and_causes_of_the_wealth_of_nations%2C_1922_-_5231847.tif/lossy-page1-340px-Smith_-_Inquiry_into_the_nature_and_causes_of_the_wealth_of_nations%2C_1922_-_5231847.tif.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2063" data-file-height="3275" /></a><figcaption>1922 printing of <i>An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations,</i> edited by <a href="/wiki/Edwin_Cannan" title="Edwin Cannan">Edwin Cannan</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Conversely, classical economists see in Smith's first sentences his programme to promote "The Wealth of Nations". Using the physiocratical concept of the economy as a circular process, to secure growth the inputs of Period 2 must exceed the inputs of Period 1. Therefore, those outputs of Period 1 which are not used or usable as inputs of Period 2 are regarded as unproductive labour, as they do not contribute to growth. This is what Smith had heard in France from, among others, <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Quesnay" title="François Quesnay">François Quesnay</a>, whose ideas Smith was so impressed by that he might have dedicated <i>The Wealth of Nations</i> to him had he not died beforehand.<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To this French insight that unproductive labour should be reduced to use labour more productively, Smith added his own proposal, that productive labour should be made even more productive by deepening the <a href="/wiki/Division_of_labour" title="Division of labour">division of labour</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Smith argued that deepening the division of labour under competition leads to greater productivity, which leads to lower prices and thus an increasing standard of living—"general plenty" and "universal opulence"—for all. Extended markets and increased production lead to the continuous reorganisation of production and the invention of new ways of producing, which in turn lead to further increased production, lower prices, and improved standards of living. Smith's central message is, therefore, that under dynamic competition, a growth machine secures "The Wealth of Nations". Smith's argument predicted Britain's evolution as the workshop of the world, underselling and outproducing all its competitors. The opening sentences of the "Wealth of Nations" summarise this policy: </p> <blockquote><p>The annual labour of every nation is the fund which originally supplies it with all the necessaries and conveniences of life which it annually consumes ... . [T]his produce ... bears a greater or smaller proportion to the number of those who are to consume it ... .[B]ut this proportion must in every nation be regulated by two different circumstances; </p><ul><li>first, by the skill, dexterity, and judgment with which its labour is generally applied; and,</li> <li>secondly, by the proportion between the number of those who are employed in useful labour, and that of those who are not so employed [emphasis added].<sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul></blockquote> <p>However, Smith added that the "abundance or scantiness of this supply too seems to depend more upon the former of those two circumstances than upon the latter."<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In <i>The Wealth of Nations</i>, Smith states four maxims of taxation: (1) equality (people must contribute to the support of the government in proportion to their abilities), (2) certainty (the time, manner, and quantity of tax imposed must be certain, transparent, and not arbitrary), (3) convenience for taxpayers, and (4) economy in tax collection.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_105-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 2">: 2 </span></sup> According to Smith, "It is not very unreasonable that the rich should contribute to the public expense, not only in proportion to their revenue, but something more in that proportion".<sup id="cite_ref-:0_105-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 98">: 98 </span></sup> </p><p>Smith wrote that a government is duty-bound to provide public services that "support the whole of society" like provide public education, transportation, national defense, a justice system, public safety, and public infrastructure to support commerce.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_105-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 163">: 163 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_works">Other works</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Adam_Smith&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Other works"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Adam_Smith_Grave.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A burial" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Adam_Smith_Grave.JPG/170px-Adam_Smith_Grave.JPG" decoding="async" width="170" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Adam_Smith_Grave.JPG/255px-Adam_Smith_Grave.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Adam_Smith_Grave.JPG/340px-Adam_Smith_Grave.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="2560" /></a><figcaption>Smith's burial place in <a href="/wiki/Canongate_Kirkyard" title="Canongate Kirkyard">Canongate Kirkyard</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Shortly before his death, Smith had nearly all his manuscripts destroyed. In his last years, he seemed to have been planning two major treatises, one on the theory and history of law and one on the sciences and arts. The posthumously published <i>Essays on Philosophical Subjects</i>, a history of <a href="/wiki/Astronomy" title="Astronomy">astronomy</a> down to Smith's own era, plus some thoughts on <a href="/wiki/Ancient_physics" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient physics">ancient physics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">metaphysics</a>, probably contain parts of what would have been the latter treatise. <i><a href="/wiki/Lectures_on_Jurisprudence" title="Lectures on Jurisprudence">Lectures on Jurisprudence</a></i> were notes taken from Smith's early lectures, plus an early draft of <i>The Wealth of Nations</i>, published as part of the 1976 Glasgow Edition of the works and correspondence of Smith. Other works, including some published posthumously, include <i>Lectures on Justice, Police, Revenue, and Arms</i> (1763) (first published in 1896); and <i>Essays on Philosophical Subjects</i> (1795).<sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Legacy">Legacy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Adam_Smith&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Legacy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_economics_and_moral_philosophy">In economics and moral philosophy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Adam_Smith&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: In economics and moral philosophy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><i>The Wealth of Nations</i> was a precursor to the modern academic discipline of economics. In this and other works, Smith expounded how rational self-interest and competition can lead to economic prosperity. Smith was controversial in his own day and his general approach and writing style were often satirised by <a href="/wiki/Tories_(British_political_party)" title="Tories (British political party)">Tory</a> writers in the moralising tradition of Hogarth and Swift, as a discussion at the University of Winchester suggests.<sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2005, <i>The Wealth of Nations</i> was named among the 100 Best Scottish Books of all time.<sup id="cite_ref-100_Best_Scottish_Books,_Adam_Smith_108-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100_Best_Scottish_Books,_Adam_Smith-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In light of the arguments put forward by Smith and other economic theorists in Britain, academic belief in mercantilism began to decline in Britain in the late 18th century. During the <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a>, Britain embraced free trade and Smith's <i>laissez-faire</i> economics, and via the <a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British Empire</a>, used its power to spread a broadly liberal economic model around the world, characterised by open markets, and relatively barrier-free domestic and international trade.<sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/George_Stigler" title="George Stigler">George Stigler</a> attributes to Smith "the most important substantive proposition in all of economics". It is that, under competition, owners of resources (for example labour, land, and capital) will use them most profitably, resulting in an equal rate of return in <a href="/wiki/Economic_equilibrium" title="Economic equilibrium">equilibrium</a> for all uses, adjusted for apparent differences arising from such factors as training, trust, hardship, and unemployment.<sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Paul_Samuelson" title="Paul Samuelson">Paul Samuelson</a> finds in Smith's pluralist use of supply and demand as applied to wages, rents, and profit a valid and valuable anticipation of the <a href="/wiki/General_equilibrium" class="mw-redirect" title="General equilibrium">general equilibrium</a> modelling of <a href="/wiki/L%C3%A9on_Walras" title="Léon Walras">Walras</a> a century later. Smith's allowance for wage increases in the short and intermediate term from capital accumulation and invention contrasted with <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Robert_Malthus" title="Thomas Robert Malthus">Malthus</a>, <a href="/wiki/David_Ricardo" title="David Ricardo">Ricardo</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Karl Marx</a> in their propounding a rigid subsistence–wage theory of labour supply.<sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Schumpeter" title="Joseph Schumpeter">Joseph Schumpeter</a> criticised Smith for a lack of technical rigour, yet he argued that this enabled Smith's writings to appeal to wider audiences: "His very limitation made for success. Had he been more brilliant, he would not have been taken so seriously. Had he dug more deeply, had he unearthed more recondite truth, had he used more difficult and ingenious methods, he would not have been understood. But he had no such ambitions; in fact he disliked whatever went beyond plain common sense. He never moved above the heads of even the dullest readers. He led them on gently, encouraging them by trivialities and homely observations, making them feel comfortable all along."<sup id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Classical economists presented competing theories to those of Smith, termed the "<a href="/wiki/Labour_theory_of_value#The_theory's_development" class="mw-redirect" title="Labour theory of value">labour theory of value</a>". Later Marxian economics descending from classical economics also use Smith's labour theories, in part. The first volume of <a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Karl Marx</a>'s major work, <i>Das Kapital</i>, was published in German in 1867. In it, Marx focused on the labour theory of value and what he considered to be the exploitation of labour by capital.<sup id="cite_ref-Roemer_113-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Roemer-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-114" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The labour theory of value held that the value of a thing was determined by the labour that went into its production. This contrasts with the modern contention of <a href="/wiki/Neoclassical_economics" title="Neoclassical economics">neoclassical economics</a>, that the value of a thing is determined by what one is willing to give up to obtain the thing. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Adam_Smith_Theatre,_Bennochy_Road,_Kirkcaldy.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A brown building" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Adam_Smith_Theatre%2C_Bennochy_Road%2C_Kirkcaldy.jpg/220px-Adam_Smith_Theatre%2C_Bennochy_Road%2C_Kirkcaldy.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Adam_Smith_Theatre%2C_Bennochy_Road%2C_Kirkcaldy.jpg/330px-Adam_Smith_Theatre%2C_Bennochy_Road%2C_Kirkcaldy.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Adam_Smith_Theatre%2C_Bennochy_Road%2C_Kirkcaldy.jpg/440px-Adam_Smith_Theatre%2C_Bennochy_Road%2C_Kirkcaldy.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3264" data-file-height="2448" /></a><figcaption>The Adam Smith Theatre in <a href="/wiki/Kirkcaldy" title="Kirkcaldy">Kirkcaldy</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The body of theory later termed "neoclassical economics" or "<a href="/wiki/Marginalism#The_Marginal_Revolution" title="Marginalism">marginalism</a>" formed from about 1870 to 1910. The term "economics" was popularised by such neoclassical economists as <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Marshall" title="Alfred Marshall">Alfred Marshall</a> as a concise synonym for "economic science" and a substitute for the earlier, broader term "<a href="/wiki/Political_economy" title="Political economy">political economy</a>" used by Smith.<sup id="cite_ref-115" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-116" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This corresponded to the influence on the subject of mathematical methods used in the <a href="/wiki/Natural_science" title="Natural science">natural sciences</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Clark_117-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Clark-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Neoclassical economics systematised <a href="/wiki/Supply_and_demand" title="Supply and demand">supply and demand</a> as joint determinants of price and quantity in market equilibrium, affecting both the allocation of output and the distribution of income. It dispensed with the <a href="/wiki/Labour_theory_of_value" class="mw-redirect" title="Labour theory of value">labour theory of value</a> of which Smith was most famously identified with in classical economics, in favour of a <a href="/wiki/Marginal_utility" title="Marginal utility">marginal utility</a> theory of value on the demand side and a more general theory of costs on the supply side.<sup id="cite_ref-118" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The bicentennial anniversary of the publication of <i>The Wealth of Nations</i> was celebrated in 1976, resulting in increased interest for <i>The Theory of Moral Sentiments</i> and his other works throughout academia. After 1976, Smith was more likely to be represented as the author of both <i>The Wealth of Nations</i> and <i>The Theory of Moral Sentiments</i>, and thereby as the founder of a moral philosophy and the science of economics. His <i><a href="/wiki/Homo_economicus" title="Homo economicus">homo economicus</a></i> or "economic man" was also more often represented as a moral person. Additionally, economists David Levy and Sandra Peart in "The Secret History of the Dismal Science" point to his opposition to hierarchy and beliefs in inequality, including racial inequality, and provide additional support for those who point to Smith's opposition to slavery, colonialism, and empire. Emphasised also are Smith's statements of the need for high wages for the poor, and the efforts to keep wages low. In The "Vanity of the Philosopher: From Equality to Hierarchy in Postclassical Economics", Peart and Levy also cite Smith's view that a common street porter was not intellectually inferior to a philosopher,<sup id="cite_ref-119" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and point to the need for greater appreciation of the public views in discussions of science and other subjects now considered to be technical. They also cite Smith's opposition to the often expressed view that science is superior to common sense.<sup id="cite_ref-120" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Smith also explained the relationship between growth of private property and civil government: </p> <blockquote><p>Men may live together in society with some tolerable degree of security, though there is no civil magistrate to protect them from the injustice of those passions. But avarice and ambition in the rich, in the poor the hatred of labour and the love of present ease and enjoyment, are the passions which prompt to invade property, passions much more steady in their operation, and much more universal in their influence. Wherever there is great property there is great inequality. For one very rich man there must be at least five hundred poor, and the affluence of the few supposes the indigence of the many. The affluence of the rich excites the indignation of the poor, who are often both driven by want, and prompted by envy, to invade his possessions. It is only under the shelter of the civil magistrate that the owner of that valuable property, which is acquired by the labour of many years, or perhaps of many successive generations, can sleep a single night in security. He is at all times surrounded by unknown enemies, whom, though he never provoked, he can never appease, and from whose injustice he can be protected only by the powerful arm of the civil magistrate continually held up to chastise it. The acquisition of valuable and extensive property, therefore, necessarily requires the establishment of civil government. Where there is no property, or at least none that exceeds the value of two or three days' labour, civil government is not so necessary. Civil government supposes a certain subordination. But as the necessity of civil government gradually grows up with the acquisition of valuable property, so the principal causes which naturally introduce subordination gradually grow up with the growth of that valuable property. (...) Men of inferior wealth combine to defend those of superior wealth in the possession of their property, in order that men of superior wealth may combine to defend them in the possession of theirs. All the inferior shepherds and herdsmen feel that the security of their own herds and flocks depends upon the security of those of the great shepherd or herdsman; that the maintenance of their lesser authority depends upon that of his greater authority, and that upon their subordination to him depends his power of keeping their inferiors in subordination to them. They constitute a sort of little nobility, who feel themselves interested to defend the property and to support the authority of their own little sovereign in order that he may be able to defend their property and to support their authority. Civil government, so far as it is instituted for the security of property, is in reality instituted for the defence of the rich against the poor, or of those who have some property against those who have none at all.<sup id="cite_ref-121" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_British_imperial_debates">In British imperial debates</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Adam_Smith&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: In British imperial debates"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Smith opposed empire. He challenged ideas that colonies were key to British prosperity and power. He rejected that other cultures, such as China and India, were culturally and developmentally inferior to Europe. While he favoured "commercial society", he did not support radical social change and the imposition of commercial society on other societies. He proposed that colonies be given independence or that full political rights be extended to colonial subjects.<sup id="cite_ref-122" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Smith's chapter on colonies, in turn, would help shape British imperial debates from the mid-19th century onward. <i>The Wealth of Nations</i> would become an ambiguous text regarding the imperial question. In his chapter on colonies, Smith pondered how to solve the crisis developing across the Atlantic among the empire's 13 American colonies. He offered two different proposals for easing tensions. The first proposal called for giving the colonies their independence, and by thus parting on a friendly basis, Britain would be able to develop and maintain a free-trade relationship with them, and possibly even an informal military alliance. Smith's second proposal called for a theoretical imperial federation that would bring the colonies and the metropole closer together through an imperial parliamentary system and imperial free trade.<sup id="cite_ref-123" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Smith's most prominent disciple in 19th-century Britain, peace advocate <a href="/wiki/Richard_Cobden" title="Richard Cobden">Richard Cobden</a>, preferred the first proposal. Cobden would lead the <a href="/wiki/Anti-Corn_Law_League" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Corn Law League">Anti-Corn Law League</a> in overturning the <a href="/wiki/Corn_Laws" title="Corn Laws">Corn Laws</a> in 1846, shifting Britain to a policy of free trade and empire "on the cheap" for decades to come. This hands-off approach toward the British Empire would become known as <a href="/wiki/Cobdenism" title="Cobdenism">Cobdenism</a> or the <a href="/wiki/Manchester_Liberalism" title="Manchester Liberalism">Manchester School</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-124" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the turn of the century, however, advocates of Smith's second proposal such as <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Shield_Nicholson" title="Joseph Shield Nicholson">Joseph Shield Nicholson</a> would become ever more vocal in opposing Cobdenism, calling instead for imperial federation.<sup id="cite_ref-125" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As Marc-William Palen notes: "On the one hand, Adam Smith's late nineteenth and early twentieth-century Cobdenite adherents used his theories to argue for gradual imperial devolution and empire 'on the cheap'. On the other, various proponents of imperial federation throughout the British World sought to use Smith's theories to overturn the predominant Cobdenite hands-off imperial approach and instead, with a firm grip, bring the empire closer than ever before."<sup id="cite_ref-126" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Smith's ideas thus played an important part in subsequent debates over the British Empire. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Portraits,_monuments,_and_banknotes"><span id="Portraits.2C_monuments.2C_and_banknotes"></span>Portraits, monuments, and banknotes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Adam_Smith&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Portraits, monuments, and banknotes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Adam_Smith_statue_by_Alexander_Stoddart.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Adam_Smith_statue_by_Alexander_Stoddart.jpg/200px-Adam_Smith_statue_by_Alexander_Stoddart.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="300" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Adam_Smith_statue_by_Alexander_Stoddart.jpg/300px-Adam_Smith_statue_by_Alexander_Stoddart.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Adam_Smith_statue_by_Alexander_Stoddart.jpg/400px-Adam_Smith_statue_by_Alexander_Stoddart.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2745" data-file-height="4117" /></a><figcaption>A statue of Smith in <a href="/wiki/Edinburgh" title="Edinburgh">Edinburgh</a>'s High Street, erected through private donations organised by the Adam Smith Institute</figcaption></figure> <p>Smith has been commemorated in the UK on banknotes printed by two different banks; his portrait has appeared since 1981 on the <a href="/wiki/Pound_sterling" title="Pound sterling">£</a>50 notes issued by the <a href="/wiki/Clydesdale_Bank" title="Clydesdale Bank">Clydesdale Bank</a> in Scotland,<sup id="cite_ref-clydesdale_127-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-clydesdale-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-scotbanks_128-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-scotbanks-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and in March 2007 Smith's image also appeared on the new series of <a href="/wiki/Bank_of_England_%C2%A320_note" title="Bank of England £20 note">£20 notes</a> issued by the <a href="/wiki/Bank_of_England" title="Bank of England">Bank of England</a>, making him the first Scotsman to feature on an <a href="/wiki/Bank_of_England_note_issues" title="Bank of England note issues">English banknote</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-bbc1_129-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bbc1-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:6_Burlington_Gardens_facade_Smith.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/6_Burlington_Gardens_facade_Smith.jpg/180px-6_Burlington_Gardens_facade_Smith.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/6_Burlington_Gardens_facade_Smith.jpg/270px-6_Burlington_Gardens_facade_Smith.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/6_Burlington_Gardens_facade_Smith.jpg/360px-6_Burlington_Gardens_facade_Smith.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1947" data-file-height="3171" /></a><figcaption>Statue of Smith built in 1867–1870 at the old headquarters of the <a href="/wiki/University_of_London" title="University of London">University of London</a>, <a href="/wiki/6_Burlington_Gardens" title="6 Burlington Gardens">6 Burlington Gardens</a></figcaption></figure> <p>A large-scale memorial of Smith by <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Stoddart" title="Alexander Stoddart">Alexander Stoddart</a> was unveiled on 4 July 2008 in Edinburgh. It is a 10-foot (3.0 m)-tall bronze sculpture and it stands above the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Mile" title="Royal Mile">Royal Mile</a> outside <a href="/wiki/St_Giles%27_Cathedral" title="St Giles' Cathedral">St Giles' Cathedral</a> in Parliament Square, near the <a href="/wiki/Mercat_cross" title="Mercat cross">Mercat cross</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-130" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> 20th-century sculptor <a href="/wiki/Jim_Sanborn" title="Jim Sanborn">Jim Sanborn</a> (best known for the <i><a href="/wiki/Kryptos" title="Kryptos">Kryptos</a></i> sculpture at the United States <a href="/wiki/Central_Intelligence_Agency" title="Central Intelligence Agency">Central Intelligence Agency</a>) has created multiple pieces which feature Smith's work. At <a href="/wiki/Central_Connecticut_State_University" title="Central Connecticut State University">Central Connecticut State University</a> is <i>Circulating Capital</i>, a tall cylinder which features an extract from <i>The Wealth of Nations</i> on the lower half, and on the upper half, some of the same text, but represented in <a href="/wiki/Binary_code" title="Binary code">binary code</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-131" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At the <a href="/wiki/University_of_North_Carolina_at_Charlotte" title="University of North Carolina at Charlotte">University of North Carolina at Charlotte</a>, outside the Belk College of Business Administration, is <i>Adam Smith's Spinning Top</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-132" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-132"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-133" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-133"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another Smith sculpture is at <a href="/wiki/Cleveland_State_University" title="Cleveland State University">Cleveland State University</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-134" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-134"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He also appears as the narrator in the 2013 play <i><a href="/wiki/The_Low_Road_(play)" title="The Low Road (play)">The Low Road</a></i>, centred on a proponent on <i>laissez-faire</i> economics in the late 18th century, but dealing obliquely with the <a href="/wiki/2007%E2%80%932008_financial_crisis" title="2007–2008 financial crisis">2007–2008 financial crisis</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Great_Recession" title="Great Recession">Great Recession</a>; in the premiere production, he was portrayed by <a href="/wiki/Bill_Paterson_(actor)" title="Bill Paterson (actor)">Bill Paterson</a>. </p><p>A bust of Smith is in the Hall of Heroes of the <a href="/wiki/National_Wallace_Monument" class="mw-redirect" title="National Wallace Monument">National Wallace Monument</a> in <a href="/wiki/Stirling" title="Stirling">Stirling</a>. </p><p>Five paving stones, displaying quotations from Smith's works, were unveiled in December 2023 in the <a href="/wiki/High_Street,_Glasgow" title="High Street, Glasgow">High Street, Glasgow</a>. The stones were commissioned by the University of Glasgow to mark the 300th anniversary of Smith's birth.<sup id="cite_ref-135" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-135"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Panmure_House">Panmure House</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Adam_Smith&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Panmure House"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Adam Smith resided at <a href="/wiki/Panmure_House_(Edinburgh)" title="Panmure House (Edinburgh)">Panmure House</a> from 1778 to 1790. In 2008, the house was purchased by the <a href="/wiki/Edinburgh_Business_School" title="Edinburgh Business School">Edinburgh Business School</a> at <a href="/wiki/Heriot-Watt_University" title="Heriot-Watt University">Heriot-Watt University</a> and funds were raised for its restoration.<sup id="cite_ref-136" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-136"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>131<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-137" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-137"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2018 it was formally opened as a study centre in Smith's honour.<sup id="cite_ref-138" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-138"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>133<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="As_a_symbol_of_free-market_economics">As a symbol of free-market economics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Adam_Smith&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: As a symbol of free-market economics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Smith has been celebrated by advocates of free-market policies as the founder of free-market economics, a view reflected in the naming of bodies such as the <a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith_Institute" title="Adam Smith Institute">Adam Smith Institute</a> in London, multiple entities known as the "Adam Smith Society", including an historical Italian organisation,<sup id="cite_ref-urlThe_Adam_Smith_Society_139-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-urlThe_Adam_Smith_Society-139"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>134<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the U.S.-based <a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith_Society" title="Adam Smith Society">Adam Smith Society</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Bloomberg_140-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bloomberg-140"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>135<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Who_We_Are_141-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Who_We_Are-141"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>136<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the Australian Adam Smith Club,<sup id="cite_ref-urlThe_Australian_Adam_Smith_Club_142-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-urlThe_Australian_Adam_Smith_Club-142"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>137<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and in terms such as the Adam Smith necktie.<sup id="cite_ref-143" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-143"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>138<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Former US Federal Reserve Chairman <a href="/wiki/Alan_Greenspan" title="Alan Greenspan">Alan Greenspan</a> argues that, while Smith did not coin the term <i><a href="/wiki/Laissez-faire" title="Laissez-faire">laissez-faire</a></i>, "it was left to Adam Smith to identify the more-general set of principles that brought conceptual clarity to the seeming chaos of market transactions." Greenspan continues that <i>The Wealth of Nations</i> was "one of the great achievements in human intellectual history."<sup id="cite_ref-urlFRB:_Speech,_Greenspan_–_Adam_Smith_–_6_February_2005_144-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-urlFRB:_Speech,_Greenspan_–_Adam_Smith_–_6_February_2005-144"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>139<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/P.J._O%27Rourke" class="mw-redirect" title="P.J. O'Rourke">P.J. O'Rourke</a> describes Smith as the "founder of free market economics."<sup id="cite_ref-urlAdam_Smith:_Web_Junkie_–_Forbes.com_145-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-urlAdam_Smith:_Web_Junkie_–_Forbes.com-145"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>140<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/List_of_Nobel_laureates" title="List of Nobel laureates">Nobel laureate</a> economist <a href="/wiki/Milton_Friedman" title="Milton Friedman">Milton Friedman</a> believed in 1976, 200 years after the publishing of <i>The Wealth of Nations</i>, that the work of Adam Smith was, "...far more immediately relevant today than he was at the Centennial of The Wealth of Nations in 1876."<sup id="cite_ref-146" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-146"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>141<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Other writers have argued that Smith's support for <i>laissez-faire</i> (which in French means leave alone) has been overstated. <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Stein" title="Herbert Stein">Herbert Stein</a> wrote that the people who "wear an Adam Smith necktie" do it to "make a statement of their devotion to the idea of free markets and <a href="/wiki/Limited_government" title="Limited government">limited government</a>", and that this misrepresents Smith's ideas. Stein writes that Smith "was not pure or doctrinaire about this idea. He viewed government intervention in the market with great skepticism...yet he was prepared to accept or propose qualifications to that policy in the specific cases where he judged that their net effect would be beneficial and would not undermine the basically free character of the system. He did not wear the Adam Smith necktie." In Stein's reading, <i>The Wealth of Nations</i> could justify the <a href="/wiki/Food_and_Drug_Administration" title="Food and Drug Administration">Food and Drug Administration</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Consumer_Product_Safety_Commission" class="mw-redirect" title="Consumer Product Safety Commission">Consumer Product Safety Commission</a>, mandatory employer health benefits, environmentalism, and "<a href="/wiki/Pigovian_tax" class="mw-redirect" title="Pigovian tax">discriminatory taxation</a> to deter <a href="/wiki/Sin_tax" title="Sin tax">improper</a> or <a href="/wiki/Sumptuary_tax" class="mw-redirect" title="Sumptuary tax">luxurious behavior</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-147" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-147"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>142<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Similarly, Vivienne Brown stated in <i><a href="/wiki/The_Economic_Journal" title="The Economic Journal">The Economic Journal</a></i> that in the 20th-century United States, <a href="/wiki/Reaganomics" title="Reaganomics">Reaganomics</a> supporters, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Wall_Street_Journal" title="The Wall Street Journal">The Wall Street Journal</a></i>, and other similar sources have spread among the general public a partial and misleading vision of Smith, portraying him as an "extreme dogmatic defender of <i>laissez-faire</i> capitalism and <a href="/wiki/Supply-side_economics" title="Supply-side economics">supply-side economics</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-Brown93_148-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brown93-148"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>143<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In fact, <i>The Wealth of Nations</i> includes the following statement on the payment of taxes: </p> <blockquote><p>The subjects of every state ought to contribute towards the support of the government, as nearly as possible, in proportion to their respective abilities; that is, in proportion to the revenue which they respectively enjoy under the protection of the state.<sup id="cite_ref-Smith_1977_loc=bk._V,_ch._2_149-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Smith_1977_loc=bk._V,_ch._2-149"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>144<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Some commentators have argued that Smith's works show support for a progressive, not flat, income tax and that he specifically named taxes that he thought should be required by the state, among them <a href="/wiki/Luxury_tax" title="Luxury tax">luxury-goods taxes</a> and tax on rent.<sup id="cite_ref-150" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-150"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>145<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Yet Smith argued for the "impossibility of taxing the people, in proportion to their economic revenue, by any capitation".<sup id="cite_ref-151" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-151"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>146<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Smith argued that taxes should principally go toward protecting "justice" and "certain publick institutions" that were necessary for the benefit of all of society, but that could not be provided by private enterprise.<sup id="cite_ref-152" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-152"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>147<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Additionally, Smith outlined the proper expenses of the government in <i>The Wealth of Nations, Book V, Ch. I</i>. Included in his requirements of a government is to enforce contracts and provide justice system, grant patents and copy rights, provide public goods such as infrastructure, provide national defence, and regulate banking. The role of the government was to provide goods "of such a nature that the profit could never repay the expense to any individual" such as roads, bridges, canals, and harbours. He also encouraged invention and new ideas through his patent enforcement and support of infant industry monopolies. He supported partial public subsidies for elementary education, and he believed that competition among religious institutions would provide general benefit to the society. In such cases, however, Smith argued for local rather than centralised control: "Even those publick works which are of such a nature that they cannot afford any revenue for maintaining themselves ... are always better maintained by a local or provincial revenue, under the management of a local and provincial administration, than by the general revenue of the state" (<i>Wealth of Nations,</i> V.i.d.18). Finally, he outlined how the government should support the dignity of the monarch or chief magistrate, such that they are equal or above the public in fashion. He even states that monarchs should be provided for in a greater fashion than magistrates of a republic because "we naturally expect more splendor in the court of a king than in the mansion-house of a <a href="/wiki/Doge_(title)" title="Doge (title)">doge</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-153" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-153"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>148<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition, he allowed that in some specific circumstances, retaliatory tariffs may be beneficial: </p> <blockquote><p>The recovery of a great foreign market will generally more than compensate the transitory inconvenience of paying dearer during a short time for some sorts of goods.<sup id="cite_ref-154" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-154"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>149<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>However, he added that in general, a retaliatory tariff "seems a bad method of compensating the injury done to certain classes of our people, to do another injury ourselves, not only to those classes, but to almost all the other classes of them".<sup id="cite_ref-155" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-155"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>150<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Economic_historian" class="mw-redirect" title="Economic historian">Economic historians</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Jacob_Viner" title="Jacob Viner">Jacob Viner</a> regard Smith as a strong advocate of free markets and limited government (what Smith called "natural liberty"), but not as a dogmatic supporter of <i>laissez-faire</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Viner_1927_156-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Viner_1927-156"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>151<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Economist <a href="/wiki/Daniel_B._Klein" title="Daniel B. Klein">Daniel Klein</a> believes using the term "free-market economics" or "free-market economist" to identify the ideas of Smith is too general and slightly misleading. Klein offers six characteristics central to the identity of Smith's economic thought and argues that a new name is needed to give a more accurate depiction of the "Smithian" identity.<sup id="cite_ref-157" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-157"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>152<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-158" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-158"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>153<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Economist <a href="/wiki/David_Ricardo" title="David Ricardo">David Ricardo</a> set straight some of the misunderstandings about Smith's thoughts on free market. Many continue to fall victim to the thinking that Smith was a free-market economist without exception, though he was not. Ricardo pointed out that Smith was in support of helping infant industries. Smith believed that the government should subsidise newly formed industry, but he did fear that when the infant industry grew into adulthood, it would be unwilling to surrender the government help.<sup id="cite_ref-New_Ideas_From_Dead_Economists_159-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-New_Ideas_From_Dead_Economists-159"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>154<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Smith also supported tariffs on imported goods to counteract an internal tax on the same good. Smith also fell to pressure in supporting some tariffs in support for national defence.<sup id="cite_ref-New_Ideas_From_Dead_Economists_159-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-New_Ideas_From_Dead_Economists-159"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>154<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some have also claimed, <a href="/wiki/Emma_Rothschild" title="Emma Rothschild">Emma Rothschild</a> among them, that Smith would have supported a minimum wage,<sup id="cite_ref-160" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-160"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>155<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> although no direct textual evidence supports the claim. Indeed, Smith wrote: </p> <blockquote><p>The price of labour, it must be observed, cannot be ascertained very accurately anywhere, different prices being often paid at the same place and for the same sort of labour, not only according to the different abilities of the workmen, but according to the easiness or hardness of the masters. Where wages are not regulated by law, all that we can pretend to determine is what are the most usual; and experience seems to show that law can never regulate them properly, though it has often pretended to do so. (<i>The Wealth of Nations</i>, Book 1, Chapter 8)</p></blockquote> <p>However, Smith also noted, to the contrary, the existence of an <a href="/wiki/Equality_of_bargaining_power" class="mw-redirect" title="Equality of bargaining power">imbalanced, inequality of bargaining power</a>:<sup id="cite_ref-161" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-161"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>156<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <blockquote><p>A landlord, a farmer, a master manufacturer, a merchant, though they did not employ a single workman, could generally live a year or two upon the stocks which they have already acquired. Many workmen could not subsist a week, few could subsist a month, and scarce any a year without employment. In the long run, the workman may be as necessary to his master as his master is to him, but the necessity is not so immediate.</p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Adam_Smith&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output 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class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-note_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Smith was described as a <a href="/wiki/North_Britain" title="North Britain">North Briton</a> and Scot.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">In <i>Life of Adam Smith</i>, Rae writes: "In his fourth year, while on a visit to his grandfather's house at Strathendry on the banks of the Leven, [Smith] was stolen by a passing band of gypsies, and for a time could not be found. But presently a gentleman arrived who had met a Romani woman a few miles down the road carrying a child that was crying piteously. Scouts were immediately dispatched in the direction indicated, and they came upon the woman in Leslie wood. As soon as she saw them she threw her burden down and escaped, and the child was brought back to his mother. [Smith] would have made, I fear, a poor gypsy."<sup id="cite_ref-rae_1895_5_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rae_1895_5-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">During the reign of <a href="/wiki/Louis_XIV_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Louis XIV of France">Louis XIV</a>, the population shrunk by 4 million and agricultural productivity was reduced by one-third while the taxes had increased. Cusminsky, Rosa, de Cendrero, 1967, <i>Los Fisiócratas</i>, Buenos Aires: Centro Editor de América Latina, p. 6</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">1701–1714 War of the Spanish Succession, 1688–1697 War of the Grand Alliance, 1672–1678 Franco-Dutch War, 1667–1668 War of Devolution, 1618–1648 Thirty Years' War</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The 6 editions of <i>The Theory of Moral Sentiments</i> were published in 1759, 1761, 1767, 1774, 1781, and 1790, respectively.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Adam_Smith&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Citations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-baptism-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-baptism_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-baptism_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/smith_adam.shtml">"Adam Smith (1723–1790)"</a>. <i>BBC</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070315183615/https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/smith_adam.shtml">Archived</a> from the original on 15 March 2007<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 December</span> 2019</span>. <q>Adam Smith's exact date of birth is unknown, but he was baptised on 5 June 1723.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=BBC&rft.atitle=Adam+Smith+%281723%E2%80%931790%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.co.uk%2Fhistory%2Fhistoric_figures%2Fsmith_adam.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAdam+Smith" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliams2000" class="citation book cs1">Williams, Gwydion M. (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Hh-3AAAAIAAJ"><i>Adam Smith, Wealth Without Nations</i></a>. London: Athol Books. p. 59. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-85034-084-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-85034-084-6"><bdi>978-0-85034-084-6</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210719200518/https://books.google.com/books?id=Hh-3AAAAIAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 19 July 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 August</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Adam+Smith%2C+Wealth+Without+Nations&rft.place=London&rft.pages=59&rft.pub=Athol+Books&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-85034-084-6&rft.aulast=Williams&rft.aufirst=Gwydion+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DHh-3AAAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAdam+Smith" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/scottishhistory/enlightenment/features_enlightenment_enlightenment.shtml">"BBC – History – Scottish History"</a>. <i>www.bbc.co.uk</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20010410205432/https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/scottishhistory/enlightenment/features_enlightenment_enlightenment.shtml">Archived</a> from the original on 10 April 2001<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 December</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.bbc.co.uk&rft.atitle=BBC+%E2%80%93+History+%E2%80%93+Scottish+History&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.co.uk%2Fhistory%2Fscottishhistory%2Fenlightenment%2Ffeatures_enlightenment_enlightenment.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAdam+Smith" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-AS1-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-AS1_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">—<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrown2008" class="citation journal cs1">Brown, Vivienne (5 December 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/economics-and-philosophy/article/mere-inventions-of-the-imagination-a-survey-of-recent-literature-on-adam-smith/E82D64B07E411991C03510FC1BD3E040">"Mere Inventions of the Imagination': A Survey of Recent Literature on Adam Smith"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a></i>. <b>13</b> (2): 281–312. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0266267100004521">10.1017/S0266267100004521</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0266-2671">0266-2671</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145093382">145093382</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200721213848/https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/economics-and-philosophy/article/mere-inventions-of-the-imagination-a-survey-of-recent-literature-on-adam-smith/E82D64B07E411991C03510FC1BD3E040">Archived</a> from the original on 21 July 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 July</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.atitle=Mere+Inventions+of+the+Imagination%27%3A+A+Survey+of+Recent+Literature+on+Adam+Smith&rft.volume=13&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=281-312&rft.date=2008-12-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A145093382%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0266-2671&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0266267100004521&rft.aulast=Brown&rft.aufirst=Vivienne&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cambridge.org%2Fcore%2Fjournals%2Feconomics-and-philosophy%2Farticle%2Fmere-inventions-of-the-imagination-a-survey-of-recent-literature-on-adam-smith%2FE82D64B07E411991C03510FC1BD3E040&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAdam+Smith" class="Z3988"></span><br />—<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBerry2018" class="citation book cs1">Berry, Christopher J. (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=irRwDwAAQBAJ&q=Adam+Smith++Father+of+economics"><i>Adam Smith Very Short Introductions Series</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. p. 101. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-878445-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-878445-6"><bdi>978-0-19-878445-6</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210719200529/https://books.google.com/books?id=irRwDwAAQBAJ&q=Adam+Smith++Father+of+economics">Archived</a> from the original on 19 July 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 October</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Adam+Smith+Very+Short+Introductions+Series&rft.pages=101&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-0-19-878445-6&rft.aulast=Berry&rft.aufirst=Christopher+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DirRwDwAAQBAJ%26q%3DAdam%2BSmith%2B%2BFather%2Bof%2Beconomics&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAdam+Smith" class="Z3988"></span><br />—<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSharma" class="citation web cs1">Sharma, Rakesh. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.investopedia.com/updates/adam-smith-economics/">"Adam Smith: The Father of Economics"</a>. <i>Investopedia</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160910173425/https://www.investopedia.com/updates/adam-smith-economics/">Archived</a> from the original on 10 September 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 February</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Investopedia&rft.atitle=Adam+Smith%3A+The+Father+of+Economics&rft.aulast=Sharma&rft.aufirst=Rakesh&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.investopedia.com%2Fupdates%2Fadam-smith-economics%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAdam+Smith" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-AS2-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-AS2_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">—<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/w3csvsfb">"Adam Smith: Father of Capitalism"</a>. <i>www.bbc.co.uk</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171120102114/https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/w3csvsfb">Archived</a> from the original on 20 November 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 February</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.bbc.co.uk&rft.atitle=Adam+Smith%3A+Father+of+Capitalism&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.co.uk%2Fprogrammes%2Fw3csvsfb&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAdam+Smith" class="Z3988"></span><br />—<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBassiryJones1993" class="citation journal cs1">Bassiry, G. R.; Jones, Marc (1993). "Adam Smith and the ethics of contemporary capitalism". <i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Business_Ethics" title="Journal of Business Ethics">Journal of Business Ethics</a></i>. <b>12</b> (1026): 621–627. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF01845899">10.1007/BF01845899</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:51746709">51746709</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Business+Ethics&rft.atitle=Adam+Smith+and+the+ethics+of+contemporary+capitalism&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=1026&rft.pages=621-627&rft.date=1993&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2FBF01845899&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A51746709%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Bassiry&rft.aufirst=G.+R.&rft.au=Jones%2C+Marc&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAdam+Smith" class="Z3988"></span><br />—<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNewbert2017" class="citation journal cs1">Newbert, Scott L. (30 November 2017). "Lessons on social enterprise from the father of capitalism: A dialectical analysis of Adam Smith". <i><a href="/wiki/Academy_of_Management_Journal" title="Academy of Management Journal">Academy of Management Journal</a></i>. <b>2016</b> (1): 12046. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5465%2Fambpp.2016.12046abstract">10.5465/ambpp.2016.12046abstract</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2151-6561">2151-6561</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Academy+of+Management+Journal&rft.atitle=Lessons+on+social+enterprise+from+the+father+of+capitalism%3A+A+dialectical+analysis+of+Adam+Smith&rft.volume=2016&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=12046&rft.date=2017-11-30&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.5465%2Fambpp.2016.12046abstract&rft.issn=2151-6561&rft.aulast=Newbert&rft.aufirst=Scott+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAdam+Smith" class="Z3988"></span><br />—<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRasmussen2017" class="citation book cs1">Rasmussen, Dennis C. (2017). <i>The Infidel and the Professor: David Hume, Adam Smith, and the Friendship That Shaped Modern Thought</i>. <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University_Press" title="Princeton University Press">Princeton University Press</a>. p. 12. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4008-8846-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4008-8846-7"><bdi>978-1-4008-8846-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Infidel+and+the+Professor%3A+David+Hume%2C+Adam+Smith%2C+and+the+Friendship+That+Shaped+Modern+Thought&rft.pages=12&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-1-4008-8846-7&rft.aulast=Rasmussen&rft.aufirst=Dennis+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAdam+Smith" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://corporatefinanceinstitute.com/resources/knowledge/economics/what-is-absolute-advantage/">"Absolute Advantage – Ability to Produce More than Anyone Else"</a>. <i>Corporate Finance Institute</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190220181649/https://corporatefinanceinstitute.com/resources/knowledge/economics/what-is-absolute-advantage/">Archived</a> from the original on 20 February 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 February</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Corporate+Finance+Institute&rft.atitle=Absolute+Advantage+%E2%80%93+Ability+to+Produce+More+than+Anyone+Else&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcorporatefinanceinstitute.com%2Fresources%2Fknowledge%2Feconomics%2Fwhat-is-absolute-advantage%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAdam+Smith" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.undiscoveredscotland.co.uk/usbiography/s/adamsmith.html">"Adam Smith: Biography on Undiscovered Scotland"</a>. <i>www.undiscoveredscotland.co.uk</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190722094727/https://www.undiscoveredscotland.co.uk/usbiography/s/adamsmith.html">Archived</a> from the original on 22 July 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 July</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.undiscoveredscotland.co.uk&rft.atitle=Adam+Smith%3A+Biography+on+Undiscovered+Scotland&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.undiscoveredscotland.co.uk%2Fusbiography%2Fs%2Fadamsmith.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAdam+Smith" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohn2017" class="citation news cs1">John, McMurray (19 March 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.investors.com/news/management/leaders-and-success/capitalisms-founding-father-often-quoted-frequently-misconstrued/">"Capitalism's 'Founding Father' Often Quoted, Frequently Misconstrued"</a>. <i>Investor's Business Daily</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210719200521/https://www.investors.com/news/management/leaders-and-success/capitalisms-founding-father-often-quoted-frequently-misconstrued/">Archived</a> from the original on 19 July 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 May</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Investor%27s+Business+Daily&rft.atitle=Capitalism%27s+%27Founding+Father%27+Often+Quoted%2C+Frequently+Misconstrued&rft.date=2017-03-19&rft.aulast=John&rft.aufirst=McMurray&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.investors.com%2Fnews%2Fmanagement%2Fleaders-and-success%2Fcapitalisms-founding-father-often-quoted-frequently-misconstrued%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAdam+Smith" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-rae_1895_1-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-rae_1895_1_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-rae_1895_1_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRae1895">Rae 1895</a>, p. 1</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBussing-Burks2003">Bussing-Burks 2003</a>, pp. 38–39</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBuchan2006">Buchan 2006</a>, p. 12</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-rae_1895_5-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-rae_1895_5_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-rae_1895_5_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-rae_1895_5_13-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRae1895">Rae 1895</a>, p. 5</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://fife-placenames.glasgow.ac.uk/placename/?id=1451">"Fife Place-name Data :: Strathenry"</a>. <i>fife-placenames.glasgow.ac.uk</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210719200533/https://fife-placenames.glasgow.ac.uk/placename/?id=1451">Archived</a> from the original on 19 July 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 November</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=fife-placenames.glasgow.ac.uk&rft.atitle=Fife+Place-name+Data+%3A%3A+Strathenry&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ffife-placenames.glasgow.ac.uk%2Fplacename%2F%3Fid%3D1451&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAdam+Smith" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bussing-Burks_2003_39-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Bussing-Burks_2003_39_16-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bussing-Burks_2003_39_16-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bussing-Burks_2003_39_16-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBussing-Burks2003">Bussing-Burks 2003</a>, p. 39</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBuchan2006">Buchan 2006</a>, p. 22</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bussing-Burks_2003_41-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Bussing-Burks_2003_41_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBussing-Burks2003">Bussing-Burks 2003</a>, p. 41</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-rae_1895_24-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-rae_1895_24_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRae1895">Rae 1895</a>, p. 24</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Buchholz_1999_12-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Buchholz_1999_12_20-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Buchholz_1999_12_20-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Buchholz_1999_12_20-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Buchholz_1999_12_20-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBuchholz1999">Buchholz 1999</a>, p. 12</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>Introductory Economics</i>. New Age Publishers. 2006. p. 4. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/81-224-1830-9" title="Special:BookSources/81-224-1830-9"><bdi>81-224-1830-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introductory+Economics&rft.pages=4&rft.pub=New+Age+Publishers&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=81-224-1830-9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAdam+Smith" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-rae_1895_22-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-rae_1895_22_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRae1895">Rae 1895</a>, p. 22</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-rae_1895_24–25-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-rae_1895_24–25_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRae1895">Rae 1895</a>, pp. 24–25</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bussing-Burks_2003_42-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Bussing-Burks_2003_42_24-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bussing-Burks_2003_42_24-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBussing-Burks2003">Bussing-Burks 2003</a>, p. 42</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBuchan2006">Buchan 2006</a>, p. 29</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.biography.com/scholar/adam-smith">"Adam Smith"</a>. <i>Biography</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210719200521/https://www.biography.com/scholar/adam-smith">Archived</a> from the original on 19 July 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 July</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Biography&rft.atitle=Adam+Smith&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.biography.com%2Fscholar%2Fadam-smith&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAdam+Smith" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-rae_1895_30-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-rae_1895_30_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRae1895">Rae 1895</a>, p. 30</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Smith, A. ([1762] 1985). <i>Lectures on Rhetoric and Belles Lettres</i> [1762]. vol. IV of the Glasgow Edition of the <i>Works and Correspondence of Adam Smith</i> (Indianapolis: Liberty Fund, 1984). Retrieved 16 February 2012</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bussing-Burks_2003_43-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Bussing-Burks_2003_43_29-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bussing-Burks_2003_43_29-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBussing-Burks2003">Bussing-Burks 2003</a>, p. 43</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWinch,_Donald2004" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Winch, Donald (September 2004). "Smith, Adam (bap. 1723, d. 1790)". <i><a href="/wiki/Dictionary_of_National_Biography" title="Dictionary of National Biography">Dictionary of National Biography</a></i>. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Smith%2C+Adam+%28bap.+1723%2C+d.+1790%29&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+National+Biography&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2004-09&rft.au=Winch%2C+Donald&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAdam+Smith" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-rae_1895_42-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-rae_1895_42_31-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRae1895">Rae 1895</a>, p. 42</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBuchholz1999">Buchholz 1999</a>, p. 15</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBuchan2006">Buchan 2006</a>, p. 67</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBuchholz1999">Buchholz 1999</a>, p. 13</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gla.ac.uk/myglasgow/archives/exhibitions/smith/photogallery/honorarydegree/">"MyGlasgow – Archive Services – Exhibitions – Adam Smith in Glasgow – Photo Gallery – Honorary degree"</a>. <i>University of Glasgow</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181106132237/https://www.gla.ac.uk/myglasgow/archives/exhibitions/smith/photogallery/honorarydegree/">Archived</a> from the original on 6 November 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 November</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=University+of+Glasgow&rft.atitle=MyGlasgow+%E2%80%93+Archive+Services+%E2%80%93+Exhibitions+%E2%80%93+Adam+Smith+in+Glasgow+%E2%80%93+Photo+Gallery+%E2%80%93+Honorary+degree&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.gla.ac.uk%2Fmyglasgow%2Farchives%2Fexhibitions%2Fsmith%2Fphotogallery%2Fhonorarydegree%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAdam+Smith" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Buchholz_1999_16-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Buchholz_1999_16_36-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Buchholz_1999_16_36-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Buchholz_1999_16_36-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBuchholz1999">Buchholz 1999</a>, p. 16</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBuchholz1999">Buchholz 1999</a>, pp. 16–17</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Buchholz_17-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Buchholz_17_38-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBuchholz1999">Buchholz 1999</a>, p. 17</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Smith, A., 1976, <i>The Wealth of Nations</i> edited by R. H. Campbell and A. S. Skinner, The Glasgow edition of the Works and Correspondence of Adam Smith, vol. 2b, p. 678.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBuchholz1999">Buchholz 1999</a>, p. 18</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBuchan2006">Buchan 2006</a>, p. 90</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Dr <a href="/wiki/James_Currie_(physician)" title="James Currie (physician)">James Currie</a> to <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Creevey" title="Thomas Creevey">Thomas Creevey</a></i>, 24 February 1793, Lpool RO, Currie MS 920 CUR</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Smith was elected a <a href="/wiki/Fellowship_of_the_Royal_Society" class="mw-redirect" title="Fellowship of the Royal Society">Fellow of the Royal Society</a> on 21 May 1767, but was not admitted until 27 May 1773. See <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMossner,_Ernest_CampbellRoss,_Ian_Simpson1987" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Campbell_Mossner" title="Ernest Campbell Mossner">Mossner, Ernest Campbell</a>; <a href="/wiki/Ian_Simpson_Ross" title="Ian Simpson Ross">Ross, Ian Simpson</a>, eds. (1987). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/correspondenceof0000smit_e1l8/page/n5/mode/2up?view=theater"><i>The Correspondence of Adam Smith</i></a></span> (2nd ed.). Indianapolis: Liberty Fund. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/correspondenceof0000smit_e1l8/page/131/mode/2up?view=theater">131</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0198285701" title="Special:BookSources/0198285701"><bdi>0198285701</bdi></a> – via <a href="/wiki/Internet_Archive" title="Internet Archive">Internet Archive</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Correspondence+of+Adam+Smith&rft.place=Indianapolis&rft.pages=131&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Liberty+Fund&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=0198285701&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcorrespondenceof0000smit_e1l8%2Fpage%2Fn5%2Fmode%2F2up%3Fview%3Dtheater&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAdam+Smith" class="Z3988"></span>; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoss,_Ian_Simpson2010" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ian_Simpson_Ross" title="Ian Simpson Ross">Ross, Ian Simpson</a> (2010). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/lifeofadamsmith0000ross_l0d1_2ndedition/page/n5/mode/2up?view=theater"><i>The Life of Adam Smith</i></a></span> (2nd ed.). Oxford: Clarendon Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/lifeofadamsmith0000ross_l0d1_2ndedition/page/266/mode/2up?view=theater">266</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0199550036" title="Special:BookSources/978-0199550036"><bdi>978-0199550036</bdi></a> – via <a href="/wiki/Internet_Archive" title="Internet Archive">Internet Archive</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Life+of+Adam+Smith&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=266&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Clarendon+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0199550036&rft.au=Ross%2C+Ian+Simpson&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Flifeofadamsmith0000ross_l0d1_2ndedition%2Fpage%2Fn5%2Fmode%2F2up%3Fview%3Dtheater&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAdam+Smith" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBuchan2006">Buchan 2006</a>, p. 89</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Buchholz_19-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Buchholz_19_47-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBuchholz1999">Buchholz 1999</a>, p. 19</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDurantDurant1967" class="citation book cs1">Durant, Will; Durant, Ariel (1967). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/storyofcivilizat00dura_3"><i>The Story of Civilization: Rousseau and Revolution</i></a></span>. MJF Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1567310214" title="Special:BookSources/1567310214"><bdi>1567310214</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Story+of+Civilization%3A+Rousseau+and+Revolution&rft.pub=MJF+Books&rft.date=1967&rft.isbn=1567310214&rft.aulast=Durant&rft.aufirst=Will&rft.au=Durant%2C+Ariel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fstoryofcivilizat00dura_3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAdam+Smith" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBuchan2006">Buchan 2006</a>, p. 128</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBuchan2006">Buchan 2006</a>, p. 133</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBuchan2006">Buchan 2006</a>, p. 137</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBuchan2006">Buchan 2006</a>, p. 145</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bussing-Burks_2003_53-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Bussing-Burks_2003_53_53-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bussing-Burks_2003_53_53-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bussing-Burks_2003_53_53-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBussing-Burks2003">Bussing-Burks 2003</a>, p. 53</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-buchan_2006_25-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-buchan_2006_25_54-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-buchan_2006_25_54-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBuchan2006">Buchan 2006</a>, p. 25</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-buchan_2006_88-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-buchan_2006_88_55-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-buchan_2006_88_55-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBuchan2006">Buchan 2006</a>, p. 88</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBonar1894xiv-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBonar1894xiv_56-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBonar1894">Bonar 1894</a>, p. xiv.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBuchan2006">Buchan 2006</a>, p. 11</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBuchan2006">Buchan 2006</a>, p. 134</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRae1895">Rae 1895</a>, p. 262</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-skousen_2001_32-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-skousen_2001_32_60-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-skousen_2001_32_60-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-skousen_2001_32_60-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSkousen2001">Skousen 2001</a>, p. 32</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Buchholz_14-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Buchholz_14_61-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Buchholz_14_61-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBuchholz1999">Buchholz 1999</a>, p. 14</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Boswell's <i><a href="/wiki/Life_of_Samuel_Johnson" title="Life of Samuel Johnson">Life of Samuel Johnson</a></i>, 1780.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRoss2010">Ross 2010</a>, p. 330</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStewart1853" class="citation book cs1">Stewart, Dugald (1853). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=FbYCAAAAYAAJ"><i>The Works of Adam Smith: With An Account of His Life and Writings</i></a>. London: Henry G. Bohn. lxix. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/3226570">3226570</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200613114606/https://books.google.com/books?id=FbYCAAAAYAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 13 June 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 May</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Works+of+Adam+Smith%3A+With+An+Account+of+His+Life+and+Writings&rft.place=London&rft.pages=lxix&rft.pub=Henry+G.+Bohn&rft.date=1853&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F3226570&rft.aulast=Stewart&rft.aufirst=Dugald&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DFbYCAAAAYAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAdam+Smith" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRae1895">Rae 1895</a>, pp. 376–377</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBonar1894">Bonar 1894</a>, p. xxi</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRoss1995">Ross 1995</a>, p. 15</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Times/1790/Obituary/Adam_Smith">"Times obituary of Adam Smith"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Times" title="The Times">The Times</a></i>. 24 July 1790. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130510035102/http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Times/1790/Obituary/Adam_Smith">Archived</a> from the original on 10 May 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 October</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Times&rft.atitle=Times+obituary+of+Adam+Smith&rft.date=1790-07-24&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fen.wikisource.org%2Fwiki%2FThe_Times%2F1790%2FObituary%2FAdam_Smith&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAdam+Smith" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Coase-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Coase_69-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCoase1976">Coase 1976</a>, pp. 529–546</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Coase-God-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Coase-God_70-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Coase-God_70-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCoase1976">Coase 1976</a>, p. 538</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-hidden_theology-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-hidden_theology_71-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHill2001" class="citation journal cs1">Hill, L. (2001). "The hidden theology of Adam Smith". <i>The European Journal of the History of Economic Thought</i>. <b>8</b>: 1–29. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F713765225">10.1080/713765225</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:154571991">154571991</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+European+Journal+of+the+History+of+Economic+Thought&rft.atitle=The+hidden+theology+of+Adam+Smith&rft.volume=8&rft.pages=1-29&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F713765225&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A154571991%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Hill&rft.aufirst=L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAdam+Smith" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLong2006" class="citation cs2">Long, Brendan (2006), Brown, Vivienne (ed.), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9780203966365-10/adam-smith-natural-theology-society-brendan-long">"Adam Smith's natural theology of society"</a>, <i>The Adam Smith Review</i>, vol. 2, Routledge, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4324%2F9780203966365">10.4324/9780203966365</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-203-96636-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-203-96636-5"><bdi>978-0-203-96636-5</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 May</span> 2022</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Adam+Smith+Review&rft.atitle=Adam+Smith%27s+natural+theology+of+society&rft.volume=2&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4324%2F9780203966365&rft.isbn=978-0-203-96636-5&rft.aulast=Long&rft.aufirst=Brendan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.taylorfrancis.com%2Fchapters%2Fedit%2F10.4324%2F9780203966365-10%2Fadam-smith-natural-theology-society-brendan-long&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAdam+Smith" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKennedy2011" class="citation journal cs1">Kennedy, Gavin (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-the-history-of-economic-thought/article/abs/hidden-adam-smith-in-his-alleged-theology/5A697C438BD0D7C1716C0E5CD85BF475">"The Hidden Adam Smith In His Alleged Theology"</a>. <i>Journal of the History of Economic Thought</i>. <b>33</b> (3): 385–402. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS1053837211000204">10.1017/S1053837211000204</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1469-9656">1469-9656</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:154779976">154779976</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+History+of+Economic+Thought&rft.atitle=The+Hidden+Adam+Smith+In+His+Alleged+Theology&rft.volume=33&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=385-402&rft.date=2011&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A154779976%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1469-9656&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS1053837211000204&rft.aulast=Kennedy&rft.aufirst=Gavin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cambridge.org%2Fcore%2Fjournals%2Fjournal-of-the-history-of-economic-thought%2Farticle%2Fabs%2Fhidden-adam-smith-in-his-alleged-theology%2F5A697C438BD0D7C1716C0E5CD85BF475&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAdam+Smith" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-hume_on_religion-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-hume_on_religion_74-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/hume-religion/">"Hume on Religion"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180915103209/http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/hume-religion/">Archived</a> from the original on 15 September 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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(1998). <i>Political-economy: A comparative approach</i>, 2nd ed., Westport, CT: Praeger. p. 32.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Campus, Antonietta (1987). "Marginalist Economics", <i>The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics</i>, v. 3, p. 320</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-119"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSmith1977">Smith 1977</a>, §Book I, Chapter 2</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-120"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"The Vanity of the Philosopher: From Equality to Hierarchy" in <i>Postclassical Economics</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.wfu.edu/~hammond/review%20of%20Peart&Levy,%20final.pdf">[1]</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121004085614/http://www.wfu.edu/~hammond/review%20of%20Peart%26Levy%2C%20final.pdf">Archived</a> 4 October 2012 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-121"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>The Wealth of Nations</i>, Book 5, Chapter 1, Part 2</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-122"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPitts2005" class="citation book cs1">Pitts, Jennifer (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=szeU8olEDewC"><i>A Turn to Empire: The Rise of Imperial Liberalism in Britain and France</i></a>. 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"Adam Smith and Liberal Economics: Reading the Minimum Wage Debate of 1795–96," <i>Econ Journal Watch</i> 8(2): 110–125, May 2011 <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://econjwatch.org/articles/adam-smith-and-liberal-economics-reading-the-minimum-wage-debate-of-1795-96">[2]</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131228230820/http://econjwatch.org/articles/adam-smith-and-liberal-economics-reading-the-minimum-wage-debate-of-1795-96">Archived</a> 28 December 2013 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-161"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-161">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">A Smith, <i>Wealth of Nations</i> (1776) Book I, ch 8</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Adam_Smith&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBenians1925" class="citation journal cs1">Benians, E. 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(1894). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/catalogueoflibr00smit#page/n5/mode/2up"><i>A Catalogue of the Library of Adam Smith</i></a>. London: Macmillan. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/2320634">2320634</a> – via Internet Archive.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Catalogue+of+the+Library+of+Adam+Smith&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Macmillan&rft.date=1894&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F2320634&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2Fcatalogueoflibr00smit%23page%2Fn5%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAdam+Smith" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBuchan2006" class="citation book cs1">Buchan, James (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/authenticadamsmi0000buch"><i>The Authentic Adam Smith: His Life and Ideas</i></a>. W.W. Norton & Company. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-393-06121-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-393-06121-3"><bdi>0-393-06121-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Authentic+Adam+Smith%3A+His+Life+and+Ideas&rft.pub=W.W.+Norton+%26+Company&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=0-393-06121-3&rft.aulast=Buchan&rft.aufirst=James&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fauthenticadamsmi0000buch&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAdam+Smith" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBuchholz1999" class="citation book cs1">Buchholz, Todd (1999). <i>New Ideas from Dead Economists: An Introduction to Modern Economic Thought</i>. Penguin Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-14-028313-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-14-028313-7"><bdi>0-14-028313-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=New+Ideas+from+Dead+Economists%3A+An+Introduction+to+Modern+Economic+Thought&rft.pub=Penguin+Books&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=0-14-028313-7&rft.aulast=Buchholz&rft.aufirst=Todd&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAdam+Smith" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBussing-Burks2003" class="citation book cs1">Bussing-Burks, Marie (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/influentialecono00buss"><i>Influential Economists</i></a>. Minneapolis: The Oliver Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-881508-72-2" title="Special:BookSources/1-881508-72-2"><bdi>1-881508-72-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Influential+Economists&rft.place=Minneapolis&rft.pub=The+Oliver+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=1-881508-72-2&rft.aulast=Bussing-Burks&rft.aufirst=Marie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Finfluentialecono00buss&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAdam+Smith" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCampbellSkinner,_Andrew_S.1985" class="citation book cs1">Campbell, R.H.; Skinner, Andrew S. (1985). <i>Adam Smith</i>. <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7099-3473-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-7099-3473-4"><bdi>0-7099-3473-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Adam+Smith&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=0-7099-3473-4&rft.aulast=Campbell&rft.aufirst=R.H.&rft.au=Skinner%2C+Andrew+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAdam+Smith" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCoase1976" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Coase" title="Ronald Coase">Coase, R.H.</a> (October 1976). "Adam Smith's View of Man". <i><a href="/wiki/The_Journal_of_Law_and_Economics" title="The Journal of Law and Economics">The Journal of Law and Economics</a></i>. <b>19</b> (3): 529–546. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F466886">10.1086/466886</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145363933">145363933</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Law+and+Economics&rft.atitle=Adam+Smith%27s+View+of+Man&rft.volume=19&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=529-546&rft.date=1976-10&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F466886&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A145363933%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Coase&rft.aufirst=R.H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAdam+Smith" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Helbroner, Robert L. <i>The Essential Adam Smith</i>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-393-95530-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-393-95530-3">0-393-95530-3</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNicholson1909" class="citation book cs1">Nicholson, J. Shield (1909). <i>A project of empire;a critical study of the economics of imperialism, with special reference to the ideas of Adam Smith</i>. Macmillan and co., limited. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/2027%2Fuc2.ark%3A%2F13960%2Ft4th8nc9p">2027/uc2.ark:/13960/t4th8nc9p</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+project+of+empire%3Ba+critical+study+of+the+economics+of+imperialism%2C+with+special+reference+to+the+ideas+of+Adam+Smith.&rft.pub=Macmillan+and+co.%2C+limited&rft.date=1909&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F2027%2Fuc2.ark%3A%2F13960%2Ft4th8nc9p&rft.aulast=Nicholson&rft.aufirst=J.+Shield&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAdam+Smith" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Otteson, James R. (2002). <i>Adam Smith's Marketplace of Life.</i> Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-01656-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-01656-8">0-521-01656-8</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPalen2014" class="citation journal cs1">Palen, Marc-William (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200218132205/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/dd2e/a9ae55694f0531f6a2b240e41b86786cb19d.pdf">"Adam Smith as Advocate of Empire, c. 1870–1932"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>The Historical Journal</i>. <b>57</b>: 179–198. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0018246X13000101">10.1017/S0018246X13000101</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:159524069">159524069</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/dd2e/a9ae55694f0531f6a2b240e41b86786cb19d.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 18 February 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Historical+Journal&rft.atitle=Adam+Smith+as+Advocate+of+Empire%2C+c.+1870%E2%80%931932&rft.volume=57&rft.pages=179-198&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0018246X13000101&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A159524069%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Palen&rft.aufirst=Marc-William&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpdfs.semanticscholar.org%2Fdd2e%2Fa9ae55694f0531f6a2b240e41b86786cb19d.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAdam+Smith" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRae1895" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Rae_(biographer)" title="John Rae (biographer)">Rae, John</a> (1895). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/lifeofadamsmith00raejuoft#page/n3/mode/2up"><i>Life of Adam Smith</i></a>. London & New York: Macmillan. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7222-2658-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-7222-2658-6"><bdi>0-7222-2658-6</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 May</span> 2018</span> – via Internet Archive.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Life+of+Adam+Smith&rft.place=London+%26+New+York&rft.pub=Macmillan&rft.date=1895&rft.isbn=0-7222-2658-6&rft.aulast=Rae&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2Flifeofadamsmith00raejuoft%23page%2Fn3%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAdam+Smith" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoss1995" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ian_Simpson_Ross" title="Ian Simpson Ross">Ross, Ian Simpson</a> (1995). <i>The Life of Adam Smith</i>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-828821-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-828821-2"><bdi>0-19-828821-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Life+of+Adam+Smith&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=0-19-828821-2&rft.aulast=Ross&rft.aufirst=Ian+Simpson&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAdam+Smith" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoss2010" class="citation book cs1">Ross, Ian Simpson (2010). <i>The Life of Adam Smith</i> (2nd ed.). 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Sharpe. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7656-0480-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-7656-0480-9"><bdi>0-7656-0480-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Making+of+Modern+Economics%3A+The+Lives+and+Ideas+of+Great+Thinkers&rft.pub=M.E.+Sharpe&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=0-7656-0480-9&rft.aulast=Skousen&rft.aufirst=Mark&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dnsnl3hHPuowC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAdam+Smith" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith1977" class="citation book cs1">Smith, Adam (1977) [1776]. <i>An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations</i>. University of Chicago Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-226-76374-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-226-76374-9"><bdi>0-226-76374-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Inquiry+into+the+Nature+and+Causes+of+the+Wealth+of+Nations&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1977&rft.isbn=0-226-76374-9&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=Adam&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAdam+Smith" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith1982" class="citation book cs1">Smith, Adam (1982) [1759]. D.D. Raphael and A.L. Macfie (ed.). <i>The Theory of Moral Sentiments</i>. Liberty Fund. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-86597-012-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-86597-012-2"><bdi>0-86597-012-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Theory+of+Moral+Sentiments&rft.pub=Liberty+Fund&rft.date=1982&rft.isbn=0-86597-012-2&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=Adam&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAdam+Smith" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith2002" class="citation book cs1">Smith, Adam (2002) [1759]. Knud Haakonssen (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cambridge.org/catalogue/catalogue.asp?isbn=0-521-59847-8"><i>The Theory of Moral Sentiments</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-59847-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-59847-8"><bdi>0-521-59847-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Theory+of+Moral+Sentiments&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=0-521-59847-8&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=Adam&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cambridge.org%2Fcatalogue%2Fcatalogue.asp%3Fisbn%3D0-521-59847-8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAdam+Smith" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith1998" class="citation journal cs1">Smith, Vernon L. (July 1998). "The Two Faces of Adam Smith". <i>Southern Economic Journal</i>. <b>65</b> (1): 2–19. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1061349">10.2307/1061349</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1061349">1061349</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:154002759">154002759</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Southern+Economic+Journal&rft.atitle=The+Two+Faces+of+Adam+Smith&rft.volume=65&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=2-19&rft.date=1998-07&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A154002759%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1061349%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1061349&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=Vernon+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAdam+Smith" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTribeMizuta,_Hiroshi2002" class="citation book cs1">Tribe, Keith; <a href="/wiki/Hiroshi_Mizuta" title="Hiroshi Mizuta">Mizuta, Hiroshi</a> (2002). <i>A Critical Bibliography of Adam Smith</i>. Pickering & Chatto. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85196-741-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-85196-741-4"><bdi>978-1-85196-741-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Critical+Bibliography+of+Adam+Smith&rft.pub=Pickering+%26+Chatto&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-1-85196-741-4&rft.aulast=Tribe&rft.aufirst=Keith&rft.au=Mizuta%2C+Hiroshi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAdam+Smith" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFViner1991" class="citation book cs1">Viner, Jacob (1991). Douglas A. Irwin (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/essaysonintellec0056vine"><i>Essays on the Intellectual History of Economics</i></a>. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-691-04266-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-691-04266-7"><bdi>0-691-04266-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Essays+on+the+Intellectual+History+of+Economics&rft.place=Princeton%2C+NJ&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=0-691-04266-7&rft.aulast=Viner&rft.aufirst=Jacob&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fessaysonintellec0056vine&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAdam+Smith" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Adam_Smith&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/38px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="38" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/57px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/76px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><a href="/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a> has the text of <i><a href="/wiki/A_Short_Biographical_Dictionary_of_English_Literature" title="A Short Biographical Dictionary of English Literature">A Short Biographical Dictionary of English Literature</a></i><span class="nowrap" style="padding-left:0.1em;">'</span>s article about <i><b><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/A_Short_Biographical_Dictionary_of_English_Literature/Smith,_Adam" class="extiw" title="s:A Short Biographical Dictionary of English Literature/Smith, Adam">Smith, Adam</a></b></i>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:The_Wikipedia_Library" title="Wikipedia:The Wikipedia Library">Library resources</a> about <br /> <b>Adam Smith</b> <hr /></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Adam+Smith">Resources in your library</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Adam+Smith&library=0CHOOSE0">Resources in other libraries</a></li> </ul></div></div> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"><b>By Adam Smith</b> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?at=wp&au=Adam+Smith">Resources in your library</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?at=wp&au=Adam+Smith&library=0CHOOSE0">Resources in other libraries</a></li></ul> </div></div> </div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFButler,_Eamonn2007" class="citation book cs1">Butler, Eamonn (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iea.org.uk/publications/research/adam-smith-a-primer"><i>Adam Smith – A Primer</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Institute_of_Economic_Affairs" title="Institute of Economic Affairs">Institute of Economic Affairs</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-255-36608-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-255-36608-3"><bdi>978-0-255-36608-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Adam+Smith+%E2%80%93+A+Primer&rft.pub=Institute+of+Economic+Affairs&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-255-36608-3&rft.au=Butler%2C+Eamonn&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iea.org.uk%2Fpublications%2Fresearch%2Fadam-smith-a-primer&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAdam+Smith" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCook2012" class="citation journal cs1">Cook, Simon J. (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/2305457">"Culture & Political Economy: Adam Smith & Alfred Marshall"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Tabur" class="mw-redirect" title="Tabur">Tabur</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Tabur&rft.atitle=Culture+%26+Political+Economy%3A+Adam+Smith+%26+Alfred+Marshall&rft.date=2012&rft.aulast=Cook&rft.aufirst=Simon+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F2305457&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAdam+Smith" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCopley,_Stephen1995" class="citation book cs1">Copley, Stephen (1995). <i>Adam Smith's Wealth of Nations: New Interdisciplinary Essays</i>. <a href="/wiki/Manchester_University_Press" title="Manchester University Press">Manchester University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7190-3943-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-7190-3943-6"><bdi>0-7190-3943-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Adam+Smith%27s+Wealth+of+Nations%3A+New+Interdisciplinary+Essays&rft.pub=Manchester+University+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=0-7190-3943-6&rft.au=Copley%2C+Stephen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAdam+Smith" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGlahe,_F.1977" class="citation book cs1">Glahe, F. (1977). <i>Adam Smith and the Wealth of Nations: 1776–1976</i>. <a href="/wiki/University_Press_of_Colorado" title="University Press of Colorado">University Press of Colorado</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87081-082-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-87081-082-0"><bdi>0-87081-082-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Adam+Smith+and+the+Wealth+of+Nations%3A+1776%E2%80%931976&rft.pub=University+Press+of+Colorado&rft.date=1977&rft.isbn=0-87081-082-0&rft.au=Glahe%2C+F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAdam+Smith" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHaakonssen,_Knud2006" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Knud_Haakonssen&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Knud Haakonssen (page does not exist)">Haakonssen, Knud</a> (2006). <i>The Cambridge Companion to Adam Smith</i>. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-77924-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-77924-3"><bdi>0-521-77924-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Companion+to+Adam+Smith&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=0-521-77924-3&rft.au=Haakonssen%2C+Knud&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAdam+Smith" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHamowy2008" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Hamowy" title="Ronald Hamowy">Hamowy, Ronald</a> (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://sk.sagepub.com/reference/libertarianism/n287.xml">"Smith, Adam (1723–1790)"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=yxNgXs3TkJYC"><i>The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism</i></a>. Thousand Oaks, CA: <a href="/wiki/SAGE_Publishing" class="mw-redirect" title="SAGE Publishing">Sage</a>; <a href="/wiki/Cato_Institute" title="Cato Institute">Cato Institute</a>. pp. 470–472. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4135%2F9781412965811.n287">10.4135/9781412965811.n287</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1412965804" title="Special:BookSources/978-1412965804"><bdi>978-1412965804</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2008009151">2008009151</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/750831024">750831024</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Smith%2C+Adam+%281723%E2%80%931790%29&rft.btitle=The+Encyclopedia+of+Libertarianism&rft.place=Thousand+Oaks%2C+CA&rft.pages=470-472&rft.pub=Sage%3B+Cato+Institute&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F750831024&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2008009151&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4135%2F9781412965811.n287&rft.isbn=978-1412965804&rft.aulast=Hamowy&rft.aufirst=Ronald&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsk.sagepub.com%2Freference%2Flibertarianism%2Fn287.xml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAdam+Smith" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Hardwick, D. and Marsh, L. (2014). <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.palgrave.com/us/book/9781137320681">Propriety and Prosperity: New Studies on the Philosophy of Adam Smith</a></i>. Palgrave Macmillan</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHollander,_Samuel1973" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Hollander" title="Samuel Hollander">Hollander, Samuel</a> (1973). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/economicsofadams0000holl"><i>Economics of Adam Smith</i></a></span>. <a href="/wiki/University_of_Toronto_Press" title="University of Toronto Press">University of Toronto Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8020-6302-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-8020-6302-0"><bdi>0-8020-6302-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Economics+of+Adam+Smith&rft.pub=University+of+Toronto+Press&rft.date=1973&rft.isbn=0-8020-6302-0&rft.au=Hollander%2C+Samuel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Feconomicsofadams0000holl&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAdam+Smith" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox" style="clear: right; float:right;margin:0 0 1.5em 1.5em"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:115%">External videos</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="text-align: left"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="video icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/16px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/24px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/32px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /></span></span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.c-span.org/video/?524494-1/qa-glory-liu-adam-smiths-america"><i>Q&A</i> interview with Glory Liu on <i>Adam Smith's America</i>, December 4, 2022</a>, <a href="/wiki/C-SPAN" title="C-SPAN">C-SPAN</a></td></tr></tbody></table> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLiu2022" class="citation book cs1">Liu, Glory M. (2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=j9hyEAAAQBAJ"><i>Adam Smith's America: How a Scottish Philosopher Became an Icon of American Capitalism</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University_Press" title="Princeton University Press">Princeton University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0691240879" title="Special:BookSources/978-0691240879"><bdi>978-0691240879</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Adam+Smith%27s+America%3A+How+a+Scottish+Philosopher+Became+an+Icon+of+American+Capitalism&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2022&rft.isbn=978-0691240879&rft.aulast=Liu&rft.aufirst=Glory+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dj9hyEAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAdam+Smith" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcLean,_Iain2006" class="citation book cs1">McLean, Iain (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.themontrealreview.com/2009/Adam-Smith-radical-and-egalitarian.php"><i>Adam Smith, Radical and Egalitarian: An Interpretation for the 21st Century</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Edinburgh_University_Press" title="Edinburgh University Press">Edinburgh University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7486-2352-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-7486-2352-3"><bdi>0-7486-2352-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Adam+Smith%2C+Radical+and+Egalitarian%3A+An+Interpretation+for+the+21st+Century&rft.pub=Edinburgh+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=0-7486-2352-3&rft.au=McLean%2C+Iain&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.themontrealreview.com%2F2009%2FAdam-Smith-radical-and-egalitarian.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAdam+Smith" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMilgate,_MurrayStimson,_Shannon.2009" class="citation book cs1">Milgate, Murray & Stimson, Shannon. (2009). <i>After Adam Smith: A Century of Transformation in Politics and Political Economy</i>. <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University_Press" title="Princeton University Press">Princeton University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-14037-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-14037-7"><bdi>978-0-691-14037-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=After+Adam+Smith%3A+A+Century+of+Transformation+in+Politics+and+Political+Economy&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-691-14037-7&rft.au=Milgate%2C+Murray&rft.au=Stimson%2C+Shannon.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAdam+Smith" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Mullen, Roger, Smith, Craig, and Mochrie, Robbie (eds.) (2023), <i>Adam Smith: The Kirkcaldy Papers</i>, Adam Smith Global Foundation, <a href="/wiki/Kirkcaldy" title="Kirkcaldy">Kirkcaldy</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781399963497" title="Special:BookSources/9781399963497">9781399963497</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMuller,_Jerry_Z.1995" class="citation book cs1">Muller, Jerry Z. (1995). <i>Adam Smith in His Time and Ours</i>. <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University_Press" title="Princeton University Press">Princeton University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-691-00161-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-691-00161-8"><bdi>0-691-00161-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Adam+Smith+in+His+Time+and+Ours&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=0-691-00161-8&rft.au=Muller%2C+Jerry+Z.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAdam+Smith" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox" style="clear: right; float:right;margin:0 0 1.5em 1.5em"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:115%">External videos</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="text-align: left"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="video icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/16px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/24px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/32px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /></span></span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.c-span.org/video/?451666-1/adam-smith">Presentation by Jesse Norman on <i>Adam Smith: What He Thought, and Why It Matters</i>, September 19, 2018</a>, <a href="/wiki/C-SPAN" title="C-SPAN">C-SPAN</a></td></tr></tbody></table> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNorman,_Jesse2018" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jesse_Norman" title="Jesse Norman">Norman, Jesse</a> (2018). <i>Adam Smith: What He Thought, and Why It Matters</i>. Allen Lane.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Adam+Smith%3A+What+He+Thought%2C+and+Why+It+Matters&rft.pub=Allen+Lane&rft.date=2018&rft.au=Norman%2C+Jesse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAdam+Smith" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFO'Rourke,_P.J.2006" class="citation book cs1">O'Rourke, P.J. (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/onwealthofnation00orou"><i>On The Wealth of Nations</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Grove/Atlantic_Inc." class="mw-redirect" title="Grove/Atlantic Inc.">Grove/Atlantic Inc.</a> <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87113-949-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-87113-949-9"><bdi>0-87113-949-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=On+The+Wealth+of+Nations&rft.pub=Grove%2FAtlantic+Inc.&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=0-87113-949-9&rft.au=O%27Rourke%2C+P.J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fonwealthofnation00orou&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAdam+Smith" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOtteson2002" class="citation book cs1">Otteson, James (2002). <i>Adam Smith's Marketplace of Life</i>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-01656-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-01656-8"><bdi>0-521-01656-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Adam+Smith%27s+Marketplace+of+Life&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=0-521-01656-8&rft.aulast=Otteson&rft.aufirst=James&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAdam+Smith" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOtteson2013" class="citation book cs1">Otteson, James (2013). <i>Adam Smith</i>. Bloomsbury. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4411-9013-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4411-9013-0"><bdi>978-1-4411-9013-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Adam+Smith&rft.pub=Bloomsbury&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1-4411-9013-0&rft.aulast=Otteson&rft.aufirst=James&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAdam+Smith" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Phillipson, Nicholas (2010). <i>Adam Smith: An Enlightened Life</i>, Yale University Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-16927-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-300-16927-0">978-0-300-16927-0</a>, 352 pages; scholarly biography</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89ric_Pichet" title="Éric Pichet">Pichet, Éric</a> (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.fr/dp/2843720400">Adam Smith, je connais !</a>, French biography. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2843720406" title="Special:BookSources/978-2843720406">978-2843720406</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fernando_Vianello" title="Fernando Vianello">Vianello, F.</a> (1999). "Social accounting in Adam Smith", in: Mongiovi, G. and Petri F. (eds.), <i>Value, Distribution and capital. Essays in honour of <a href="/wiki/Pierangelo_Garegnani" title="Pierangelo Garegnani">Pierangelo Garegnani</a></i>, London: Routledge, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-14277-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-14277-6">0-415-14277-6</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWinch2007" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Winch, Donald (2007) [2004]. "Smith, Adam". <i><a href="/wiki/Dictionary_of_National_Biography#Oxford_Dictionary_of_National_Biography" title="Dictionary of National Biography">Oxford Dictionary of National Biography</a></i> (online ed.). Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fref%3Aodnb%2F25767">10.1093/ref:odnb/25767</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Smith%2C+Adam&rft.btitle=Oxford+Dictionary+of+National+Biography&rft.edition=online&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fref%3Aodnb%2F25767&rft.aulast=Winch&rft.aufirst=Donald&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAdam+Smith" class="Z3988"></span> <span style="font-size:0.95em; font-size:95%; color: var( --color-subtle, #555 )">(Subscription or <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oxforddnb.com/help/subscribe#public">UK public library membership</a> required.)</span></li> <li>Wolloch, N. (2015). "Symposium on Jack Russell Weinstein's Adam Smith's Pluralism: Rationality, Education and the Moral Sentiments". <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cosmosandtaxis.org/back-issues/ct-23/">Cosmos + Taxis</a></i></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://imperialglobalexeter.com/2014/03/12/adam-smith-and-empire-a-new-talking-empire-podcast/">"Adam Smith and Empire: A New Talking Empire Podcast,"</a> <i>Imperial & Global Forum</i>, 12 March 2014.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Adam_Smith&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/38px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="38" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/57px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/76px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><a href="/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a> has original works by or about:<br /><b style="text-align: center;"><i><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Author:Adam_Smith" class="extiw" title="s:Author:Adam Smith">Adam Smith</a></i></b></div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/34px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="34" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/51px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/68px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikiquote has quotations related to <i><b><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Adam_Smith" class="extiw" title="q:Special:Search/Adam Smith">Adam Smith</a></b></i>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.adamsmith.org:80/adam-smith/">the original</a> on 17 May 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 May</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Adam+Smith&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.adamsmith.org%3A80%2Fadam-smith%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAdam+Smith" class="Z3988"></span> at the <a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith_Institute" title="Adam Smith Institute">Adam Smith Institute</a></li></ul> <table class="wikitable succession-box noprint" style="margin:0.5em auto; font-size:small;clear:both;"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="3" style="border-top: 5px solid #DAA520;">Academic offices </th></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <td style="width:30%;" rowspan="1">Preceded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Robert_Cunninghame_Graham_of_Gartmore" title="Robert Cunninghame Graham of Gartmore">Robert Cunninghame Graham of Gartmore</a></div> </td> <td style="width: 40%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1"><b> <a href="/wiki/Rector_of_the_University_of_Glasgow" title="Rector of the University of Glasgow">Rector of the University of Glasgow</a> </b><br />1787–1789 </td> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1">Succeeded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Walter_Campbell_of_Shawfield" title="Walter Campbell of Shawfield">Walter Campbell of Shawfield</a></div> </td></tr> </tbody></table> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output 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href="/wiki/Health_economics" title="Health economics">Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history" title="Economic history">Historical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanistic_economics" title="Humanistic economics">Humanistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_organization" title="Industrial organization">Industrial organization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_economics" title="Information economics">Information</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institutional_economics" title="Institutional economics">Institutional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knowledge_economy" title="Knowledge economy">Knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labour_economics" title="Labour economics">Labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_and_economics" title="Law and economics">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Managerial_economics" title="Managerial economics">Managerial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monetary_economics" title="Monetary economics">Monetary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_resource_economics" title="Natural resource economics">Natural resource</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organizational_economics" title="Organizational economics">Organizational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economics_of_participation" title="Economics of participation">Participation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personnel_economics" title="Personnel economics">Personnel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_planning" title="Economic planning">Planning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_policy" title="Economic policy">Policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_economics" title="Public economics">Public</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_choice" title="Public choice">Public choice</a> / <a href="/wiki/Social_choice_theory" title="Social choice theory">Social choice theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regional_economics" title="Regional economics">Regional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rural_economics" title="Rural economics">Rural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Service_economy" title="Service economy">Service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socioeconomics" class="mw-redirect" title="Socioeconomics">Socio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_sociology" title="Economic sociology">Sociological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solidarity_economy" title="Solidarity economy">Solidarity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_statistics" title="Economic statistics">Statistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_economics" title="Urban economics">Urban</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welfare_economics" title="Welfare economics">Welfare</a></li></ul></div></div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Schools_of_economic_thought" title="Schools of economic thought">Schools</a><br />(<a href="/wiki/History_of_economic_thought" title="History of economic thought">history</a>)<br /></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mainstream_economics" title="Mainstream economics">Mainstream</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heterodox_economics" title="Heterodox economics">Heterodox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_School_(economics)" title="American School (economics)">American (National)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_economic_thought" title="Ancient economic thought">Ancient thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchist_economics" class="mw-redirect" title="Anarchist economics">Anarchist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mutualism_(economic_theory)" title="Mutualism (economic theory)">Mutualism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austrian_School" class="mw-redirect" title="Austrian School">Austrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_economics" title="Behavioral economics">Behavioral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_economics" title="Buddhist economics">Buddhist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chartalism" title="Chartalism">Chartalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Modern_monetary_theory" title="Modern monetary theory">Modern monetary theory</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_school_of_economics" title="Chicago school of economics">Chicago</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_economics" title="Classical economics">Classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_political_economy" title="Critique of political economy">Critique of political economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_democracy" title="Economic democracy">Democratic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disequilibrium_macroeconomics" title="Disequilibrium macroeconomics">Disequilibrium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_economics" title="Ecological economics">Ecological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_economics" title="Evolutionary economics">Evolutionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_economics" title="Feminist economics">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgism" title="Georgism">Georgism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Happiness_economics" title="Happiness economics">Happiness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_school_of_economics" title="Historical school of economics">Historical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanistic_economics" title="Humanistic economics">Humanistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institutional_economics" title="Institutional economics">Institutional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keynesian_economics" title="Keynesian economics">Keynesian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Keynesian_economics" class="mw-redirect" title="Neo-Keynesian economics">Neo-</a> (<a href="/wiki/Neoclassical_synthesis" title="Neoclassical synthesis">neoclassical–Keynesian synthesis</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Keynesian_economics" title="New Keynesian economics">New</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-Keynesian_economics" title="Post-Keynesian economics">Post-</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Monetary_circuit_theory" title="Monetary circuit theory">Circuitism</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malthusianism" title="Malthusianism">Malthusianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marginalism" title="Marginalism">Marginalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxian_economics" title="Marxian economics">Marxian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Marxian_economics" class="mw-redirect" title="Neo-Marxian economics">Neo-</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mercantilism" title="Mercantilism">Mercantilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mixed_economy" title="Mixed economy">Mixed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoclassical_economics" title="Neoclassical economics">Neoclassical</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lausanne_School" title="Lausanne School">Lausanne</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_classical_macroeconomics" title="New classical macroeconomics">New classical</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Real_business-cycle_theory" title="Real business-cycle theory">Real business-cycle theory</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_institutional_economics" title="New institutional economics">New institutional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physiocracy" title="Physiocracy">Physiocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialist_economics" title="Socialist economics">Socialist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stockholm_School_(economics)" title="Stockholm School (economics)">Stockholm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supply-side_economics" title="Supply-side economics">Supply-side</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermoeconomics" title="Thermoeconomics">Thermo</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Economist" title="Economist">Economists</a><br /></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_de_Mandeville" class="mw-redirect" title="Bernard de Mandeville">de Mandeville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Quesnay" title="François Quesnay">Quesnay</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Robert_Malthus" title="Thomas Robert Malthus">Malthus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Say" title="Jean-Baptiste Say">Say</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Ricardo" title="David Ricardo">Ricardo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Heinrich_von_Th%C3%BCnen" title="Johann Heinrich von Thünen">von Thünen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_List" title="Friedrich List">List</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Bastiat" title="Frédéric Bastiat">Bastiat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antoine_Augustin_Cournot" title="Antoine Augustin Cournot">Cournot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">Mill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermann_Heinrich_Gossen" title="Hermann Heinrich Gossen">Gossen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Marx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L%C3%A9on_Walras" title="Léon Walras">Walras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Stanley_Jevons" title="William Stanley Jevons">Jevons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_George" title="Henry George">George</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Menger" title="Carl Menger">Menger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Marshall" title="Alfred Marshall">Marshall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Ysidro_Edgeworth" title="Francis Ysidro Edgeworth">Edgeworth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Bates_Clark" title="John Bates Clark">Clark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vilfredo_Pareto" title="Vilfredo Pareto">Pareto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugen_von_B%C3%B6hm-Bawerk" title="Eugen von Böhm-Bawerk">von Böhm-Bawerk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_von_Wieser" title="Friedrich von Wieser">von Wieser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thorstein_Veblen" title="Thorstein Veblen">Veblen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irving_Fisher" title="Irving Fisher">Fisher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Cecil_Pigou" title="Arthur Cecil Pigou">Pigou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eli_Heckscher" title="Eli Heckscher">Heckscher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_von_Mises" title="Ludwig von Mises">von Mises</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Schumpeter" title="Joseph Schumpeter">Schumpeter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Maynard_Keynes" title="John Maynard Keynes">Keynes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frank_Knight" title="Frank Knight">Knight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Polanyi" title="Karl Polanyi">Polanyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ragnar_Frisch" title="Ragnar Frisch">Frisch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piero_Sraffa" title="Piero Sraffa">Sraffa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gunnar_Myrdal" title="Gunnar Myrdal">Myrdal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Hayek" title="Friedrich Hayek">Hayek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Micha%C5%82_Kalecki" title="Michał Kalecki">Kalecki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_R%C3%B6pke" title="Wilhelm Röpke">Röpke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simon_Kuznets" title="Simon Kuznets">Kuznets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jan_Tinbergen" title="Jan Tinbergen">Tinbergen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joan_Robinson" title="Joan Robinson">Robinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_von_Neumann" title="John von Neumann">von Neumann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Hicks" title="John Hicks">Hicks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oskar_R._Lange" title="Oskar R. Lange">Lange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wassily_Leontief" title="Wassily Leontief">Leontief</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Kenneth_Galbraith" title="John Kenneth Galbraith">Galbraith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tjalling_Koopmans" title="Tjalling Koopmans">Koopmans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/E._F._Schumacher" title="E. F. Schumacher">Schumacher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Milton_Friedman" title="Milton Friedman">Friedman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Samuelson" title="Paul Samuelson">Samuelson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_A._Simon" title="Herbert A. Simon">Simon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_M._Buchanan" title="James M. Buchanan">Buchanan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Arrow" title="Kenneth Arrow">Arrow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Baumol" title="William Baumol">Baumol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Solow" title="Robert Solow">Solow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murray_Rothbard" title="Murray Rothbard">Rothbard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alan_Greenspan" title="Alan Greenspan">Greenspan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Sowell" title="Thomas Sowell">Sowell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gary_Becker" title="Gary Becker">Becker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elinor_Ostrom" title="Elinor Ostrom">Ostrom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amartya_Sen" title="Amartya Sen">Sen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Lucas_Jr." title="Robert Lucas Jr.">Lucas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stiglitz" title="Joseph Stiglitz">Stiglitz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Thaler" title="Richard Thaler">Thaler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans-Hermann_Hoppe" title="Hans-Hermann Hoppe">Hoppe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Krugman" title="Paul Krugman">Krugman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Piketty" title="Thomas Piketty">Piketty</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Category:Economists" title="Category:Economists">more</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Economics_lists" title="Category:Economics lists">Lists</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_economics" title="Glossary of economics">Glossary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_economists" title="List of economists">Economists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_important_publications_in_economics" title="List of important publications in economics">Publications</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_economics_journals" title="List of economics journals">journals</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schools_of_economic_thought" title="Schools of economic thought">Schools</a></li></ul></div></div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Economics" title="Category:Economics">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_economics_articles" title="Index of economics articles">Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Economics_lists" title="Category:Economics lists">Lists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_economics" title="Outline of economics">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_important_publications_in_economics" title="List of important publications in economics">Publications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Business" title="Portal:Business">Business portal</a></li> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Classical_economists" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Classical_economists" title="Template:Classical economists"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Classical_economists" title="Template talk:Classical economists"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Classical_economists" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Classical economists"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Classical_economists" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Classical_economics" title="Classical economics">Classical economists</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Hutcheson_(philosopher)" title="Francis Hutcheson (philosopher)">Francis Hutcheson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Mandeville" title="Bernard Mandeville">Bernard Mandeville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Adam Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anders_Chydenius" title="Anders Chydenius">Anders Chydenius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Say" title="Jean-Baptiste Say">Jean-Baptiste Say</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Robert_Malthus" title="Thomas Robert Malthus">Thomas Malthus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Mill" title="James Mill">James Mill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Place" title="Francis Place">Francis Place</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Ricardo" title="David Ricardo">David Ricardo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Thornton_(reformer)" title="Henry Thornton (reformer)">Henry Thornton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Ramsay_McCulloch" title="John Ramsay McCulloch">John Ramsay McCulloch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Maitland,_8th_Earl_of_Lauderdale" title="James Maitland, 8th Earl of Lauderdale">James Maitland, 8th Earl of Lauderdale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Jeremy Bentham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Charles_L%C3%A9onard_de_Sismondi" title="Jean Charles Léonard de Sismondi">Jean Charles Léonard de Sismondi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Heinrich_von_Th%C3%BCnen" title="Johann Heinrich von Thünen">Johann Heinrich von Thünen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">John Stuart Mill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nassau_William_Senior" title="Nassau William Senior">Nassau William Senior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Gibbon_Wakefield" title="Edward Gibbon Wakefield">Edward Gibbon Wakefield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Bastiat" title="Frédéric Bastiat">Frédéric Bastiat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Tooke" title="Thomas Tooke">Thomas Tooke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Torrens_(economist)" title="Robert Torrens (economist)">Robert Torrens</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Age_of_Enlightenment" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Template:Age of Enlightenment"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Template talk:Age of Enlightenment"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Age of Enlightenment"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Age_of_Enlightenment" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Topics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Topics</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atheism_during_the_Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Atheism during the Age of Enlightenment">Atheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">Capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_liberties" title="Civil liberties">Civil liberties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classicism" title="Classicism">Classicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter-Enlightenment" title="Counter-Enlightenment">Counter-Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_thinking" title="Critical thinking">Critical thinking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deism" title="Deism">Deism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A9distes" title="Encyclopédistes">Encyclopédistes</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enlightened_absolutism" title="Enlightened absolutism">Enlightened absolutism</a></li> <li><span title="Hebrew-language text"><i lang="he-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Haskalah" title="Haskalah">Haskalah</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">Humanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human rights">Human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Individualism" title="Individualism">Individualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_liberalism" title="Classical liberalism">Liberalism</a></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Libert%C3%A9,_%C3%A9galit%C3%A9,_fraternit%C3%A9" title="Liberté, égalité, fraternité">Liberté, égalité, fraternité</a></i></span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Lumi%C3%A8res" title="Lumières">Lumières</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cartesian_doubt" title="Cartesian doubt">Methodological skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Midlands_Enlightenment" title="Midlands Enlightenment">Midlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernity" title="Modernity">Modernity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_philosophy" title="Natural philosophy">Natural philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Objectivity (philosophy)">Objectivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressivism" title="Progressivism">Progressivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationality" title="Rationality">Rationality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reason" title="Reason">Reason</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reductionism" title="Reductionism">Reductionism</a></li> <li><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Sapere_aude" title="Sapere aude">Sapere aude</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_in_the_Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Science in the Age of Enlightenment">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">Scientific method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_American_Enlightenment" title="Spanish American Enlightenment">Spanish America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universality_(philosophy)" title="Universality (philosophy)">Universality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utopianism" class="mw-redirect" title="Utopianism">Utopianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible uncollapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Thinkers" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Thinkers</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">England</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Addison" title="Joseph Addison">Addison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthony_Ashley-Cooper,_3rd_Earl_of_Shaftesbury" title="Anthony Ashley-Cooper, 3rd Earl of Shaftesbury">Ashley-Cooper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Bacon" title="Francis Bacon">Bacon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Bentham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthony_Collins_(philosopher)" title="Anthony Collins (philosopher)">Collins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Gibbon" title="Edward Gibbon">Gibbon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Godwin" title="William Godwin">Godwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Harrington_(author)" title="James Harrington (author)">Harrington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Hooke" title="Robert Hooke">Hooke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Johnson" title="Samuel Johnson">Johnson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">Locke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Milton" title="John Milton">Milton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Newton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Pope" title="Alexander Pope">Pope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Price" title="Richard Price">Price</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Priestley" title="Joseph Priestley">Priestley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joshua_Reynolds" title="Joshua Reynolds">Reynolds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algernon_Sidney" title="Algernon Sidney">Sidney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matthew_Tindal" title="Matthew Tindal">Tindal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Wollstonecraft" title="Mary Wollstonecraft">Wollstonecraft</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">France</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jean_le_Rond_d%27Alembert" title="Jean le Rond d'Alembert">d'Alembert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Louis_de_Voyer_de_Paulmy_d%27Argenson" class="mw-redirect" title="René Louis de Voyer de Paulmy d'Argenson">d'Argenson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Bayle" title="Pierre Bayle">Bayle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Beaumarchais" title="Pierre Beaumarchais">Beaumarchais</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicolas_Chamfort" title="Nicolas Chamfort">Chamfort</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89milie_du_Ch%C3%A2telet" title="Émilie du Châtelet">Châtelet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne_Bonnot_de_Condillac" title="Étienne Bonnot de Condillac">Condillac</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Condorcet" title="Marquis de Condorcet">Condorcet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">Descartes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denis_Diderot" title="Denis Diderot">Diderot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Le_Bovier_de_Fontenelle" title="Bernard Le Bovier de Fontenelle">Fontenelle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olympe_de_Gouges" title="Olympe de Gouges">Gouges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claude_Adrien_Helv%C3%A9tius" title="Claude Adrien Helvétius">Helvétius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baron_d%27Holbach" title="Baron d'Holbach">d'Holbach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_de_Jaucourt" title="Louis de Jaucourt">Jaucourt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julien_Offray_de_La_Mettrie" title="Julien Offray de La Mettrie">La Mettrie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antoine_Lavoisier" title="Antoine Lavoisier">Lavoisier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georges-Louis_Leclerc,_Comte_de_Buffon" title="Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon">Leclerc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Bonnot_de_Mably" title="Gabriel Bonnot de Mably">Mably</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sylvain_Mar%C3%A9chal" title="Sylvain Maréchal">Maréchal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Meslier" title="Jean Meslier">Meslier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montesquieu" title="Montesquieu">Montesquieu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne-Gabriel_Morelly" title="Étienne-Gabriel Morelly">Morelly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blaise_Pascal" title="Blaise Pascal">Pascal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Quesnay" title="François Quesnay">Quesnay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guillaume_Thomas_Fran%C3%A7ois_Raynal" title="Guillaume Thomas François Raynal">Raynal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Sade" title="Marquis de Sade">Sade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anne_Robert_Jacques_Turgot" title="Anne Robert Jacques Turgot">Turgot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Geneva</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Firmin_Abauzit" title="Firmin Abauzit">Abauzit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Bonnet" title="Charles Bonnet">Bonnet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Burlamaqui" title="Jean-Jacques Burlamaqui">Burlamaqui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Pr%C3%A9vost_(physicist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Pierre Prévost (physicist)">Prévost</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Rousseau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horace_B%C3%A9n%C3%A9dict_de_Saussure" title="Horace Bénédict de Saussure">Saussure</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Germany</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Wolfgang_von_Goethe" title="Johann Wolfgang von Goethe">Goethe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_Herder" title="Johann Gottfried Herder">Herder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_von_Humboldt" title="Wilhelm von Humboldt">Humboldt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Leibniz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gotthold_Ephraim_Lessing" title="Gotthold Ephraim Lessing">Lessing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Christoph_Lichtenberg" title="Georg Christoph Lichtenberg">Lichtenberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moses_Mendelssohn" title="Moses Mendelssohn">Mendelssohn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_von_Pufendorf" title="Samuel von Pufendorf">Pufendorf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Schiller" title="Friedrich Schiller">Schiller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_Thomasius" title="Christian Thomasius">Thomasius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Weishaupt" title="Adam Weishaupt">Weishaupt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christoph_Martin_Wieland" title="Christoph Martin Wieland">Wieland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_Wolff_(philosopher)" title="Christian Wolff (philosopher)">Wolff</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Modern_Greek_Enlightenment" title="Modern Greek Enlightenment">Greece</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theoklitos_Farmakidis" title="Theoklitos Farmakidis">Farmakidis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rigas_Feraios" title="Rigas Feraios">Feraios</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theophilos_Kairis" title="Theophilos Kairis">Kairis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adamantios_Korais" title="Adamantios Korais">Korais</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ireland</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/George_Berkeley" title="George Berkeley">Berkeley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Boyle" title="Robert Boyle">Boyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Burke" title="Edmund Burke">Burke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Swift" title="Jonathan Swift">Swift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Toland" title="John Toland">Toland</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Italian_Enlightenment" title="Italian Enlightenment">Italy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cesare_Beccaria" title="Cesare Beccaria">Beccaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ferdinando_Galiani" title="Ferdinando Galiani">Galiani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luigi_Galvani" title="Luigi Galvani">Galvani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Genovesi" title="Antonio Genovesi">Genovesi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francesco_Mario_Pagano" title="Francesco Mario Pagano">Pagano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pietro_Verri" title="Pietro Verri">Verri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giambattista_Vico" title="Giambattista Vico">Vico</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Netherlands</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Balthasar_Bekker" title="Balthasar Bekker">Bekker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pieter_de_la_Court" title="Pieter de la Court">de la Court</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugo_Grotius" title="Hugo Grotius">Grotius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christiaan_Huygens" title="Christiaan Huygens">Huygens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adriaan_Koerbagh" title="Adriaan Koerbagh">Koerbagh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonie_van_Leeuwenhoek" title="Antonie van Leeuwenhoek">Leeuwenhoek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Mandeville" title="Bernard Mandeville">Mandeville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lodewijk_Meyer" title="Lodewijk Meyer">Meyer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Nieuwentyt" title="Bernard Nieuwentyt">Nieuwentyt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Spinoza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jan_Swammerdam" title="Jan Swammerdam">Swammerdam</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Enlightenment_in_Poland" class="mw-redirect" title="Enlightenment in Poland">Poland</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hugo_Ko%C5%82%C5%82%C4%85taj" title="Hugo Kołłątaj">Kołłątaj</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_Konarski" title="Stanisław Konarski">Konarski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ignacy_Krasicki" title="Ignacy Krasicki">Krasicki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julian_Ursyn_Niemcewicz" title="Julian Ursyn Niemcewicz">Niemcewicz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_August_Poniatowski" title="Stanisław August Poniatowski">Poniatowski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C4%99drzej_%C5%9Aniadecki" title="Jędrzej Śniadecki">Śniadecki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_Staszic" title="Stanisław Staszic">Staszic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%B3zef_Wybicki" title="Józef Wybicki">Wybicki</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Portugal</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sebasti%C3%A3o_Jos%C3%A9_de_Carvalho_e_Melo,_1st_Marquis_of_Pombal" title="Sebastião José de Carvalho e Melo, 1st Marquis of Pombal">Carvalho e Melo</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Romania</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ion_Budai-Deleanu" title="Ion Budai-Deleanu">Budai-Deleanu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petru_Maior" title="Petru Maior">Maior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuil_Micu-Klein" title="Samuil Micu-Klein">Micu-Klein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gheorghe_%C8%98incai" title="Gheorghe Șincai">Șincai</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Russian_Enlightenment" title="Russian Enlightenment">Russia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catherine_the_Great" title="Catherine the Great">Catherine II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denis_Fonvizin" title="Denis Fonvizin">Fonvizin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antiochus_Kantemir" title="Antiochus Kantemir">Kantemir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Kheraskov" title="Mikhail Kheraskov">Kheraskov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Lomonosov" title="Mikhail Lomonosov">Lomonosov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikolay_Novikov" title="Nikolay Novikov">Novikov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Radishchev" title="Alexander Radishchev">Radishchev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yekaterina_Vorontsova-Dashkova" title="Yekaterina Vorontsova-Dashkova">Vorontsova-Dashkova</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Serbia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dositej_Obradovi%C4%87" title="Dositej Obradović">Obradović</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avram_Mrazovi%C4%87" title="Avram Mrazović">Mrazović</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Enlightenment_in_Spain" title="Enlightenment in Spain">Spain</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Cadalso" title="José Cadalso">Cadalso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_III_of_Spain" title="Charles III of Spain">Charles III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benito_Jer%C3%B3nimo_Feij%C3%B3o_y_Montenegro" title="Benito Jerónimo Feijóo y Montenegro">Feijóo y Montenegro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leandro_Fern%C3%A1ndez_de_Morat%C3%ADn" title="Leandro Fernández de Moratín">Moratín</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaspar_Melchor_de_Jovellanos" title="Gaspar Melchor de Jovellanos">Jovellanos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diego_de_Torres_Villarroel" title="Diego de Torres Villarroel">Villarroel</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Scottish_Enlightenment" title="Scottish Enlightenment">Scotland</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/James_Beattie_(poet)" title="James Beattie (poet)">Beattie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Black" title="Joseph Black">Black</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugh_Blair" title="Hugh Blair">Blair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Boswell" title="James Boswell">Boswell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Burnett,_Lord_Monboddo" title="James Burnett, Lord Monboddo">Burnett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Burns" title="Robert Burns">Burns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Cullen" title="William Cullen">Cullen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Ferguson" title="Adam Ferguson">Ferguson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Hutcheson_(philosopher)" title="Francis Hutcheson (philosopher)">Hutcheson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Hutton" title="James Hutton">Hutton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Mill" title="James Mill">Mill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Newton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Playfair" title="John Playfair">Playfair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Reid" title="Thomas Reid">Reid</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dugald_Stewart" title="Dugald Stewart">Stewart</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/American_Enlightenment" title="American Enlightenment">United States</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Franklin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Jefferson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">Madison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Mason" title="George Mason">Mason</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Paine" title="Thomas Paine">Paine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div><div style="position:relative;"> <div style="position:absolute;right:0;"><b><a href="/wiki/Template:Romanticism" title="Template:Romanticism">Romanticism</a> →</b></div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Category:Age of Enlightenment">Category</a></li></ul> </div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Liberalism" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Liberalism" title="Template:Liberalism"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Liberalism" title="Template talk:Liberalism"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Liberalism" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Liberalism"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Liberalism" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span style="vertical-align:1px;"><a href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">Liberalism</a></span></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ideas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Consent_of_the_governed" title="Consent of the governed">Consent of the governed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Due_process" title="Due process">Due process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_democracy" title="Liberal democracy">Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_liberalism" title="Economic liberalism">Economic liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_globalization" title="Economic globalization">Economic globalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_equality" title="Social equality">Equality</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gender_equality" title="Gender equality">Gender</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equality_before_the_law" title="Equality before the law">Legal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federalism" title="Federalism">Federalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom" title="Freedom">Freedom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Economic_freedom" title="Economic freedom">Economic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Free_market" title="Free market">Market</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_trade" title="Free trade">Trade</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_the_press" title="Freedom of the press">Press</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_religion" title="Freedom of religion">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_speech" title="Freedom of speech">Speech</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harm_principle" title="Harm principle">Harm principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internationalism_(politics)" title="Internationalism (politics)">Internationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invisible_hand" title="Invisible hand">Invisible hand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labor_theory_of_property" title="Labor theory of property">Labor theory of property</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Laissez-faire" title="Laissez-faire">Laissez-faire</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberty" title="Liberty">Liberty</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Negative_liberty" title="Negative liberty">Negative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positive_liberty" title="Positive liberty">Positive</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limited_government" title="Limited government">Limited government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Market_economy" title="Market economy">Market economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_monopoly" title="Natural monopoly">Natural monopoly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_society" title="Open society">Open society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Permissive_society" title="Permissive society">Permissive society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Popular_sovereignty" title="Popular sovereignty">Popular sovereignty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Property" title="Property">Property</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Private_property" title="Private property">Private</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_property" title="Public property">Public</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rights" title="Rights">Rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_and_political_rights" title="Civil and political rights">Civil and political</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_rights_and_legal_rights" title="Natural rights and legal rights">Natural and legal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_property" title="Right to property">To own property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_keep_and_bear_arms" title="Right to keep and bear arms">To bear arms</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rule_of_law" title="Rule of law">Rule of law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secularism" title="Secularism">Secularism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secular_humanism" title="Secular humanism">Secular humanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_church_and_state" title="Separation of church and state">Separation of church and state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_powers" title="Separation of powers">Separation of powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_contract" title="Social contract">Social contract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_justice" title="Social justice">Social justice</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Social_services" title="Social services">Social services</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welfare_state" title="Welfare state">Welfare state</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whig_history" title="Whig history">Whig history</a></li></ul></div></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Schools</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Classical_liberalism" title="Classical liberalism">Classical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_liberalism" title="Economic liberalism">Economic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fiscal_conservatism" title="Fiscal conservatism">Fiscal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoliberalism" title="Neoliberalism">Neo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equity_feminism" title="Equity feminism">Equity feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgism" title="Georgism">Georgist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_radicalism" title="Classical radicalism">Radical</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-clericalism" title="Anti-clericalism">Anti-clerical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civic_nationalism" title="Civic nationalism">Civic nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism" title="Republicanism">Republican</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">Utilitarian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whig_history" title="Whig history">Whig</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physiocracy" title="Physiocracy">Physiocratic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A9distes" title="Encyclopédistes">Encyclopaedist</a></li> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Conservative_liberalism" title="Conservative liberalism">Conservative</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_conservatism" title="Liberal conservatism">Liberal conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_liberalism" title="National liberalism">National</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordoliberalism" title="Ordoliberalism">Ordo</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Social_liberalism" title="Social liberalism">Social</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Green_liberalism" title="Green liberalism">Green</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_feminism" title="Liberal feminism">Liberal feminism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecofeminism" title="Ecofeminism">Ecofeminism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_socialism" title="Liberal socialism">Liberal socialism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Social_democracy" title="Social democracy">Social democracy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressivism" title="Progressivism">Progressivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Way" title="Third Way">Third Way</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_liberalism" title="Constitutional liberalism">Constitutional</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_patriotism" title="Constitutional patriotism">Constitutional patriotism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_liberalism" title="Cultural liberalism">Cultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_corporatism" title="Liberal corporatism">Corporate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_internationalism" title="Liberal internationalism">International</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism" title="Libertarianism">Libertarianism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Left-libertarianism" title="Left-libertarianism">Left-libertarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geolibertarianism" title="Geolibertarianism">Geolibertarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoclassical_liberalism" title="Neoclassical liberalism">Neoclassical liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleolibertarianism" title="Paleolibertarianism">Paleolibertarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right-libertarianism" title="Right-libertarianism">Right-libertarianism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radical_centrism" title="Radical centrism">Radical centrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_liberalism" title="Religious liberalism">Religious</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_Christianity" title="Liberal Christianity">Christian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_progressivism_within_Islam" title="Liberalism and progressivism within Islam">Islamic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secular_liberalism" title="Secular liberalism">Secular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technoliberalism" title="Technoliberalism">Techno</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Liberal_parties_by_country" title="Liberal parties by country">By region</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Africa</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Egypt" title="Liberalism in Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Nigeria" title="Liberalism in Nigeria">Nigeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Senegal" title="Liberalism in Senegal">Senegal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_South_Africa" title="Liberalism in South Africa">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Tunisia" title="Liberalism in Tunisia">Tunisia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Zimbabwe" title="Liberalism in Zimbabwe">Zimbabwe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Asia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_China" title="Liberalism in China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Hong_Kong" title="Liberalism in Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_India" title="Liberalism in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Iran" title="Liberalism in Iran">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Israel" title="Liberalism in Israel">Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Japan" title="Liberalism in Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_South_Korea" title="Liberalism in South Korea">South Korea</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinilpa#Anti-Chinilpa_politics" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinilpa">Anti-<i>Chinilpa</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centrist_reformism" title="Centrist reformism">Centrist reformist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressivism_in_South_Korea" title="Progressivism in South Korea">Progressive</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_Party_(Philippines)" title="Liberal Party (Philippines)">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Turkey" title="Liberalism in Turkey">Turkey</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Europe" title="Liberalism in Europe">Europe</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Albania" title="Liberalism in Albania">Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Armenia" title="Liberalism in Armenia">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Austria" title="Liberalism in Austria">Austria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Belgium" title="Liberalism in Belgium">Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_radicalism_in_Bulgaria" title="Liberalism and radicalism in Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Croatia" title="Liberalism in Croatia">Croatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Cyprus" title="Liberalism in Cyprus">Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_the_Czech_lands" class="mw-redirect" title="Liberalism in the Czech lands">Czech lands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_radicalism_in_Denmark" title="Liberalism and radicalism in Denmark">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_centrism_in_Estonia" title="Liberalism and centrism in Estonia">Estonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_centrism_in_Finland" title="Liberalism and centrism in Finland">Finland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_radicalism_in_France" title="Liberalism and radicalism in France">France</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Orl%C3%A9anist" title="Orléanist">Orléanist</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Georgia" title="Liberalism in Georgia">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Germany" title="Liberalism in Germany">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Greece" title="Liberalism in Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_radicalism_in_Hungary" title="Liberalism and radicalism in Hungary">Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_radicalism_in_Italy" title="Liberalism and radicalism in Italy">Italy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Berlusconism" title="Berlusconism">Berlusconism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberism" class="mw-redirect" title="Liberism">Liberism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Latvia" title="Liberalism in Latvia">Latvia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Lithuania" title="Liberalism in Lithuania">Lithuania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Luxembourg" title="Liberalism in Luxembourg">Luxembourg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_North_Macedonia" title="Liberalism in North Macedonia">Macedonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Moldova" title="Liberalism in Moldova">Moldova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Montenegro" title="Liberalism in Montenegro">Montenegro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_the_Netherlands" title="Liberalism in the Netherlands">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Norway" title="Liberalism in Norway">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Portugal" title="Liberalism in Portugal">Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_radicalism_in_Romania" title="Liberalism and radicalism in Romania">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Russia" title="Liberalism in Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Serbia" title="Liberalism in Serbia">Serbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Slovakia" title="Liberalism in Slovakia">Slovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Slovenia" title="Liberalism in Slovenia">Slovenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_radicalism_in_Spain" title="Liberalism and radicalism in Spain">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_centrism_in_Sweden" title="Liberalism and centrism in Sweden">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Switzerland" title="Liberalism in Switzerland">Switzerland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Turkey" title="Liberalism in Turkey">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Ukraine" title="Liberalism in Ukraine">Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Liberalism in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gladstonian_liberalism" title="Gladstonian liberalism">Gladstonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Libertarianism in the United Kingdom">Libertarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchester_Liberalism" title="Manchester Liberalism">Manchester</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muscular_liberalism" title="Muscular liberalism">Muscular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radicals_(UK)" title="Radicals (UK)">Radical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whiggism" title="Whiggism">Whiggist</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_conservatism_in_Latin_America" title="Liberalism and conservatism in Latin America">Latin America and<br />the Caribbean</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Bolivia" title="Liberalism in Bolivia">Bolivia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Brazil" title="Liberalism in Brazil">Brazil</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lulism" title="Lulism">Lulism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_radicalism_in_Chile" title="Liberalism and radicalism in Chile">Chile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Colombia" title="Liberalism in Colombia">Colombia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Cuba" title="Liberalism in Cuba">Cuba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_radicalism_in_Ecuador" title="Liberalism and radicalism in Ecuador">Ecuador</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Honduras" title="Liberalism in Honduras">Honduras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Mexico" title="Liberalism in Mexico">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Nicaragua" title="Liberalism in Nicaragua">Nicaragua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Panama" title="Liberalism in Panama">Panama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_radicalism_in_Paraguay" title="Liberalism and radicalism in Paraguay">Paraguay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Peru" title="Liberalism in Peru">Peru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Uruguay" title="Liberalism in Uruguay">Uruguay</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">North America</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Canada" title="Liberalism in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_the_United_States" title="Liberalism in the United States">United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jacksonian_democracy" title="Jacksonian democracy">Jacksonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeffersonian_democracy" title="Jeffersonian democracy">Jeffersonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism_in_the_United_States" title="Libertarianism in the United States">Libertarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_liberalism_in_the_United_States" title="Modern liberalism in the United States">Modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressivism_in_the_United_States" title="Progressivism in the United States">Progressive</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Oceania</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Australia" title="Liberalism in Australia">Australia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Moderates_(Liberal_Party_of_Australia)" title="Moderates (Liberal Party of Australia)">Small-l</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historic_liberalism_in_New_Zealand" title="Historic liberalism in New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Philosophers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Milton" title="John Milton">Milton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">Locke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Spinoza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montesquieu" title="Montesquieu">Montesquieu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Rousseau</a></li> <li>Smith</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anne_Robert_Jacques_Turgot" title="Anne Robert Jacques Turgot">Turgot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Burke" title="Edmund Burke">Burke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Priestley" title="Joseph Priestley">Priestley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Paine" title="Thomas Paine">Paine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cesare_Beccaria" title="Cesare Beccaria">Beccaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Condorcet" title="Marquis de Condorcet">Condorcet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Bentham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adamantios_Korais" title="Adamantios Korais">Korais</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olympe_De_Gouges" class="mw-redirect" title="Olympe De Gouges">De Gouges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Wollstonecraft" title="Mary Wollstonecraft">Wollstonecraft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germaine_de_Sta%C3%ABl" title="Germaine de Staël">Staël</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Say" title="Jean-Baptiste Say">Say</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_von_Humboldt" title="Wilhelm von Humboldt">Humboldt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Constant" title="Benjamin Constant">Constant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Ricardo" title="David Ricardo">Ricardo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Guizot" title="François Guizot">Guizot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_List" title="Friedrich List">List</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Bastiat" title="Frédéric Bastiat">Bastiat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harriet_Martineau" title="Harriet Martineau">Martineau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Waldo_Emerson" title="Ralph Waldo Emerson">Emerson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexis_de_Tocqueville" title="Alexis de Tocqueville">Tocqueville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">Mill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Spencer" title="Herbert Spencer">Spencer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matthew_Arnold" title="Matthew Arnold">Arnold</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Dalberg-Acton,_1st_Baron_Acton" title="John Dalberg-Acton, 1st Baron Acton">Acton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Weber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonard_Hobhouse" title="Leonard Hobhouse">Hobhouse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benedetto_Croce" title="Benedetto Croce">Croce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Cassirer" title="Ernst Cassirer">Cassirer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_von_Mises" title="Ludwig von Mises">Mises</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Ortega_y_Gasset" title="José Ortega y Gasset">Ortega</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Maynard_Keynes" title="John Maynard Keynes">Keynes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R._G._Collingwood" title="R. G. Collingwood">Collingwood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karel_%C4%8Capek" title="Karel Čapek">Čapek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hu_Shih" title="Hu Shih">Hu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Hayek" title="Friedrich Hayek">Hayek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Popper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raymond_Aron" title="Raymond Aron">Aron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaiah_Berlin" title="Isaiah Berlin">Berlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Milton_Friedman" title="Milton Friedman">Friedman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">Rawls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amartya_Sen" title="Amartya Sen">Sen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Nozick" title="Robert Nozick">Nozick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Will_Kymlicka" title="Will Kymlicka">Kymlicka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raif_Badawi" title="Raif Badawi">Badawi</a></li></ul></div></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Politicians</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Jefferson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugo_Ko%C5%82%C5%82%C4%85taj" title="Hugo Kołłątaj">Kołłątaj</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">Madison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Gervasio_Artigas" title="José Gervasio Artigas">Artigas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sim%C3%B3n_Bol%C3%ADvar" title="Simón Bolívar">Bolívar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victor_de_Broglie_(1785%E2%80%931870)" title="Victor de Broglie (1785–1870)">Broglie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alphonse_de_Lamartine" title="Alphonse de Lamartine">Lamartine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Babington_Macaulay" title="Thomas Babington Macaulay">Macaulay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lajos_Kossuth" title="Lajos Kossuth">Kossuth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ferenc_De%C3%A1k_(politician)" title="Ferenc Deák (politician)">Deák</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Cobden" title="Richard Cobden">Cobden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Mazzini" title="Giuseppe Mazzini">Mazzini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benito_Ju%C3%A1rez" title="Benito Juárez">Juárez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln" title="Abraham Lincoln">Lincoln</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Ewart_Gladstone" title="William Ewart Gladstone">Gladstone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Camillo_Benso,_Count_of_Cavour" title="Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour">Cavour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domingo_Faustino_Sarmiento" title="Domingo Faustino Sarmiento">Sarmiento</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodor_Mommsen" title="Theodor Mommsen">Mommsen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dadabhai_Naoroji" title="Dadabhai Naoroji">Naoroji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Itagaki_Taisuke" title="Itagaki Taisuke">Itagaki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vasil_Levski" title="Vasil Levski">Levski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nam%C4%B1k_Kemal" title="Namık Kemal">Kemal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Deakin" title="Alfred Deakin">Deakin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pavel_Milyukov" title="Pavel Milyukov">Milyukov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Lloyd_George" title="David Lloyd George">Lloyd George</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eleftherios_Venizelos" title="Eleftherios Venizelos">Venizelos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaarlo_Juho_St%C3%A5hlberg" title="Kaarlo Juho Ståhlberg">Ståhlberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gopal_Krishna_Gokhale" title="Gopal Krishna Gokhale">Gokhale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walther_Rathenau" title="Walther Rathenau">Rathenau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_I._Madero" title="Francisco I. Madero">Madero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luigi_Einaudi" title="Luigi Einaudi">Einaudi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Lyon_Mackenzie_King" title="William Lyon Mackenzie King">King</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Roosevelt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lester_B._Pearson" title="Lester B. Pearson">Pearson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertil_Ohlin" title="Bertil Ohlin">Ohlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_F._Kennedy" title="John F. Kennedy">Kennedy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roy_Jenkins" title="Roy Jenkins">Jenkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leszek_Balcerowicz" title="Leszek Balcerowicz">Balcerowicz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guy_Verhofstadt" title="Guy Verhofstadt">Verhofstadt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barack_Obama" title="Barack Obama">Obama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emmanuel_Macron" title="Emmanuel Macron">Macron</a></li></div></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organisations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/Africa_Liberal_Network" title="Africa Liberal Network">Africa Liberal Network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alliance_of_Liberals_and_Democrats_for_Europe" title="Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe">Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alliance_of_Liberals_and_Democrats_for_Europe_Party" title="Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe Party">Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Liberal_Federation" title="Arab Liberal Federation">Arab Liberal Federation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Asian_Liberals_and_Democrats" title="Council of Asian Liberals and Democrats">Council of Asian Liberals and Democrats</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Democratic_Party" title="European Democratic Party">European Democratic Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Liberal_Youth" title="European Liberal Youth">European Liberal Youth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Alliance_of_Libertarian_Parties" title="International Alliance of Libertarian Parties">International Alliance of Libertarian Parties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Federation_of_Liberal_Youth" title="International Federation of Liberal Youth">International Federation of Liberal Youth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_International" title="Liberal International">Liberal International</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_Network_for_Latin_America" title="Liberal Network for Latin America">Liberal Network for Latin America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Liberal_parties" title="Category:Liberal parties">Liberal parties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_South_East_European_Network" title="Liberal South East European Network">Liberal South East European Network</a></li> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-authoritarianism" title="Anti-authoritarianism">Anti-authoritarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-communism" title="Anti-communism">Anti-communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_views_of_American_academics" title="Political views of American academics">Bias in American academia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_bias" title="Media bias">Bias in the media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">Capitalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_capitalism" title="Democratic capitalism">Democratic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centrism" title="Centrism">Centrism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Radical_centrism" title="Radical centrism">Radical centrism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_freedom" title="Economic freedom">Economic freedom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egalitarianism" title="Egalitarianism">Egalitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">Humanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Individualism" title="Individualism">Individualism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Individualist_Anarchism" class="mw-redirect" title="Individualist Anarchism">Anarchist</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_value_tax" title="Land value tax">Land value tax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism" title="Libertarianism">Libertarianism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Left-libertarianism" title="Left-libertarianism">Left</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right-libertarianism" title="Right-libertarianism">Right</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pirate_Party" title="Pirate Party">Pirate Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressivism" title="Progressivism">Progressivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex-positive_feminism" title="Sex-positive feminism">Sexually liberal feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">Utilitarianism</a></li></ul></div></div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Liberalism" title="Portal:Liberalism">Liberalism Portal</a></li> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Social_philosophy" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Social_philosophy" title="Template:Social philosophy"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Social_philosophy" title="Template talk:Social philosophy"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Social_philosophy" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Social philosophy"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Social_philosophy" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Social_philosophy" title="Social philosophy">Social philosophy</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agency_(philosophy)" title="Agency (philosophy)">Agency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anomie" title="Anomie">Anomie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convention_(norm)" title="Convention (norm)">Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmopolitanism" title="Cosmopolitanism">Cosmopolitanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Customary_law" title="Customary law">Customs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_heritage" title="Cultural heritage">Cultural heritage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culturalism" title="Culturalism">Culturalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Interculturalism" title="Interculturalism">Inter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monoculturalism" title="Monoculturalism">Mono</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiculturalism" title="Multiculturalism">Multi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture" title="Culture">Culture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Counterculture" title="Counterculture">Counter</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Familialism" title="Familialism">Familialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History" title="History">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Honour" title="Honour">Honour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_nature" title="Human nature">Human nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Identity_(social_science)" title="Identity (social science)">Identity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Identity_formation" title="Identity formation">Formation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ideology" title="Ideology">Ideology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institution" title="Institution">Institutions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invisible_hand" title="Invisible hand">Invisible hand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loyalty" title="Loyalty">Loyalty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernity" title="Modernity">Modernity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morality" title="Morality">Morality</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Public_morality" title="Public morality">Public</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mores" title="Mores">Mores</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_character" title="National character">National character</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reification_(Marxism)" title="Reification (Marxism)">Reification</a></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Ressentiment" title="Ressentiment">Ressentiment</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rights" title="Rights">Rights</a></li> <li><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Sittlichkeit" title="Sittlichkeit">Sittlichkeit</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_alienation" title="Social alienation">Social alienation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_norm" title="Social norm">Social norms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spontaneous_order" title="Spontaneous order">Spontaneous order</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stewardship" title="Stewardship">Stewardship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tradition" title="Tradition">Traditions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Value_(ethics_and_social_sciences)" class="mw-redirect" title="Value (ethics and social sciences)">Values</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Family_values" title="Family values">Family</a></li></ul></li> <li><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Volksgeist" class="mw-redirect" title="Volksgeist">Volksgeist</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Worldview" title="Worldview">Worldview</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Schools</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Budapest_School" title="Budapest School">Budapest School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_social_teaching" title="Catholic social teaching">Catholic social teaching</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Distributism" title="Distributism">Distributism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">Communitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Social_conservatism" title="Social conservatism">Social</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frankfurt_School" title="Frankfurt School">Frankfurt School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personalism" title="Personalism">Personalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Philosophers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ancient</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lactantius" title="Lactantius">Lactantius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laozi" title="Laozi">Laozi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mencius" title="Mencius">Mencius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mozi" title="Mozi">Mozi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origen" title="Origen">Origen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philo" title="Philo">Philo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutarch" title="Plutarch">Plutarch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polybius" title="Polybius">Polybius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tertullian" title="Tertullian">Tertullian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thucydides" title="Thucydides">Thucydides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xunzi_(philosopher)" title="Xunzi (philosopher)">Xunzi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Medieval</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Farabi" title="Al-Farabi">Alpharabius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avempace" title="Avempace">Avempace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonardo_Bruni" title="Leonardo Bruni">Bruni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dante_Alighieri" title="Dante Alighieri">Dante</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Gelasius_I" title="Pope Gelasius I">Gelasius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Khaldun" title="Ibn Khaldun">Ibn Khaldun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maimonides" title="Maimonides">Maimonides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photios_I_of_Constantinople" title="Photios I of Constantinople">Photios</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gemistos_Plethon" title="Gemistos Plethon">Plethon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Tufayl" title="Ibn Tufayl">Ibn Tufayl</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Early modern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Calvin" title="John Calvin">Calvin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erasmus" title="Erasmus">Erasmus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francesco_Guicciardini" title="Francesco Guicciardini">Guicciardini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">Locke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Luther</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Milton" title="John Milton">Milton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michel_de_Montaigne" title="Michel de Montaigne">Montaigne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_M%C3%BCntzer" title="Thomas Müntzer">Müntzer</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">18th and 19th<br />centuries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Matthew_Arnold" title="Matthew Arnold">Arnold</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Bentham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_de_Bonald" title="Louis de Bonald">Bonald</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Burke" title="Edmund Burke">Burke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Carlyle" title="Thomas Carlyle">Carlyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auguste_Comte" title="Auguste Comte">Comte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Condorcet" title="Marquis de Condorcet">Condorcet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Waldo_Emerson" title="Ralph Waldo Emerson">Emerson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Engels" title="Friedrich Engels">Engels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottlieb_Fichte" title="Johann Gottlieb Fichte">Fichte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Fourier" title="Charles Fourier">Fourier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Franklin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Hegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claude_Adrien_Helv%C3%A9tius" title="Claude Adrien Helvétius">Helvétius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_Herder" title="Johann Gottfried Herder">Herder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Jefferson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Kierkegaard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gustave_Le_Bon" title="Gustave Le Bon">Le Bon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Guillaume_Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_le_Play" title="Pierre Guillaume Frédéric le Play">Le Play</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Marx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">Mill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzsche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Owen" title="Robert Owen">Owen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Renan" title="Ernest Renan">Renan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Rousseau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Josiah_Royce" title="Josiah Royce">Royce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Ruskin" title="John Ruskin">Ruskin</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Spencer" title="Herbert Spencer">Spencer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germaine_de_Sta%C3%ABl" title="Germaine de Staël">de Staël</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Stirner" title="Max Stirner">Stirner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippolyte_Taine" title="Hippolyte Taine">Taine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_David_Thoreau" title="Henry David Thoreau">Thoreau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexis_de_Tocqueville" title="Alexis de Tocqueville">Tocqueville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giambattista_Vico" title="Giambattista Vico">Vico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swami_Vivekananda" title="Swami Vivekananda">Vivekananda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">20th and 21st<br />centuries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theodor_W._Adorno" title="Theodor W. Adorno">Adorno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giorgio_Agamben" title="Giorgio Agamben">Agamben</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hannah_Arendt" title="Hannah Arendt">Arendt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raymond_Aron" title="Raymond Aron">Aron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alain_Badiou" title="Alain Badiou">Badiou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Baudrillard" title="Jean Baudrillard">Baudrillard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zygmunt_Bauman" title="Zygmunt Bauman">Bauman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alain_de_Benoist" title="Alain de Benoist">Benoist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaiah_Berlin" title="Isaiah Berlin">Berlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judith_Butler" title="Judith Butler">Butler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Camus" title="Albert Camus">Camus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simone_de_Beauvoir" title="Simone de Beauvoir">de Beauvoir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guy_Debord" title="Guy Debord">Debord</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilles_Deleuze" title="Gilles Deleuze">Deleuze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Dewey" title="John Dewey">Dewey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois">Du Bois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim">Durkheim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umberto_Eco" title="Umberto Eco">Eco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Evola" title="Julius Evola">Evola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michel_Foucault" title="Michel Foucault">Foucault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erich_Fromm" title="Erich Fromm">Fromm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi" title="Mahatma Gandhi">Gandhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arnold_Gehlen" title="Arnold Gehlen">Gehlen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Gentile" title="Giovanni Gentile">Gentile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Gramsci" title="Antonio Gramsci">Gramsci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Gu%C3%A9non" title="René Guénon">Guénon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Habermas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byung-Chul_Han" title="Byung-Chul Han">Han</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Heidegger" title="Martin Heidegger">Heidegger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans-Hermann_Hoppe" title="Hans-Hermann Hoppe">Hoppe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luce_Irigaray" title="Luce Irigaray">Irigaray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russell_Kirk" title="Russell Kirk">Kirk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leszek_Ko%C5%82akowski" title="Leszek Kołakowski">Kołakowski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Kropotkin" title="Peter Kropotkin">Kropotkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nick_Land" title="Nick Land">Land</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Lasch" title="Christopher Lasch">Lasch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alasdair_MacIntyre" title="Alasdair MacIntyre">MacIntyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Marcuse" title="Herbert Marcuse">Marcuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Maritain" title="Jacques Maritain">Maritain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Negri" title="Antonio Negri">Negri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reinhold_Niebuhr" title="Reinhold Niebuhr">Niebuhr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martha_Nussbaum" title="Martha Nussbaum">Nussbaum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Oakeshott" title="Michael Oakeshott">Oakeshott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Ortega_y_Gasset" title="José Ortega y Gasset">Ortega</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vilfredo_Pareto" title="Vilfredo Pareto">Pareto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Polanyi" title="Karl Polanyi">Polanyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarvepalli_Radhakrishnan" title="Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan">Radhakrishnan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_R%C3%B6pke" title="Wilhelm Röpke">Röpke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Santayana" title="George Santayana">Santayana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Scruton" title="Roger Scruton">Scruton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali_Shariati" title="Ali Shariati">Shariati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Simmel" title="Georg Simmel">Simmel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B._F._Skinner" title="B. F. Skinner">Skinner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Werner_Sombart" title="Werner Sombart">Sombart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Sowell" title="Thomas Sowell">Sowell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oswald_Spengler" title="Oswald Spengler">Spengler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Taylor_(philosopher)" title="Charles Taylor (philosopher)">Taylor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eric_Voegelin" title="Eric Voegelin">Voegelin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Walzer" title="Michael Walzer">Walzer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Weber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simone_Weil" title="Simone Weil">Weil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Howard_Zinn" title="Howard Zinn">Zinn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavoj_%C5%BDi%C5%BEek" title="Slavoj Žižek">Žižek</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/De_Officiis" title="De Officiis">De Officiis</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(44 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Oration_on_the_Dignity_of_Man" title="Oration on the Dignity of Man">Oration on the Dignity of Man</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1486)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/A_Vindication_of_Natural_Society" title="A Vindication of Natural Society">A Vindication of Natural Society</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1756)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Democracy_in_America" title="Democracy in America">Democracy in America</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1835–1840)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Civilization_and_Its_Discontents" title="Civilization and Its Discontents">Civilization and Its Discontents</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1930)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Work_of_Art_in_the_Age_of_Mechanical_Reproduction" title="The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction">The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1935)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Second_Sex" title="The Second Sex">The Second Sex</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1949)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/One-Dimensional_Man" title="One-Dimensional Man">One-Dimensional Man</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1964)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Society_of_the_Spectacle" title="The Society of the Spectacle">The Society of the Spectacle</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1967)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality" title="The History of Sexuality">The History of Sexuality</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1976)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Culture_of_Narcissism" title="The Culture of Narcissism">The Culture of Narcissism</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1979)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/A_Conflict_of_Visions" title="A Conflict of Visions">A Conflict of Visions</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1987)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Closing_of_the_American_Mind" title="The Closing of the American Mind">The Closing of the American Mind</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1987)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Gender_Trouble" title="Gender Trouble">Gender Trouble</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1990)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Malaise_of_Modernity" title="The Malaise of Modernity">The Malaise of Modernity</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1991)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Intellectuals_and_Society" title="Intellectuals and Society">Intellectuals and Society</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(2010)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agnotology" title="Agnotology">Agnotology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axiology" class="mw-redirect" title="Axiology">Axiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">Critical theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_critic" title="Cultural critic">Cultural criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_pessimism" title="Cultural pessimism">Cultural pessimism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historism" title="Historism">Historism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historicism" title="Historicism">Historicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanities" title="Humanities">Humanities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_culture" title="Philosophy of culture">Philosophy of culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_education" title="Philosophy of education">Philosophy of education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_history" title="Philosophy of history">Philosophy of history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">Political philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_criticism" title="Social criticism">Social criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_science" title="Social science">Social science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_theory" title="Social theory">Social theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">Sociology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Social_philosophy" title="Category:Social philosophy">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Political_philosophy" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Political_philosophy" title="Template:Political philosophy"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Political_philosophy" title="Template talk:Political philosophy"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Political_philosophy" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Political philosophy"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Political_philosophy" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">Political philosophy</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Terms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Authority" title="Authority">Authority</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Citizenship" title="Citizenship">Citizenship‎</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duty" title="Duty">Duty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elite" title="Elite">Elite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emancipation" title="Emancipation">Emancipation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom" title="Freedom">Freedom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government" title="Government">Government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hegemony" title="Hegemony">Hegemony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hierarchy" title="Hierarchy">Hierarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justice" title="Justice">Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law" title="Law">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legitimacy_(political)" title="Legitimacy (political)">Legitimacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberty" title="Liberty">Liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monopoly" title="Monopoly">Monopoly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nation" title="Nation">Nation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obedience_(human_behavior)" class="mw-redirect" title="Obedience (human behavior)">Obedience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace" title="Peace">Peace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People" title="People">People</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pluralism_(political_philosophy)" title="Pluralism (political philosophy)">Pluralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_(social_and_political)" title="Power (social and political)">Power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progress" title="Progress">Progress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propaganda" title="Propaganda">Propaganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Property" title="Property">Property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regime" title="Regime">Regime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolution" title="Revolution">Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rights" title="Rights">Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruling_class" title="Ruling class">Ruling class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Society" title="Society">Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sovereignty" title="Sovereignty">Sovereignty‎</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_(polity)" title="State (polity)">State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utopia" title="Utopia">Utopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War" title="War">War</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Government</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristocracy" title="Aristocracy">Aristocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autocracy" title="Autocracy">Autocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bureaucracy" title="Bureaucracy">Bureaucracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dictatorship" title="Dictatorship">Dictatorship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerontocracy" title="Gerontocracy">Gerontocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meritocracy" title="Meritocracy">Meritocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy" title="Monarchy">Monarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oligarchy" title="Oligarchy">Oligarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutocracy" title="Plutocracy">Plutocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technocracy" title="Technocracy">Technocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theocracy" title="Theocracy">Theocracy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ideologies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agrarianism" title="Agrarianism">Agrarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">Capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_democracy" title="Christian democracy">Christian democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonialism" title="Colonialism">Colonialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">Communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">Communitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporatism" title="Corporatism">Corporatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distributism" title="Distributism">Distributism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmentalism" title="Environmentalism">Environmentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fascism" title="Fascism">Fascism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_political_theory" title="Feminist political theory">Feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">Feudalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperialism" title="Imperialism">Imperialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamism" title="Islamism">Islamism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism" title="Libertarianism">Libertarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Localism_(politics)" title="Localism (politics)">Localism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchism" title="Monarchism">Monarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiculturalism" title="Multiculturalism">Multiculturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationalism" title="Nationalism">Nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazism" title="Nazism">Nazism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Populism" title="Populism">Populism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism" title="Republicanism">Republicanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_Darwinism" title="Social Darwinism">Social Darwinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_democracy" title="Social democracy">Social democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Way" title="Third Way">Third Way</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Balance_of_power_(international_relations)" title="Balance of power (international relations)">Balance of power</a></li> <li><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Bellum_omnium_contra_omnes" title="Bellum omnium contra omnes">Bellum omnium contra omnes</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Body_politic" title="Body politic">Body politic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clash_of_Civilizations" title="Clash of Civilizations">Clash of civilizations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_good" title="Common good">Common good</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consent_of_the_governed" title="Consent of the governed">Consent of the governed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divine_right_of_kings" title="Divine right of kings">Divine right of kings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_as_a_model_for_the_state" title="Family as a model for the state">Family as a model for the state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monopoly_on_violence" title="Monopoly on violence">Monopoly on violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Negative_and_positive_rights" title="Negative and positive rights">Negative and positive rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Night-watchman_state" title="Night-watchman state">Night-watchman state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noble_lie" title="Noble lie">Noble lie</a></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Noblesse_oblige" title="Noblesse oblige">Noblesse oblige</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_society" title="Open society">Open society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordered_liberty" title="Ordered liberty">Ordered liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Original_position" title="Original position">Original position</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overton_window" title="Overton window">Overton window</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_powers" title="Separation of powers">Separation of powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_contract" title="Social contract">Social contract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_of_nature" title="State of nature">State of nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statolatry" title="Statolatry">Statolatry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tyranny_of_the_majority" title="Tyranny of the majority">Tyranny of the majority</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_philosophers" title="List of political philosophers">Philosophers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Antiquity</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chanakya" title="Chanakya">Chanakya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Han_Fei" title="Han Fei">Han Fei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lactantius" title="Lactantius">Lactantius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mencius" title="Mencius">Mencius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mozi" title="Mozi">Mozi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plato%27s_political_philosophy" title="Plato's political philosophy">political philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polybius" title="Polybius">Polybius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shang_Yang" title="Shang Yang">Shang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sun_Tzu" title="Sun Tzu">Sun Tzu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thucydides" title="Thucydides">Thucydides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenophon" title="Xenophon">Xenophon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Middle Ages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Farabi" title="Al-Farabi">Alpharabius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Averroes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonardo_Bruni" title="Leonardo Bruni">Bruni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dante_Alighieri" title="Dante Alighieri">Dante</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Gelasius_I" title="Pope Gelasius I">Gelasius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Ghazali" title="Al-Ghazali">al-Ghazali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Khaldun" title="Ibn Khaldun">Ibn Khaldun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marsilius_of_Padua" title="Marsilius of Padua">Marsilius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nizam_al-Mulk" title="Nizam al-Mulk">Nizam al-Mulk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_of_Ockham" title="William of Ockham">Ockham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gemistos_Plethon" title="Gemistos Plethon">Plethon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Anshi" title="Wang Anshi">Wang</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Early modern<br />period</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne_de_La_Bo%C3%A9tie" title="Étienne de La Boétie">Boétie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Bodin" title="Jean Bodin">Bodin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques-B%C3%A9nigne_Bossuet" title="Jacques-Bénigne Bossuet">Bossuet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Calvin" title="John Calvin">Calvin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tommaso_Campanella" title="Tommaso Campanella">Campanella</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Filmer" title="Robert Filmer">Filmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugo_Grotius" title="Hugo Grotius">Grotius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francesco_Guicciardini" title="Francesco Guicciardini">Guicciardini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Hobbes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hobbes%27s_moral_and_political_philosophy" title="Hobbes's moral and political philosophy">political philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_VI_and_I" title="James VI and I">James</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Leibniz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">Locke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Luther</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niccol%C3%B2_Machiavelli" title="Niccolò Machiavelli">Machiavelli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Milton" title="John Milton">Milton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_More" title="Thomas More">More</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_M%C3%BCntzer" title="Thomas Müntzer">Müntzer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_von_Pufendorf" title="Samuel von Pufendorf">Pufendorf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Spinoza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_Su%C3%A1rez" title="Francisco Suárez">Suárez</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">18th and 19th<br />centuries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Bakunin" title="Mikhail Bakunin">Bakunin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Bastiat" title="Frédéric Bastiat">Bastiat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cesare_Beccaria" title="Cesare Beccaria">Beccaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Bentham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_St_John,_1st_Viscount_Bolingbroke" title="Henry St John, 1st Viscount Bolingbroke">Bolingbroke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_de_Bonald" title="Louis de Bonald">Bonald</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Burke" title="Edmund Burke">Burke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Carlyle" title="Thomas Carlyle">Carlyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auguste_Comte" title="Auguste Comte">Comte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Condorcet" title="Marquis de Condorcet">Condorcet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Constant" title="Benjamin Constant">Constant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juan_Donoso_Cort%C3%A9s" title="Juan Donoso Cortés">Cortés</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Engels" title="Friedrich Engels">Engels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottlieb_Fichte" title="Johann Gottlieb Fichte">Fichte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Fourier" title="Charles Fourier">Fourier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Franklin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Godwin" title="William Godwin">Godwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Ludwig_von_Haller" title="Karl Ludwig von Haller">Haller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Hegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_Herder" title="Johann Gottfried Herder">Herder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Iqbal" title="Muhammad Iqbal">Iqbal</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Iqbal%27s_political_philosophy" title="Muhammad Iqbal's political philosophy">political philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Jefferson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy_of_Immanuel_Kant" title="Political philosophy of Immanuel Kant">political philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gustave_Le_Bon" title="Gustave Le Bon">Le Bon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Guillaume_Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_le_Play" title="Pierre Guillaume Frédéric le Play">Le Play</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">Madison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_de_Maistre" title="Joseph de Maistre">Maistre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Marx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Mazzini" title="Giuseppe Mazzini">Mazzini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">Mill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montesquieu" title="Montesquieu">Montesquieu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzsche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Owen" title="Robert Owen">Owen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Paine" title="Thomas Paine">Paine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Renan" title="Ernest Renan">Renan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Rousseau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Sade" title="Marquis de Sade">Sade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henri_de_Saint-Simon" title="Henri de Saint-Simon">Saint-Simon</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Spencer" title="Herbert Spencer">Spencer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germaine_de_Sta%C3%ABl" title="Germaine de Staël">de Staël</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Stirner" title="Max Stirner">Stirner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippolyte_Taine" title="Hippolyte Taine">Taine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_David_Thoreau" title="Henry David Thoreau">Thoreau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexis_de_Tocqueville" title="Alexis de Tocqueville">Tocqueville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Tucker" title="Benjamin Tucker">Tucker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">20th and 21st<br />centuries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Giorgio_Agamben" title="Giorgio Agamben">Agamben</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B._R._Ambedkar" title="B. R. Ambedkar">Ambedkar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hannah_Arendt" title="Hannah Arendt">Arendt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raymond_Aron" title="Raymond Aron">Aron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alain_Badiou" title="Alain Badiou">Badiou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zygmunt_Bauman" title="Zygmunt Bauman">Bauman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alain_de_Benoist" title="Alain de Benoist">Benoist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaiah_Berlin" title="Isaiah Berlin">Berlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eduard_Bernstein" title="Eduard Bernstein">Bernstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Burnham" title="James Burnham">Burnham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noam_Chomsky" title="Noam Chomsky">Chomsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Dmowski" title="Roman Dmowski">Dmowski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois">Du Bois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aleksandr_Dugin" title="Aleksandr Dugin">Dugin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Dworkin" title="Ronald Dworkin">Dworkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Evola" title="Julius Evola">Evola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michel_Foucault" title="Michel Foucault">Foucault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erich_Fromm" title="Erich Fromm">Fromm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Fukuyama" title="Francis Fukuyama">Fukuyama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi" title="Mahatma Gandhi">Gandhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Gentile" title="Giovanni Gentile">Gentile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Gramsci" title="Antonio Gramsci">Gramsci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Gu%C3%A9non" title="René Guénon">Guénon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Habermas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Hayek" title="Friedrich Hayek">Hayek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans-Hermann_Hoppe" title="Hans-Hermann Hoppe">Hoppe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_P._Huntington" title="Samuel P. Huntington">Huntington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Kautsky" title="Karl Kautsky">Kautsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russell_Kirk" title="Russell Kirk">Kirk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Kropotkin" title="Peter Kropotkin">Kropotkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernesto_Laclau" title="Ernesto Laclau">Laclau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin" title="Vladimir Lenin">Lenin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosa_Luxemburg" title="Rosa Luxemburg">Luxemburg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harvey_Mansfield" title="Harvey Mansfield">Mansfield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mao_Zedong" title="Mao Zedong">Mao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Marcuse" title="Herbert Marcuse">Marcuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Maurras" title="Charles Maurras">Maurras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Michels" title="Robert Michels">Michels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_von_Mises" title="Ludwig von Mises">Mises</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaetano_Mosca" title="Gaetano Mosca">Mosca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chantal_Mouffe" title="Chantal Mouffe">Mouffe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Negri" title="Antonio Negri">Negri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Nozick" title="Robert Nozick">Nozick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martha_Nussbaum" title="Martha Nussbaum">Nussbaum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Oakeshott" title="Michael Oakeshott">Oakeshott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Ortega_y_Gasset" title="José Ortega y Gasset">Ortega</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vilfredo_Pareto" title="Vilfredo Pareto">Pareto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Popper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sayyid_Qutb" title="Sayyid Qutb">Qutb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayn_Rand" title="Ayn Rand">Rand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">Rawls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_R%C3%B6pke" title="Wilhelm Röpke">Röpke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murray_Rothbard" title="Murray Rothbard">Rothbard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Paul_Sartre" title="Jean-Paul Sartre">Sartre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Schmitt" title="Carl Schmitt">Schmitt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Scruton" title="Roger Scruton">Scruton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali_Shariati" title="Ali Shariati">Shariati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georges_Sorel" title="Georges Sorel">Sorel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Othmar_Spann" title="Othmar Spann">Spann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oswald_Spengler" title="Oswald Spengler">Spengler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leo_Strauss" title="Leo Strauss">Strauss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sun_Yat-sen" title="Sun Yat-sen">Sun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Taylor_(philosopher)" title="Charles Taylor (philosopher)">Taylor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eric_Voegelin" title="Eric Voegelin">Voegelin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Walzer" title="Michael Walzer">Walzer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Weber</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Republic_(Plato)" title="Republic (Plato)">Republic</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 375 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Politics_(Aristotle)" title="Politics (Aristotle)">Politics</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 350 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/De_re_publica" title="De re publica">De re publica</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(51 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Treatise_on_Law" title="Treatise on Law">Treatise on Law</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 1274)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Monarchia" title="Monarchia">Monarchia</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1313)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Prince" title="The Prince">The Prince</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1532)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Leviathan_(Hobbes_book)" title="Leviathan (Hobbes book)">Leviathan</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1651)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Two_Treatises_of_Government" title="Two Treatises of Government">Two Treatises of Government</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1689)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Spirit_of_Law" title="The Spirit of Law">The Spirit of Law</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1748)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Social_Contract" title="The Social Contract">The Social Contract</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1762)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Reflections_on_the_Revolution_in_France" title="Reflections on the Revolution in France">Reflections on the Revolution in France</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1790)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Rights_of_Man" title="Rights of Man">Rights of Man</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1791)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Elements_of_the_Philosophy_of_Right" title="Elements of the Philosophy of Right">Elements of the Philosophy of Right</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1820)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Democracy_in_America" title="Democracy in America">Democracy in America</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1835–1840)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Communist_Manifesto" title="The Communist Manifesto">The Communist Manifesto</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1848)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/On_Liberty" title="On Liberty">On Liberty</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1859)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Revolt_of_the_Masses" title="The Revolt of the Masses">The Revolt of the Masses</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1929)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Road_to_Serfdom" title="The Road to Serfdom">The Road to Serfdom</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1944)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Open_Society_and_Its_Enemies" title="The Open Society and Its Enemies">The Open Society and Its Enemies</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1945)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Origins_of_Totalitarianism" title="The Origins of Totalitarianism">The Origins of Totalitarianism</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1951)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/A_Theory_of_Justice" title="A Theory of Justice">A Theory of Justice</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1971)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_End_of_History_and_the_Last_Man" title="The End of History and the Last Man">The End of History and the Last Man</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1992)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Authoritarianism" title="Authoritarianism">Authoritarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_organization#Collectivism_and_individualism" title="Social organization">Collectivism and individualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_theories" title="Conflict theories">Conflict theories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contractualism" title="Contractualism">Contractualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_political_economy" title="Critique of political economy">Critique of political economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egalitarianism" title="Egalitarianism">Egalitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elite_theory" title="Elite theory">Elite theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elitism" title="Elitism">Elitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_political_thought" title="History of political thought">History of political thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institutional_discrimination" title="Institutional discrimination">Institutional discrimination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jurisprudence" title="Jurisprudence">Jurisprudence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justification_for_the_state" title="Justification for the state">Justification for the state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Machiavellianism_(politics)" title="Machiavellianism (politics)">Machiavellianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_ethics" title="Political ethics">Political ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_spectrum" title="Political spectrum">Political spectrum</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Left-wing_politics" title="Left-wing politics">Left-wing politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centrism" title="Centrism">Centrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right-wing_politics" title="Right-wing politics">Right-wing politics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_theology" title="Political theology">Political theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_violence" title="Political violence">Political violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_church_and_state" title="Separation of church and state">Separation of church and state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separatism" title="Separatism">Separatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_justice" title="Social justice">Social justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statism" title="Statism">Statism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Totalitarianism" title="Totalitarianism">Totalitarianism</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Index_of_social_and_political_philosophy_articles" title="Index of social and political philosophy articles">Index</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Political_philosophy" title="Category:Political philosophy">Category:Political philosophy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Property" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Property_navbox" title="Template:Property navbox"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Property_navbox" title="Template talk:Property navbox"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Property_navbox" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Property navbox"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Property" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Property" title="Property">Property</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By owner</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Collective_ownership" title="Collective ownership">Collective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_ownership" title="Common ownership">Common</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communal_land" title="Communal land">Communal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_property" title="Community property">Community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crown_land" title="Crown land">Crown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Customary_land" title="Customary land">Customary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cooperative" title="Cooperative">Cooperative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Private_property" title="Private property">Private</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_property" title="Public property">Public</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-ownership" title="Self-ownership">Self</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_ownership" title="Social ownership">Social</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_ownership" title="State ownership">State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unowned_property" title="Unowned property">Unowned</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By nature</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Croft_(land)" title="Croft (land)">Croft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Estate_in_land" title="Estate in land">Estate (landed)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intangible_property" title="Intangible property">Intangible</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intellectual_property" title="Intellectual property">Intellectual</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_intellectual_property" title="Indigenous intellectual property">indigenous</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personal_property" title="Personal property">Personal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tangible_property" title="Tangible property">Tangible</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Real_property" title="Real property">real</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Commons" title="Commons">Commons</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Common_land" title="Common land">Common land</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common-pool_resource" title="Common-pool resource">Common-pool resource</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_commons_(economics)" title="Digital commons (economics)">Digital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_commons" title="Global commons">Global</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_commons" title="Information commons">Information</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knowledge_commons" title="Knowledge commons">Knowledge</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Theory</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bundle_of_rights" title="Bundle of rights">Bundle of rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commodity" title="Commodity">Commodity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fictitious_commodities" title="Fictitious commodities">fictitious commodities</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_good_(economics)" title="Common good (economics)">Common good (economics)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Excludability" title="Excludability">Excludability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_possession_theory_of_property" title="First possession theory of property">First possession</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Original_appropriation" title="Original appropriation">appropriation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homestead_principle" title="Homestead principle">homestead principle</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free-rider_problem" title="Free-rider problem">Free-rider problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Game_theory" title="Game theory">Game theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgism" title="Georgism">Georgism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gift_economy" title="Gift economy">Gift economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labor_theory_of_property" title="Labor theory of property">Labor theory of property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_rent" title="Law of rent">Law of rent</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rent-seeking" title="Rent-seeking">rent-seeking</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_plunder" class="mw-redirect" title="Legal plunder">Legal plunder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_rights_and_legal_rights" title="Natural rights and legal rights">Natural rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ownership" title="Ownership">Ownership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Property_rights_(economics)" title="Property rights (economics)">Property rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Primogeniture" title="Primogeniture">primogeniture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Usufruct" title="Usufruct">usufruct</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_property_rights" title="Women's property rights">women's</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_property" title="Right to property">Right to property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rivalry_(economics)" title="Rivalry (economics)">Rivalry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tragedy_of_the_commons" title="Tragedy of the commons">Tragedy of the commons</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tragedy_of_the_anticommons" title="Tragedy of the anticommons">anticommons</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Applications</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acequia" title="Acequia"><i>Acequia</i> (watercourse)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ejido" title="Ejido"><i>Ejido</i> (agrarian land)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Estate_(law)" title="Estate (law)">Estate</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Estate_(law)" title="Estate (law)">legal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literary_estate" title="Literary estate">literary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real_estate" title="Real estate">real</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_types_of_formally_designated_forests" title="List of types of formally designated forests">Forest types</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Huerta" title="Huerta">Huerta</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inheritance" title="Inheritance">Inheritance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Executor" title="Executor">executor</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_tenure" title="Land tenure">Land tenure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Property_law" title="Property law">Property law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alienation_(property_law)" title="Alienation (property law)">alienation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Easement" title="Easement">easement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restraint_on_alienation" title="Restraint on alienation">restraint on alienation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real_estate" title="Real estate">real estate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Title_(property)" title="Title (property)">title</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Rights</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air_rights" title="Air rights">Air</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exclusive_economic_zone" title="Exclusive economic zone">Fishing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Scheduled_Tribes_and_Other_Traditional_Forest_Dwellers_(Recognition_of_Forest_Rights)_Act,_2006" title="The Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, 2006">Forest-dwelling (India)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_to_roam" title="Freedom to roam">Freedom to roam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grazing_rights" title="Grazing rights">Grazing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pannage" title="Pannage">pannage</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hunting" title="Hunting">Hunting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_law#Land_rights" title="Land law">Land</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aboriginal_title" title="Aboriginal title">aboriginal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_land_rights" title="Indigenous land rights">indigenous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Squatting" title="Squatting">squatting</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Littoral_rights" title="Littoral rights">Littoral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mineral_rights" title="Mineral rights">Mineral</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Bergregal" title="Bergregal">Bergregal</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_of_way_(transit)" class="mw-redirect" title="Right of way (transit)">Right of way (transit)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_of_way_(property_access)" class="mw-redirect" title="Right of way (property access)">Right of way (property access)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_right" title="Water right">Water</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prior-appropriation_water_rights" title="Prior-appropriation water rights">prior-appropriation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Riparian_water_rights" title="Riparian water rights">riparian</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Accumulation_by_dispossession" title="Accumulation by dispossession">Disposession</a>/<br /><a href="/wiki/Redistribution_of_income_and_wealth" title="Redistribution of income and wealth">redistribution</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bioprospecting" title="Bioprospecting">Bioprospecting</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biopiracy" title="Biopiracy">biopiracy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collectivization_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Collectivization in the Soviet Union">Collectivization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eminent_domain" title="Eminent domain">Eminent domain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enclosure" title="Enclosure">Enclosure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eviction" title="Eviction">Eviction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expropriation" class="mw-redirect" title="Expropriation">Expropriation</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Farhud" title="Farhud">Farhud</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_displacement" title="Forced displacement">Forced migration</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Population_transfer" title="Population transfer">population transfer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Repatriation" title="Repatriation">repatriation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal,_unreported_and_unregulated_fishing" title="Illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing">Illegal fishing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_logging" title="Illegal logging">Illegal logging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_Back" title="Land Back">Land Back</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_reform" title="Land reform">Land reform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_plunder" class="mw-redirect" title="Legal plunder">Legal plunder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piracy" title="Piracy">Piracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poaching" title="Poaching">Poaching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primitive_accumulation_of_capital" title="Primitive accumulation of capital">Primitive accumulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Privatization" title="Privatization">Privatization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regulatory_taking" class="mw-redirect" title="Regulatory taking">Regulatory taking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery" title="Slavery">Slavery</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bride_buying" title="Bride buying">bride buying</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking" title="Human trafficking">human trafficking</a></li> <li>spousal <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Husband-selling" class="mw-redirect" title="Husband-selling">husband-selling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wife_selling" title="Wife selling">wife selling</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wage_slavery" title="Wage slavery">wage</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tax" title="Tax">Tax</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inheritance_tax" title="Inheritance tax">inheritance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poll_tax" title="Poll tax">poll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressive_tax" title="Progressive tax">progressive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Property_tax" title="Property tax">property</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theft" title="Theft">Theft</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Scholars<br /><span class="nobold">(<i>key work</i>)</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Bastiat" title="Frédéric Bastiat">Frédéric Bastiat</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Law_(Bastiat_book)" title="The Law (Bastiat book)">The Law</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Coase" title="Ronald Coase">Ronald Coase</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Engels" title="Friedrich Engels">Friedrich Engels</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Origin_of_the_Family,_Private_Property_and_the_State" title="The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State">The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_George" title="Henry George">Henry George</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Progress_and_Poverty" title="Progress and Poverty">Progress and Poverty</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garrett_Hardin" title="Garrett Hardin">Garrett Hardin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Harvey" title="David Harvey">David Harvey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Two_Treatises_of_Government" title="Two Treatises of Government">Two Treatises of Government</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Karl Marx</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Das_Kapital" title="Das Kapital">Das Kapital</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcel_Mauss" title="Marcel Mauss">Marcel Mauss</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Gift_(essay)" title="The Gift (essay)">The Gift</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">John Stuart Mill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elinor_Ostrom" title="Elinor Ostrom">Elinor Ostrom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Polanyi" title="Karl Polanyi">Karl Polanyi</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Great_Transformation_(book)" title="The Great Transformation (book)">The Great Transformation</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre-Joseph_Proudhon" title="Pierre-Joseph Proudhon">Pierre-Joseph Proudhon</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Property_is_theft!" class="mw-redirect" title="Property is theft!">What Is Property?</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Ricardo" title="David Ricardo">David Ricardo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murray_Rothbard" title="Murray Rothbard">Murray N. Rothbard</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Ethics_of_Liberty" title="The Ethics of Liberty">The Ethics of Liberty</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Jean-Jacques Rousseau</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Social_Contract" title="The Social Contract">The Social Contract</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Adam Smith</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Wealth_of_Nations" title="The Wealth of Nations">The Wealth of Nations</a></i></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, 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aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9381#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9381#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9381#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" 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href="https://viaf.org/viaf/49231791">VIAF</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.worldcat.org/fast/51861/">FAST</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.oclc.org/worldcat/entity/E39PBJxGPbrYKgfDXw3FCTpVmd">WorldCat</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/118615033">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/n80032761">United States</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb119250114">France</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb119250114">BnF data</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00456871">Japan</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Smith, Adam <1723-1790>"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://opac.sbn.it/nome/CFIV029584">Italy</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nla.gov.au/anbd.aut-an35505131">Australia</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=jn19990008033&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://catalogo.bne.es/uhtbin/authoritybrowse.cgi?action=display&authority_id=XX1011829">Spain</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.bnportugal.gov.pt/aut/catbnp/83953">Portugal</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://data.bibliotheken.nl/id/thes/p068349122">Netherlands</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://authority.bibsys.no/authority/rest/authorities/html/90062193">Norway</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kopkatalogs.lv/F?func=direct&local_base=lnc10&doc_number=000003989&P_CON_LNG=ENG">Latvia</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://katalog.nsk.hr/F/?func=direct&doc_number=000033889&local_base=nsk10">Croatia</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.nlg.gr/cgi-bin/koha/opac-authoritiesdetail.pl?authid=67845">Greece</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogo.bn.gov.ar/F/?func=direct&local_base=BNA10&doc_number=000026142">Argentina</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lod.nl.go.kr/resource/KAC199625619">Korea</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://libris.kb.se/vs69dx1d1xfbxct">Sweden</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dbn.bn.org.pl/descriptor-details/9810597530205606">Poland</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a class="external text" href="https://wikidata-externalid-url.toolforge.org/?p=8034&url_prefix=https://opac.vatlib.it/auth/detail/&id=495/81426">Vatican</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007268145005171">Israel</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cantic.bnc.cat/registre/981058515030306706">Catalonia</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://opac.kbr.be/LIBRARY/doc/AUTHORITY/14110979">Belgium</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Academics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=doMBRtwAAAAJ">Google Scholar</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Artists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://musicbrainz.org/artist/a1bf4cd4-fe53-4fb9-92cd-fb3c321a2bf1">MusicBrainz</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://trove.nla.gov.au/people/977508">Trove</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.deutsche-biographie.de/pnd118615033.html?language=en">Deutsche Biographie</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.deutsche-digitale-bibliothek.de/person/gnd/118615033">DDB</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.idref.fr/027141578">IdRef</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://snaccooperative.org/ark:/99166/w6z60tcf">SNAC</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Adam_Smith&oldid=1258339540">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Adam_Smith&oldid=1258339540</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Adam_Smith" title="Category:Adam Smith">Adam Smith</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:1723_births" title="Category:1723 births">1723 births</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:1790_deaths" title="Category:1790 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