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subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Early_Middle_Ages_(476–799)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Early_Medieval_Papacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_Medieval_Papacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Early Medieval Papacy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_Medieval_Papacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Spread_Beyond_the_Roman_Empire" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Spread_Beyond_the_Roman_Empire"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Spread Beyond the Roman Empire</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Spread_Beyond_the_Roman_Empire-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Irish_Missionaries" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Irish_Missionaries"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2.1</span> <span>Irish Missionaries</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Irish_Missionaries-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Anglo-Saxons,_English" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Anglo-Saxons,_English"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2.2</span> <span>Anglo-Saxons, English</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Anglo-Saxons,_English-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Franks" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Franks"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2.3</span> <span>Franks</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Franks-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Frisians_of_the_Low_Countries" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Frisians_of_the_Low_Countries"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2.4</span> <span>Frisians of the Low Countries</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Frisians_of_the_Low_Countries-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Iconoclasm" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Iconoclasm"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Iconoclasm</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Iconoclasm-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-High_Middle_Ages_(800–1300)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#High_Middle_Ages_(800–1300)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>High Middle Ages (800–1300)</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-High_Middle_Ages_(800–1300)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle High Middle Ages (800–1300) subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-High_Middle_Ages_(800–1300)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Carolingian_Renaissance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Carolingian_Renaissance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Carolingian Renaissance</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Carolingian_Renaissance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Growing_tensions_between_East_and_West" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Growing_tensions_between_East_and_West"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Growing tensions between East and West</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Growing_tensions_between_East_and_West-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Photian_Schism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Photian_Schism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Photian Schism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Photian_Schism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-East-West_Schism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#East-West_Schism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>East-West Schism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-East-West_Schism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Monastic_Reform" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Monastic_Reform"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Monastic Reform</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Monastic_Reform-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Cluny" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cluny"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5.1</span> <span>Cluny</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cluny-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cîteaux" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cîteaux"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5.2</span> <span>Cîteaux</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cîteaux-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mendicant_Orders" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mendicant_Orders"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5.3</span> <span>Mendicant Orders</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mendicant_Orders-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Investiture_Controversy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Investiture_Controversy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6</span> <span>Investiture Controversy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Investiture_Controversy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Crusades" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Crusades"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.7</span> <span>Crusades</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Crusades-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Medieval_inquisition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Medieval_inquisition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.8</span> <span>Medieval inquisition</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Medieval_inquisition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rise_of_universities" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rise_of_universities"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.9</span> <span>Rise of universities</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rise_of_universities-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Spread_of_Christianity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Spread_of_Christianity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.10</span> <span>Spread of Christianity</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Spread_of_Christianity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Conversion_of_the_Slavs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Conversion_of_the_Slavs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.10.1</span> <span>Conversion of the Slavs</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Conversion_of_the_Slavs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Mission_to_Great_Moravia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mission_to_Great_Moravia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.10.1.1</span> <span>Mission to Great Moravia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mission_to_Great_Moravia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Conversion_of_Bulgaria" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Conversion_of_Bulgaria"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.10.1.2</span> <span>Conversion of Bulgaria</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Conversion_of_Bulgaria-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Conversion_of_the_Rus'" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Conversion_of_the_Rus'"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.10.1.3</span> <span>Conversion of the Rus'</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Conversion_of_the_Rus'-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Conversion_of_the_Scandinavians" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Conversion_of_the_Scandinavians"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.10.2</span> <span>Conversion of the Scandinavians</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Conversion_of_the_Scandinavians-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Late_Middle_Ages_(1300–1499)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Late_Middle_Ages_(1300–1499)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Late Middle Ages (1300–1499)</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Late_Middle_Ages_(1300–1499)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Late Middle Ages (1300–1499) subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Late_Middle_Ages_(1300–1499)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Hesychast_Controversy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hesychast_Controversy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Hesychast Controversy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hesychast_Controversy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Avignon_Papacy_(1309-1378)_and_Western_Schism_(1378-1417)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Avignon_Papacy_(1309-1378)_and_Western_Schism_(1378-1417)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Avignon Papacy (1309-1378) and Western Schism (1378-1417)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Avignon_Papacy_(1309-1378)_and_Western_Schism_(1378-1417)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Criticism_of_Church_corruption_-_John_Wycliff_and_Jan_Hus" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Criticism_of_Church_corruption_-_John_Wycliff_and_Jan_Hus"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Criticism of Church corruption - John Wycliff and Jan Hus</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Criticism_of_Church_corruption_-_John_Wycliff_and_Jan_Hus-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Italian_Renaissance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Italian_Renaissance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Italian Renaissance</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Italian_Renaissance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fall_of_Constantinople_(1453)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fall_of_Constantinople_(1453)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Fall of Constantinople (1453)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fall_of_Constantinople_(1453)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Religious_rights_under_the_Ottoman_Empire" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Religious_rights_under_the_Ottoman_Empire"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5.1</span> <span>Religious rights under the Ottoman Empire</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Religious_rights_under_the_Ottoman_Empire-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Citations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Print_resources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Print_resources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Print resources</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Print_resources-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Print resources subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Print_resources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Online_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Online_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Online sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Online_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet 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class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_del_cristianismo_durante_la_Edad_Media" title="Historia del cristianismo durante la Edad Media – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Historia del cristianismo durante la Edad Media" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%B3%DB%8C%D8%AD%DB%8C%D8%AA_%D8%AF%D8%B1_%D9%82%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%86_%D9%88%D8%B3%D8%B7%DB%8C" title="مسیحیت در قرون وسطی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="مسیحیت در قرون وسطی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%A4%91%EC%84%B8_%EA%B8%B0%EB%8F%85%EA%B5%90" title="중세 기독교 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="중세 기독교" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kekristenan_pada_Abad_Pertengahan" title="Kekristenan pada Abad Pertengahan – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Kekristenan pada Abad Pertengahan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Storia_del_cristianesimo_in_et%C3%A0_medievale" title="Storia del cristianesimo in età medievale – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Storia del cristianesimo in età medievale" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Istoria_de_la_cristianisme_en_la_eda_medieval" title="Istoria de la cristianisme en la eda medieval – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Istoria de la cristianisme en la eda medieval" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingua Franca Nova</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BE_%D0%B2%D0%BE_%D1%81%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BE%D1%82_%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BA" title="Христијанството во средниот век – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Христијанството во средниот век" data-language-autonym="Македонски" 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Statements consisting only of original research should be removed.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">September 2018</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> </div> </div><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:V%C4%9Bnceslav_%C4%8Cern%C3%BD_-_P%C5%99%C3%ADchod_v%C4%9Brozv%C4%9Bst%C5%AF_Cyrila_a_Metod%C4%9Bje_na_Moravu.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/V%C4%9Bnceslav_%C4%8Cern%C3%BD_-_P%C5%99%C3%ADchod_v%C4%9Brozv%C4%9Bst%C5%AF_Cyrila_a_Metod%C4%9Bje_na_Moravu.jpg/300px-V%C4%9Bnceslav_%C4%8Cern%C3%BD_-_P%C5%99%C3%ADchod_v%C4%9Brozv%C4%9Bst%C5%AF_Cyrila_a_Metod%C4%9Bje_na_Moravu.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="209" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/V%C4%9Bnceslav_%C4%8Cern%C3%BD_-_P%C5%99%C3%ADchod_v%C4%9Brozv%C4%9Bst%C5%AF_Cyrila_a_Metod%C4%9Bje_na_Moravu.jpg/450px-V%C4%9Bnceslav_%C4%8Cern%C3%BD_-_P%C5%99%C3%ADchod_v%C4%9Brozv%C4%9Bst%C5%AF_Cyrila_a_Metod%C4%9Bje_na_Moravu.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8d/V%C4%9Bnceslav_%C4%8Cern%C3%BD_-_P%C5%99%C3%ADchod_v%C4%9Brozv%C4%9Bst%C5%AF_Cyrila_a_Metod%C4%9Bje_na_Moravu.jpg 2x" data-file-width="479" data-file-height="333" /></a><figcaption>Brothers <a href="/wiki/Saints_Cyril_and_Methodius" class="mw-redirect" title="Saints Cyril and Methodius">Cyril and Methodius</a> bring Christianity to the <a href="/wiki/Slavic_peoples" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavic peoples">Slavic peoples</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Christianity in the Middle Ages</b> covers the <a href="/wiki/History_of_Christianity" title="History of Christianity">history of Christianity</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Fall of the Western Roman Empire">fall of the Western Roman Empire</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 476</span>). The end of the period is variously defined - depending on the context, events such as the <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">conquest of Constantinople</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> in 1453, <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Columbus" title="Christopher Columbus">Christopher Columbus</a>'s first voyage to the <a href="/wiki/Americas" title="Americas">Americas</a> in 1492, or the <a href="/wiki/Reformation" title="Reformation">Protestant Reformation</a> in 1517 are sometimes used.<sup id="cite_ref-Davies291_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Davies291-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In Christianity's ancient <a href="/wiki/Pentarchy" title="Pentarchy">Pentarchy</a>, five patriarchies held special eminence: the <a href="/wiki/Episcopal_see" title="Episcopal see">sees</a> of <a href="/wiki/Holy_See" title="Holy See">Rome</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ecumenical_Patriarch_of_Constantinople" title="Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople">Constantinople</a>, <a href="/wiki/Greek_Orthodox_Patriarch_of_Jerusalem" title="Greek Orthodox Patriarch of Jerusalem">Jerusalem</a>, <a href="/wiki/Patriarch_of_Antioch" title="Patriarch of Antioch">Antioch</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Patriarch_of_Alexandria" title="Patriarch of Alexandria">Alexandria</a>. The prestige of most of these sees depended in part on their <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_1st_century#Apostolic_Age" title="Christianity in the 1st century">apostolic founders</a>, or in the case of Byzantium/Constantinople, that it was the new seat of the continuing <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Eastern Roman</a>, or Byzantine Empire. These bishops considered themselves the <a href="/wiki/Apostolic_succession" title="Apostolic succession">successors</a> of those apostles.<sup id="cite_ref-kjw1_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kjw1-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition, all five cities were <a href="/wiki/Early_centres_of_Christianity" class="mw-redirect" title="Early centres of Christianity">early centres of Christianity</a>, they lost their importance after the <a href="/wiki/Levant" title="Levant">Levant</a> was conquered by the <a href="/wiki/Sunni_Caliphate" class="mw-redirect" title="Sunni Caliphate">Sunni Caliphate</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_Middle_Ages_(476–799)"><span id="Early_Middle_Ages_.28476.E2.80.93799.29"></span>Early Middle Ages (476–799)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_the_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Early Middle Ages (476–799)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Meister_von_San_Vitale_in_Ravenna.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Meister_von_San_Vitale_in_Ravenna.jpg/180px-Meister_von_San_Vitale_in_Ravenna.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="244" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Meister_von_San_Vitale_in_Ravenna.jpg/270px-Meister_von_San_Vitale_in_Ravenna.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Meister_von_San_Vitale_in_Ravenna.jpg/360px-Meister_von_San_Vitale_in_Ravenna.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1409" data-file-height="1907" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Mosaic" title="Mosaic">Mosaic</a> of <a href="/wiki/Justinian_I" title="Justinian I">Justinian I</a> in the church of San Vitale, Ravenna, Italy</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_5th_century" title="Christianity in the 5th century">Christianity in the 5th century</a>, <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_6th_century" title="Christianity in the 6th century">Christianity in the 6th century</a>, <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_7th_century" title="Christianity in the 7th century">Christianity in the 7th century</a>, <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_8th_century" title="Christianity in the 8th century">Christianity in the 8th century</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Papacy" title="Byzantine Papacy">Byzantine Papacy</a></div> <p>The Early Middle Ages commenced when the last western Roman emperor was deposed in 476, to be followed by the barbarian king, <a href="/wiki/Odoacer" title="Odoacer">Odoacer</a>, to the coronation of Charlemagne as "Emperor of the Romans" by <a href="/wiki/Pope_Leo_III" title="Pope Leo III">Pope Leo III</a> in Rome on Christmas Day, 800. The year 476, however, is a rather artificial division.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the East, Roman imperial rule continued through the period historians now call the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a>. Even in the West, where imperial political control gradually declined, distinctly Roman culture continued long afterwards; thus historians today prefer to speak of a "transformation of the Roman world" rather than a "fall of the Roman Empire." </p><p>The advent of the Early Middle Ages was a gradual and often localised process whereby, in the West, rural areas became power centres whilst urban areas declined. With the Muslim invasions of the seventh century, the Western (Latin) and Eastern (Greek) areas of Christianity began to take on distinctive shapes. Whereas in the East the Church maintained its strength, in the West the bishops of Rome (i.e., the Popes) were forced to adapt more quickly and flexibly to drastically changing circumstances. In particular whereas the bishops of the East maintained clear allegiance to the Eastern Roman Emperor, the bishop of Rome, while maintaining nominal allegiance to the Eastern Emperor, was forced to negotiate delicate balances with the "barbarian rulers" of the former Western provinces. Although the greater number of Christians remained in the East, the developments in the West would set the stage for major developments in the Christian world during the later centuries.<sup id="cite_ref-Alick_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Alick-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_Medieval_Papacy">Early Medieval Papacy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_the_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Early Medieval Papacy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>After the Italian peninsula fell into warfare and turmoil due to the barbarian tribes, the Emperor <a href="/wiki/Justinian_I" title="Justinian I">Justinian I</a> attempted to reassert imperial dominion in Italy from the East, against the Gothic aristocracy. The subsequent campaigns were more or less successful, and an Imperial <a href="/wiki/Exarch" title="Exarch">Exarchate</a> was established for Italy, but imperial influence was limited. The <a href="/wiki/Lombards" title="Lombards">Lombards</a> then invaded the weakened peninsula, and Rome was essentially left to fend for itself. The failure of the East to send aid resulted in the popes themselves feeding the city with grain from papal estates, negotiating treaties, paying protection money to Lombard warlords, and, failing that, hiring soldiers to defend the city.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Eventually the popes turned to others for support, especially the Franks. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Spread_Beyond_the_Roman_Empire">Spread Beyond the Roman Empire</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_the_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Spread Beyond the Roman Empire"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ivanov_pagans.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9b/Ivanov_pagans.jpg/200px-Ivanov_pagans.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9b/Ivanov_pagans.jpg/300px-Ivanov_pagans.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9b/Ivanov_pagans.jpg/400px-Ivanov_pagans.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="461" /></a><figcaption><i>Christians and Pagans</i>, a painting by <a href="/wiki/Sergei_Ivanov_(painter)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sergei Ivanov (painter)">Sergei Ivanov</a></figcaption></figure> <p>As the political boundaries of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> diminished and then collapsed in the West, Christianity spread beyond the old borders of the Empire and into lands that had never been under Rome. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Irish_Missionaries">Irish Missionaries</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_the_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Irish Missionaries"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Beginning in the fifth century, a unique culture developed around the Irish Sea consisting of what today would be called Wales and Ireland. In this environment, Christianity spread from <a href="/wiki/Roman_Britain" title="Roman Britain">Roman Britain</a> to Ireland, especially aided by the missionary activity of <a href="/wiki/Saint_Patrick" title="Saint Patrick">St. Patrick</a> with his first-order of 'patrician clergy', active <a href="/wiki/Missionary" title="Missionary">missionary</a> priests accompanying or following him, typically <a href="/wiki/British_people#History" title="British people">Britons</a> or <a href="/wiki/Irish_people" title="Irish people">Irish</a> <a href="/wiki/Ordination" title="Ordination">ordained</a> by him and his successors.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJoyce1906135–6_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJoyce1906135–6-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Patrick had been captured into slavery in Ireland and, following his escape and later consecration as bishop, he returned to the isle that had enslaved him so that he could bring them the Gospel. Soon, Irish missionaries such as <a href="/wiki/Columba" title="Columba">Columba</a> and <a href="/wiki/Columbanus" title="Columbanus">Columbanus</a> spread this Christianity, with its distinctively Irish features, to Scotland and the Continent. One such feature was the system of private penitence, which replaced the former practice of penance as a public rite.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Anglo-Saxons,_English"><span id="Anglo-Saxons.2C_English"></span>Anglo-Saxons, English</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_the_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Anglo-Saxons, English"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Although southern Britain had been a Roman province, in 407 the imperial legions left the isle, and the Roman elite followed. Some time later that century, various barbarian tribes went from raiding and pillaging the island to settling and invading. These tribes are referred to as the "Anglo-Saxons", predecessors of the English. They were entirely pagan, having never been part of the Empire, and although they experienced Christian influence from the surrounding peoples, they were converted by the mission of <a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Canterbury" title="Augustine of Canterbury">St. Augustine</a> sent by <a href="/wiki/Pope_Gregory_I" title="Pope Gregory I">Pope Gregory the Great</a>. The majority of the remaining British population converted from Christianity back to their Pagan roots. Contrary to popular belief, the conversion of Anglo-Saxons to Christianity was incredibly slow. The Anglo-Saxons had little interest in changing their religion and even initially looked down upon Christianity due to conquering the Christian British people decades earlier. </p><p>It took almost a century to convert only the aristocracy of the Anglo-Saxons to Christianity with many still converting back to Paganism. After this, the common folk took a few hundred more years to convert to Christianity and their reasoning for converting was in large part due to the nobility.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Originally, Anglo-Saxon leaders claimed divine descent while taking part in many rituals and practices for Paganism but after their conversion they in turn became spiritual leaders for Christianity in Britain. Soon Anglo-Saxons started to incorporate their old Pagan stories and figures into Christianity, such as the Pagan god Woden becoming sixteenth in descent from 'Sceaf, Noah's son in the Bible.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Later, under <a href="/wiki/Theodore_of_Tarsus" title="Theodore of Tarsus">Archbishop Theodore</a>, the Anglo-Saxons enjoyed a golden age of culture and scholarship. Soon, important English missionaries such as SS. <a href="/wiki/Wilfrid" title="Wilfrid">Wilfrid</a>, <a href="/wiki/Willibrord" title="Willibrord">Willibrord</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lullus" title="Lullus">Lullus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Boniface" class="mw-redirect" title="Boniface">Boniface</a> would begin evangelising their Saxon relatives in Germany.<sup id="cite_ref-peasant_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-peasant-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Franks">Franks</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_the_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Franks"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Frankish_Church" class="mw-redirect" title="Frankish Church">Frankish Church</a> and <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Merovingian_Gaul" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianity in Merovingian Gaul">Christianity in Merovingian Gaul</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chlodwigs_taufe.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Chlodwigs_taufe.jpg/200px-Chlodwigs_taufe.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="269" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Chlodwigs_taufe.jpg/300px-Chlodwigs_taufe.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Chlodwigs_taufe.jpg/400px-Chlodwigs_taufe.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2969" data-file-height="4000" /></a><figcaption>Saint Remigius baptises Clovis.</figcaption></figure> <p>The largely Christian Gallo-Roman inhabitants of <a href="/wiki/Gaul" title="Gaul">Gaul</a> (modern France) were overrun by Germanic <a href="/wiki/Franks" title="Franks">Franks</a> in the early 5th century. The native inhabitants were persecuted until the Frankish King, <a href="/wiki/Clovis_I" title="Clovis I">Clovis I</a> converted from paganism to <a href="/wiki/Roman_Catholic" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Catholic">Roman Catholicism</a> in 496. Clovis insisted that his fellow nobles follow suit, strengthening his newly established kingdom by uniting the faith of the rulers with that of the ruled.<sup id="cite_ref-peasant_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-peasant-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Frisians_of_the_Low_Countries">Frisians of the Low Countries</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_the_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Frisians of the Low Countries"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 698, the <a href="/wiki/Northumbria" title="Northumbria">Northumbrian</a> Benedictine monk, <a href="/wiki/Willibrord" title="Willibrord">Willibrord</a> was commissioned by <a href="/wiki/Pope_Sergius_I" title="Pope Sergius I">Pope Sergius I</a> as bishop of the Frisians in what is now the <a href="/wiki/Netherlands" title="Netherlands">Netherlands</a>. Willibrord established a church in <a href="/wiki/Utrecht_(city)" class="mw-redirect" title="Utrecht (city)">Utrecht</a>. </p><p>Much of Willibrord's work was wiped out when the pagan <a href="/wiki/Radbod,_king_of_the_Frisians" class="mw-redirect" title="Radbod, king of the Frisians">Radbod, king of the Frisians</a> destroyed many Christian centres between 716 and 719. In 717, the English missionary <a href="/wiki/Boniface" class="mw-redirect" title="Boniface">Boniface</a> was sent to aid Willibrord, re-establishing churches in Frisia and continuing to preach throughout the pagan lands of Germany. Boniface was killed by pagans in 754. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Iconoclasm">Iconoclasm</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_the_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Iconoclasm"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Andrej_Rubl%C3%ABv_001.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Andrej_Rubl%C3%ABv_001.jpg/220px-Andrej_Rubl%C3%ABv_001.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="271" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Andrej_Rubl%C3%ABv_001.jpg/330px-Andrej_Rubl%C3%ABv_001.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Andrej_Rubl%C3%ABv_001.jpg/440px-Andrej_Rubl%C3%ABv_001.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2024" data-file-height="2497" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Andrei_Rublev" title="Andrei Rublev">Andrei Rublev</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Trinity" title="Trinity">Trinity</a> </figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Iconoclasm_(Byzantine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Iconoclasm (Byzantine)">Iconoclasm (Byzantine)</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Iconoclasm_(Byzantine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Iconoclasm (Byzantine)">Iconoclasm</a> as a movement began within the Eastern Christian Byzantine church in the early 8th century, following a series of heavy military reverses against the <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Muslims</a>. There was a Christian movement in the eighth and ninth centuries against the worship of imagery, caused by worry that the art might be <a href="/wiki/Idolatrous" class="mw-redirect" title="Idolatrous">idolatrous</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Alick_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Alick-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sometime between 726 and 730 the Byzantine Emperor <a href="/wiki/Leo_III_the_Isaurian" title="Leo III the Isaurian">Leo III the Isaurian</a> ordered the removal of an image of Jesus prominently placed over the <a href="/wiki/Chalke" title="Chalke">Chalke</a> gate, the ceremonial entrance to the <a href="/wiki/Great_Palace_of_Constantinople" title="Great Palace of Constantinople">Great Palace of Constantinople</a>, and its replacement with a cross. This was followed by orders banning the pictorial representation of the family of Christ, subsequent Christian saints, and biblical scenes. In the West, <a href="/wiki/Pope_Gregory_III" title="Pope Gregory III">Pope Gregory III</a> held two synods at Rome and condemned Leo's actions. In Leo's realms, the Iconoclast Council at Hieria, 754 ruled that the culture of holy portraits (see <a href="/wiki/Icon" title="Icon">icon</a>) was not of a Christian origin and therefore heretical.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The movement destroyed much of the Christian church's early artistic history, to the great loss of subsequent art and religious historians. The iconoclastic movement itself was later defined as heretical in 787 under the <a href="/wiki/Second_Council_of_Nicaea" title="Second Council of Nicaea">Seventh Ecumenical council</a>, but enjoyed a brief resurgence between 815 and 842. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="High_Middle_Ages_(800–1300)"><span id="High_Middle_Ages_.28800.E2.80.931300.29"></span>High Middle Ages (800–1300)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_the_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: High Middle Ages (800–1300)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_9th_century" title="Christianity in the 9th century">Christianity in the 9th century</a>, <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_10th_century" title="Christianity in the 10th century">Christianity in the 10th century</a>, <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_11th_century" title="Christianity in the 11th century">Christianity in the 11th century</a>, <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_12th_century" title="Christianity in the 12th century">Christianity in the 12th century</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_13th_century" title="Christianity in the 13th century">Christianity in the 13th century</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Carolingian_Renaissance">Carolingian Renaissance</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_the_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Carolingian Renaissance"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Carolingian_Renaissance" title="Carolingian Renaissance">Carolingian Renaissance</a> was a period of intellectual and cultural revival during the late 8th century and 9th century, mostly during the reigns of <a href="/wiki/Charlemagne" title="Charlemagne">Charlemagne</a> and <a href="/wiki/Louis_the_Pious" title="Louis the Pious">Louis the Pious</a>. There was an increase of <a href="/wiki/Literature" title="Literature">literature</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Art" title="Art">arts</a>, <a href="/wiki/Architecture" title="Architecture">architecture</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jurisprudence" title="Jurisprudence">jurisprudence</a>, <a href="/wiki/Liturgical" class="mw-redirect" title="Liturgical">liturgical</a> and <a href="/wiki/Religious_text" title="Religious text">scriptural</a> studies. The period also saw the development of <a href="/wiki/Carolingian_minuscule" title="Carolingian minuscule">Carolingian minuscule</a>, the ancestor of modern lower-case script, and the standardisation of Latin which had hitherto become varied and irregular (see <a href="/wiki/Medieval_Latin" title="Medieval Latin">Medieval Latin</a>). Reform was the creed of Charlemagne's Christianity. There was an emphasis on the differences of Christianity for the laity and Christianity for the nobility. At this time, religion and politics were deeply intertwined with one another. Charlemagne's belief in correcting the education system of the nobility was an example of this relationship between church and state. Illiteracy was a common problem among nobility as well. To address the problems of illiteracy among clergy and court scribes, Charlemagne founded schools and attracted the most learned men from all of Europe to his court, such as <a href="/wiki/Theodulf" class="mw-redirect" title="Theodulf">Theodulf</a>, <a href="/wiki/Paul_the_Deacon" title="Paul the Deacon">Paul the Deacon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Angilbert" title="Angilbert">Angilbert</a>, <a href="/wiki/Paulinus_of_Aquileia" class="mw-redirect" title="Paulinus of Aquileia">Paulinus of Aquileia</a>. It is also important to acknowledge that at this time, creating a manuscript would have been comparable to the modern expense of purchasing a laptop. Therefore only wealthy, influential individuals such as Charlemagne would have been capable of propelling this expansion of clerical education. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Growing_tensions_between_East_and_West">Growing tensions between East and West</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_the_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Growing tensions between East and West"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The cracks and fissures in Christian unity which led to the <a href="/wiki/East%E2%80%93West_Schism" title="East–West Schism">East-West Schism</a> started to become evident as early as the <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_4th_century" title="Christianity in the 4th century">fourth century</a>. Cultural, political, and linguistic differences were often mixed with the theological, leading to schism. </p><p>The transfer of the Roman capital to Constantinople inevitably brought mistrust, rivalry, and even jealousy to the relations of the two great sees, Rome and Constantinople. It was easy for Rome to be jealous of <a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinople</a> at a time when it was rapidly losing its political prominence. Estrangement was also helped along by the German invasions in the West, which effectively weakened contacts. The rise of Islam with its conquest of most of the Mediterranean coastline (not to mention the arrival of the pagan Slavs in the Balkans at the same time) further intensified this separation by driving a physical wedge between the two worlds. The once homogenous unified world of the Mediterranean was fast vanishing. Communication between the <a href="/wiki/Greek_East_and_Latin_West" title="Greek East and Latin West">Greek East and Latin West</a> by the 600s had become dangerous and practically ceased.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Two basic problems – the nature of the <a href="/wiki/Primacy_of_the_Roman_Pontiff" class="mw-redirect" title="Primacy of the Roman Pontiff">primacy of the bishop of Rome</a> and the theological implications of adding a clause to the <a href="/wiki/Nicene_Creed" title="Nicene Creed">Nicene Creed</a>, known as the <a href="/wiki/Filioque_clause" class="mw-redirect" title="Filioque clause"><i>filioque</i> clause</a> – were involved. These doctrinal issues were first openly discussed in Photius's patriarchate. </p> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Church_of_the_East_in_the_Middle_Ages.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Church_of_the_East_in_the_Middle_Ages.svg/250px-Church_of_the_East_in_the_Middle_Ages.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Church_of_the_East_in_the_Middle_Ages.svg/375px-Church_of_the_East_in_the_Middle_Ages.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Church_of_the_East_in_the_Middle_Ages.svg/500px-Church_of_the_East_in_the_Middle_Ages.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="934" data-file-height="645" /></a><figcaption>Largely extinct <a href="/wiki/Church_of_the_East" title="Church of the East">Church of the East</a> and its largest extent during the Middle Ages.</figcaption></figure> <p>By the fifth century, Christendom was divided into a pentarchy of five sees with Rome accorded a primacy. The four Eastern sees of the pentarchy, considered this determined by canonical decision and did not entail hegemony of any one local church or patriarchate over the others. However, Rome began to interpret her primacy in terms of sovereignty, as a God-given right involving universal jurisdiction in the Church. The collegial and conciliar nature of the Church, in effect, was gradually abandoned in favour of supremacy of unlimited papal power over the entire Church. </p><p>These ideas were finally given systematic expression in the West during the <a href="/wiki/Gregorian_Reform" title="Gregorian Reform">Gregorian Reform</a> movement of the eleventh century. The Eastern churches viewed Rome's understanding of the nature of episcopal power as being in direct opposition to the Church's essentially conciliar structure and thus saw the two ecclesiologies as mutually antithetical. For them, specifically, <a href="/wiki/Primacy_of_Simon_Peter" class="mw-redirect" title="Primacy of Simon Peter">Simon Peter's primacy</a> could never be the exclusive prerogative of any one bishop. All bishops must, like St. Peter, confess Jesus as the Christ and, as such, all are Peter's successors. The churches of the East gave the Roman See, primacy but not supremacy. The Pope being the first among equals, but not infallible and not with absolute authority.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The other major irritant to Eastern Christendom was the Western use of the <i>filioque</i> clause—meaning "and the Son"—in the Nicene Creed . This too developed gradually and entered the Creed over time. The issue was the addition by the West of the Latin clause <i>filioque</i> to the Creed, as in "the Holy Spirit... who proceeds from the Father <i>and the Son</i>," where the original Creed, sanctioned by the councils and still used today, by the Eastern Orthodox simply states "the Holy Spirit, the Lord and Giver of Life, who proceeds from the Father." The Eastern Church argued that the phrase had been added unilaterally and, therefore, illegitimately, since the East had never been consulted.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the final analysis, only another ecumenical council could introduce such an alteration. Indeed, the councils, which drew up the original Creed, had expressly forbidden any subtraction or addition to the text. In addition to this ecclesiological issue, the Eastern Church also considered the filioque clause unacceptable on dogmatic grounds. Theologically, the Latin interpolation was unacceptable since it implied that the Spirit now had two sources of origin and procession, the Father and the Son, rather than the Father alone.<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated2_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated2-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Photian_Schism">Photian Schism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_the_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Photian Schism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Photian_schism" title="Photian schism">Photian schism</a></div> <p>In the 9th century AD, a controversy arose between Eastern (Byzantine, later Orthodox) and Western (Latin, later Roman Catholic) Christianity that was precipitated by the opposition of the Roman <a href="/wiki/Pope_John_VIII" title="Pope John VIII">Pope John VIII</a> to the appointment by the Byzantine <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Michael_III" class="mw-redirect" title="Emperor Michael III">emperor Michael III</a> of <a href="/wiki/Patriarch_Photios_I_of_Constantinople" class="mw-redirect" title="Patriarch Photios I of Constantinople">Photius I</a> to the position of patriarch of Constantinople. Photios was refused an apology by the pope for previous points of dispute between the East and West. Photius refused to accept the supremacy of the pope in Eastern matters or accept the filioque clause. The Latin delegation at the council of his consecration pressed him to accept the clause in order to secure their support. </p><p>The controversy also involved Eastern and Western ecclesiastical jurisdictional rights in the Bulgarian church, as well as a doctrinal dispute over the <a href="/wiki/Filioque" title="Filioque">Filioque</a> ("and from the Son") clause. That had been added to the <a href="/wiki/Nicene_Creed" title="Nicene Creed">Nicene Creed</a> by the Latin church, which was later the theological breaking point in the ultimate Great <a href="/wiki/East-West_Schism" class="mw-redirect" title="East-West Schism">East-West Schism</a> in the eleventh century. </p><p>Photius did provide concession on the issue of jurisdictional rights concerning Bulgaria and the papal legates made do with his return of Bulgaria to Rome. This concession, however, was purely nominal, as Bulgaria's return to the Byzantine rite in 870 had already secured for it an autocephalous church. Without the consent of <a href="/wiki/Boris_I_of_Bulgaria" title="Boris I of Bulgaria">Boris I of Bulgaria</a>, the papacy was unable to enforce any of its claims. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="East-West_Schism">East-West Schism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_the_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: East-West Schism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/East-West_Schism" class="mw-redirect" title="East-West Schism">East-West Schism</a>, or Great Schism, separated the Church into Western (Latin) and Eastern (Greek) branches, i.e., Western Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy. It was the first major division since certain groups in the East rejected the decrees of the <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Chalcedon" title="Council of Chalcedon">Council of Chalcedon</a> (see <a href="/wiki/Oriental_Orthodoxy" class="mw-redirect" title="Oriental Orthodoxy">Oriental Orthodoxy</a>), and was far more significant. Though normally dated to 1054, the East-West Schism was actually the result of an extended period of estrangement between Latin and Greek Christendom over the nature of papal primacy and certain doctrinal matters like the <i><a href="/wiki/Filioque_clause" class="mw-redirect" title="Filioque clause">filioque</a></i>, but intensified by cultural and linguistic differences. </p><p>The "official" schism in 1054 was the excommunication of Patriarch <a href="/wiki/Michael_Cerularius" class="mw-redirect" title="Michael Cerularius">Michael Cerularius</a> of Constantinople, followed by his excommunication of papal legates. Attempts at reconciliation were made in 1274 (by the <a href="/wiki/Second_Council_of_Lyon" title="Second Council of Lyon">Second Council of Lyon</a>) and in 1439 (by the <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Basel" class="mw-redirect" title="Council of Basel">Council of Basel</a>), but in each case the eastern hierarchs who consented to the unions were repudiated by the Orthodox as a whole, though reconciliation was achieved between the West and what are now called the "<a href="/wiki/Eastern_Rite_Catholic_Churches" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Rite Catholic Churches">Eastern Rite Catholic Churches</a>." More recently, in 1965 <a href="/wiki/Catholic-Orthodox_joint_declaration_of_1965" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholic-Orthodox joint declaration of 1965">the mutual excommunications were rescinded</a> by the Pope and the Patriarch of Constantinople, though schism remains. </p><p>Both groups are descended from the Early Church, both acknowledge the <a href="/wiki/Apostolic_succession" title="Apostolic succession">apostolic succession</a> of each other's bishops, and the validity of each other's <a href="/wiki/Sacrament" title="Sacrament">sacraments</a>. Though both acknowledge the primacy of the Bishop of Rome, Eastern Orthodoxy understands this as a primacy of honour with limited or no ecclesiastical authority in other dioceses. </p><p>The Orthodox East perceived the Papacy as taking on monarchical characteristics that were not in line with the church's traditional relationship with the emperor. </p><p>The final breach is often considered to have arisen after the capture and sacking of Constantinople by the <a href="/wiki/Fourth_Crusade" title="Fourth Crusade">Fourth Crusade</a> in 1204. <a href="/wiki/Crusades_against_Christians" title="Crusades against Christians">Crusades against Christians</a> in the East by Roman Catholic crusaders was not exclusive to the <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean" class="mw-redirect" title="Mediterranean">Mediterranean</a> though (see also the <a href="/wiki/Northern_Crusades" title="Northern Crusades">Northern Crusades</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Ice" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of the Ice">Battle of the Ice</a>). The sacking of <a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinople</a>, especially the <a href="/wiki/Hagia_Sophia" title="Hagia Sophia">Church of Holy Wisdom</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Church_of_the_Holy_Apostles" title="Church of the Holy Apostles">Church of the Holy Apostles</a>, and establishment of the <a href="/wiki/Latin_Empire" title="Latin Empire">Latin Empire</a> as a seeming attempt to supplant the Orthodox <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a> in 1204 is viewed with some rancour to the present day. Many in the East saw the actions of the West as a prime determining factor in the weakening of Byzantium. This led to the Empire's eventual conquest and fall to Islam. In 2004, <a href="/wiki/Pope_John_Paul_II" title="Pope John Paul II">Pope John Paul II</a> extended a formal apology for the sacking of Constantinople in 1204; the apology was formally accepted by <a href="/wiki/Patriarch_Bartholomew_of_Constantinople" class="mw-redirect" title="Patriarch Bartholomew of Constantinople">Patriarch Bartholomew of Constantinople</a>. Many things that were stolen during this time: holy <a href="/wiki/Relic" title="Relic">relics</a>, riches, and many other items, are still held in various Western European cities, particularly <a href="/wiki/Venice" title="Venice">Venice</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Monastic_Reform">Monastic Reform</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_the_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Monastic Reform"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Clocher_abbaye_cluny_2.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Clocher_abbaye_cluny_2.JPG/125px-Clocher_abbaye_cluny_2.JPG" decoding="async" width="125" height="171" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Clocher_abbaye_cluny_2.JPG/188px-Clocher_abbaye_cluny_2.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Clocher_abbaye_cluny_2.JPG/250px-Clocher_abbaye_cluny_2.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1128" data-file-height="1546" /></a><figcaption>A view of the Abbey of Cluny.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Cluny">Cluny</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_the_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Cluny"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>From the <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_6th_century" title="Christianity in the 6th century">6th century</a> onward most of the monasteries in the West were of the <a href="/wiki/Benedictine_Order" class="mw-redirect" title="Benedictine Order">Benedictine Order</a>. Owing to the stricter adherence to a reformed <a href="/wiki/Rule_of_St_Benedict" class="mw-redirect" title="Rule of St Benedict">Benedictine rule</a>, the abbey of <a href="/wiki/Cluny_Abbey" title="Cluny Abbey">Cluny</a> became the acknowledged leader of western monasticism from the later 10th century. Cluny created a large, federated order in which the administrators of subsidiary houses served as deputies of the abbot of Cluny and answered to him. The Cluniac spirit was a revitalising influence on the Norman church, at its height from the second half of the <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_10th_century" title="Christianity in the 10th century">10th centuries</a> through the early <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_12th_century" title="Christianity in the 12th century">12th</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Cîteaux"><span id="C.C3.AEteaux"></span>Cîteaux</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_the_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Cîteaux"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bernhard_von_Clairvaux_(Initiale-B).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c8/Bernhard_von_Clairvaux_%28Initiale-B%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="208" height="250" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="208" data-file-height="250" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Bernard_of_Clairvaux" title="Bernard of Clairvaux">Bernard of Clairvaux</a>, in a medieval <a href="/wiki/Illuminated_manuscript" title="Illuminated manuscript">illuminated manuscript</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>The next wave of monastic reform came with the <a href="/wiki/Cistercians" title="Cistercians">Cistercian Movement</a>. The first Cistercian <a href="/wiki/Abbey" title="Abbey">abbey</a> was founded in 1098, at <a href="/wiki/C%C3%AEteaux" class="mw-redirect" title="Cîteaux">Cîteaux Abbey</a>. The keynote of Cistercian life was a return to a literal observance of the <a href="/wiki/Rule_of_St_Benedict" class="mw-redirect" title="Rule of St Benedict">Benedictine rule</a>, rejecting the developments of the <a href="/wiki/Benedictines" title="Benedictines">Benedictines</a>. The most striking feature in the reform was the return to manual labour, and especially to field-work. Inspired by <a href="/wiki/Bernard_of_Clairvaux" title="Bernard of Clairvaux">Bernard of Clairvaux</a>, the primary builder of the Cistercians, they became the main force of technological diffusion in medieval Europe. By the end of the <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_12th_century" title="Christianity in the 12th century">12th century</a> the Cistercian houses numbered 500, and at its height in the <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_15th_century" title="Christianity in the 15th century">15th century</a> the order claimed to have close to 750 houses. Most of these were built in wilderness areas, and played a major part in bringing such isolated parts of Europe into economic cultivation. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Mendicant_Orders">Mendicant Orders</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_the_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Mendicant Orders"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A third level of monastic reform was provided by the establishment of the <a href="/wiki/Mendicant_orders" title="Mendicant orders">Mendicant orders</a>. Commonly known as friars, mendicants live under a monastic rule with traditional vows of <a href="/wiki/Poverty,_chastity_and_obedience" class="mw-redirect" title="Poverty, chastity and obedience">poverty, chastity and obedience</a>, but they emphasise preaching, missionary activity, and education, in a secluded monastery. Beginning in the <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_12th_century" title="Christianity in the 12th century">12th century</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Franciscan" class="mw-redirect" title="Franciscan">Franciscan</a> order was instituted by the followers of <a href="/wiki/Francis_of_Assisi" title="Francis of Assisi">Francis of Assisi</a>, and thereafter the <a href="/wiki/Dominican_Order" title="Dominican Order">Dominican Order</a> was begun by <a href="/wiki/Saint_Dominic" title="Saint Dominic">St. Dominic</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Investiture_Controversy">Investiture Controversy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_the_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Investiture Controversy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Investiture_Controversy" title="Investiture Controversy">Investiture Controversy</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Canossa-gate.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Canossa-gate.jpg/200px-Canossa-gate.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="131" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Canossa-gate.jpg/300px-Canossa-gate.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Canossa-gate.jpg/400px-Canossa-gate.jpg 2x" data-file-width="517" data-file-height="338" /></a><figcaption>Henry IV at the gate of Canossa, by August von Heyden</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Investiture_Controversy" title="Investiture Controversy">Investiture Controversy</a>, or Lay investiture controversy, was the most significant <a href="/wiki/Separation_of_church_and_state_(medieval)" class="mw-redirect" title="Separation of church and state (medieval)">conflict between secular and religious</a> powers in <a href="/wiki/Medieval_Europe" class="mw-redirect" title="Medieval Europe">medieval Europe</a>. It began as a dispute in the 11th century between the <a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Holy Roman Emperor">Holy Roman Emperor</a> <a href="/wiki/Henry_IV,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor">Henry IV</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Pope_Gregory_VII" title="Pope Gregory VII">Pope Gregory VII</a> concerning who would appoint bishops (<a href="/wiki/Investiture" title="Investiture">investiture</a>). The end of lay investiture threatened to undercut the power of the Empire and the ambitions of noblemen for the benefit of Church reform. </p><p>Bishops collected revenues from estates attached to their bishopric. Noblemen who held lands (fiefdoms) hereditarily passed those lands on within their family. However, because bishops had no legitimate children, when a bishop died it was the king's right to appoint a successor. So, while a king had little recourse in preventing noblemen from acquiring powerful domains via inheritance and dynastic marriages, a king could keep careful control of lands under the domain of his bishops. Kings would bestow bishoprics to members of noble families whose friendship he wished to secure. Furthermore, if a king left a bishopric vacant, then he collected the estates' revenues until a bishop was appointed, when in theory he was to repay the earnings. The infrequence of this repayment was an obvious source of dispute. The Church wanted to end this lay investiture because of the potential corruption, not only from vacant sees but also from other practices such as <a href="/wiki/Simony" title="Simony">simony</a>. Thus, the Investiture Contest was part of the Church's attempt to reform the episcopate and provide better <a href="/wiki/Pastoral_care" title="Pastoral care">pastoral care</a>. </p><p>Pope Gregory VII issued the <i><a href="/wiki/Dictatus_Papae" class="mw-redirect" title="Dictatus Papae">Dictatus Papae</a></i>, which declared that the pope alone could appoint or depose bishops, or translate them to other sees. Henry IV's rejection of the decree lead to his excommunication and a ducal revolt; eventually Henry received absolution after dramatic public penance barefoot in Alpine snow and cloaked in a hairshirt (see <a href="/wiki/Walk_to_Canossa" class="mw-redirect" title="Walk to Canossa">Walk to Canossa</a>), though the revolt and conflict of investiture continued. Likewise, a similar controversy occurred in England between <a href="/wiki/Henry_I_of_England" title="Henry I of England">King Henry I</a> and <a href="/wiki/Anselm_of_Canterbury" title="Anselm of Canterbury">St. Anselm</a>, Archbishop of Canterbury, over investiture and ecclesiastical revenues collected by the king during an episcopal vacancy. The English dispute was resolved by the Concordat of London, 1107, where the king renounced his claim to invest bishops but continued to require an oath of fealty from them upon their election. This was a partial model for the <a href="/wiki/Concordat_of_Worms" title="Concordat of Worms">Concordat of Worms</a> (<i>Pactum Calixtinum</i>), which resolved the Imperial investiture controversy with a compromise that allowed secular authorities some measure of control but granted the selection of bishops to their <a href="/wiki/Canon_(priest)" class="mw-redirect" title="Canon (priest)">cathedral canons</a>. As a symbol of the compromise, lay authorities invested bishops with their secular authority symbolised by the lance, and ecclesiastical authorities invested bishops with their spiritual authority symbolised by the <a href="/wiki/Ecclesiastical_ring" title="Ecclesiastical ring">ring</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Crozier" title="Crozier">staff</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Crusades">Crusades</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_the_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Crusades"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Crusades" title="Crusades">Crusades</a></div> <p>The Crusades were a series of military conflicts conducted by Christian knights for the defense of Christians and for the expansion of Christian domains. Generally, the Crusades refer to the campaigns in the Holy Land sponsored by the papacy against invading Muslim forces. There were other crusades against Islamic forces in southern Spain, southern Italy, and Sicily, as well as the campaigns of Teutonic knights against pagan strongholds in Eastern Europe (see <a href="/wiki/Northern_Crusades" title="Northern Crusades">Northern Crusades</a>). A few crusades such as the <a href="/wiki/Fourth_Crusade" title="Fourth Crusade">Fourth Crusade</a> were waged within Christendom against groups that were considered heretical and schismatic (also see the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Ice" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of the Ice">Battle of the Ice</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Albigensian_Crusade" title="Albigensian Crusade">Albigensian Crusade</a>). </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Crac_des_chevaliers_syria.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Crac_des_chevaliers_syria.jpeg/220px-Crac_des_chevaliers_syria.jpeg" decoding="async" width="220" height="86" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Crac_des_chevaliers_syria.jpeg/330px-Crac_des_chevaliers_syria.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Crac_des_chevaliers_syria.jpeg/440px-Crac_des_chevaliers_syria.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="4015" data-file-height="1566" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Krak_des_Chevaliers" title="Krak des Chevaliers">Krak des Chevaliers</a> was built in the <a href="/wiki/County_of_Tripoli" title="County of Tripoli">County of Tripoli</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Knights_Hospitaller" title="Knights Hospitaller">Knights Hospitaller</a> during the Crusades.</figcaption></figure> <p>The Holy Land had been part of the Roman Empire, and thus Byzantine Empire, until the Islamic conquests of the seventh and eighth centuries. Thereafter, Christians had generally been permitted to visit the sacred places in the Holy Land until 1071, when the <a href="/wiki/Seljuk_Turks" class="mw-redirect" title="Seljuk Turks">Seljuk Turks</a> closed Christian pilgrimages and assailed the Byzantines, defeating them at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Manzikert" title="Battle of Manzikert">Battle of Manzikert</a>. Emperor <a href="/wiki/Alexius_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Alexius I">Alexius I</a> asked for aid from <a href="/wiki/Pope_Urban_II" title="Pope Urban II">Pope Urban II</a> (1088–1099) for help against Islamic aggression. Urban II called upon the knights of Christendom in a speech made at the <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Clermont" title="Council of Clermont">Council of Clermont</a> on 27 November 1095, combining the idea of pilgrimage to the Holy Land with that of waging a holy war against the invading forces. </p><p>In the <a href="/wiki/First_Crusade" title="First Crusade">First Crusade</a>, after nine months of war of attrition, a traitor named Firuz led the Franks into the city of Antioch in 1098. However, after less than a week, the might of an army numbering hundreds of thousands led by Kerbogah arrived and besieged the city. The crusaders reportedly had only 30,000 men and the Turks outnumbered them three to one; facing desertion and starvation, <a href="/wiki/Bohemond_I_of_Antioch" title="Bohemond I of Antioch">Bohemond</a> was officially chosen to lead the crusader army in June 1098. On the morning of 28 June, the crusader army, consisting of mostly dismounted knights and foot soldiers because most horses had died at that point, sallied out to attack the Turks, and broke the line of Kerbogah's army, allowing the crusaders to gain complete control of the Antioch and its surroundings.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Second_Crusade" title="Second Crusade">Second Crusade</a> occurred in 1145 when <a href="/wiki/County_of_Edessa" title="County of Edessa">Edessa</a> was retaken by Islamic forces. Jerusalem would be held until 1187 and the <a href="/wiki/Third_Crusade" title="Third Crusade">Third Crusade</a>, famous for the battles between <a href="/wiki/Richard_I_of_England" title="Richard I of England">Richard the Lionheart</a> and <a href="/wiki/Saladin" title="Saladin">Saladin</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Fourth_Crusade" title="Fourth Crusade">Fourth Crusade</a>, begun by <a href="/wiki/Pope_Innocent_III" title="Pope Innocent III">Innocent III</a> in 1202, intended to retake the Holy Land but was soon subverted by Venetians who used the forces to sack the Christian city of <a href="/wiki/Zadar" title="Zadar">Zara</a>. Innocent excommunicated the Venetians and crusaders.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2007)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Eventually the crusaders arrived in Constantinople, but due to strife which arose between them and the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantines</a>,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2007)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> the crusaders sacked Constantinople and other parts of Asia Minor, rather than proceeding to the Holy Land, effectively establishing the <a href="/wiki/Latin_Empire" title="Latin Empire">Latin Empire</a> of Constantinople in Greece and Asia Minor. This was effectively the last crusade sponsored by the papacy; later crusades were sponsored by individuals. Thus, though Jerusalem was held for nearly a century and other strongholds in the Near East would remain in Christian possession much longer, the crusades in the Holy Land ultimately failed to establish permanent Christian kingdoms. The Europeans' defeat can in no small part be attributed to the excellent martial prowess of the Mameluke and Turks, who both utilized agile mounted archers in open battle and <a href="/wiki/Greek_fire" title="Greek fire">Greek fire</a> in siege defense. However, ultimately it was the inability of the Crusader leaders to command coherently that doomed the military campaign. In addition, the failure of the missionaries to convert the Mongols to Christianity thwarted the hope for a Tartar- Frank alliance. The Mongols later on converted to Islam.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Islamic expansion into Europe would renew and remain a threat for centuries, culminating in the campaigns of <a href="/wiki/Suleiman_the_Magnificent" title="Suleiman the Magnificent">Suleiman the Magnificent</a> in the sixteenth century. On the other hand, the crusades in southern Spain, southern Italy, and Sicily eventually led to the demise of Islamic power in the regions; the Teutonic knights expanded Christian domains in Eastern Europe, and the much less frequent crusades within Christendom, such as the <a href="/wiki/Albigensian_Crusade" title="Albigensian Crusade">Albigensian Crusade</a>, achieved their goal of maintaining doctrinal unity.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Medieval_inquisition">Medieval inquisition</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_the_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Medieval inquisition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Medieval Inquisition officially started in 1231, when <a href="/wiki/Pope_Gregory_IX" title="Pope Gregory IX">Pope Gregory IX</a> appointed the first inquisitors to serve as papal agents to remove <a href="/wiki/Heresy_in_Christianity" title="Heresy in Christianity">heresy</a>. Heretics were seen as a menace to the Church and the first group dealt with by the inquisitors were the <a href="/wiki/Catharism" title="Catharism">Cathars</a> of <a href="/wiki/Languedoc" title="Languedoc">southern France</a>. Heresy had been seen as a recurring problem for the medieval Church since the burning of heretics at Orlèans in 1022.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The main tool used by the inquisitors was interrogation that often featured the use of torture followed by having heretics <a href="/wiki/Death_by_burning" title="Death by burning">burned at the stake</a>. After about a century this first medieval inquisition came to a conclusion. A new inquisition called the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Inquisition" title="Spanish Inquisition">Spanish Inquisition</a> was created by <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_II_of_Aragon" title="Ferdinand II of Aragon">King Ferdinand</a> and <a href="/wiki/Isabella_I_of_Castile" title="Isabella I of Castile">Queen Isabella</a> in order to consolidate their rule. This new inquisition was separated from the Roman Church and the inquisition that came before it. At first it was primarily directed at Jews who converted to Christianity because many were suspicious that they did not actually convert to Christianity. Later it spread to targeting Muslims and the various peoples of the Americas and Asia.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The inquisitions in combination with the <a href="/wiki/Albigensian_Crusade" title="Albigensian Crusade">Albigensian Crusade</a> were fairly successful in suppressing heresy. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rise_of_universities">Rise of universities</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_the_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Rise of universities"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Modern western universities have their origins directly in the Medieval Church.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They began as <a href="/wiki/Cathedral_schools" class="mw-redirect" title="Cathedral schools">cathedral schools</a>, and all students were considered clerics.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This was a benefit as it placed the students under ecclesiastical jurisdiction and thus imparted certain legal immunities and protections. The cathedral schools eventually became partially detached from the cathedrals and formed their own institutions, the earliest being the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Paris" title="University of Paris">University of Paris</a> (<i>c</i>. 1150), the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Bologna" title="University of Bologna">University of Bologna</a> (1088), and the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Oxford" title="University of Oxford">University of Oxford</a> (1096). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Spread_of_Christianity">Spread of Christianity</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_the_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Spread of Christianity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Conversion_of_the_Slavs">Conversion of the Slavs</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_the_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Conversion of the Slavs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_the_Slavs" title="Christianization of the Slavs">Christianization of the Slavs</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cyril_Metodej.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Cyril_Metodej.jpg/220px-Cyril_Metodej.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="167" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Cyril_Metodej.jpg/330px-Cyril_Metodej.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/10/Cyril_Metodej.jpg 2x" data-file-width="420" data-file-height="318" /></a><figcaption>St. Cyril and St. Methodius Monument on <a href="/wiki/Radho%C5%A1%C5%A5" title="Radhošť">Mt. Radhošť</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Though by 800 western Europe was ruled entirely by Christian kings, central and eastern Europe remained areas of missionary activity. In the ninth century SS. <a href="/wiki/Cyril_and_Methodius" title="Cyril and Methodius">Cyril and Methodius</a> had extensive missionary activities among the <a href="/wiki/Slavic_peoples" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavic peoples">Slavic peoples</a>, translating the Bible and liturgy into <a href="/wiki/Old_Church_Slavonic" title="Old Church Slavonic">Slavonic</a>. </p><p>In the ninth and tenth centuries Christianity made great inroads into central and eastern Europe. The evangelisation, or Christianisation, of the Slavs was strongly supported by one of Byzantium's most learned churchmen of the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Roman Empire">Eastern Roman Empire</a> (also called Byzantine Empire) <a href="/wiki/Photios_I_of_Constantinople" title="Photios I of Constantinople">Patriarch Photius</a>. The Byzantine emperor <a href="/wiki/Michael_III" title="Michael III">Michael III</a> chose Cyril and Methodius in response to a request from <a href="/wiki/Rastislav_of_Moravia" title="Rastislav of Moravia">Rastislav</a>, the king of <a href="/wiki/Moravia" title="Moravia">Moravia</a> who wanted missionaries that could minister to the Moravians in their own language. </p><p>The two brothers spoke the <a href="/wiki/Slavonic_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavonic languages">Slavonic</a> vernacular local for the region of <a href="/wiki/Thessaloniki" title="Thessaloniki">Thessaloniki</a>, still very close to the original Proto-Slavic, and translated the <a href="/wiki/Bible" title="Bible">Bible</a> and many of the prayer books. As in the later centuries the translations prepared by them were copied by speakers of other early Slavic dialects, different local variants evolved as recesions of the later <a href="/wiki/Church_Slavonic" title="Church Slavonic">Church Slavonic</a> literary and liturgical language. </p><p>Some of the disciples, namely <a href="/wiki/Naum_of_Preslav" class="mw-redirect" title="Naum of Preslav">Naum of Preslav</a>, <a href="/wiki/Clement_of_Ohrid" title="Clement of Ohrid">Clement of Ohrid</a>, <a href="/wiki/Saint_Angelar" class="mw-redirect" title="Saint Angelar">Saint Angelar</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Saint_Sava_(disciple_of_Saints_Cyril_and_Methodius)" title="Saint Sava (disciple of Saints Cyril and Methodius)">Sava</a>, returned to <a href="/wiki/Bulgaria" title="Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a> where they were welcomed by the Bulgarian <a href="/wiki/Tsar" title="Tsar">Tsar</a> <a href="/wiki/Boris_of_Bulgaria" class="mw-redirect" title="Boris of Bulgaria">Boris I</a> who viewed the Slavonic liturgy as a way to counteract Greek influence in the country. In a short time the disciples of Cyril and Methodius managed to prepare and instruct the future Slavic clergy into the <a href="/wiki/Glagolitic_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Glagolitic alphabet">Glagolitic alphabet</a> and the biblical texts, where also the <a href="/wiki/Early_Cyrillic_alphabet" title="Early Cyrillic alphabet">Early Cyrillic alphabet</a> was developed in the late 9th century. <a href="/wiki/First_Bulgarian_Empire" title="First Bulgarian Empire">Bulgaria</a> was <a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Bulgaria" title="Christianization of Bulgaria">officially christianised</a> in 864 and was recognised as a patriarchate by Constantinople in 927,<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-BGpatriarchate_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BGpatriarchate-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the first one after the five original Patriarchates forming the <a href="/wiki/Pentarchy" title="Pentarchy">Pentarchy</a> from the late <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a>. </p><p>The Serbs were accounted Christian as of about 870.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVlasto1970208_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVlasto1970208-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-IUN_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IUN-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Serbian patriarchate was recognised by Constantinople in 1346. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Baptism_of_Kiev" class="mw-redirect" title="Baptism of Kiev">Baptism of Kiev</a> in the 988 spread Christianity throughout <a href="/wiki/Kievan_Rus%27" title="Kievan Rus'">Kievan Rus'</a>, establishing Christianity in the predecessor state of <a href="/wiki/Belarus" title="Belarus">Belarus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ukraine" title="Ukraine">Ukraine</a>. The much later Russian patriarchate was recognised by Constantinople in 1589. </p><p>The missionaries to the Slavs had subsequent success in part because they used the people's native language rather than <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> as the Roman priests did, or <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Mission_to_Great_Moravia">Mission to Great Moravia</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_the_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Mission to Great Moravia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kop%C4%8Dany_kostol_-_sever.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Kop%C4%8Dany_kostol_-_sever.JPG/240px-Kop%C4%8Dany_kostol_-_sever.JPG" decoding="async" width="240" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Kop%C4%8Dany_kostol_-_sever.JPG/360px-Kop%C4%8Dany_kostol_-_sever.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Kop%C4%8Dany_kostol_-_sever.JPG/480px-Kop%C4%8Dany_kostol_-_sever.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2816" data-file-height="2112" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Church_of_St._Margaret_of_Antioch,_Kop%C4%8Dany" class="mw-redirect" title="Church of St. Margaret of Antioch, Kopčany">Church of St. Margaret of Antioch, Kopčany</a> (<a href="/wiki/Kop%C4%8Dany" title="Kopčany">Kopčany</a>, <a href="/wiki/Slovakia" title="Slovakia">Slovakia</a>, 9th-10th century) - the only preserved building from the time of Great Moravia.</figcaption></figure> <p>When king <a href="/wiki/Rastislav_of_Moravia" title="Rastislav of Moravia">Rastislav of Moravia</a> asked Byzantium for teachers who could minister to the Moravians in their own language, Byzantine emperor Michael III chose two brothers, <a href="/wiki/Cyril_and_Methodius" title="Cyril and Methodius">Cyril and Methodius</a>. As their mother was a Slav from the hinterlands of Thessaloniki, the two brothers had been raised speaking the local <a href="/wiki/Slavonic_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavonic languages">Slavonic</a> vernacular. Once commissioned, they immediately set about creating an alphabet, the <a href="/wiki/Cyrillic_script" title="Cyrillic script">Cyrillic script</a>; they then translated the Scripture and the liturgy into Slavonic. This Slavic dialect became the basis of <a href="/wiki/Old_Church_Slavonic" title="Old Church Slavonic">Old Church Slavonic</a> which later evolved into <a href="/wiki/Church_Slavonic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Church Slavonic language">Church Slavonic</a> which is the common liturgical language still used by the Russian Orthodox Church and other Slavic Orthodox Christians. The missionaries to the East and South Slavs had great success in part because they used the people's native language rather than <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> or <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a>. In Great Moravia, Constantine and Methodius encountered Frankish missionaries from Germany, representing the western or Latin branch of the Church, and more particularly representing the Holy Roman Empire as founded by Charlemagne, and committed to linguistic, and cultural uniformity. They insisted on the use of the Latin liturgy, and they regarded Moravia and the Slavic peoples as part of their rightful mission field. </p><p>When friction developed, the brothers, unwilling to be a cause of dissension among Christians, travelled to Rome to see the Pope, seeking an agreement that would avoid quarrelling between missionaries in the field. Constantine entered a monastery in Rome, taking the name Cyril, by which he is now remembered. However, he died only a few weeks thereafter. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Pope_Adrian_II" title="Pope Adrian II">Pope Adrian II</a> gave Methodius the title of Archbishop of Sirmium (now Sremska Mitrovica in Serbia) and sent him back in 869, with jurisdiction over all of Moravia and Pannonia, and authorisation to use the Slavonic Liturgy. Soon, however, Prince Ratislav, who had originally invited the brothers to Moravia, died, and his successor did not support Methodius. In 870 the Frankish king Louis and his bishops deposed Methodius at a synod at Ratisbon, and imprisoned him for a little over two years. <a href="/wiki/Pope_John_VIII" title="Pope John VIII">Pope John VIII</a> secured his release, but instructed him to stop using the Slavonic Liturgy. </p><p>In 878, Methodius was summoned to Rome on charges of heresy and using Slavonic. This time Pope John was convinced by the arguments that Methodius made in his defence and sent him back cleared of all charges, and with permission to use Slavonic. The Carolingian bishop who succeeded him, Witching, suppressed the Slavonic Liturgy and forced the followers of Methodius into exile. Many found refuge with <a href="/wiki/Boris_I_of_Bulgaria" title="Boris I of Bulgaria">Boris</a> of <a href="/wiki/First_Bulgarian_Empire" title="First Bulgarian Empire">Bulgaria</a> (852–889), under whom they reorganised a Slavic-speaking Church, instead of Greek. Meanwhile, Pope John's successors adopted a Latin-only policy which lasted for centuries. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Conversion_of_Bulgaria">Conversion of Bulgaria</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_the_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Conversion of Bulgaria"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Bulgaria" title="Christianization of Bulgaria">Christianization of Bulgaria</a></div> <p>Some of the disciples, namely St. Kliment, St. Naum who were of noble <a href="/wiki/Bulgarians" title="Bulgarians">Bulgarian</a> descent and St. Angelaruis, returned to <a href="/wiki/Bulgaria" title="Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a> where they were welcomed by the energetic Bulgarian ruler <a href="/wiki/Boris_I_of_Bulgaria" title="Boris I of Bulgaria">Boris I</a> who viewed the Slavonic liturgy as a way to counteract Greek influence in the country. Prior to Christianity, the majority of Bulgaria was pagan. In 864 <a href="/wiki/Boris_I_of_Bulgaria" title="Boris I of Bulgaria">Boris I</a> adopted Christianity from Constantinople, making it the official religion of Bulgaria. Shortly after he gladly accepted the Christian missionaries into the country. In a short time the disciples of Cyril and Methodius managed to prepare and instruct the future Bulgarian clergy into the <a href="/wiki/Glagolitic_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Glagolitic alphabet">Glagolitic alphabet</a> and the biblical texts and in AD 893, Bulgaria expelled its Greek clergy and proclaimed the <a href="/wiki/Old_Bulgarian" class="mw-redirect" title="Old Bulgarian">Old Bulgarian</a> (also called Old Church Slavonic) as the official language of the church and the state. This act had long lasting consequences for the culture of Bulgaria and many other Slavic speaking people, as it produced the <a href="/wiki/Golden_Age_of_Bulgaria" title="Golden Age of Bulgaria">Golden Age of Bulgaria</a> and the development and spread of the <a href="/wiki/Early_Cyrillic_alphabet" title="Early Cyrillic alphabet">Early Cyrillic alphabet</a> and <a href="/wiki/Medieval_Bulgarian_literature" title="Medieval Bulgarian literature">Medieval Bulgarian literature</a>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Bulgarian_Orthodox_Church" title="Bulgarian Orthodox Church">Bulgarian church</a> was almost always aligned with the Orthodox Christianity after the split of the Eastern and Western churches in 1050, with occasional and temporary decades long union with the Roman church during the reign of <a href="/wiki/Kaloyan_of_Bulgaria" title="Kaloyan of Bulgaria">Kaloyan</a> in the beginning of the 13th century. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Conversion_of_the_Rus'"><span id="Conversion_of_the_Rus.27"></span>Conversion of the Rus'</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_the_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Conversion of the Rus'"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Vasnetsov_Bapt_Vladimir.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Vasnetsov_Bapt_Vladimir.jpg/200px-Vasnetsov_Bapt_Vladimir.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="248" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Vasnetsov_Bapt_Vladimir.jpg/300px-Vasnetsov_Bapt_Vladimir.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Vasnetsov_Bapt_Vladimir.jpg/400px-Vasnetsov_Bapt_Vladimir.jpg 2x" data-file-width="945" data-file-height="1170" /></a><figcaption>Baptism of Vladimir</figcaption></figure> <p>The success of the conversion of the Bulgarians facilitated the conversion of other <a href="/wiki/Slavic_peoples" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavic peoples">Slavic peoples</a>, most notably the East Slavic <a href="/wiki/Kievan_Rus" class="mw-redirect" title="Kievan Rus">Kievan Rus</a>, predecessor state of <a href="/wiki/Belarus" title="Belarus">Belarus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ukrainia" class="mw-redirect" title="Ukrainia">Ukrainia</a>, as well as of the <a href="/wiki/Rusyns" title="Rusyns">Rusyns</a>. By the beginning of the eleventh century most of the pagan Slavic world, including Bulgaria, Serbia and Russia, had been converted to Byzantine Christianity. </p><p>The traditional event associated with the conversion of Russia is the baptism of Vladimir of Kiev in 988, on which occasion he was also married to the Byzantine princess Anna, the sister of the Byzantine Emperor <a href="/wiki/Basil_II" title="Basil II">Basil II</a>. However, Christianity is documented to have predated this event in the city of Kiev and in Georgia. </p><p>Today the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Orthodox_Church" title="Russian Orthodox Church">Russian Orthodox Church</a> is the largest of the Orthodox Churches. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Conversion_of_the_Scandinavians">Conversion of the Scandinavians</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_the_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Conversion of the Scandinavians"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Early evangelisation in <a href="/wiki/Scandinavia" title="Scandinavia">Scandinavia</a> was begun by <a href="/wiki/Ansgar" title="Ansgar">Ansgar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Prince-Archbishopric_of_Bremen" title="Prince-Archbishopric of Bremen">Archbishop of Bremen</a>, "Apostle of the North". Ansgar, a native of <a href="/wiki/Amiens" title="Amiens">Amiens</a>, was sent with a group of monks to Jutland <a href="/wiki/Denmark" title="Denmark">Denmark</a> in around 820 at the time of the pro-Christian Jutish king Harald Klak. The mission was only partially successful, and Ansgar returned two years later to Germany, after Harald had been driven out of his kingdom. In 829 Ansgar went to Birka on <a href="/wiki/M%C3%A4laren" title="Mälaren">Lake Mälaren</a>, Sweden, with his aide friar Witmar, and a small congregation was formed in 831 which included the king's own steward Hergeir. Conversion was slow, however, and most Scandinavian lands were only completely Christianised at the time of rulers such as <a href="/wiki/Saint_Canute_IV" class="mw-redirect" title="Saint Canute IV">Saint Canute IV</a> of Denmark and <a href="/wiki/Olaf_Tryggvason" title="Olaf Tryggvason">Olaf I of Norway</a> in the years following AD 1000. </p> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Stavronikita_Aug2006.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Stavronikita_Aug2006.jpg/330px-Stavronikita_Aug2006.jpg" decoding="async" width="330" height="247" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Stavronikita_Aug2006.jpg/495px-Stavronikita_Aug2006.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Stavronikita_Aug2006.jpg/660px-Stavronikita_Aug2006.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2288" data-file-height="1712" /></a><figcaption>Stavronikita monastery, South-East view</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Late_Middle_Ages_(1300–1499)"><span id="Late_Middle_Ages_.281300.E2.80.931499.29"></span>Late Middle Ages (1300–1499)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_the_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Late Middle Ages (1300–1499)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_14th_century" title="Christianity in the 14th century">Christianity in the 14th century</a> and <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_15th_century" title="Christianity in the 15th century">Christianity in the 15th century</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hesychast_Controversy">Hesychast Controversy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_the_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Hesychast Controversy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Hesychasm" title="Hesychasm">Hesychasm</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gregor_Palamas.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Gregor_Palamas.jpg/200px-Gregor_Palamas.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="300" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Gregor_Palamas.jpg/300px-Gregor_Palamas.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2e/Gregor_Palamas.jpg 2x" data-file-width="391" data-file-height="586" /></a><figcaption>Gregory Palamas</figcaption></figure> <dl><dt>Barlaam of Calabria</dt></dl> <p>About the year 1337 <a href="/wiki/Hesychasm" title="Hesychasm">Hesychasm</a> attracted the attention of a learned member of the Orthodox Church, <a href="/wiki/Barlaam_of_Calabria" class="mw-redirect" title="Barlaam of Calabria">Barlaam of Calabria</a> who at that time held the office of abbot in the Monastery of St Saviour's in Constantinople and who visited Mount Athos. <a href="/wiki/Mount_Athos" title="Mount Athos">Mount Athos</a> was then at the height of its fame and influence under the reign of <a href="/wiki/Andronicus_III_Palaeologus" class="mw-redirect" title="Andronicus III Palaeologus">Andronicus III Palaeologus</a> and under the 'first-ship' of the Protos Symeon. On Mount Athos, Barlaam encountered Hesychasts and heard descriptions of their practices, also reading the writings of the teacher in Hesychasm of St <a href="/wiki/Gregory_Palamas" title="Gregory Palamas">Gregory Palamas</a>, himself an Athonite monk. Trained in Western <a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholastic</a> theology, Barlaam was scandalised by Hesychasm and began to combat it both orally and in his writings. As a private teacher of theology in the Western Scholastic mode, Barlaam propounded a more intellectual and propositional approach to the knowledge of God than the Hesychasts taught. Hesychasm is a form of constant purposeful prayer or experiential prayer, explicitly referred to as <a href="/wiki/Theoria" class="mw-redirect" title="Theoria">contemplation</a>. Descriptions of the Hesychast practices can be found in the <i><a href="/wiki/Philokalia" title="Philokalia">Philokalia</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Way_of_a_Pilgrim" title="The Way of a Pilgrim">The Way of a Pilgrim</a></i>, and St. <a href="/wiki/John_Climacus" title="John Climacus">John Climacus</a>' <i><a href="/wiki/The_Ladder_of_Divine_Ascent" title="The Ladder of Divine Ascent">The Ladder of Divine Ascent</a></i>. </p><p>Barlaam took exception to, as <a href="/wiki/Christian_heresy" class="mw-redirect" title="Christian heresy">heretical</a> and <a href="/wiki/Blasphemy" title="Blasphemy">blasphemous</a>, the doctrine entertained by the Hesychasts as to the nature of the uncreated light, the experience of which was said to be the goal of Hesychast practice. It was maintained by the Hesychasts to be of divine origin and to be identical to that light which had been manifested to Jesus' disciples on <a href="/wiki/Mount_Tabor" title="Mount Tabor">Mount Tabor</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Transfiguration_of_Jesus" title="Transfiguration of Jesus">Transfiguration</a>. This Barlaam held to be <a href="/wiki/Polytheism" title="Polytheism">polytheistic</a>, inasmuch as it postulated two eternal substances, a visible and an invisible God. </p> <dl><dt>Gregory Palamas</dt></dl> <p>On the Hesychast side, the controversy was taken up by St <a href="/wiki/Gregory_Palamas" title="Gregory Palamas">Gregory Palamas</a>, afterwards Archbishop of <a href="/wiki/Thessalonica" class="mw-redirect" title="Thessalonica">Thessalonica</a>, who was asked by his fellow monks on Mt Athos to defend Hesychasm from the attacks of Barlaam. St Gregory himself, was well-educated in Greek philosophy. St Gregory defended Hesychasm in the 1340s at three different synods in <a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinople</a>, and he also wrote a number of works in its defence. </p><p>In these works, St Gregory Palamas uses a distinction, already found in the 4th century in the works of the <a href="/wiki/Cappadocian_Fathers" title="Cappadocian Fathers">Cappadocian Fathers</a>, between the <a href="/wiki/Essence-Energies_distinction" class="mw-redirect" title="Essence-Energies distinction">energies</a> or operations (Gr. <i>energies)</i> of God and the essence (<a href="/wiki/Ousia" title="Ousia">ousia</a>) of God (see the <a href="/wiki/Essence-Energies_distinction" class="mw-redirect" title="Essence-Energies distinction">Essence-Energies distinction</a>). St Gregory taught that the energies or operations of God were uncreated. He taught that the essence of God can never be known by his creations even in the next life, but that his uncreated energies or operations can be known both in this life and in the next, and convey to the Hesychast in this life and to the righteous in the next life a true spiritual knowledge of God (see <a href="/wiki/Theoria" class="mw-redirect" title="Theoria">theoria</a>). In Palamite theology, it is the uncreated energies of God that illumine the Hesychast who has been vouchsafed an experience of the Uncreated Light. Palamas referred to this experience as an <a href="/wiki/Apodictic" class="mw-redirect" title="Apodictic">apodictic</a> (see <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>) validation of God rather than a scholastic <a href="/wiki/Contemplation" title="Contemplation">contemplative</a> or <a href="/wiki/Dialectic" title="Dialectic">dialectical</a> validation of God. </p> <dl><dt>Synods</dt></dl> <p>In 1341 the dispute came before a <a href="/wiki/Synod" title="Synod">synod</a> held at <a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinople</a> and was presided over by the Emperor <a href="/wiki/Andronikos_III_Palaiologos" title="Andronikos III Palaiologos">Andronicus</a>; the synod, taking into account the regard in which the writings of the <a href="/wiki/Pseudo-Dionysius" class="mw-redirect" title="Pseudo-Dionysius">pseudo-Dionysius</a> were held, condemned Barlaam, who recanted and returned to <a href="/wiki/Calabria" title="Calabria">Calabria</a>, afterwards becoming a bishop in the Roman Catholic Church. </p><p>One of Barlaam's friends, <a href="/wiki/Gregory_Akindynos" title="Gregory Akindynos">Gregory Akindynos</a>, who originally was also a close friend of St Gregory Palamas, took up the controversy, and three other synods on the subject were held, at the second of which the followers of Barlaam gained a brief victory. But in 1351 at a synod under the presidency of the Emperor <a href="/wiki/John_VI_Cantacuzenus" class="mw-redirect" title="John VI Cantacuzenus">John VI Cantacuzenus</a>, Hesychast doctrine was established as the doctrine of the Orthodox Church. </p> <dl><dt>Aftermath</dt></dl> <p>Up to this day, the Roman Catholic Church has never fully accepted Hesychasm, especially the distinction between the energies or operations of God and the essence of God, and the notion that those energies or operations of God are uncreated. In Roman Catholic theology as it has developed since the <a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholastic period</a> c. 1100–1500, the essence of God can be known, but only in the next life; the grace of God is always created; and the essence of God is pure act, so that there can be no distinction between the energies or operations and the essence of God (see, e.g., the <i>Summa Theologiae</i> of St Thomas Aquinas). Some of these positions depend on Aristotelian metaphysics. </p> <dl><dt>Views of modern historians</dt></dl> <p>The contemporary historians <a href="/wiki/Cantacuzenus" class="mw-redirect" title="Cantacuzenus">Cantacuzenus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nicephorus_Gregoras" title="Nicephorus Gregoras">Nicephorus Gregoras</a> deal very copiously with this subject, taking the Hesychast and Barlaamite sides respectively. Respected fathers of the church have held that these councils that agree that experiential prayer is Orthodox, refer to these as councils as Ecumenical Councils Eight and Nine.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.romanity.org/htm/rom.18.en.augustine_unknowingly_rejects_the_doctrine.01.htm">Father John S. Romanides</a>, Hierotheos (Vlachos) of Nafpaktos, and the Very Rev. Prof. Dr. <a href="/wiki/George_Metallinos" title="George Metallinos">George Metallinos</a>, Professor of theology at Athens Greece (see <a href="/wiki/Gnosiology" title="Gnosiology">gnosiology</a>). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Avignon_Papacy_(1309-1378)_and_Western_Schism_(1378-1417)"><span id="Avignon_Papacy_.281309-1378.29_and_Western_Schism_.281378-1417.29"></span>Avignon Papacy (1309-1378) and Western Schism (1378-1417)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_the_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Avignon Papacy (1309-1378) and Western Schism (1378-1417)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Western_Schism" title="Western Schism">Western Schism</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Avignon_Papacy" title="Avignon Papacy">Avignon Papacy</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Western_schism_1378-1417.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Western_schism_1378-1417.svg/250px-Western_schism_1378-1417.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="193" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Western_schism_1378-1417.svg/375px-Western_schism_1378-1417.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Western_schism_1378-1417.svg/500px-Western_schism_1378-1417.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="770" /></a><figcaption>Map showing support for <a href="/wiki/Avignon_Papacy" title="Avignon Papacy">Avignon</a> (red) and Rome (blue) during the Western Schism</figcaption></figure> <p>The Western Schism, or Papal Schism, was a prolonged period of crisis in Latin Christendom from 1378 to 1416, when there were two or more claimants to the See of Rome and there was conflict concerning the rightful holder of the papacy. The conflict was political, rather than doctrinal, in nature. </p><p>In 1309, <a href="/wiki/Pope_Clement_V" title="Pope Clement V">Pope Clement V</a>, due to political considerations, moved to Avignon in southern France and exercised his pontificate there. For sixty-nine years popes resided in Avignon rather than Rome. This was not only an obvious source of confusion but of political animosity as the prestige and influence of the city of Rome waned without a resident pontiff. Though <a href="/wiki/Pope_Gregory_XI" title="Pope Gregory XI">Pope Gregory XI</a>, a Frenchman, returned to Rome in 1378, the strife between Italian and French factions intensified, especially following his subsequent death. In 1378 the conclave, elected an Italian from Naples, <a href="/wiki/Pope_Urban_VI" title="Pope Urban VI">Pope Urban VI</a>; his intransigence in office soon alienated the French cardinals, who withdrew to a conclave of their own, asserting the previous election was invalid since its decision had been made under the duress of a riotous mob. They elected one of their own, Robert of Geneva, who took the name <a href="/wiki/Pope_Clement_VII" title="Pope Clement VII">Pope Clement VII</a>. By 1379, he was back in the palace of popes in Avignon, while Urban VI remained in Rome. </p><p>For nearly forty years, there were two papal curias and two sets of cardinals, each electing a new pope for Rome or Avignon when death created a vacancy. Each pope lobbied for support among kings and princes who played them off against each other, changing allegiance according to political advantage. In 1409, a council was convened at Pisa to resolve the issue. The <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Pisa" title="Council of Pisa">Council of Pisa</a> declared both existing popes to be schismatic (Gregory XII from Rome, Benedict XIII from Avignon) and appointed a new one, Alexander V. But the existing popes refused to resign and thus there were three papal claimants. Another council was convened in 1414, the <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Constance" title="Council of Constance">Council of Constance</a>. In March 1415 the Pisan pope, John XXIII, fled from Constance in disguise; he was brought back a prisoner and deposed in May. The Roman pope, Gregory XII, resigned voluntarily in July. The Avignon pope, Benedict XIII, refused to come to Constance; nor would he consider resignation. The council finally deposed him in July 1417. The council in Constance, having finally cleared the field of popes and antipopes, elected <a href="/wiki/Pope_Martin_V" title="Pope Martin V">Pope Martin V</a> as pope in November. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Criticism_of_Church_corruption_-_John_Wycliff_and_Jan_Hus">Criticism of Church corruption - John Wycliff and Jan Hus</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_the_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Criticism of Church corruption - John Wycliff and Jan Hus"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bro%C5%BE%C3%ADk,_V%C3%A1clav_-_Hus_p%C5%99ed_koncilem_6._%C4%8Dervence_1415.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Bro%C5%BE%C3%ADk%2C_V%C3%A1clav_-_Hus_p%C5%99ed_koncilem_6._%C4%8Dervence_1415.jpg/250px-Bro%C5%BE%C3%ADk%2C_V%C3%A1clav_-_Hus_p%C5%99ed_koncilem_6._%C4%8Dervence_1415.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="161" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Bro%C5%BE%C3%ADk%2C_V%C3%A1clav_-_Hus_p%C5%99ed_koncilem_6._%C4%8Dervence_1415.jpg/375px-Bro%C5%BE%C3%ADk%2C_V%C3%A1clav_-_Hus_p%C5%99ed_koncilem_6._%C4%8Dervence_1415.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Bro%C5%BE%C3%ADk%2C_V%C3%A1clav_-_Hus_p%C5%99ed_koncilem_6._%C4%8Dervence_1415.jpg/500px-Bro%C5%BE%C3%ADk%2C_V%C3%A1clav_-_Hus_p%C5%99ed_koncilem_6._%C4%8Dervence_1415.jpg 2x" data-file-width="528" data-file-height="341" /></a><figcaption>Painting of <a href="/wiki/Jan_Hus" title="Jan Hus">Jan Hus</a> in Council of Constance by <a href="/wiki/V%C3%A1clav_Bro%C5%BE%C3%ADk" title="Václav Brožík">Václav Brožík</a>.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Bohemian_Reformation" title="Bohemian Reformation">Bohemian Reformation</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/John_Wycliffe" title="John Wycliffe">John Wycliffe</a> (or Wyclif) (1330–1384) was an English scholar best known for denouncing the corruptions of the Church, and his sponsoring the first translation of the Bible from Latin into English. He was a precursor of the Protestant Reformation. He emphasized the supremacy of the Bible, and called for a direct relationship between man and God, without interference by priests and bishops. Declared a heretic after his death, his followers, called <a href="/wiki/Lollards" class="mw-redirect" title="Lollards">Lollards</a>, faced persecution by the <a href="/wiki/Church_of_England" title="Church of England">Church of England</a>. They went underground for over a century and played a role in the English Reformation.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Jan_Hus" title="Jan Hus">Jan Hus</a> (or Huss) (1369?–1415) a Czech theologian in Prague, was influenced by Wycliffe and spoke out against the corruptions he saw in the Church; his continued defiance led to his excommunication and condemnation by the <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Constance" title="Council of Constance">Council of Constance</a>, which also condemned <a href="/wiki/John_Wycliff" class="mw-redirect" title="John Wycliff">John Wycliff</a>. Hus was executed in 1415, but his followers arose in open rebellion. Between 1420 and 1431, the followers of Hus, known as <a href="/wiki/Hussites" title="Hussites">Hussites</a>, defeated five consecutive <a href="/wiki/Hussite_Wars" title="Hussite Wars">papal crusades</a>. The wars ended in 1436 with the ratification of the compromise <a href="/wiki/Compacts_of_Basel" title="Compacts of Basel">Compacts of Basel</a> by the Church and the Hussites. Hus was a forerunner of the Protestant Reformation and his memory has become a powerful symbol of Czech culture in Bohemia.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Italian_Renaissance">Italian Renaissance</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_the_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Italian Renaissance"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Michelangelo%27s_Pieta_5450_cropncleaned.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Michelangelo%27s_Pieta_5450_cropncleaned.jpg/200px-Michelangelo%27s_Pieta_5450_cropncleaned.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="210" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Michelangelo%27s_Pieta_5450_cropncleaned.jpg/300px-Michelangelo%27s_Pieta_5450_cropncleaned.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Michelangelo%27s_Pieta_5450_cropncleaned.jpg/400px-Michelangelo%27s_Pieta_5450_cropncleaned.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1584" data-file-height="1660" /></a><figcaption>Michelangelo's <i>Pietà</i> in St. Peter's Basilica, Vatican City</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Italian_Renaissance" title="Italian Renaissance">Italian Renaissance</a> and <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_15th_century" title="Christianity in the 15th century">Christianity in the 15th century</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a> was a period of great cultural change and achievement, marked in Italy by a classical orientation and an increase of wealth through mercantile trade. The city of Rome, the Papacy, and the Papal States were all affected by the Renaissance. On the one hand, it was a time of great artistic patronage and architectural magnificence, where the Church pardoned such artists as <a href="/wiki/Michelangelo" title="Michelangelo">Michelangelo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Filippo_Brunelleschi" title="Filippo Brunelleschi">Brunelleschi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Donato_Bramante" title="Donato Bramante">Bramante</a>, <a href="/wiki/Raphael" title="Raphael">Raphael</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fra_Angelico" title="Fra Angelico">Fra Angelico</a>, <a href="/wiki/Donatello" title="Donatello">Donatello</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Leonardo_da_Vinci" title="Leonardo da Vinci">Leonardo da Vinci</a>. On the other hand, wealthy Italian families often secured episcopal offices, including the papacy, for their own members, some of whom were known for immorality, such as <a href="/wiki/Pope_Alexander_VI" title="Pope Alexander VI">Alexander VI</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pope_Sixtus_IV" title="Pope Sixtus IV">Sixtus IV</a>. </p><p>In addition to being the head of the Church, the Pope became one of Italy's most important secular rulers, and pontiffs such as <a href="/wiki/Pope_Julius_II" title="Pope Julius II">Julius II</a> often waged campaigns to protect and expand their temporal domains. Furthermore, the popes, in a spirit of refined competition with other Italian lords, spent lavishly both on private luxuries but also on public works, repairing or building churches, bridges, and a magnificent system of aqueducts in Rome that still function today. It was during this time that <a href="/wiki/St._Peter%27s_Basilica" title="St. Peter's Basilica">St. Peter's Basilica</a>, perhaps the most recognised Christian church, was built on the site of the old Constantinian basilica. It was also a time of increased contact with Greek culture, opening up new avenues of learning, especially in the fields of <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Poetry" title="Poetry">poetry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Classics" title="Classics">classics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rhetoric" title="Rhetoric">rhetoric</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Political_science" title="Political science">political science</a>, fostering a spirit of <a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">humanism</a>—all of which would influence the Church. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fall_of_Constantinople_(1453)"><span id="Fall_of_Constantinople_.281453.29"></span>Fall of Constantinople (1453)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_the_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Fall of Constantinople (1453)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">Fall of Constantinople</a></div> <p>In 1453, Constantinople fell to the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a>. Under Ottoman rule, the <a href="/wiki/Orthodox_Church_of_Constantinople" class="mw-redirect" title="Orthodox Church of Constantinople">Greek Orthodox Church</a> acquired substantial power as an autonomous <i><a href="/wiki/Millet_(Ottoman_Empire)" title="Millet (Ottoman Empire)">millet</a></i>. The ecumenical patriarch was the religious and administrative ruler of the entire "Greek Orthodox nation" (Ottoman administrative unit), which encompassed all the Eastern Orthodox subjects of the Empire. </p><p>As a result of the Ottoman conquest and the <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">fall of Constantinople</a>, the entire Orthodox communion of the Balkans and the Near East became suddenly isolated from the West. For the next four hundred years, it would be confined within a hostile Islamic world, with which it had little in common religiously or culturally. This is, in part, due to this geographical and intellectual confinement that the voice of Eastern Orthodoxy was not heard during the <a href="/wiki/Protestant_Reformation" class="mw-redirect" title="Protestant Reformation">Reformation</a> in sixteenth-century Europe. As a result, this important theological debate often seems strange and distorted to the Orthodox. They never took part in it and thus neither Reformation nor <a href="/wiki/Counter-Reformation" title="Counter-Reformation">Counter-Reformation</a> is part of their theological framework. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Religious_rights_under_the_Ottoman_Empire">Religious rights under the Ottoman Empire</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_the_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Religious rights under the Ottoman Empire"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The new <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman government</a> that arose from the ashes of Byzantine civilization was neither primitive nor barbaric. <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a> not only recognized Jesus as a great prophet, but tolerated Christians as another <a href="/wiki/People_of_the_Book" title="People of the Book">People of the Book</a>. As such, the Church was not extinguished nor was its canonical and hierarchical organisation significantly disrupted. Its administration continued to function. One of the first things that <a href="/wiki/Mehmed_II" title="Mehmed II">Mehmet the Conqueror</a> did was to allow the Church to elect a new patriarch, <a href="/wiki/Gennadius_Scholarius" title="Gennadius Scholarius">Gennadius Scholarius</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Hagia_Sophia" title="Hagia Sophia">Hagia Sophia</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Parthenon" title="Parthenon">Parthenon</a>, which had been Christian churches for nearly a millennium were, admittedly, converted into mosques. </p><p>However, these rights and privileges (see <a href="/wiki/Dhimmitude" title="Dhimmitude">Dhimmitude</a>), including freedom of worship and religious organisation, were often established in principle but seldom corresponded to reality. The legal privileges of the patriarch and the Church depended, in fact, on the whim and mercy of the <a href="/wiki/Sultan" title="Sultan">Sultan</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Sublime_Porte" title="Sublime Porte">Sublime Porte</a>, while all Christians were viewed as little more than second-class citizens. Moreover, Turkish corruption and brutality were not a myth. That it was the <a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians#Muslim_persecution_of_Christians" title="Persecution of Christians">"infidel" Christian who experienced this</a> more than anyone else is not in doubt. Nor were pogroms of Christians in these centuries unknown (see <a href="/wiki/Greco-Turkish_relations" class="mw-redirect" title="Greco-Turkish relations">Greco-Turkish relations</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-AIHG-NYT_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AIHG-NYT-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_the_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 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data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 20em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Christian_theology" title="History of Christian theology">History of Christian theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Roman_Catholic_Church" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Roman Catholic Church">History of the Roman Catholic Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Eastern_Orthodox_Church" title="History of the Eastern Orthodox Church">History of the Eastern Orthodox Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianization" title="Christianization">Christianization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Christianity" title="Timeline of Christianity">Timeline of Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Christian_missions" title="Timeline of Christian missions">Timeline of Christian missions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic%E2%80%93Protestant_relations" title="Catholic–Protestant relations">Catholic–Protestant relations</a></li></ul></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Citations">Citations</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_the_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Citations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Davies291-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Davies291_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Davies <i>Europe</i> pp. 291–293</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-kjw1-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-kjw1_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Woollcombe, K.J. "The Ministry and the Order of the Church in the Works of the Fathers" in <i>The Historic Episcopate</i>. Kenneth M. Carey (Ed.). Dacre Press (1954) p.31f</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">R. Gerberding and Jo Anne H. Moran Cruz, <i>Medieval Worlds: An Introduction to European History 300–1492</i> (New York: Houghton Mifflin, 2004), p. 33.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Alick-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Alick_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Alick_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFAlick_Isaacs2015" class="citation web cs1">Alick Isaacs (14 June 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jewishagency.org/jerusalem-day/content/38146">"Christianity and Islam: Jerusalem in the Middle Ages - 1. Jerusalem in Christianity"</a>. The Jewish Agency<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 April</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Christianity+and+Islam%3A+Jerusalem+in+the+Middle+Ages+-+1.+Jerusalem+in+Christianity&rft.pub=The+Jewish+Agency&rft.date=2015-06-14&rft.au=Alick+Isaacs&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jewishagency.org%2Fjerusalem-day%2Fcontent%2F38146&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+the+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Richards, Jeffrey. <i>The Popes and the Papacy in the Early Middle Ages 476–752</i> (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1979) p. 36</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJoyce1906135–6-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJoyce1906135–6_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJoyce1906">Joyce 1906</a>, pp. 135–6.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">On the development of penitential practice, see McNeill & Gamer, <i>Medieval Handbooks of Penance</i>, (Columbia University Press, 1938) pp. 9–54</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mayr-Harting, H. (1991). The coming of Christianity to Anglo-Saxon England. University Park, PA: Pennsylvania State University Press.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Chaney, W. A. (1970). The cult of kingship in Anglo-Saxon England; the transition from paganism to Christianity. Manchester, Eng.: Manchester University Press.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-peasant-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-peasant_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-peasant_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPatrick_J._Geary2001" class="citation journal cs1">Patrick J. Geary (2001). "Peasant Religion in Medieval Europe". <i>Cahiers d'Extrême-Asie</i>. <b>12</b>. Persée: 185–209. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3406%2Fasie.2001.1170">10.3406/asie.2001.1170</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Cahiers+d%27Extr%C3%AAme-Asie&rft.atitle=Peasant+Religion+in+Medieval+Europe&rft.volume=12&rft.pages=185-209&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3406%2Fasie.2001.1170&rft.au=Patrick+J.+Geary&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+the+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Epitome, Iconoclast Council at Hieria, 754</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://orthodoxinfo.com/general/greatschism.aspx">"The Great Schism: The Estrangement of Eastern and Western Christendom"</a>. <i>orthodoxinfo.com</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=orthodoxinfo.com&rft.atitle=The+Great+Schism%3A+The+Estrangement+of+Eastern+and+Western+Christendom&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Forthodoxinfo.com%2Fgeneral%2Fgreatschism.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+the+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWare1995" class="citation book cs1">Ware, Kallistos (1995). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/orthodoxway0000ware"><i>The Orthodox Church London</i></a></span>. St. Vladimir's Seminary Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-913836-58-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-913836-58-3"><bdi>978-0-913836-58-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Orthodox+Church+London&rft.pub=St.+Vladimir%27s+Seminary+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-913836-58-3&rft.aulast=Ware&rft.aufirst=Kallistos&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Forthodoxway0000ware&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+the+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">History of Russian Philosophy by Nikolai Lossky <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8236-8074-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8236-8074-0">978-0-8236-8074-0</a> Quoting <a href="/wiki/Aleksey_Khomyakov" title="Aleksey Khomyakov">Aleksey Khomyakov</a> pg 87.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-autogenerated2-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated2_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The Mystical Theology of the Eastern Church by <a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Lossky" title="Vladimir Lossky">Vladimir Lossky</a>, SVS Press, 1997. (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-913836-31-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-913836-31-1">0-913836-31-1</a>) James Clarke & Co Ltd, 1991. (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-227-67919-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-227-67919-9">0-227-67919-9</a>)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrance,_John.1996" class="citation book cs1">France, John. (1996). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/victoryineast00john"><i>Victory in the East : a military history of the First Crusade</i></a></span>. Cambridge Univ. Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-41969-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-41969-7"><bdi>0-521-41969-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/258294189">258294189</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Victory+in+the+East+%3A+a+military+history+of+the+First+Crusade&rft.pub=Cambridge+Univ.+Press&rft.date=1996&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F258294189&rft.isbn=0-521-41969-7&rft.au=France%2C+John.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fvictoryineast00john&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+the+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeaumontAtiya1939" class="citation journal cs1">Beaumont, A. A.; Atiya, Aziz Suryal (April 1939). "The Crusade in the Later Middle Ages". <i>The American Historical Review</i>. <b>44</b> (3): 600. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1839922">10.2307/1839922</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0002-8762">0002-8762</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1839922">1839922</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+American+Historical+Review&rft.atitle=The+Crusade+in+the+Later+Middle+Ages&rft.volume=44&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=600&rft.date=1939-04&rft.issn=0002-8762&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1839922%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1839922&rft.aulast=Beaumont&rft.aufirst=A.+A.&rft.au=Atiya%2C+Aziz+Suryal&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+the+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For such an analysis, see Brian Tierney and Sidney Painter, <i>Western Europe in the Middle Ages 300–1475</i>. 6th ed. (McGraw-Hill 1998)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRice2022" class="citation journal cs1">Rice, Joshua (1 June 2022). "Burn in Hell". <i>History Today</i>. <b>72</b> (6): 16–18.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=History+Today&rft.atitle=Burn+in+Hell&rft.volume=72&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=16-18&rft.date=2022-06-01&rft.aulast=Rice&rft.aufirst=Joshua&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+the+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span><a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://www.historytoday.com/archive/history-matters/burn-hell">[1]</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Murphy, C. (2012). God's Jury: The Inquisition and the Making of the Modern World. New York: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFA._Lamport2015" class="citation book cs1">A. Lamport, Mark (2015). <i>Encyclopedia of Christian Education</i>. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 484. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780810884939" title="Special:BookSources/9780810884939"><bdi>9780810884939</bdi></a>. <q>All the great European universities-Oxford, to Paris, to Cologne, to Prague, to Bologna—were established with close ties to the Church.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Christian+Education&rft.pages=484&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=9780810884939&rft.aulast=A.+Lamport&rft.aufirst=Mark&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+the+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFB_M._Leonard2013" class="citation book cs1">B M. Leonard, Thomas (2013). <i>Encyclopedia of the Developing World</i>. Routledge. p. 1369. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781135205157" title="Special:BookSources/9781135205157"><bdi>9781135205157</bdi></a>. <q>Europe established schools in association with their cathedrals to educate priests, and from these emerged eventually the first universities of Europe, which began forming in the eleventh and twelfth centuries.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+the+Developing+World&rft.pages=1369&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=9781135205157&rft.aulast=B+M.+Leonard&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+the+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGavroglu2015" class="citation book cs1">Gavroglu, Kostas (2015). <i>Sciences in the Universities of Europe, Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries: Academic Landscapes</i>. Springer. p. 302. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789401796361" title="Special:BookSources/9789401796361"><bdi>9789401796361</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sciences+in+the+Universities+of+Europe%2C+Nineteenth+and+Twentieth+Centuries%3A+Academic+Landscapes&rft.pages=302&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=9789401796361&rft.aulast=Gavroglu&rft.aufirst=Kostas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+the+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGA._Dawson2015" class="citation book cs1">GA. Dawson, Patricia (2015). <i>First Peoples of the Americas and the European Age of Exploration</i>. Cavendish Square Publishing. p. 103. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781502606853" title="Special:BookSources/9781502606853"><bdi>9781502606853</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=First+Peoples+of+the+Americas+and+the+European+Age+of+Exploration&rft.pages=103&rft.pub=Cavendish+Square+Publishing&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=9781502606853&rft.aulast=GA.+Dawson&rft.aufirst=Patricia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+the+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDen_Heijer2011" class="citation book cs1">Den Heijer, Alexandra (2011). <i>Managing the University Campus: Information to Support Real Estate Decisions</i>. Academische Uitgeverij Eburon. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789059724877" title="Special:BookSources/9789059724877"><bdi>9789059724877</bdi></a>. <q>Many of the medieval universities in Western Europe were born under the aegis of the Catholic Church, usually as cathedral schools or by papal bull as Studia Generali.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Managing+the+University+Campus%3A+Information+to+Support+Real+Estate+Decisions&rft.pub=Academische+Uitgeverij+Eburon&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=9789059724877&rft.aulast=Den+Heijer&rft.aufirst=Alexandra&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+the+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFZlatarski1972">Zlatarski 1972</a>, p. 389</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-BGpatriarchate-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-BGpatriarchate_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160307002801/http://www.bg-patriarshia.bg/index.php?file=preslav_patriarchs.xml">"Patriarchs of Preslav"</a>. <i>Official site of the Bulgarian Orthodox Church</i> (in Bulgarian). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bg-patriarshia.bg/index.php?file=preslav_patriarchs.xml">the original</a> on 7 March 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 March</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Official+site+of+the+Bulgarian+Orthodox+Church&rft.atitle=Patriarchs+of+Preslav&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bg-patriarshia.bg%2Findex.php%3Ffile%3Dpreslav_patriarchs.xml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+the+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVlasto1970208-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVlasto1970208_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFVlasto1970">Vlasto 1970</a>, p. 208.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-IUN-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-IUN_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170916164425/http://www.iun.edu/~hisdcl/h113_2001/byzantium.htm">"From Eastern Roman to Byzantine: transformation of Roman culture (500-800)"</a>. Indiana University Northwest. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iun.edu/~hisdcl/h113_2001/byzantium.htm">the original</a> on 16 September 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 August</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=From+Eastern+Roman+to+Byzantine%3A+transformation+of+Roman+culture+%28500-800%29&rft.pub=Indiana+University+Northwest&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iun.edu%2F~hisdcl%2Fh113_2001%2Fbyzantium.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+the+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">G. R. Evans, <i>John Wyclif: Myth & Reality</i> (2006)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Shannon McSheffrey, <i>Lollards of Coventry, 1486–1522</i> (2003)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Thomas A. Fudge, <i>Jan Hus: Religious Reform and Social Revolution in Bohemia</i> (2010)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-AIHG-NYT-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-AIHG-NYT_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aihgs.com/New%20York%20Times.htm">The Australian Institute for Holocaust and Genocide Studies</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070607184704/http://www.aihgs.com/New%20York%20Times.htm">Archived</a> 7 June 2007 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> <i>The New York Times</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.helleniccomserve.com/pdf/BlkBkPontusPrinceton.pdf">http://www.helleniccomserve.com/pdf/BlkBkPontusPrinceton.pdf</a> <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Bare_URLs" title="Wikipedia:Bare URLs"><span title="A full citation of this PDF document is required to prevent link rot. (March 2022)">bare URL PDF</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_the_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavies,_Norman1996" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Norman_Davies" title="Norman Davies">Davies, Norman</a> (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/europehistory00davi_0"><i>Europe: A History</i></a>. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-520912-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-520912-5"><bdi>0-19-520912-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Europe%3A+A+History&rft.place=Oxford%2C+UK&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=0-19-520912-5&rft.au=Davies%2C+Norman&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Feuropehistory00davi_0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+the+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVlasto1970" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Alexis_P._Vlasto" title="Alexis P. Vlasto">Vlasto, Alexis P.</a> (1970). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fpVOAAAAIAAJ"><i>The Entry of the Slavs into Christendom: An Introduction to the Medieval History of the Slavs</i></a>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521074599" title="Special:BookSources/9780521074599"><bdi>9780521074599</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Entry+of+the+Slavs+into+Christendom%3A+An+Introduction+to+the+Medieval+History+of+the+Slavs&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1970&rft.isbn=9780521074599&rft.aulast=Vlasto&rft.aufirst=Alexis+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DfpVOAAAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+the+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZlatarski1972" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Златарски (Zlatarski), Васил (Vasil) (1972) [1927]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.promacedonia.org/vz1b/index.html"><i>История на българската държава през средните векове. Том I. История на Първото българско царство. Част ІІ. (History of the Bulgarian state in the Middle Ages. Volume I. History of the First Bulgarian Empire. Part II)</i></a> (in Bulgarian) (2nd ed.). София (Sofia): Наука и изкуство (Nauka i izkustvo). <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/67080314">67080314</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%D0%98%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F+%D0%BD%D0%B0+%D0%B1%D1%8A%D0%BB%D0%B3%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B0+%D0%B4%D1%8A%D1%80%D0%B6%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B0+%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B7+%D1%81%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B5+%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B5.+%D0%A2%D0%BE%D0%BC+I.+%D0%98%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F+%D0%BD%D0%B0+%D0%9F%D1%8A%D1%80%D0%B2%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BE+%D0%B1%D1%8A%D0%BB%D0%B3%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE+%D1%86%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE.+%D0%A7%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82+%D0%86%D0%86.+%28History+of+the+Bulgarian+state+in+the+Middle+Ages.+Volume+I.+History+of+the+First+Bulgarian+Empire.+Part+II%29&rft.place=%D0%A1%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F+%28Sofia%29&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=%D0%9D%D0%B0%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%B0+%D0%B8+%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BA%D1%83%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE+%28Nauka+i+izkustvo%29&rft.date=1972&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F67080314&rft.aulast=%D0%97%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8+%28Zlatarski%29&rft.aufirst=%D0%92%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%BB+%28Vasil%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.promacedonia.org%2Fvz1b%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+the+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Print_resources">Print resources</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_the_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Print resources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGonzález1984" class="citation book cs1">González, Justo L. (1984). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/storyofchristian01gonz"><i>The Story of Christianity: Vol. 1: The Early Church to the Reformation</i></a></span>. San Francisco: Harper. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-06-063315-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-06-063315-8"><bdi>0-06-063315-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Story+of+Christianity%3A+Vol.+1%3A+The+Early+Church+to+the+Reformation&rft.place=San+Francisco&rft.pub=Harper&rft.date=1984&rft.isbn=0-06-063315-8&rft.aulast=Gonz%C3%A1lez&rft.aufirst=Justo+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fstoryofchristian01gonz&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+the+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrabar1968" class="citation book cs1">Grabar, André (1968). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/christianiconogr00grab"><i>Christian iconography, a study of its origins</i></a></span>. Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-691-01830-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-691-01830-8"><bdi>0-691-01830-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Christian+iconography%2C+a+study+of+its+origins&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1968&rft.isbn=0-691-01830-8&rft.aulast=Grabar&rft.aufirst=Andr%C3%A9&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fchristianiconogr00grab&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+the+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGuericke1857" class="citation book cs1">Guericke, Heinrich Ernst; et al. (1857). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DZ5Pq0oYx-EC"><i>A Manual of Church History: Ancient Church History Comprising the First Six Centuries</i></a>. New York: Wiley and Halsted.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Manual+of+Church+History%3A+Ancient+Church+History+Comprising+the+First+Six+Centuries&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Wiley+and+Halsted&rft.date=1857&rft.aulast=Guericke&rft.aufirst=Heinrich+Ernst&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DDZ5Pq0oYx-EC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+the+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHastings1999" class="citation book cs1">Hastings, Adrian (1999). <i>A World History of Christianity</i>. Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8028-4875-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-8028-4875-3"><bdi>0-8028-4875-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+World+History+of+Christianity&rft.place=Grand+Rapids&rft.pub=Wm.+B.+Eerdmans+Publishing&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=0-8028-4875-3&rft.aulast=Hastings&rft.aufirst=Adrian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+the+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLatourette1975" class="citation book cs1">Latourette, Kenneth Scott (1975). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyofchristi01lato"><i>A History of Christianity, Volume 1: Beginnings to 1500</i></a></span> (revised ed.). San Francisco: Harper. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-06-064952-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-06-064952-6"><bdi>0-06-064952-6</bdi></a>. (paperback).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Christianity%2C+Volume+1%3A+Beginnings+to+1500&rft.place=San+Francisco&rft.edition=revised&rft.pub=Harper&rft.date=1975&rft.isbn=0-06-064952-6&rft.aulast=Latourette&rft.aufirst=Kenneth+Scott&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhistoryofchristi01lato&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+the+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMorris1972" class="citation book cs1">Morris, Colin (1972). <i>The discovery of the individual, 1050–1200</i>. London: SPCK. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-281-02346-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-281-02346-8"><bdi>0-281-02346-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+discovery+of+the+individual%2C+1050%E2%80%931200&rft.place=London&rft.pub=SPCK&rft.date=1972&rft.isbn=0-281-02346-8&rft.aulast=Morris&rft.aufirst=Colin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+the+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMorris1989" class="citation book cs1">Morris, Colin (1989). <i>The papal monarchy : the western church from 1050 to 1250</i>. Oxford: Clarendon. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-826925-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-826925-0"><bdi>0-19-826925-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+papal+monarchy+%3A+the+western+church+from+1050+to+1250&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Clarendon&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=0-19-826925-0&rft.aulast=Morris&rft.aufirst=Colin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+the+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMorris2006" class="citation book cs1">Morris, Colin (2006). <i>The sepulchre of Christ and the medieval West : from the beginning to 1600</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-826928-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-826928-1"><bdi>978-0-19-826928-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+sepulchre+of+Christ+and+the+medieval+West+%3A+from+the+beginning+to+1600&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-19-826928-1&rft.aulast=Morris&rft.aufirst=Colin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+the+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShelley1996" class="citation book cs1">Shelley, Bruce L. (1996). <i>Church History in Plain Language</i> (2nd ed.). Word Pub. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8499-3861-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-8499-3861-9"><bdi>0-8499-3861-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Church+History+in+Plain+Language&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Word+Pub.&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=0-8499-3861-9&rft.aulast=Shelley&rft.aufirst=Bruce+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+the+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Online_sources">Online sources</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_the_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Online sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20071016200443/http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/cgi-local/DHI/dhi.cgi?id=dv1%E2%80%9349"><i>Dictionary of the History of Ideas</i>:</a> Christianity in History</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120111152750/http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/cgi-local/DHI/dhi.cgi?id=dv1%E2%80%9350"><i>Dictionary of the History of Ideas</i>:</a> Church as an Institution</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://bible.christianity.com/History/AD/SketchesofChurchHistory/">Sketches of Church History</a> From AD 33 to the Reformation by Rev. J. C Robertson, M.A., Canon of Canterbury<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJoyce1906" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Patrick_Weston_Joyce" title="Patrick Weston Joyce">Joyce, Patrick Weston</a> (1906). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/download/smallersocialhis00joyc/smallersocialhis00joyc.pdf#page=165"><i>A smaller social history of ancient Ireland, treating of the government, military system, and law; religion, learning, and art; trades, industries, and commerce; manners, customs, and domestic life, of the ancient Irish people</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. London; New York : Longmans, Green, and Co<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 October</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+smaller+social+history+of+ancient+Ireland%2C+treating+of+the+government%2C+military+system%2C+and+law%3B+religion%2C+learning%2C+and+art%3B+trades%2C+industries%2C+and+commerce%3B+manners%2C+customs%2C+and+domestic+life%2C+of+the+ancient+Irish+people&rft.pub=London%3B+New+York+%3A+Longmans%2C+Green%2C+and+Co.&rft.date=1906&rft.aulast=Joyce&rft.aufirst=Patrick+Weston&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdownload%2Fsmallersocialhis00joyc%2Fsmallersocialhis00joyc.pdf%23page%3D165&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+the+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <table class="wikitable noprint" style="margin:0.5em auto; font-size:95%; text-align:center"> <tbody><tr style="text-align:center;"> <th colspan="11"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Christianity" title="History of Christianity">History of Christianity</a>: <br />The Middle Ages </th></tr> <tr style="font-weight:bold; text-align:center;"> <td colspan="11" style="padding:0;"> <table style="margin:0; border-spacing:0; border-collapse:collapse;width:100%"> <tbody><tr> <td>Preceded by:<br /><a href="/wiki/History_of_late_ancient_Christianity" class="mw-redirect" title="History of late ancient Christianity">Late ancient <br />Christianity</a> </td> <td style="border-left:#aaa 1px solid; border-right:#aaa 1px solid">The Middle<br />Ages </td> <td>Followed by:<br /><a href="/wiki/Protestant_Reformation" class="mw-redirect" title="Protestant Reformation">The<br />Reformation</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Historical_background_of_the_New_Testament" title="Historical background of the New Testament">BC</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_1st_century" title="Christianity in the 1st century">C1</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_2nd_century" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianity in the 2nd century">C2</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_3rd_century" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianity in the 3rd century">C3</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_4th_century" title="Christianity in the 4th century">C4</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_5th_century" title="Christianity in the 5th century">C5</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_6th_century" title="Christianity in the 6th century">C6</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_7th_century" title="Christianity in the 7th century">C7</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_8th_century" title="Christianity in the 8th century">C8</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_9th_century" title="Christianity in the 9th century">C9</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_10th_century" title="Christianity in the 10th century">C10</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_11th_century" title="Christianity in the 11th century">C11</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_12th_century" title="Christianity in the 12th century">C12</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_13th_century" title="Christianity in the 13th century">C13</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_14th_century" title="Christianity in the 14th century">C14</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_15th_century" title="Christianity in the 15th century">C15</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_16th_century" title="Christianity in the 16th century">C16</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_17th_century" title="Christianity in the 17th century">C17</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_18th_century" title="Christianity in the 18th century">C18</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_19th_century" title="Christianity in the 19th century">C19</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_20th_century" title="Christianity in the 20th century">C20</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_21st_century" title="Christianity in the 21st century">C21</a> </td></tr> </tbody></table> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist 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.navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="History_of_Christianity" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_Christianity" title="Template:History of Christianity"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_Christianity" title="Template talk:History of Christianity"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_Christianity" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of Christianity"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="History_of_Christianity" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Christianity" title="History of Christianity">History of Christianity</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_Christianity" title="Early Christianity">Early Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spread_of_Christianity" title="Spread of Christianity">Spread</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Centuries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_1st_century" title="Christianity in the 1st century">1st</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_ante-Nicene_period" title="Christianity in the ante-Nicene period">2nd and 3rd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_4th_century" title="Christianity in the 4th century">4th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_5th_century" title="Christianity in the 5th century">5th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_6th_century" title="Christianity in the 6th century">6th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_7th_century" title="Christianity in the 7th century">7th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_8th_century" title="Christianity in the 8th century">8th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_9th_century" title="Christianity in the 9th century">9th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_10th_century" title="Christianity in the 10th century">10th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_11th_century" title="Christianity in the 11th century">11th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_12th_century" title="Christianity in the 12th century">12th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_13th_century" title="Christianity in the 13th century">13th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_14th_century" title="Christianity in the 14th century">14th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_15th_century" title="Christianity in the 15th century">15th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_16th_century" title="Christianity in the 16th century">16th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_17th_century" title="Christianity in the 17th century">17th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_18th_century" title="Christianity in the 18th century">18th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_19th_century" title="Christianity in the 19th century">19th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_20th_century" title="Christianity in the 20th century">20th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_21st_century" title="Christianity in the 21st century">21st</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Origins and<br />Apostolic Age</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historical_background_of_the_New_Testament" title="Historical background of the New Testament">Background</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Life_of_Jesus" title="Life of Jesus">Life of Jesus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baptism_of_Jesus" title="Baptism of Jesus">Baptism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Jesus" title="Ministry of Jesus">Ministry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crucifixion_of_Jesus" title="Crucifixion of Jesus">Crucifixion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resurrection_of_Jesus" title="Resurrection of Jesus">Resurrection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Commission" title="Great Commission">Great Commission</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Spirit_in_Christianity" title="Holy Spirit in Christianity">Holy Spirit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apostles_in_the_New_Testament" title="Apostles in the New Testament">Apostles in the New Testament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Christian" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish Christian">Jewish Christians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_the_Apostle" title="Paul the Apostle">Paul the Apostle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Jerusalem" title="Council of Jerusalem">Council of Jerusalem</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gospel" title="Gospel">Gospels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acts_of_the_Apostles" title="Acts of the Apostles">Acts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pauline_epistles" title="Pauline epistles">Pauline epistles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_epistles" title="Catholic epistles">General epistles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Revelation" title="Book of Revelation">Revelation</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_ante-Nicene_period" title="Christianity in the ante-Nicene period">Ante-Nicene<br />period</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diversity_in_early_Christian_theology" title="Diversity in early Christian theology">Diversity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adoptionism" title="Adoptionism">Adoptionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arianism" title="Arianism">Arianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Docetism" title="Docetism">Docetism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donatism" title="Donatism">Donatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gnosticism" title="Gnosticism">Gnosticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcionism" title="Marcionism">Marcionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montanism" title="Montanism">Montanism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Development_of_the_New_Testament_canon" title="Development of the New Testament canon">Canon development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians_in_the_Roman_Empire" title="Persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire">Persecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apostolic_Fathers" title="Apostolic Fathers">Apostolic</a> / <a href="/wiki/Church_Fathers" title="Church Fathers">Church Fathers</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Clement_of_Rome" title="Clement of Rome">Clement of Rome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polycarp" title="Polycarp">Polycarp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ignatius_of_Antioch" title="Ignatius of Antioch">Ignatius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irenaeus" title="Irenaeus">Irenaeus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justin_Martyr" title="Justin Martyr">Justin Martyr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tertullian" title="Tertullian">Tertullian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origen" title="Origen">Origen</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_Roman_Africa_province" title="Christianity in the Roman Africa province">Early African</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_late_antiquity" title="Christianity in late antiquity">Late antiquity</a><br />(<a href="/wiki/Great_Church" title="Great Church">Great Church</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constantine_the_Great_and_Christianity" title="Constantine the Great and Christianity">Constantine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constantinian_shift" title="Constantinian shift">Constantinian shift</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_as_the_Roman_state_religion" title="Christianity as the Roman state religion">Roman state religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_monasticism" title="Christian monasticism">Monasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_seven_ecumenical_councils" title="First seven ecumenical councils">Councils</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Council_of_Nicaea" title="First Council of Nicaea">Nicaea I</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nicene_Creed" title="Nicene Creed">Creed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicene_Christianity" title="Nicene Christianity">Christianity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Athanasius_of_Alexandria" title="Athanasius of Alexandria">Athanasius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jerome" title="Jerome">Jerome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Council_of_Constantinople" title="First Council of Constantinople">Constantinople I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Ephesus" title="Council of Ephesus">Ephesus I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Chalcedon" title="Council of Chalcedon">Chalcedon</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chalcedonian_Christianity" title="Chalcedonian Christianity">Chalcedonian</a> / <a href="/wiki/Non-Chalcedonian_Christianity" title="Non-Chalcedonian Christianity">Non-Chalcedonian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_canon" title="Biblical canon">Biblical canon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Catholic_Church" title="History of the Catholic Church">Catholicism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_papacy" title="History of the papacy">Papacy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_papal_primacy" title="History of papal primacy">Development of primacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_opposition_to_papal_supremacy" title="Eastern Orthodox opposition to papal supremacy">Eastern Orthodox opposition</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusading_movement" title="Crusading movement">Crusading movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Council_of_the_Lateran" title="Fourth Council of the Lateran">Lateran IV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_patronage_of_Julius_II" title="Art patronage of Julius II">Art patronage of Julius II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Leo_X" title="Pope Leo X">Leo X</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter-Reformation" title="Counter-Reformation">Counter-Reformation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Trent" title="Council of Trent">Trent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_in_the_Protestant_Reformation_and_Counter-Reformation" title="Art in the Protestant Reformation and Counter-Reformation">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Reformation" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholic Reformation">Catholic Reformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Society_of_Jesus" class="mw-redirect" title="Society of Jesus">Jesuits</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Xavier" title="Francis Xavier">Xavier</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_More" title="Thomas More">Thomas More</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_monasteries" title="Dissolution of the monasteries">Monastery dissolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_wars_of_religion" title="European wars of religion">Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_rock" title="Mass rock">Mass rocks</a> and <a href="/wiki/Priest_hole" title="Priest hole">priest holes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Our_Lady_of_Guadalupe" title="Our Lady of Guadalupe">Guadalupe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jansenism" title="Jansenism">Jansenists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molinism" title="Molinism">Molinists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism#Neo-Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Neo-Scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teresa_of_%C3%81vila" title="Teresa of Ávila">Teresa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernism_in_the_Catholic_Church" title="Modernism in the Catholic Church">Modernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independent_Catholicism" title="Independent Catholicism">Independent Catholics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Vatican_Council" title="First Vatican Council">Vatican I</a> and <a href="/wiki/Second_Vatican_Council" title="Second Vatican Council">Vatican II</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecclesial_community" title="Ecclesial community">Ecclesial community</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Catholic_Church" title="Timeline of the Catholic Church">Timeline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Eastern_Christianity" title="History of Eastern Christianity">Eastern<br />Christianity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Eastern_Orthodox_Church" title="History of the Eastern Orthodox Church">Eastern Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Oriental_Orthodoxy" title="History of Oriental Orthodoxy">Oriental Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_of_the_East" title="Church of the East">Church of the East</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Chrysostom" title="John Chrysostom">Chrysostom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nestorianism" title="Nestorianism">Nestorianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Icon#History" title="Icon">Icons</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iconodulism" title="Iconodulism">Iconodulism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Iconoclasm" title="Byzantine Iconoclasm">Iconoclasm</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East%E2%80%93West_Schism" title="East–West Schism">Great Schism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">Fall of Constantinople</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Armenia" title="Christianization of Armenia">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Iberia" title="Christianization of Iberia">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodoxy_in_Greece" title="Eastern Orthodoxy in Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coptic_history" title="Coptic history">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syriac_Christianity" title="Syriac Christianity">Syriac</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serbian_Orthodox_Church" title="Serbian Orthodox Church">Serbian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Orthodox_Tewahedo_Church" title="Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church">Ethiopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Eastern_Orthodox_Church_under_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="History of the Eastern Orthodox Church under the Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Russian_Orthodox_Church" title="History of the Russian Orthodox Church">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Eastern_Orthodoxy_in_North_America" title="Timeline of Eastern Orthodoxy in North America">North America</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Middle Ages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pelagianism" title="Pelagianism">Pelagianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Gregory_I" title="Pope Gregory I">Gregory I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_Christianity" title="Celtic Christianity">Celtic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianisation_of_the_Germanic_peoples" title="Christianisation of the Germanic peoples">Germanic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianisation_of_Anglo-Saxon_England" title="Christianisation of Anglo-Saxon England">Anglo-Saxon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_the_Franks" title="Christianization of the Franks">Franks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gothic_Christianity" title="Gothic Christianity">Gothic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Scandinavia" title="Christianization of Scandinavia">Scandinavian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Iceland" title="Christianization of Iceland">Iceland</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_the_Slavs" title="Christianization of the Slavs">Slavs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Bohemia" title="Christianization of Bohemia">Bohemia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Bulgaria" title="Christianization of Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Kievan_Rus%27" title="Christianization of Kievan Rus'">Kievan Rus'</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Moravia" title="Christianization of Moravia">Moravia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Poland" title="Christianization of Poland">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Pomerania" title="Christianization of Pomerania">Pomerania</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Investiture_Controversy" title="Investiture Controversy">Investiture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anselm_of_Canterbury" title="Anselm of Canterbury">Anselm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Abelard" title="Peter Abelard">Abelard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_of_Clairvaux" title="Bernard of Clairvaux">Bernard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bogomilism" title="Bogomilism">Bogomils</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bosnian_Church" title="Bosnian Church">Bosnian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catharism" title="Catharism">Cathars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apostolic_Brethren" title="Apostolic Brethren">Apostolic Brethren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dulcinian" class="mw-redirect" title="Dulcinian">Dulcinian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusades" title="Crusades">Crusades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waldensians" title="Waldensians">Waldensians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inquisition" title="Inquisition">Inquisition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism#Early_Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Early Scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_mysticism" title="Christian mysticism">Christian mysticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint_Dominic" title="Saint Dominic">Dominic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_of_Assisi" title="Francis of Assisi">Francis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bonaventure" title="Bonaventure">Bonaventure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Aquinas</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Five_Ways_(Aquinas)" title="Five Ways (Aquinas)">Five Ways</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Wycliffe" title="John Wycliffe">Wycliffe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avignon_Papacy" title="Avignon Papacy">Avignon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Schism" title="Western Schism">Papal Schism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bohemian_Reformation" title="Bohemian Reformation">Bohemian Reformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jan_Hus" title="Jan Hus">Hus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conciliarism" title="Conciliarism">Conciliarism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Synod" title="Synod">Synods</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Reformation" title="Reformation">Reformation</a><br />and<br /><a href="/wiki/History_of_Protestantism" title="History of Protestantism">Protestantism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Erasmus" title="Erasmus">Erasmus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eucharistic_theology" title="Eucharistic theology">Eucharist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Calvinist%E2%80%93Arminian_debate" title="History of the Calvinist–Arminian debate">Calvinist–Arminian debate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arminianism" title="Arminianism">Arminianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter-Reformation#Politics" title="Counter-Reformation">Wars</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Resistance_theory_in_the_Early_Modern_period#Christian_resistance_theories_of_the_early_modern_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Resistance theory in the Early Modern period">Resistance theories</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_church_and_state#Reformation" title="Separation of church and state">Separation of church and state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicodemite" title="Nicodemite">Nicodemites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hymnody_of_continental_Europe" title="Hymnody of continental Europe">Hymnody of continental Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formal_and_material_principles_of_theology" title="Formal and material principles of theology">Formal and material principles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_and_Gospel" title="Law and Gospel">Law and Gospel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Reformation_literature" title="Template:Reformation literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protestant_work_ethic" title="Protestant work ethic">Protestant work ethic</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Lutheranism" title="History of Lutheranism">Lutheranism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Luther</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Ninety-five_Theses" title="Ninety-five Theses">Ninety-five Theses</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diet_of_Worms" title="Diet of Worms">Diet of Worms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theology_of_Martin_Luther" title="Theology of Martin Luther">Theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luther_Bible" title="Luther Bible">Bible</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philip_Melanchthon" title="Philip Melanchthon">Melanchthon</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Concord" title="Book of Concord">Book of Concord</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lutheran_orthodoxy" title="Lutheran orthodoxy">Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacramental_union" title="Sacramental union">Eucharist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lutheran_art" title="Lutheran art">Art</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Reformed_Christianity" title="History of Reformed Christianity">Calvinism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Huldrych_Zwingli" title="Huldrych Zwingli">Zwingli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Calvin" title="John Calvin">Calvin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huguenots" title="Huguenots">Huguenots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presbyterianism" title="Presbyterianism">Presbyterianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_Reformation" title="Scottish Reformation">Scotland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Knox" title="John Knox">Knox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five_points_of_Calvinism" class="mw-redirect" title="Five points of Calvinism">TULIP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformed_baptismal_theology" title="Reformed baptismal theology">Baptism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synod_of_Dort" title="Synod of Dort">Dort</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_Forms_of_Unity" title="Three Forms of Unity">Three Forms of Unity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Westminster_Assembly" title="Westminster Assembly">Westminster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformed_orthodoxy" title="Reformed orthodoxy">Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metrical_psalter" title="Metrical psalter">Metrical psalters</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/English_Reformation" title="English Reformation">Anglicanism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_English_Reformation" title="Timeline of the English Reformation">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_VIII" title="Henry VIII">Henry VIII</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Cranmer" title="Thomas Cranmer">Cranmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elizabethan_Religious_Settlement" title="Elizabethan Religious Settlement">Elizabethan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirty-nine_Articles" title="Thirty-nine Articles">39 Articles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Puritans" title="Puritans">Puritans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_Civil_War" title="English Civil War">Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglican_church_music" title="Anglican church music">Church music</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Common_Prayer" title="Book of Common Prayer">Book of Common Prayer</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/King_James_Version" title="King James Version">King James Version</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Anabaptism" title="Anabaptism">Anabaptism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anabaptist_theology" title="Anabaptist theology">Theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radical_Reformation" title="Radical Reformation">Radical Reformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conrad_Grebel" title="Conrad Grebel">Grebel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swiss_Brethren" title="Swiss Brethren">Swiss Brethren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_M%C3%BCntzer" title="Thomas Müntzer">Müntzer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martyrs%27_Synod" title="Martyrs' Synod">Martyrs' Synod</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menno_Simons" title="Menno Simons">Menno Simons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Smyth_(English_theologian)" title="John Smyth (English theologian)">Smyth</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Martyrs_Mirror" title="Martyrs Mirror">Martyrs Mirror</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ausbund" title="Ausbund">Ausbund</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_modern_era" title="Christianity in the modern era">1640–1789</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_revival" title="Christian revival">Revivalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_mission" title="Christian mission">Missionaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baptists" title="Baptists">Baptists</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baptists_in_the_history_of_separation_of_church_and_state" title="Baptists in the history of separation of church and state">Separation of church and state</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edict_of_toleration#Early_modern_period" title="Edict of toleration">Edicts of toleration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congregational_church" class="mw-redirect" title="Congregational church">Congregationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Great_Awakening" title="First Great Awakening">First Great Awakening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methodism" title="Methodism">Methodism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Millerism" title="Millerism">Millerism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pietism" title="Pietism">Pietism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Merton_thesis" title="Merton thesis">Fostering of early experimental science</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Lutheranism" title="Neo-Lutheranism">Neo-</a> and <a href="/wiki/Old_Lutherans" title="Old Lutherans">Old Lutherans</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_modern_era" title="Christianity in the modern era">1789–present</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Camp_meeting" title="Camp meeting">Camp meeting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holiness_movement" title="Holiness movement">Holiness movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Great_Awakening" title="Second Great Awakening">Second Great Awakening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restoration_Movement" title="Restoration Movement">Restorationists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Jehovah%27s_Witnesses" title="History of Jehovah's Witnesses">Jehovah's Witnesses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Latter_Day_Saint_movement" title="History of the Latter Day Saint movement">Mormonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Seventh-day_Adventist_Church" title="History of the Seventh-day Adventist Church">Seventh-day Adventist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adventism" title="Adventism">Adventism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxford_Movement" title="Oxford Movement">Oxford Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laestadianism" title="Laestadianism">Laestadianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Awakening_(Finnish_religious_movement)" title="Awakening (Finnish religious movement)">Finnish Awakening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_existentialism" title="Christian existentialism">Christian existentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Great_Awakening" title="Third Great Awakening">Third Great Awakening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Azusa_Street_Revival" title="Azusa Street Revival">Azusa Revival</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gospel_music" title="Gospel music">Gospel music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fundamentalist%E2%80%93Modernist_controversy" class="mw-redirect" title="Fundamentalist–Modernist controversy">Fundamentalist – Modernist controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_pacifism" title="Christian pacifism">Pacifism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecumenism" title="Ecumenism">Ecumenism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five_solae" title="Five solae">Five <i>solae</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jesus_movement" title="Jesus movement">Jesus movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pentecostalism" title="Pentecostalism">Pentecostalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charismatic_Movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Charismatic Movement">Charismatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberation_theology" title="Liberation theology">Liberation theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformed_epistemology" title="Reformed epistemology">Reformed epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Great_Awakening" title="Fourth Great Awakening">Fourth Great Awakening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evangelicalism" title="Evangelicalism">Evangelical</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mainline_Protestant" title="Mainline Protestant">Mainline</a> Protestants</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_right" title="Christian right">Christian right</a> and <a href="/wiki/Christian_left" title="Christian left">left</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_influence_of_Evangelicalism_in_Latin_America" title="Political influence of Evangelicalism in Latin America">Political influence of Evangelicalism in Latin America</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Christianity" title="Timeline of Christianity">Timeline</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Christian_missions" title="Timeline of Christian missions">Missions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Christian_martyrs" title="List of Christian martyrs">Martyrs</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Christian_theology" title="History of Christian theology">Theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Eastern_Orthodox_Church" title="History of the Eastern Orthodox Church">Eastern Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Oriental_Orthodoxy" title="History of Oriental Orthodoxy">Oriental Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Protestantism" title="History of Protestantism">Protestantism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Catholic_Church" title="History of the Catholic Church">Catholicism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Christianity" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Christianity_footer" title="Template:Christianity footer"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Christianity_footer" title="Template talk:Christianity footer"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Christianity_footer" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Christianity footer"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Christianity" class="wraplinks" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_Christianity-related_articles" title="Index of Christianity-related articles">Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Christianity" title="Outline of Christianity">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_Christianity" title="Glossary of Christianity">Glossary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prophets_of_Christianity" title="Prophets of Christianity">Prophets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christians" title="Christians">People</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_Christians" title="Lists of Christians">Lists of Christians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_by_country" title="Christianity by country">By country</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Bible" title="Bible">Bible</a><br /><a href="/wiki/List_of_religious_texts#Christianity" title="List of religious texts">(Scriptures)</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_canon" title="Biblical canon">Canon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Testament" title="Old Testament">Old Testament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Testament" title="New Testament">New Testament</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Foundations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Church_(congregation)" title="Church (congregation)">Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creed" title="Creed">Creed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_gospel" title="The gospel">Gospel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Covenant" title="New Covenant">New Covenant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_tradition" title="Christian tradition">Christian tradition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_worship" title="Christian worship">Worship</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Christianity" title="History of Christianity">History</a><br />(<a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Christianity" title="Timeline of Christianity">timeline</a>)<br />(<a href="/wiki/Spread_of_Christianity" title="Spread of Christianity">spread</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Early_Christianity" title="Early Christianity">Early<br />Christianity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jesus" title="Jesus">Jesus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jesus_in_Christianity" title="Jesus in Christianity">in Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nativity_of_Jesus" title="Nativity of Jesus">Nativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baptism_of_Jesus" title="Baptism of Jesus">Baptism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Jesus" title="Ministry of Jesus">Ministry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sermon_on_the_Mount" title="Sermon on the Mount">Sermon on the Mount</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parables_of_Jesus" title="Parables of Jesus">Parables</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miracles_of_Jesus" title="Miracles of Jesus">Miracles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Commandment" title="Great Commandment">Great Commandment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crucifixion_of_Jesus" title="Crucifixion of Jesus">Crucifixion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resurrection_of_Jesus" title="Resurrection of Jesus">Resurrection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Commission" title="Great Commission">Great Commission</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apostles_in_the_New_Testament" title="Apostles in the New Testament">Apostles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_Fathers" title="Church Fathers">Church fathers</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apostolic_Fathers" title="Apostolic Fathers">Apostolic fathers</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Great_Church" title="Great Church">Great Church</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_ante-Nicene_period" title="Christianity in the ante-Nicene period">Ante-Nicene period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_late_antiquity" title="Christianity in late antiquity">Late antiquity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constantine_the_Great_and_Christianity" title="Constantine the Great and Christianity">Constantine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_seven_ecumenical_councils" title="First seven ecumenical councils">First seven ecumenical councils</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Council_of_Nicaea" title="First Council of Nicaea">Nicaea I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Chalcedon" title="Council of Chalcedon">Chalcedon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_as_the_Roman_state_religion" title="Christianity as the Roman state religion">State church of the Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_biblical_canon" class="mw-redirect" title="Christian biblical canon">Christian biblical canon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Middle Ages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_monasticism" title="Christian monasticism">Monasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papal_States" title="Papal States">Papal States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East%E2%80%93West_Schism" title="East–West Schism">East–West Schism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Investiture_Controversy" title="Investiture Controversy">Investiture Controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusades" title="Crusades">Crusades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_and_the_Age_of_Discovery" title="Catholic Church and the Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_modern_era" title="Christianity in the modern era">Modern era</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reformation" title="Reformation">Protestant Reformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter-Reformation" title="Counter-Reformation">Catholic Reformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War" title="Thirty Years' War">Thirty Years' War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dechristianization_of_France_during_the_French_Revolution" title="Dechristianization of France during the French Revolution">French Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_and_Islam" title="Christianity and Islam">Relations with Islam</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_influences_on_the_Islamic_world" title="Christian influences on the Islamic world">Influences</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Christian_denomination" title="Christian denomination">Denominations</a><br />(<a href="/wiki/List_of_Christian_denominations" title="List of Christian denominations">list</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_Christian_denominations_by_number_of_members" title="List of Christian denominations by number of members">members</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Western_Christianity" title="Western Christianity">Western</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Catholic_Church" title="Old Catholic Church">Old Catholic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independent_Catholicism" title="Independent Catholicism">Independent Catholic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protestantism" title="Protestantism">Protestant</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adventism" title="Adventism">Adventist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anabaptism" title="Anabaptism">Anabaptist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglicanism" title="Anglicanism">Anglican</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baptists" title="Baptists">Baptist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charismatic_Christianity" title="Charismatic Christianity">Charismatic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evangelicalism" title="Evangelicalism">Evangelical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holiness_movement" title="Holiness movement">Holiness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lutheranism" title="Lutheranism">Lutheran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methodism" title="Methodism">Methodist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pentecostalism" title="Pentecostalism">Pentecostal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quakers" title="Quakers">Quakers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformed_Christianity" title="Reformed Christianity">Reformed</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Rite_Orthodoxy" title="Western Rite Orthodoxy">Western Rite Orthodoxy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Christianity" title="Eastern Christianity">Eastern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodoxy" title="Eastern Orthodoxy">Eastern Orthodox</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_Church" title="Eastern Orthodox Church">Church</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oriental_Orthodox_Churches" title="Oriental Orthodox Churches">Oriental Orthodox (Miaphysite)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_of_the_East" title="Church of the East">Church of the East (Nestorian)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Catholic_Churches" title="Eastern Catholic Churches">Eastern Catholic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Restorationism" title="Restorationism">Restorationist</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jehovah%27s_Witnesses" title="Jehovah's Witnesses">Jehovah's Witnesses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latter_Day_Saint_movement" title="Latter Day Saint movement">Latter Day Saint movement</a></li> <li><span title="Tagalog-language text"><span lang="tl" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Iglesia_ni_Cristo" title="Iglesia ni Cristo">Iglesia ni Cristo</a></span></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Christian_theology" title="Christian theology">Theology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Christianity" title="God in Christianity">God</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Trinity" title="Trinity">Trinity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_the_Father" title="God the Father">Father</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Son_of_God_(Christianity)" title="Son of God (Christianity)">Son</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Spirit_in_Christianity" title="Holy Spirit in Christianity">Holy Spirit</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christology" title="Christology">Christology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicene_Creed" title="Nicene Creed">Nicene Creed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacred_tradition" title="Sacred tradition">Tradition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Original_sin" title="Original sin">Original sin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salvation_in_Christianity" title="Salvation in Christianity">Salvation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Born_again" title="Born again">Born again</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_liturgy" title="Christian liturgy">Liturgy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_liturgy" title="Catholic liturgy">Catholic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Catholic_liturgy" title="Eastern Catholic liturgy">Eastern Catholic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_worship" title="Eastern Orthodox worship">Eastern Orthodox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protestant_liturgy" title="Protestant liturgy">Protestant</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_worship" title="Christian worship">Worship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mariology" title="Mariology">Mariology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theotokos" title="Theotokos">Theotokos</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint" title="Saint">Saints</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angels_in_Christianity" title="Angels in Christianity">Angel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecclesiology" title="Ecclesiology">Ecclesiology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Four_Marks_of_the_Church" title="Four Marks of the Church">Four marks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Body_of_Christ" title="Body of Christ">Body of Christ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/One_true_church" title="One true church">One true church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People_of_God" title="People of God">People of God</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canon_law" title="Canon law">Canon law</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacrament" title="Sacrament">Sacraments</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baptism" title="Baptism">Baptism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eucharist" title="Eucharist">Eucharist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_views_on_marriage" title="Christian views on marriage">Marriage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confirmation" title="Confirmation">Confirmation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penance" title="Penance">Penance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anointing_of_the_sick" title="Anointing of the sick">Anointing of the Sick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_orders" title="Holy orders">Holy orders</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_mission" title="Christian mission">Mission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ablution_in_Christianity" title="Ablution in Christianity">Ablution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hygiene_in_Christianity" title="Hygiene in Christianity">Hygiene</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Christian_philosophy" title="Christian philosophy">Philosophy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_ethics" title="Christian ethics">Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_and_science" title="Christianity and science">Science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rejection_of_evolution_by_religious_groups" title="Rejection of evolution by religious groups">Evolution</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_and_politics" title="Christianity and politics">Politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_views_on_poverty_and_wealth" title="Christian views on poverty and wealth">Views on poverty and wealth</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other<br />features</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Christian_culture" title="Christian culture">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Church_architecture" title="Church architecture">Architecture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_cathedrals_and_great_churches" title="Architecture of cathedrals and great churches">Architecture of cathedrals and great churches</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_art" title="Christian art">Art</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Depiction_of_Jesus" title="Depiction of Jesus">Jesus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marian_art_in_the_Catholic_Church" title="Marian art in the Catholic Church">Mary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Trinity_in_art" title="The Trinity in art">Trinity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_the_Father_in_Western_art" title="God the Father in Western art">God the Father</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Spirit_in_Christian_art" title="Holy Spirit in Christian art">Holy Spirit</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catechesis" title="Catechesis">Education</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catechism" title="Catechism">Catechism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_Flag" title="Christian Flag">Flag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_literature" title="Christian literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_music" title="Christian music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_mythology" title="Christian mythology">Mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_pilgrimage" title="Christian pilgrimage">Pilgrimage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Popular_piety" title="Popular piety">Popular piety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_(building)" title="Church (building)">Church buildings</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_cathedrals" title="Lists of cathedrals">Cathedrals</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Role_of_Christianity_in_civilization" title="Role of Christianity in civilization">Role in civilization</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Christian_movements" title="List of Christian movements">Movements</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crusading_movement" title="Crusading movement">Crusading movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_anarchism" title="Christian anarchism">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charismatic_movement" title="Charismatic movement">Charismatic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_democracy" title="Christian democracy">Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_views_on_environmentalism" title="Christian views on environmentalism">Environmentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_existentialism" title="Christian existentialism">Existentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_fundamentalism" title="Christian fundamentalism">Fundamentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberation_theology" title="Liberation theology">Liberation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_left" title="Christian left">Left</a>/<a href="/wiki/Christian_right" title="Christian right">Right</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_mysticism" title="Christian mysticism">Mysticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_pacifism" title="Christian pacifism">Pacifism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prosperity_theology" title="Prosperity theology">Prosperity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditionalist_Catholicism" title="Traditionalist Catholicism">Traditionalist Catholicism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Cooperation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christendom" title="Christendom">Christendom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecumenism" title="Ecumenism">Ecumenism</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Charta_Oecumenica" title="Charta Oecumenica">Charta Oecumenica</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Council_of_Churches" title="World Council of Churches">World Council of Churches</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Evangelical_Alliance" title="World Evangelical Alliance">World Evangelical Alliance</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nondenominational_Christianity" class="mw-redirect" title="Nondenominational Christianity">Nondenominationalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Christian_sentiment" title="Anti-Christian sentiment">Anti-Christian sentiment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_universalism" title="Christian universalism">Christian universalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_Christianity" title="Criticism of Christianity">Criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_Christians" title="Cultural Christians">Cultural Christians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians" title="Persecution of Christians">Persecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_and_other_religions" title="Christianity and other religions">Relations with other religions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unlimited_atonement" title="Unlimited atonement">Unlimited atonement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:P_christianity.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/P_christianity.svg/16px-P_christianity.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/P_christianity.svg/24px-P_christianity.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/P_christianity.svg/32px-P_christianity.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="360" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Christianity" title="Portal:Christianity">Christianity portal</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Christianity" title="Category:Christianity">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="European_Middle_Ages" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Middle_Ages" title="Template:Middle Ages"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Middle_Ages" class="mw-redirect" title="Template talk:Middle Ages"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Middle_Ages" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Middle Ages"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="European_Middle_Ages" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">European Middle Ages</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Early_Middle_Ages" title="Early Middle Ages">Early Middle Ages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Migration_Period" title="Migration Period">Migration Period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Historiography of the fall of the Western Roman Empire">Decline of the Western Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbarian_kingdoms" title="Barbarian kingdoms">Barbarian kingdoms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_antiquity" title="Late antiquity">Late antiquity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_pagans_in_the_late_Roman_Empire" title="Persecution of pagans in the late Roman Empire">Decline of Hellenistic religion</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Christianity in the Middle Ages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianization" title="Christianization">Christianization</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spread_of_Islam" title="Spread of Islam">Rise of Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papal_States" title="Papal States">Papal States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Bulgarian_Empire" title="First Bulgarian Empire">First Bulgarian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francia" title="Francia">Frankish Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Croatia_(925%E2%80%931102)" title="Kingdom of Croatia (925–1102)">Kingdom of Croatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Anglo-Saxon_England" title="History of Anglo-Saxon England">Anglo-Saxon England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viking_Age" title="Viking Age">Viking Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carolingian_Empire" title="Carolingian Empire">Carolingian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Church_Slavonic" title="Old Church Slavonic">Old Church Slavonic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Venice" title="Republic of Venice">Rise of the Venetian Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civitas_Schinesghe" title="Civitas Schinesghe">Civitas Schinesghe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kievan_Rus%27" title="Kievan Rus'">Kievan Rus'</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire_under_the_Justinian_dynasty" title="Byzantine Empire under the Justinian dynasty">Growth of the Eastern Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconquista" title="Reconquista">Reconquista</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/High_Middle_Ages" title="High Middle Ages">High Middle Ages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Norman_Conquest" title="Norman Conquest">Norman Conquest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Bulgarian_Empire" title="Second Bulgarian Empire">Second Bulgarian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Georgia" title="Kingdom of Georgia">Georgian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Poland" title="Kingdom of Poland">Kingdom of Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">Feudalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Genoa" title="Republic of Genoa">Rise of the Republic of Genoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East%E2%80%93West_Schism" title="East–West Schism">Great Schism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Investiture_Controversy" title="Investiture Controversy">Investiture Controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusades" title="Crusades">Crusades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Florence" title="Republic of Florence">Republic of Florence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capet%E2%80%93Plantagenet_feud" class="mw-redirect" title="Capet–Plantagenet feud">Capet–Plantagenet feud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_monasticism" title="Christian monasticism">Monasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_commune" title="Medieval commune">Communalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manorialism" title="Manorialism">Manorialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_Warm_Period" title="Medieval Warm Period">Medieval Warm Period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_Europe" title="Mongol invasion of Europe">Mongol invasion of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Portugal" title="Kingdom of Portugal">Kingdom of Portugal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Late_Middle_Ages" title="Late Middle Ages">Late Middle Ages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hundred_Years%27_War" title="Hundred Years' War">Hundred Years' War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wars_of_the_Roses" title="Wars of the Roses">Wars of the Roses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hussite_Wars" title="Hussite Wars">Hussite Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Burgundy" title="Duchy of Burgundy">Burgundy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Milan" title="Duchy of Milan">Milan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_France" title="Kingdom of France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_England" title="Kingdom of England">England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Castile" title="Crown of Castile">Castile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Schism" title="Western Schism">Western Schism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">Fall of Constantinople</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rise_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Rise of the Ottoman Empire">Rise of the Ottoman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swiss_mercenaries" title="Swiss mercenaries">Swiss mercenaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chivalry" title="Chivalry">Chivalry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_humanism" title="Renaissance humanism">Renaissance Humanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_university" title="Medieval university">Universities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crisis_of_the_late_Middle_Ages" title="Crisis of the late Middle Ages">Crisis of the late Middle Ages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Famine_of_1315%E2%80%931317" title="Great Famine of 1315–1317">Great Famine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Little_Ice_Age" title="Little Ice Age">Little Ice Age</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Culture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Agriculture in the Middle Ages">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_architecture" title="Medieval architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_art" title="Medieval art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_and_state_in_medieval_Europe" title="Church and state in medieval Europe">Church and State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_cuisine" title="Medieval cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusading_movement" title="Crusading movement">Crusading movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_dance" title="Medieval dance">Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_demography" title="Medieval demography">Demography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_medieval_Arabic_and_Western_European_domes" title="History of medieval Arabic and Western European domes">Domes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hastilude" title="Hastilude">Hastilude</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_household" title="Medieval household">Household</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_hunting" title="Medieval hunting">Hunting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages_in_popular_culture" title="Middle Ages in popular culture">In popular culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Itinerant_court" title="Itinerant court">Itinerant court</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_literature" title="Medieval literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_medicine_of_Western_Europe" title="Medieval medicine of Western Europe">Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minstrel" title="Minstrel">Minstrel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_music" title="Medieval music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_poetry" title="Medieval poetry">Poetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_science_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="European science in the Middle Ages">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_medieval_Europe" title="Slavery in medieval Europe">Slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_technology" title="Medieval technology">Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_theatre" title="Medieval theatre">Theatre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_warfare" title="Medieval warfare">Warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Women in the Middle Ages">Women</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dark_Ages_(historiography)" title="Dark Ages (historiography)">Dark Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disability_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Disability in the Middle Ages">Disability in the Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_the_Middle_Ages" title="Outline of the Middle Ages">Basic topics list</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_medieval_land_terms" title="List of medieval land terms">Land terms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medievalism" title="Medievalism">Medievalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_reenactment" title="Medieval reenactment">Medieval reenactment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_studies" title="Medieval studies">Medieval studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_the_Middle_Ages" title="List of common misconceptions about the Middle Ages">Misconceptions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-medievalism" title="Neo-medievalism">Neo-medievalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-classical_history" title="Post-classical history">Post-classical history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_post-classical_history" title="Timeline of post-classical history">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Historiography in the Middle Ages">Historiography in the Middle Ages</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Middle_Ages" title="Portal:Middle Ages">Portal</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Middle_Ages" title="Category:Middle Ages">Category</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="WikiProject"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/16px-People_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/24px-People_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/32px-People_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Middle_Ages" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Middle Ages">WikiProject</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="History_of_Europe" 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class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_Middle_Ages" title="Early Middle Ages">Early Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Migration_Period" title="Migration Period">Migration Period</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Christianity in the Middle Ages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianization" title="Christianization">Christianization</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francia" title="Francia">Francia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Anglo-Saxon_England" title="History of Anglo-Saxon England">Anglo-Saxon England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papal_States" title="Papal States">Papal States</a></li> <li>Bulgarian Empire <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Bulgarian_Empire" title="First Bulgarian Empire">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Bulgarian_Empire" title="Second Bulgarian Empire">Second</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_republics" title="Maritime republics">Maritime republics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Venice" title="Republic of Venice">Venice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Genoa" title="Republic of Genoa">Genoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Pisa" title="Republic of Pisa">Pisa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Amalfi" title="Duchy of Amalfi">Amalfi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viking_Age" title="Viking Age">Viking Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kievan_Rus%27" title="Kievan Rus'">Kievan Rus'</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Aragon" title="Crown of Aragon">Crown of Aragon</a> (<a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Aragon" title="Kingdom of Aragon">Aragon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Catalonia" title="Principality of Catalonia">Catalonia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Valencia" title="Kingdom of Valencia">Valencia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Majorca" title="Kingdom of Majorca">Majorca</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_Middle_Ages" title="High Middle Ages">High Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Florence" title="Republic of Florence">Republic of Florence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">Feudalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusades" title="Crusades">Crusades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_Europe" title="Mongol invasion of Europe">Mongol invasion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serbian_Empire" title="Serbian Empire">Serbian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_Middle_Ages" title="Late Middle Ages">Late Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Death" title="Black Death">Black Death</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hundred_Years%27_War" title="Hundred Years' War">Hundred Years' War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalmar_Union" title="Kalmar Union">Kalmar Union</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Modern_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern period">Modern period</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_Europe" title="Early modern Europe">Early modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_modern_era" title="Christianity in the modern era">Christianity in the modern era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reformation" title="Reformation">Reformation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Discovery" title="Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baroque" title="Baroque">Baroque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Tuscany" title="Grand Duchy of Tuscany">Grand Duchy of Tuscany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War" title="Thirty Years' War">Thirty Years' War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Absolute_monarchy" title="Absolute monarchy">Absolute monarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Empire" title="Portuguese Empire">Portuguese Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Spanish Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Early modern France">Early modern France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cossack_Hetmanate" title="Cossack Hetmanate">Cossack Hetmanate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_Empire" title="Swedish Empire">Swedish Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Republic" title="Dutch Republic">Dutch Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habsburg_monarchy" title="Habsburg monarchy">Habsburg monarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Divergence" title="Great Divergence">Great Divergence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_Wars" title="Napoleonic Wars">Napoleonic Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rise_of_nationalism_in_Europe" title="Rise of nationalism in Europe">Nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1848" title="Revolutions of 1848">Revolutions of 1848</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Revolution" title="Russian Revolution">Russian Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interwar_period" title="Interwar period">Interwar period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_integration" title="European integration">European integration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_debt_crisis" title="European debt crisis">European debt crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Europe" title="COVID-19 pandemic in Europe">COVID-19 pandemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine" title="Russian invasion of Ukraine">Russian invasion of Ukraine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Europe" title="Art of Europe">Art of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_European_history" title="Bibliography of European history">Bibliography of European history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_history_of_Europe" title="Genetic history of Europe">Genetic history of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Christianity" title="History of Christianity">History of Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Mediterranean_region" title="History of the Mediterranean region">History of the Mediterranean region</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_European_Union" title="History of the European Union">History of the European Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Western_civilization" title="History of Western civilization">History of Western civilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_history_of_Europe" title="Maritime history of Europe">Maritime history of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Europe" title="Military history of Europe">Military history of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusading_movement" title="Crusading movement">Crusading movement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-label="Navbox" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a>: National <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5775692#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" 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