CINXE.COM
Encyclopaedia Iranica
<!DOCTYPE html> <html id="top" lang="en-US" itemscope itemtype="http://schema.org/WebPage"> <!-- 2021-05-17 - 11:00 (logo-graphic-3-svg-minified.xml) --> <!-- /app/view/layouts/default.ctp --> <head> <title>Encyclopaedia Iranica</title> <meta charset="utf-8" /> <meta name="description" content="The Encyclopaedia Iranica is a comprehensive research tool dedicated to the study of Iranian civilization in the Middle East, the Caucasus, Central Asia, and the Indian subcontinent"> <meta name="keywords" content="iran, persia iran history, persia history, persian language, afghanistan, central asia, zoroastrianism, shi鈥檌sm" /> <meta name="author" content="Encyclopaedia Iranica Foundation" /> <meta name="thumbnail" content="https://iranicaonline.org/webroot/uploads/images/og/vol-16.jpg"> <link rel="alternate" href="" title="RSS Feed" type="application/rss+xml" /> <!-- css --> <link rel="stylesheet" href="https://iranicaonline.org/app/webroot/css/global.css" /> <!-- open graph data --> <meta property="og:title" content="Welcome to Encyclopaedia Iranica" /> <meta property="og:description" content="The Encyclopaedia Iranica is a comprehensive research tool dedicated to the study of Iranian civilization in the Middle East, the Caucasus, Central Asia, and the Indian subcontinent" /> <meta property="og:image" content="https://iranicaonline.org/webroot/uploads/images/og/vol-16.jpg" /> <meta property="og:url" content="https://iranicaonline.org" /> <meta property="og:type" content="article" /> <!-- twitter card data --> <meta name="twitter:card" content="summary_large_image" /> <meta name="twitter:title" content="Welcome to Encyclopaedia Iranica" /> <meta name="twitter:description" content="The Encyclopaedia Iranica is a comprehensive research tool dedicated to the study of Iranian civilization in the Middle East, the Caucasus, Central Asia, and the Indian subcontinent" /> <meta name="twitter:image:src" content="https://iranicaonline.org/webroot/uploads/images/og/vol-16.jpg" /> <meta name="twitter:creator" content="Encyclopaedia Iranica Foundation" /> <meta name="twitter:site" content="https://iranicaonline.org" /> <meta name="twitter:domain" content="iranicaonline.org" /> <!-- favicons --> <link rel="shortcut icon" href="https://iranicaonline.org/favicon.ico" /> <link rel="icon" href="https://iranicaonline.org/favicon.ico" /> <link rel="apple-touch-icon-precomposed" href="https://iranicaonline.org/apple-touch-icon-precomposed.png" /> <!-- scripts --> <script src="/js/jquery-1.3.2.min.js" type="text/javascript" charset="utf-8"></script> <script src="/js/jquery-ui-1.7.2.custom.min.js" type="text/javascript" charset="utf-8"></script> <script src="/js/global.js" type="text/javascript" charset="utf-8"></script> <!-- content --> <script type="text/javascript" src="/js/article_index.js"></script> </head> <body> <div id="ornament"> <div id="wrap"> <div id="navigation-sidebar"> <!-- logo-graphic-3-svg-minified.xml --> <div style="width: 93px; height: 142px; margin-bottom: 20px; margin-left: 12px;" alt="Iranica Logo" border="0" /><a href="/"> <svg enable-background="new 0 0 93 142" version="1.1" viewBox="0 0 93 142" xml:space="preserve" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"> <style type="text/css">.st0{fill:#4A5C6B;}.st1{fill:#B7D1E3;}</style> <path class="st0" d="m46.5 142c-0.8 0-1.6-0.4-2-1.1v-0.1c-0.3-0.5-0.9-1.5-1.1-3.4v-0.4c-0.1-2.5-0.3-4-0.5-4.7 0-0.1-0.1-0.2-0.2-0.3-0.2-0.3-0.5-0.7-0.7-1l-0.1-0.1c-0.7-0.9-1.4-1.9-1.9-3.2-0.1-0.3-0.4-0.6-0.7-0.8-0.2-0.2-0.6-0.4-0.8-0.5h-0.1c-0.5-0.3-1.2-0.7-1.8-1.2-2.6-1.9-4.8-7-4.9-8.9v-0.1c0-0.2 0-0.4 0.1-0.6 0-0.1 0.1-0.3 0.2-0.5 0.2-0.5 0.2-1-0.1-1.5-0.2-0.5-0.7-0.8-1.2-0.9-5.4-1.2-9.2-4-11.5-8.3-1.7-3.2-1.9-7.4-0.5-11.3 0.2-0.7 0-1.4-0.5-1.8-0.3-0.3-0.7-0.4-1.1-0.4-0.3 0-0.5 0.1-0.8 0.2-1.1 0.5-2.2 0.8-3.2 0.8-2.1 0-4.1-1.2-5.3-3.2 0 0 0-0.1-0.1-0.1-0.1-0.1-0.1-0.1-0.1-0.2v-0.1c-0.6-1.7-0.4-3.4 0.6-4.9 0.6-0.9 1.6-1.7 2.7-2.3 0.6-0.3 1-1 0.9-1.7s-0.6-1.3-1.3-1.4h-0.1c-0.3-0.1-0.6-0.2-1-0.2-0.5 0-0.9 0.1-1.6 0.4l-0.3 0.1c-0.9 0.3-2 0.7-3.5 0.7-0.6 0-1.3-0.1-1.9-0.2-0.1 0-0.2-0.1-0.4-0.1-1-0.6-1.7-1.6-1.7-2.7 0-1.4 1.2-2.5 2.3-3 0.1-0.1 0.3-0.1 0.4-0.2 0.4-0.3 1.4-1.4 1.7-3.9 0.1-1.3 0.2-2.3 0.3-3.3v-0.2c0.3-2.8 0.5-5.5 1.7-8.7 1.6-4.3 5.4-10.3 8-12.7 0.8-0.7 1-1 1.3-1.7v-0.1-0.1c0.2-0.5 0.6-1.5 1.7-3.1 3-4.4 7.1-6 13.1-7.3 0.7-0.1 1.2-0.7 1.3-1.4s-0.2-1.4-0.8-1.8c-0.1-0.1-0.3-0.2-0.5-0.4-0.5-0.5-0.8-1.3-0.7-2.1 0.2-1.8 3.5-5.6 6.5-8.3 0.2-0.2 0.4-0.5 0.5-0.7 0.8-2.3 2-4.7 3.4-6.6 0.1-0.2 0.3-0.3 0.4-0.5 0.1-0.1 0.2-0.2 0.3-0.4 1-1.2 1.5-1.9 1.7-3.1 0.3-0.5 0.4-0.9 0.4-1.3 0-0.3 0.1-0.5 0.1-0.7v-0.2c0.1-1.1 0.2-1.4 0.3-1.8 0.3-0.8 0.9-1.6 1.6-2 0.5-0.3 1-0.4 1.4-0.4h0.1c0.5 0 1 0.2 1.4 0.4h0.1c0.7 0.4 1.2 1.1 1.5 1.9 0.1 0.4 0.2 0.9 0.4 2 0 0.2 0.1 0.4 0.1 0.6 0 0.5 0 0.9 0.1 1.5 0.2 1.2 0.8 2 1.7 3.2l0.3 0.3c0.2 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.4 0.5 1.4 1.9 2.6 4.3 3.4 6.6 0.1 0.3 0.3 0.5 0.5 0.7 3.1 2.7 6.3 6.5 6.5 8.3 0.1 0.8-0.2 1.6-0.7 2.1-0.2 0.1-0.3 0.3-0.4 0.4-0.6 0.4-0.9 1.1-0.8 1.8s0.7 1.2 1.3 1.4c8 1.7 10.9 3.9 13.1 7.3 0.9 1.3 1.3 2.3 1.6 2.9l0.1 0.2c0.3 0.9 0.6 1.1 1.4 1.9 2.6 2.5 6.4 8.4 8 12.7 1.2 3.2 1.4 5.7 1.7 8.7v0.1c0 0.4 0.1 0.8 0.1 1.2 0.1 0.7 0.1 1.3 0.2 2.1 0.3 2.3 1.1 3.3 1.4 3.6 0.2 0.2 0.4 0.4 0.7 0.5 0.9 0.4 2.3 1.5 2.3 3 0 1.1-0.7 2.1-1.8 2.5-0.1 0-0.3 0.1-0.3 0.1-0.7 0.1-1.3 0.2-2 0.2-1.5 0-2.6-0.4-3.6-0.7l-0.1-0.1c-0.6-0.2-1-0.4-1.6-0.4-0.4 0-0.9 0.1-1.3 0.2-0.6 0.2-1.1 0.8-1.1 1.5-0.1 0.7 0.3 1.3 0.9 1.6 1.1 0.6 2.1 1.5 2.7 2.4 1 1.4 1.2 3.2 0.6 4.9v0.1c0 0.1-0.1 0.2-0.1 0.2s0 0.1-0.1 0.1c-1.2 2.1-3.1 3.2-5.3 3.2-1 0-2.1-0.3-3.2-0.8-0.2-0.1-0.5-0.2-0.8-0.2-0.4 0-0.8 0.1-1.1 0.4-0.5 0.5-0.7 1.2-0.5 1.8 1.3 3.9 1.1 8-0.5 11.3-2.2 4.3-6.1 7.1-11.5 8.3-0.5 0.1-0.9 0.4-1.2 0.9-0.2 0.5-0.3 1 0 1.5 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.4 0.2 0.5 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.4 0 0.6v0.1c-0.1 1.9-2.3 7.1-4.9 8.9l-1.8 1.2c-0.3 0.2-0.7 0.4-1 0.7-0.3 0.2-0.5 0.5-0.6 0.7-0.5 1.3-1.2 2.3-1.9 3.3-0.2 0.3-0.6 0.7-0.7 1-0.1 0.1-0.1 0.2-0.2 0.3-0.2 0.6-0.4 2.2-0.5 4.7v0.3 0.1c0 0.1-0.2 2.1-1.1 3.4 0 0 0 0.1-0.1 0.1-0.3 0.8-1 1.2-1.9 1.2z"/> <path class="st1" d="m89.8 75.1c-0.3-0.1-3-1.3-3.5-6.1s-0.4-7.7-1.9-11.6-5-9.6-7.4-11.8-1.3-2.3-3.4-5.4-4.6-5.2-14.9-6.9c-4.2-0.7-5.2-0.6-4.7-2.1s2.8-5.2 4.1-5.3 2 1 2.4 0.4c0.5-0.5-4.3-6.1-6.5-7.6-0.6-2.4-2-5.2-3.3-7s-2.6-3-2.9-5.2-0.4-3.3-0.6-3.6c-0.1-0.3-0.4-0.6-0.7-0.7-0.3 0.1-0.6 0.4-0.7 0.7s-0.2 1.4-0.6 3.6c-0.3 2.2-1.5 3.4-2.9 5.2s-2.8 4.5-3.3 7c-2.2 1.4-7.1 7.1-6.5 7.6 0.5 0.5 1.1-0.5 2.4-0.4s3.6 3.8 4.1 5.3-0.4 1.4-4.7 2.1c-10.2 1.6-12.8 3.8-14.9 6.9s-1 3.2-3.4 5.4-5.9 7.9-7.4 11.8-1.3 6.8-1.9 11.6-3.2 6-3.5 6.1-1.2 0.8-0.6 1.1c4.1 0.8 4.7-1.9 8.6-0.7 3.9 1.1 4.4 5.1 4.3 6.5-2.1 0-6.9 2.1-5.6 5.4 1.9 3.2 5.1 2.2 7.4 0 2.2-2.2 0.6-7-0.5-10.4s-1.7-6.9-1.3-10.4 3.5-8.1 5.7-12.9 0.6-7.8 0.4-8c-0.1-0.3-1.2-1.3 1.2-4.6 5.4-5.4 15.3-5.6 15.9-5.6s1.5 0.4 0.9 1.7c-2.8 4.2-7.4 4.4-8.4 4.5-1 0.2-0.8 0.7-0.7 2.3 0.1 1.7-1.3 4.7-3.6 7.2s-6.6 10.3-7.3 14.4 0.8 13.1 1.4 13.1 0.5-2.1 0.6-2.9 0.8-7.2 2.9-7.8 2.6 0.1 4.5 1.7c2.8 2 5.6 0.2 6.1-0.1 0.4-0.3 2.9-0.7 3.2-0.5s1.3 0.7 1.5 0.8 0.3 0.5 0.1 0.8c-0.4 0.4-3 2.7-3.6 4.2-3.2 0.1-5 1.4-6 3.7-4.6 1.3-4.3 5.8-4.2 8.4-5 2.7-7.8 10.4-4.9 16.1s8.6 6.9 10.3 7.2c1.4 0.3 2.4-0.2 3.5 0.5 1.6 1.4 5.7 2.1 7.8 2 0.3 2.1 1.2 2.8 1.6 3.1 0.3 0.3 0.2 1-0.3 1-0.4 0.1-1.6 1.1-1.7 1.3s0.1 0.4-1.7 0.6c-3.6 0.3-5.6-2.1-5.9-2.4s-0.6-1-0.7-0.5c0.1 1.3 2 5.8 3.9 7.1s3.6 2 4.1 3.3c0.6 2 2.2 3.4 2.8 4.7s0.8 4.8 0.8 6.1c0 0.8 0.4 2 0.8 2.3h0.1s0 0 0.1 0c0.3-0.2 0.7-1.5 0.8-2.3 0.1-1.3 0.2-4.8 0.8-6.1s2.2-2.7 2.8-4.7c0.4-1.3 2.2-1.9 4.1-3.3s3.9-5.8 3.9-7.1c-0.1-0.4-0.4 0.2-0.7 0.5s-2.3 2.7-5.9 2.4c-1.8-0.2-1.6-0.3-1.7-0.6s-1.3-1.3-1.7-1.3c-0.4-0.1-0.6-0.7-0.3-1s1.2-1 1.5-3.1c2.1 0.1 6.2-0.6 7.8-2 1.1-0.7 2.1-0.2 3.5-0.5 1.7-0.3 7.4-1.5 10.3-7.2s0.1-13.3-4.9-16.1c0.1-2.6 0.4-7.1-4.2-8.4-1-2.3-2.8-3.6-6-3.7-0.7-1.4-3.2-3.7-3.6-4.2-0.3-0.3-0.2-0.7 0.1-0.8s1.2-0.7 1.5-0.8c0.3-0.2 2.8 0.3 3.2 0.5 0.4 0.3 3.3 2.1 6.1 0.1 1.9-1.6 2.4-2.2 4.5-1.7s2.9 6.9 2.9 7.8c0.1 0.8 0 2.9 0.6 2.9s2-9 1.4-13.1-5-11.9-7.3-14.4-3.7-5.6-3.6-7.2c0.1-1.7 0.3-2.2-0.7-2.3-1-0.2-5.6-0.3-8.4-4.5-0.7-1.3 0.3-1.7 0.9-1.7s10.6 0.2 15.9 5.6c2.4 3.3 1.3 4.3 1.2 4.6s-1.7 3.2 0.4 8 5.3 9.4 5.7 12.9-0.2 7-1.3 10.4-2.8 8.2-0.5 10.4c2.2 2.2 5.5 3.2 7.4 0 1.2-3.3-3.6-5.4-5.6-5.4-0.1-1.4 0.4-5.4 4.3-6.5s4.5 1.5 8.6 0.7c0.5-0.2-0.4-1-0.7-1.1m-50.7-10.8c-1-3.1-5.5-5.5-6.1-6s0.6-2 1-3.3c0.4-1.4 1.3-6.6 1.2-8.3-0.1-1 1-1.4 1.9-1.9 0.8-0.4 4.6-3.8 5.4-6.8 0.1-0.5 0.5-0.3 1.2 0.5s1.9 2.3 1.2 3.7c-0.4 0.9-2 1.6-4.2 3-2.3 1.3-5.1 4.2-3.2 9.5 2 5.4 5.4 8 6.1 9.3s1.6 3.3 0.3 4.1-1.6 0.8-1.8 0.7c-0.7-0.2-2.1-1.4-3-4.5m7.5-33.8c0.3 0.2 1.7 1.2 1.7 2.4 0 1.5-1.3 2.4-1.7 2.7-0.3-0.2-1.7-1.2-1.7-2.7 0-1.2 1.3-2.2 1.7-2.4m0 30.1c-0.1 0-0.3-0.1-0.4-0.2-0.2-0.2-0.4-0.6-1.8-2.3s-2.2-3.7-1.9-5 1.8-1.7 2.6-1.4c0.7 0.2 1.2 1 1.4 1.2v0.1-0.1c0.2-0.2 0.7-1 1.4-1.2 0.9-0.3 2.4 0.1 2.6 1.4 0.3 1.3-0.6 3.3-1.9 5-1.4 1.7-1.6 2.1-1.8 2.3 0 0.1-0.1 0.2-0.2 0.2m-1.4 49.2c-0.3 0.4-3.2 1.2-7.1-0.4-3.9-1.7-8.1-5.4-8.1-6.8-0.1-1.3 1.3-2.2 2.5-2.2s4.7 2.8 5.5 3.7 4.6 3.7 5.6 4.4c1.2 0.7 1.9 0.9 1.6 1.3m17.9-7.2c-0.1 1.3-4.2 5.1-8.1 6.8s-6.8 0.8-7.1 0.4 0.4-0.6 1.5-1.3 4.8-3.5 5.6-4.4 4.3-3.7 5.5-3.7c1.3 0.1 2.7 0.9 2.6 2.2m-4.6-17.8c1.9 3.5 1.8 7.7 0.3 9.6s-3.5 2.4-5.9 3c0.4 4.7-1.3 6.2-3.2 8.6-1.5 1.9-2.6 1.9-3.1 1.8h-0.1-0.1c-0.4 0.1-1.5 0-3.1-1.8-2-2.3-3.7-3.8-3.2-8.6-2.3-0.5-4.4-1.1-5.9-3s-1.5-6.1 0.3-9.6c1.9-3.5 4.9-6.6 5.9-6.8 0-1.7 0.1-5.1 1.9-5.4 0.8-0.1 1.7 0.7 2.1 3.5 0.4 2.7 0.4 4.7-0.7 5.8-1.2 1.1-1.7 1.3-2.6 1.1-0.3 1-1.2 3-3.8 3.1 0 1.8-0.3 5.9 4.3 6.9 0.2 1.3 0.6 3.6 1.9 6.2 1.2 2.5 1.9 5 3 5.2h0.1s0 0 0.1 0c1.2-0.2 1.8-2.6 3-5.2 1.3-2.7 1.6-5 1.9-6.2 4.6-1 4.3-5.1 4.2-6.8-2.6-0.2-3.5-2.1-3.8-3.1-0.9 0.2-1.4 0-2.6-1.1s-1.2-3.1-0.7-5.8c0.4-2.7 1.3-3.5 2.1-3.5 1.9 0.2 1.9 3.7 1.9 5.4 0.9 0.2 4 3.2 5.8 6.7m-2.4-40.1c0.8 0.4 1.9 0.9 1.9 1.9-0.1 1.7 0.7 6.9 1.2 8.3 0.4 1.4 1.5 2.8 1 3.3-0.6 0.5-5.1 2.9-6.1 6s-2.3 4.4-2.9 4.5c-0.2 0.1-0.4 0.1-1.8-0.7-1.3-0.8-0.4-2.8 0.3-4.1s4.1-3.9 6.1-9.3-0.9-8.2-3.2-9.5-3.8-2.1-4.2-3c-0.7-1.3 0.6-2.8 1.2-3.7 0.7-0.8 1.1-1.1 1.2-0.5 0.7 3 4.5 6.4 5.3 6.8m-3.9-13.7c-0.6 0.1-1.1-2.2-1.2-2.6s-1.2-2.7-2-3.5-1.6-1-2.3-1.1c-0.8 0-1.6 0.3-2.3 1.1-0.8 0.8-1.9 3.1-2 3.5s-0.6 2.7-1.2 2.6-1.9-2.3-2.1-3.6c-0.3-1.3-1.3-2.1-1.4-2.7-0.2-0.5 0.1-0.7 2.9-2.2 2.8-1.4 3.8-4.1 4-4.6s1.5-1.7 2.4-1.8c0.9 0.1 2.2 1.3 2.4 1.8s1.2 3.2 4 4.6 3 1.6 2.9 2.2c-0.2 0.5-1.2 1.4-1.4 2.7-0.9 1.3-2.1 3.5-2.7 3.6"/> </svg> </a></div> <img src="/img/article-table-of-contents.gif" width="120" height="68" alt="table of contents" border="0" class="table-of-contents" /> <ul class="clearfix"> <li class=""><a href="/articles/index/Ab">Ab</a></li> <li class=""><a href="/articles/index/Ac">Ac</a></li> <li class="end "><a href="/articles/index/Am">Am</a></li> <li class=""><a href="/articles/index/As">As</a></li> <li class=""><a href="/articles/index/B">B</a></li> <li class="end "><a href="/articles/index/C">C</a></li> <li class=""><a href="/articles/index/D">D</a></li> <li class=""><a href="/articles/index/E">E</a></li> <li class="end "><a href="/articles/index/F">F</a></li> <li class=""><a href="/articles/index/G">G</a></li> <li class=""><a href="/articles/index/H">H</a></li> <li class="end "><a href="/articles/index/I">I</a></li> <li class=""><a href="/articles/index/J">J</a></li> <li class="here"><a href="/articles/index/K">K</a></li> <li class="end "><a href="/articles/index/L">L</a></li> <li class=""><a href="/articles/index/M">M</a></li> <li class=""><a href="/articles/index/N">N</a></li> <li class="end "><a href="/articles/index/O">O</a></li> <li class=""><a href="/articles/index/P">P</a></li> <li class=""><a href="/articles/index/Q">Q</a></li> <li class="end "><a href="/articles/index/R">R</a></li> <li class=""><a href="/articles/index/S">S</a></li> <li class=""><a href="/articles/index/T">T</a></li> <li class="end "><a href="/articles/index/U">U</a></li> <li class=""><a href="/articles/index/V">V</a></li> <li class=""><a href="/articles/index/W">W</a></li> <li class="end "><a href="/articles/index/X">X</a></li> <li class=""><a href="/articles/index/Y">Y</a></li> <li class=""><a href="/articles/index/Z">Z</a></li> <li class="blank end"> </li> </ul> <div id="additional-links"> <a href="/pages/resources"><img src="/img/navigation-sidebar-resources.gif" width="120" height="33" alt="Chronology" border="0" /></a> <a href="/pages/citing-iranica"><img src="/img/navigation-sidebar-citing-iranica.gif" width="120" height="30" alt="Citing Iranica" border="0" /></a> <a href="/pages/authors"><img src="/img/navigation-sidebar-authors.gif" width="120" height="30" alt="Authors" border="0" class="authors" /></a> <a href="/events/"><img src="/img/navigation-sidebar-events.gif" width="120" height="64" alt="" border="0" /></a> </div> </div> <div id="main"> <div id="header"> <!-- logo-text-svg-minified.xml --> <div style="width: 100%; height: auto; background-color: none; margin: 30px 0 15px; padding: 0; float: left; display: block;"><div style="width: 50%;"><a href="/"> <svg version="1.1" id="Layer_1" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" x="0" y="0" viewBox="0 0 300 29.8" xml:space="preserve"><style>.st0{fill:#122634}</style><g id="Mrs_Eaves_XL"><path class="st0" d="M0 21.8c3 0 3.4-.6 3.4-4.2V5.8C3.4 2.2 3 1.6 0 1.6V.9h16.5l.3 4.8H16l-.1-.7c-.5-1.8-.9-2.7-4.2-2.7H6.5v8.1h1.7c3.6 0 4.2-.4 4.2-3.4h.8v8.2h-.8c0-3-.6-3.4-4.2-3.4H6.5V17c0 3.6.4 4.1 3.4 4.1h3c3.3 0 3.7-.9 4.2-2.8l.2-.7h.7l-.3 4.9H0v-.7zM30.2 22.6v-.7c2.4 0 2.9-.6 2.9-4.2v-4.9c0-3.1-1.5-4.5-3.8-4.5-2.2 0-5 2.1-5 4.9v4.4c0 3.6.5 4.2 2.9 4.2v.7h-8.6v-.7c2.4 0 2.9-.6 2.9-4.2v-5.4c0-3.6-.4-4.2-2.9-4.2v-.7l5-.8c.2.5.7 2.2.7 3.4 1.1-1.6 3.5-3.3 6-3.3 3.6 0 5.6 2.4 5.6 6.2v4.9c0 3.6.5 4.2 2.9 4.2v.7h-8.6zM46.3 23c-5 0-7.5-3.5-7.5-7.9 0-5.2 3.9-8.6 7.7-8.6 3.5 0 5.4 1.6 5.4 3.1 0 .6-.4 1.7-1.7 1.7-.8 0-1.5-.7-1.5-1.6 0-1.3-1.2-2-2.2-2-2.7 0-4.6 3.2-4.6 7.4 0 3.6 1.6 6.3 5.4 6.3 1.4 0 3.2-.8 4.6-2.1l.8.9C51.1 22 48.8 23 46.3 23z"/><path class="st0" d="M66.5 10.1l-7.2 17c-1 2.3-2 2.7-2.9 2.7-.6 0-1.3-.4-1.3-1.4 0-.6.5-1.1 1.1-1.4 1.2-.5 2.3-1.3 3-3.2l.6-1.5L54.3 10c-.8-1.9-1.7-2.4-3.2-2.4v-.7H59v.7c-1.8 0-2.5.5-1.7 2.4l3.8 8.8 3.8-8.8c.8-1.9.1-2.4-1.6-2.4v-.7h6.4v.7c-1.1.1-2.4.5-3.2 2.5zM76 23c-5 0-7.5-3.5-7.5-7.9 0-5.2 3.9-8.6 7.7-8.6 3.5 0 5.4 1.6 5.4 3.1 0 .6-.4 1.7-1.7 1.7-.8 0-1.5-.7-1.5-1.6 0-1.3-1.2-2-2.2-2-2.7 0-4.6 3.2-4.6 7.4 0 3.6 1.6 6.3 5.4 6.3 1.4 0 3.2-.8 4.6-2.1l.8.9C80.8 22 78.4 23 76 23zM82.5 22.6v-.7c2.2 0 2.8-.6 2.8-4.2V5.8c0-3.6-.4-4.2-2.9-4.2V.9l5.7-.9v17.6c0 3.6.5 4.2 2.8 4.2v.7l-8.4.1zM99.7 23.2c-4.8 0-8.5-3.8-8.5-8.4s3.7-8.4 8.5-8.4 8.5 3.8 8.5 8.4-3.8 8.4-8.5 8.4zm0-15.5c-3.6 0-5.4 3.2-5.4 7.1s1.8 7.1 5.4 7.1 5.4-3.1 5.4-7.1c0-3.9-1.8-7.1-5.4-7.1zM119.5 23c-2.1 0-4-1-5.3-2.9v4.4c0 3.6.5 4.2 2.9 4.2v.7h-8.7v-.7c2.4 0 2.9-.6 2.9-4.2V12.3c0-3.6-.4-4.2-2.9-4.2v-.8l5-.8c.2.4.7 2 .7 2.8 1.4-1.8 3.3-2.8 5.3-2.8 4.4 0 7.5 3.6 7.5 8.3 0 4.5-3.1 8.2-7.4 8.2zm-.7-15c-1.8 0-3.9 1.4-4.7 3.6v6.2c.8 2.2 2.9 3.6 4.7 3.6 3.4 0 5-3.1 5-6.7s-1.6-6.7-5-6.7zM145.6 6.5c3.7 0 6.5 2.5 6.5 5.7 0 .6-.1.9-.2 1.4H141c0 .3-.1.6-.1 1 0 3.3 1.2 6.7 5.8 6.7 2 0 3.9-1 5.1-2.1l.7.9c-1.4 1.5-3.9 2.8-6.9 2.8-2.8 0-5-1.3-6.4-3.4-1.9 1.7-4.1 3.3-6.9 3.3-2.6 0-4.1-1.6-4.1-3.8 0-3.5 4.4-5.4 9.7-6.2v-1.1c0-2.6-.7-4.1-3-4.1-1.4 0-3 .8-3 2.1 0 .8-.6 1.4-1.3 1.4-.8 0-1.4-.6-1.4-1.4 0-1.8 3-3.4 5.9-3.4 2.8 0 4.3.9 5 2.4 1.5-1.3 3.5-2.2 5.5-2.2zm-14.4 12.3c0 1.5.8 2.4 2.3 2.4.8 0 2.7-.2 5.2-2.7-.5-1.1-.8-2.4-.8-3.8V14c-4.4.9-6.7 2.6-6.7 4.8zM145.6 8c-2 0-3.8 1.4-4.5 4.3h8c0-.3.1-.6.1-1 .1-1.9-1.4-3.3-3.6-3.3zM167.3 22.9c-.2-.4-.6-1.8-.7-2.7-1.4 1.8-3.3 2.8-5.4 2.8-4.4 0-7.5-3.6-7.5-8.3 0-4.6 3.1-8.3 7.5-8.3 2.1 0 4 1 5.4 2.9V5.8c0-3.6-.4-4.2-2.9-4.2V.9l5.7-.9v17.1c0 3.6.4 4.2 2.9 4.2v.7l-5 .9zm-.8-11.2c-.8-2.2-2.8-3.6-4.7-3.6-3.4 0-5 3.1-5 6.7s1.6 6.7 5 6.7c1.9 0 3.9-1.4 4.7-3.6v-6.2zM172.3 22.6v-.7c2.4 0 2.9-.6 2.9-4.2v-5.4c0-3.6-.4-4.2-2.9-4.2v-.8l5.8-.8v11.1c0 3.6.5 4.2 2.9 4.2v.7l-8.7.1zm5.8-20.3c0 .9-.8 1.7-1.7 1.7s-1.7-.8-1.7-1.7.8-1.7 1.7-1.7 1.7.8 1.7 1.7zM193.7 22.8c-1.7 0-2.3-1-2.5-2.4-2 1.8-3.9 2.5-5.6 2.5-2.6 0-4.1-1.6-4.1-3.8 0-3.5 4.4-5.4 9.7-6.2v-1.1c0-2.6-.7-4.1-3-4.1-1.4 0-3 .8-3 2.1 0 .8-.6 1.4-1.3 1.4-.8 0-1.4-.6-1.4-1.4 0-1.8 3-3.4 5.9-3.4 4.3 0 5.6 2.2 5.6 5.3v8c0 1 .3 1.6.9 1.6.4 0 .9-.3 1.2-.6l.5.7c-.8 1.1-1.9 1.4-2.9 1.4zm-2.6-8.8c-4.4.9-6.7 2.6-6.7 4.8 0 1.5.8 2.4 2.3 2.4.9 0 2.5-.3 4.4-2V14zM202.3 21.8c3 0 3.4-.6 3.4-4.2V5.8c0-3.6-.4-4.2-3.4-4.2V.9h9.9v.8c-3 0-3.4.6-3.4 4.2v11.8c0 3.6.4 4.2 3.4 4.2v.8h-9.9v-.9zM224.5 11c-.8 0-1.3-.6-1.3-1.4 0-.8-.4-1.5-1.5-1.5s-3.5 2-3.5 5.4v4.2c0 3.6.5 4.2 2.9 4.2v.7h-8.7v-.7c2.4 0 2.9-.6 2.9-4.2v-5.4c0-3.6-.4-4.2-2.9-4.2v-.8l5-.8c.2.4.7 2.1.7 3.4.8-1.9 2.8-3.3 4.6-3.3 2.5 0 3.3 1.7 3.3 2.7.1.8-.3 1.7-1.5 1.7zM238.4 22.8c-1.7 0-2.3-1-2.5-2.4-2 1.8-3.9 2.5-5.6 2.5-2.6 0-4.1-1.6-4.1-3.8 0-3.5 4.4-5.4 9.7-6.2v-1.1c0-2.6-.7-4.1-3-4.1-1.4 0-3 .8-3 2.1 0 .8-.6 1.4-1.3 1.4-.8 0-1.4-.6-1.4-1.4 0-1.8 3-3.4 5.9-3.4 4.3 0 5.6 2.2 5.6 5.3v8c0 1 .3 1.6.9 1.6.4 0 .9-.3 1.2-.6l.6.7c-.9 1.1-2 1.4-3 1.4zm-2.6-8.8c-4.4.9-6.7 2.6-6.7 4.8 0 1.5.8 2.4 2.3 2.4.9 0 2.5-.3 4.4-2V14z"/><path class="st0" d="M252.9 22.6v-.7c2.4 0 2.9-.6 2.9-4.2v-4.9c0-3.1-1.4-4.5-3.8-4.5-2.2 0-5 2.1-5 4.9v4.4c0 3.6.5 4.2 2.9 4.2v.7h-8.6v-.7c2.4 0 2.9-.6 2.9-4.2v-5.4c0-3.6-.4-4.2-2.9-4.2v-.7l5-.8c.3.5.7 2.2.7 3.4 1.1-1.6 3.5-3.3 6-3.3 3.7 0 5.6 2.4 5.6 6.2v4.9c0 3.6.5 4.2 2.9 4.2v.7h-8.6z"/><path class="st0" d="M261.2 22.6v-.7c2.4 0 2.9-.6 2.9-4.2v-5.4c0-3.6-.4-4.2-2.9-4.2v-.8l5.8-.8v11.1c0 3.6.5 4.2 2.9 4.2v.7l-8.7.1zM267 2.3c0 .9-.8 1.7-1.7 1.7s-1.7-.8-1.7-1.7.8-1.7 1.7-1.7c1 0 1.7.8 1.7 1.7zM277.7 23c-5 0-7.5-3.5-7.5-7.9 0-5.2 4-8.6 7.7-8.6 3.5 0 5.4 1.6 5.4 3.1 0 .6-.4 1.7-1.7 1.7-.8 0-1.5-.7-1.5-1.6 0-1.3-1.2-2-2.2-2-2.7 0-4.6 3.2-4.6 7.4 0 3.6 1.5 6.3 5.4 6.3 1.4 0 3.2-.8 4.6-2.1l.8.9c-1.6 1.8-4 2.8-6.4 2.8zM297.1 22.8c-1.7 0-2.3-1-2.5-2.4-2 1.8-3.9 2.5-5.6 2.5-2.6 0-4.1-1.6-4.1-3.8 0-3.5 4.4-5.4 9.7-6.2v-1.1c0-2.6-.7-4.1-3-4.1-1.5 0-3 .8-3 2.1 0 .8-.6 1.4-1.3 1.4-.8 0-1.4-.6-1.4-1.4 0-1.8 3-3.4 5.9-3.4 4.3 0 5.6 2.2 5.6 5.3v8c0 1 .3 1.6.9 1.6.4 0 .9-.3 1.2-.6l.5.7c-.8 1.1-1.9 1.4-2.9 1.4zm-2.6-8.8c-4.4.9-6.7 2.6-6.7 4.8 0 1.5.8 2.4 2.3 2.4.9 0 2.5-.3 4.4-2V14z"/></g></svg> </a></div></div> <div id="search-bar"> <!-- echo echo echo --> <script type="text/javascript" src="/js/jquery.autocomplete.m2.js"></script><script type="text/javascript" src="/js/autocompleteAction.js"></script><link rel="stylesheet" href="/css/jquery.autocomplete.css" type="text/css" media="screen" charset="utf-8" /> <!-- echo echo echo --> <form name="search-form" id="search-form" action="/articles/searchRedirect" method="post"> <input type="text" name="data[Search][s]" id="search" value="Search Iranica"> <input type="image" src="/img/bttn-search.gif" name="go" id="autoComplete" value="search" /> <input type="hidden" name="is_advanced" id="is_advanced" value="0" class="styled" /> <a href="#" id="advanced-search-link">Advanced Search</a> </form> <ul> <li><a href="/pages/about/">About</a></li> <li><a href="/pages/support-and-donations/">Support & Donations</a></li> <li><a href="/pages/printed-volumes/">Printed Volumes</a></li> <li><a href="/pages/about/contact-us/">Contact</a></li> </ul> <div id="advanced-search" style="display:none;"> <h3 class="advanced-search-title"> Advanced Search </h3> <div class="button" id="advanced-search-cancel-button"> <a href="#">CANCEL</a> </div> <form name="advanced-search-form" id="advanced-search-form" action="/articles/searchRedirect" method="post" enctype="multipart/form-data"> <div class="row"> <label>Keywords</label> <div class="element"> <input type="text" name="data[Search][keywords]" id="adv-keywords" value="" class="rounded" /> </div> </div> <div class="row"> <label>Title</label> <div class="element"> <input type="text" name="data[Search][title]" id="adv-title" value="" class="rounded" /> </div> </div> <div class="row"> <label>Author</label> <div class="element"> <input type="text" name="data[Search][author]" id="adv-author" value="" class="rounded" /> </div> </div> <div class="row"> <label>Topic</label> <div class="element"> <select id="adv-topic" name="data[Search][topic]" size="1" class="styled"> <option value="">select a topic...</option> <option value="17">Archaeology </option> <option value="18">Architecture </option> <option value="19">Arts and Crafts </option> <option value="20">Biographies </option> <option value="21">Central Asia </option> <option value="22">Caucasus </option> <option value="23">Education </option> <option value="24">Ethnic Groups </option> <option value="25">Flora and Fauna </option> <option value="26">Folklore </option> <option value="27">Foreign Relations </option> <option value="28">Geography </option> <option value="29">History, Pre-Islamic </option> <option value="30">History, Medieval </option> <option value="31">History, Safavid </option> <option value="32">History, Qajar </option> <option value="33">History, Modern </option> <option value="34">Indian Subcontinent </option> <option value="35">Journalism </option> <option value="36">Linguistics </option> <option value="37">Literature, Pre-Islamic </option> <option value="38">Literature, Pre-Modern </option> <option value="39">Literature, Modern </option> <option value="40">Material Culture </option> <option value="41">Music </option> <option value="42">Religion-Pre-Islam </option> <option value="43">Religion-Islam </option> <option value="44">Religion-Other </option> <option value="45">Sciences </option> <option value="46">Social Sciences </option> <option value="16">Afghanistan </option> </select> </div> </div> <div class="row"> <label>Tags</label> <div class="element"> <input type="text" name="data[Search][tags]" id="adv-tags" value="" class="rounded" /> </div> </div> <div class="row submit"> <input type="image" src="/img/bttn-adv-search.gif" name="submit" value="1" /> </div> <input type="hidden" name="is_advanced" id="is_advanced" value="1" class="styled" /> </form> </div> </div> </div> <div id="content-wrap" class="clearfix"> <!-- Flash has been depricated for years (Adobe officially killed it in 2021), so it is probably safe to delete this. But for nostalgia's sake, I'm leaving it in. TBH, I have no idea what "message" utilized Flash when it did work! --> <div id="search-results" class="clearfix"> <h1>Table of Contents</h1> <div class="pagination"> <ul class="per-page"> <li>VIEW PER PAGE:</li> <li class="here"><a href="/articles/index/K/limit:10" rel="nofollow">10</a></li> <li ><a href="/articles/index/K/limit:20" rel="nofollow">20</a></li> <li ><a href="/articles/index/K/limit:50" rel="nofollow">50</a></li> <li ><a href="/articles/index/K/limit:1000">ALL</a></li> </ul> <ul class="pages"> <li><span class="current">1</span></li><li><span><a href="/articles/index/K/limit:10/page:2" rel="nofollow">2</a></span></li><li><span><a href="/articles/index/K/limit:10/page:3" rel="nofollow">3</a></span></li><li><span><a href="/articles/index/K/limit:10/page:4" rel="nofollow">4</a></span></li><li><span><a href="/articles/index/K/limit:10/page:5" rel="nofollow">5</a></span></li><li><span><a href="/articles/index/K/limit:10/page:6" rel="nofollow">6</a></span></li><li><span><a href="/articles/index/K/limit:10/page:7" rel="nofollow">7</a></span></li> <li class="more"><a href="/articles/index/K/limit:10/page:53" rel="nofollow">脗聽</a></li> </ul> SHOWING 1-10 of 528</div> <ul class="search-results"> <li class="odd"> <h2><a href="/articles/kaba-ye-zardost">KA士BA-YE ZARDO艩T</span></a></h2> <h3>Gerd Gropp</h3> <p><p>“Ka士ba of Zoroaster,” an ancient building at Naqš-e Rostam near Persepolis.</p></p> </li> <li > <h2><a href="/articles/kabab-popular-dish">KAB膧B</span></a></h2> <h3>Etrat Elahi</h3> <p><p>popular dish which traditionally consists of meat cut in cubes, or ground and shaped into balls; these are threaded onto a skewer and broiled over a brazier of charcoal embers.</p></p> </li> <li class="odd"> <h2><a href="/articles/kabir-kuh">KABIR-KUH</span></a></h2> <h3>Majdodin Keyvani</h3> <p><p>one of the long ranges of the Zagros mountains, lying between Iran’s two western provinces of Loristan and Il膩m.</p></p> </li> <li > <h2><a href="/articles/kabisa-intercalary">KABISA</span></a></h2> <h3>Simone Cristoforetti</h3> <p><p>Arabic term used in calendrical context; “intercalary,” “embolismal.” It is applied to several readjustments that occurred in the Iranian solar calendar.</p></p> </li> <li class="odd"> <h2><a href="/articles/kabol-magazine">K膧BOL MAGAZINE</span></a></h2> <h3>Wali Ahmadi</h3> <p><p>a monthly magazine with the full title <em>K膩bol:</em><em>士Elmi, adabi, ejtem膩士i, tari岣礽</em>. The periodical was founded by the Kabul Literary Society (Anjoman-e Adabi-e K膩bol), 1931-40.</p></p> </li> <li > <h2><a href="/articles/kaboli-colloquial-persian">K膧BOLI</span></a></h2> <h3>Rawan Farhadi and J. R. Perry</h3> <p><p>the colloquial Persian spoken in the capital of Afghanistan, Kabul, and its environs. It has been a common and prestigious vernacular for several centuries, since Kabul was long ruled by dynasts of Iran (the Safavids) or India (the Mughals) for whom Persian was the language of culture and administration.</p></p> <small><em>This Article Has Images/Tables.</em></small> </li> <li class="odd"> <h2><a href="/articles/kaboli-abdallah">K膧BOLI, 士Abdall膩h 岣瘁禌膩ja</span></a></h2> <h3>Maria Szuppe</h3> <p><p><span lang="EN-GB">(also known as K膩boli Naqšbandi and Hera</span><span>v</span><span lang="EN-GB">i), historiographer and poet<span> </span></span><span>of</span><span> </span><span>the </span><span lang="EN-GB">late 16th and early 17th centuries. </span></p></p> </li> <li > <h2><a href="/articles/kabul-index">KABUL</span></a></h2> <h3>Multiple Authors</h3> <p><p>(K膩bol), capital of Afghanistan, also the name of its province and a river.</p></p> </li> <li class="odd"> <h2><a href="/articles/kabul-01-geography">KABUL i. GEOGRAPHY OF THE PROVINCE</span></a></h2> <h3>Andreas Wilde</h3> <p><p>Kabul is part of a system of high level basins, the elevation of which varies from 1,500 to 3,600 meters, extends—geographically speaking—beyond the administrative borders of the present-day province.</p></p> </li> <li > <h2><a href="/articles/kabul-ii-historical-geography">KABUL ii. HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY</span></a></h2> <h3>Xavier de Planhol</h3> <p><p>Before the period of war and unrest in Afghanistan that started in 1978, almost all the functions concerned with governing the country and directing its international relations were concentrated in Kabul. This primacy among Afghan cities is due to an exceptionally favorable geographical site.</p></p> <small><em>This Article Has Images/Tables.</em></small> </li> </ul> <div class="pagination"> <ul class="per-page"> <li>VIEW PER PAGE:</li> <li class="here"><a href="/articles/index/K/limit:10" rel="nofollow">10</a></li> <li ><a href="/articles/index/K/limit:20" rel="nofollow">20</a></li> <li ><a href="/articles/index/K/limit:50" rel="nofollow">50</a></li> <li ><a href="/articles/index/K/limit:1000">ALL</a></li> </ul> <ul class="pages"> <li><span class="current">1</span></li><li><span><a href="/articles/index/K/limit:10/page:2" rel="nofollow">2</a></span></li><li><span><a href="/articles/index/K/limit:10/page:3" rel="nofollow">3</a></span></li><li><span><a href="/articles/index/K/limit:10/page:4" rel="nofollow">4</a></span></li><li><span><a href="/articles/index/K/limit:10/page:5" rel="nofollow">5</a></span></li><li><span><a href="/articles/index/K/limit:10/page:6" rel="nofollow">6</a></span></li><li><span><a href="/articles/index/K/limit:10/page:7" rel="nofollow">7</a></span></li> <li class="more"><a href="/articles/index/K/limit:10/page:53" rel="nofollow">脗聽</a></li> </ul> SHOWING 1-10 of 528</div> </div> </div> <div id="footer"> <div class="copy">©2025 Encyclopædia Iranica Foundation, Inc. All Rights Reserved.</div> <div class="issn">ISSN 2330-4804</div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <!-- here is the overlay for the various overlay boxes --> <div id="overlay_background" style="display:none;"></div> <!-- 2021-04-16 16:50 /app/view/elements/google_analytics.ctp --> <!-- Global site tag (gtag.js) - Google Analytics --> <script async src="https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtag/js?id=G-523W72WFKF"></script> <script> window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; function gtag(){dataLayer.push(arguments);} gtag('js', new Date()); gtag('config', 'G-523W72WFKF'); </script> </body> </html>