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class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Historical development subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Historical_development-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Ancient_speculations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ancient_speculations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Ancient speculations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ancient_speculations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Ascetic_origins" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ascetic_origins"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1.1 Ascetic origins </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ascetic_origins-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rig_Vedic_speculations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rig_Vedic_speculations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1.2 Rig Vedic speculations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rig_Vedic_speculations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Early_Upanishads" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_Upanishads"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1.3 Early Upanishads </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_Upanishads-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Proto_classical_samkhya" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Proto_classical_samkhya"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Proto classical samkhya </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Proto_classical_samkhya-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Buddhist_and_Jainist_influences" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Buddhist_and_Jainist_influences"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2.1 Buddhist and Jainist influences </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Buddhist_and_Jainist_influences-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Middle_upanishads" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Middle_upanishads"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2.2 Middle upanishads </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Middle_upanishads-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bhagavad_Gita_and_Mahabharata" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bhagavad_Gita_and_Mahabharata"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2.3 Bhagavad Gita and Mahabharata </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bhagavad_Gita_and_Mahabharata-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Classical_Samkhya" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Classical_Samkhya"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 Classical Samkhya </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Classical_Samkhya-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Traditional_credited_founders" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Traditional_credited_founders"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3.1 Traditional credited founders </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Traditional_credited_founders-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Samkhyakarika" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Samkhyakarika"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3.2 Samkhyakarika </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Samkhyakarika-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Yuktidipika" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Yuktidipika"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3.3 Yuktidipika </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Yuktidipika-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Samkhya_revival" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Samkhya_revival"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4 Samkhya revival </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Samkhya_revival-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Views_on_God" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Views_on_God"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Views on God </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Views_on_God-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Views on God subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Views_on_God-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Arguments_against_Ishvara's_existence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Arguments_against_Ishvara's_existence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Arguments against Ishvara's existence </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Arguments_against_Ishvara's_existence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Influence_on_other_schools" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Influence_on_other_schools"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Influence on other schools </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Influence_on_other_schools-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Influence on other schools subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Influence_on_other_schools-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Vaisheshika_and_Nyaya" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vaisheshika_and_Nyaya"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Vaisheshika and Nyaya </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vaisheshika_and_Nyaya-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Yoga" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Yoga"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Yoga </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Yoga-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tantra" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tantra"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 Tantra </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tantra-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Advaita_Vedanta" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Advaita_Vedanta"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.4 Advaita Vedanta </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Advaita_Vedanta-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Sources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Samkhya</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 47 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-47" aria-hidden="true" > 47 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samkhya" title="Samkhya – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Samkhya" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%AE%D9%8A%D8%A7" title="سامخيا – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="سامخيا" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%96%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF_%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B6%E0%A6%A8" title="সাংখ্য দৰ্শন – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="সাংখ্য দৰ্শন" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">অসমীয়া</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sankhya" title="Sankhya – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Sankhya" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%96%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF" title="সাংখ্য – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="সাংখ্য" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%96%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF" title="सांख्य – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="सांख्य" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target">भोजपुरी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samkhya" title="Samkhya – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Samkhya" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bikol Central</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%BA%D1%85%D1%8F" title="Самкхя – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Самкхя" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samkhya" title="Samkhya – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Samkhya" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%A1nkhja" title="Sánkhja – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Sánkhja" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samkhya" title="Samkhya – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Samkhya" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samkhya" title="Samkhya – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Samkhya" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saankhja" title="Saankhja – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Saankhja" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C4%81%E1%B9%83khya" title="Sāṃkhya – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Sāṃkhya" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sam%C4%A5ja" title="Samĥja – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Samĥja" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%AE%DB%8C%D8%A7" title="سامخیا – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="سامخیا" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%A2mkhya" title="Sâmkhya – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Sâmkhya" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%83%81%ED%82%A4%EC%95%BC_%ED%95%99%ED%8C%8C" title="상키야 학파 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="상키야 학파" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8D%D5%A1%D5%B6%D6%84%D5%B0%D5%B5%D5%A1" title="Սանքհյա – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Սանքհյա" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%96%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF_%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%A8" title="सांख्य दर्शन – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="सांख्य दर्शन" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samkhya" title="Samkhya – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Samkhya" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C4%81%E1%B9%83khya" title="Sāṃkhya – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Sāṃkhya" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%B8%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%82%E0%B2%96%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%AF" title="ಸಾಂಖ್ಯ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಸಾಂಖ್ಯ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target">ಕನ್ನಡ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sankhja" title="Sankhja – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Sankhja" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sz%C3%A1nkhja" title="Szánkhja – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Szánkhja" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B8%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%82%E0%B4%96%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%82" title="സാംഖ്യം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="സാംഖ്യം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%96%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%A8" title="सांख्यदर्शन – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="सांख्यदर्शन" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samkhya" title="Samkhya – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Samkhya" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%96%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF_%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%A8" title="सांख्य दर्शन – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="सांख्य दर्शन" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%96%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF" title="सांख्य – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="सांख्य" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाल भाषा</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%B5%E3%83%BC%E3%83%B3%E3%82%AD%E3%83%A4%E5%AD%A6%E6%B4%BE" title="サーンキヤ学派 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="サーンキヤ学派" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samkhya" title="Samkhya – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Samkhya" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sankxya" title="Sankxya – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Sankxya" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%B8%E0%A9%B0%E0%A8%96%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%86_%E0%A8%A6%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%BC%E0%A8%A8" title="ਸੰਖਿਆ ਦਰਸ਼ਨ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਸੰਖਿਆ ਦਰਸ਼ਨ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sankhja" title="Sankhja – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Sankhja" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt 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class="interlanguage-link-target">संस्कृतम्</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%A1nkhja" title="Sánkhja – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Sánkhja" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samkhya" title="Samkhya – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Samkhya" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samkhya" title="Samkhya – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Samkhya" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%99%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D" title="சாங்கியம் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="சாங்கியம்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%B8%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%82%E0%B0%96%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%AF_%E0%B0%A6%E0%B0%B0%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B6%E0%B0%A8%E0%B0%82" title="సాంఖ్య దర్శనం – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="సాంఖ్య దర్శనం" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target">తెలుగు</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%82%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%B0" title="สางขยะ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="สางขยะ" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" 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<button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Āstika school of Hindu philosophy</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about a school of philosophy. For the statistics journal, see <a href="/wiki/Sankhya_(journal)" title="Sankhya (journal)">Sankhya (journal)</a>. For the chapter of the Bhagavad Gita, see <a href="/wiki/Samkhya_Yoga_(Bhagavad_Gita)" title="Samkhya Yoga (Bhagavad Gita)">Samkhya Yoga (Bhagavad Gita)</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1224211176">.mw-parser-output .quotebox{background-color:#F9F9F9;border:1px solid #aaa;box-sizing:border-box;padding:10px;font-size:88%;max-width:100%}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft{margin:.5em 1.4em .8em 0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright{margin:.5em 0 .8em 1.4em}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.centered{overflow:hidden;position:relative;margin:.5em auto .8em auto}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft span,.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright span{font-style:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox>blockquote{margin:0;padding:0;border-left:0;font-family:inherit;font-size:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-title{text-align:center;font-size:110%;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote>:first-child{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote:last-child>:last-child{margin-bottom:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:before{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" “ ";vertical-align:-45%;line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:after{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" ” ";line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .left-aligned{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .right-aligned{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .center-aligned{text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quote-title,.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quotebox-quote{display:block}.mw-parser-output .quotebox cite{display:block;font-style:normal}@media screen and (max-width:640px){.mw-parser-output .quotebox{width:100%!important;margin:0 0 .8em!important;float:none!important}}</style><div class="quotebox pullquote floatright" style="width:20em; ; color: #202122;background-color: #c6dbf7;"> <blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style=""> "Samkhya is not one of the systems of Indian philosophy. Samkhya is the philosophy of India!" </blockquote> <cite class="right-aligned" style="">Gopinath Kaviraj<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELarson2014xi-1">[1]</a></cite> </div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist 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rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks plainlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle" style="background:#FFC569;">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Hinduism" title="Category:Hinduism">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background:#FFC569;"><a href="/wiki/Hindu_philosophy" title="Hindu philosophy">Hindu philosophy</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image" style="padding:0.3em 0.3em 0.4em;"><a href="/wiki/Om" title="Om"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Om_symbol.svg/80px-Om_symbol.svg.png" decoding="async" width="80" height="82" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Om_symbol.svg/120px-Om_symbol.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Om_symbol.svg/160px-Om_symbol.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="356" data-file-height="367" /></a></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#FFC569;"> <a href="/wiki/%C4%80stika_and_n%C4%81stika" title="Āstika and nāstika">Orthodox</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0.3em 0.5em 0.75em;"> <table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Samkhya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yoga_(philosophy)" title="Yoga (philosophy)">Yoga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nyaya" title="Nyaya">Nyaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaisheshika" title="Vaisheshika">Vaisheshika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%C4%ABm%C4%81%E1%B9%83s%C4%81" title="Mīmāṃsā">Mīmāṃsā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vedanta" title="Vedanta">Vedanta</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#FFC569;"> <a href="/wiki/%C4%80stika_and_n%C4%81stika" title="Āstika and nāstika">Heterodox</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0.3em 0.5em 0.75em;"> <table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charvaka" title="Charvaka">Charvaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%80j%C4%ABvika" title="Ājīvika">Ājīvika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jainism" title="Jainism">Jainism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aj%C3%B1ana" title="Ajñana">Ajñana</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0.3em 0.5em 0.75em;;padding:1px 0;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#FFC569;;font-weight:normal;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Sub-schools</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Smarta_tradition" title="Smarta tradition">Smartist</a></dt> <dd></dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Advaita_Vedanta" title="Advaita Vedanta">Advaita</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Vaishnavism" title="Vaishnavism">Vaishnavite</a></dt> <dd></dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bhedabheda" title="Bhedabheda">Bhedabheda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vishishtadvaita" title="Vishishtadvaita">Vishishtadvaita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dvaita_Vedanta" title="Dvaita Vedanta">Dvaita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shuddhadvaita" title="Shuddhadvaita">Shuddhadvaita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achintya_Bheda_Abheda" title="Achintya Bheda Abheda">Achintya Bheda Abheda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Svabhavika_Bhedabheda" title="Svabhavika Bhedabheda">Svabhavika Bhedabheda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahanubhava" title="Mahanubhava">Mahanubhava</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ekasarana_Dharma" title="Ekasarana Dharma">Ekasarana Dharma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akshar_Purushottam_Darshan" title="Akshar Purushottam Darshan">Akshar Purushottam Darshan</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Shaivism" title="Shaivism">Shaivite</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shaiva_Siddhanta" title="Shaiva Siddhanta">Shaiva Siddhanta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pratyabhijna" title="Pratyabhijna">Pratyabhijna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pashupata_Shaivism" title="Pashupata Shaivism">Panchartika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalamukha" title="Kalamukha">Pramanavada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Veerashaiva" class="mw-redirect" title="Veerashaiva">Shakti Vishishtadvaita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nath" class="mw-redirect" title="Nath">Shiva Bhedabeda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shiva_Advaita" title="Shiva Advaita">Shiva Advaita</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Neo-Vedanta" title="Neo-Vedanta">Neo-Vedanta</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Integral_yoga" title="Integral yoga">Integral yoga</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0.3em 0.5em 0.75em;;padding:1px 0;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#FFC569;;font-weight:normal;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Teachers (<a href="/wiki/Acharya" title="Acharya">Acharyas</a>)</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="font-style:italic;padding-bottom:0;;padding-top:0.2em;"> <a href="/wiki/Nyaya" title="Nyaya">Nyaya</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0 0.5em 0.65em;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ny%C4%81ya_S%C5%ABtras" title="Nyāya Sūtras">Akṣapāda Gotama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jayanta_Bhatta" title="Jayanta Bhatta">Jayanta Bhatta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raghunatha_Siromani" title="Raghunatha Siromani">Raghunatha Siromani</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="font-style:italic;padding-bottom:0;"> <a href="/wiki/M%C4%ABm%C4%81%E1%B9%83s%C4%81" title="Mīmāṃsā">Mīmāṃsā</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0 0.5em 0.65em;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jaimini" title="Jaimini">Jaimini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kum%C4%81rila_Bha%E1%B9%AD%E1%B9%ADa" title="Kumārila Bhaṭṭa">Kumārila Bhaṭṭa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prabh%C4%81kara" title="Prabhākara">Prabhākara</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="font-style:italic;padding-bottom:0;"> <a href="/wiki/Advaita_Vedanta" title="Advaita Vedanta">Advaita</a> (Mayavada)</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0 0.5em 0.65em;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gaudapada" title="Gaudapada">Gaudapada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/V%C4%81chaspati_Misra" title="Vāchaspati Misra">Vāchaspati Misra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adi_Shankara" title="Adi Shankara">Adi Shankara</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="font-style:italic;padding-bottom:0;"> <a href="/wiki/Vishishtadvaita" title="Vishishtadvaita">Vishishtadvaita</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0 0.5em 0.65em;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ramanuja" title="Ramanuja">Ramanuja</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vedanta_Desika" title="Vedanta Desika">Vedanta Desika</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="font-style:italic;padding-bottom:0;"> <a href="/wiki/Dvaita_Vedanta" title="Dvaita Vedanta">Dvaita</a> (Tattvavada)</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0 0.5em 0.65em;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Madhvacharya" title="Madhvacharya">Madhvacharya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jayatirtha" title="Jayatirtha">Jayatirtha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vyasatirtha" title="Vyasatirtha">Vyasatirtha</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="font-style:italic;padding-bottom:0;"> <a href="/wiki/Shuddhadvaita" title="Shuddhadvaita">Shuddhadvaita</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0 0.5em 0.65em;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vallabha" title="Vallabha">Vallabha</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="font-style:italic;padding-bottom:0;"> <a href="/wiki/Achintya_Bheda_Abheda" title="Achintya Bheda Abheda">Achintya Bheda Abheda</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0 0.5em 0.65em;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chaitanya_Mahaprabhu" title="Chaitanya Mahaprabhu">Chaitanya Mahaprabhu</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="font-style:italic;padding-bottom:0;"> <a href="/wiki/Svabhavika_Bhedabheda" title="Svabhavika Bhedabheda">Svabhavika Bhedabheda</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0 0.5em 0.65em;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nimbarkacharya" title="Nimbarkacharya">Nimbarka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Srinivasacharya" title="Srinivasacharya">Srinivasacharya</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="font-style:italic;padding-bottom:0;"> <a href="/wiki/Mahanubhava" title="Mahanubhava">Mahanubhava</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0 0.5em 0.65em;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chakradhar_Swami" title="Chakradhar Swami">Chakradhara</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="font-style:italic;padding-bottom:0;"> <a href="/wiki/Ekasarana_Dharma" title="Ekasarana Dharma">Ekasarana Dharma</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0 0.5em 0.65em;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sankardev" title="Sankardev">Sankardev</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="font-style:italic;padding-bottom:0;"> <a href="/wiki/Akshar_Purushottam_Darshan" title="Akshar Purushottam Darshan">Akshar Purushottam Darshan</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0 0.5em 0.65em;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Swaminarayan" title="Swaminarayan">Swaminarayan</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th 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title="Neo-Vedanta">Neo-Vedanta</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0 0.5em 0.65em;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Swami_Vivekananda" title="Swami Vivekananda">Vivekananda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sri_Aurobindo" title="Sri Aurobindo">Aurobindo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarvepalli_Radhakrishnan" title="Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan">Radhakrishnan</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="font-style:italic;padding-bottom:0;;font-weight:normal;"> Others</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0 0.5em 0.65em;"> <table class="infobox" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-style:italic;padding-right:1.5em;"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Samkhya</a></th><td class="infobox-data"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kapila" title="Kapila">Kapila</a></li></ul> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-style:italic;padding-right:1.5em;"><a href="/wiki/Yoga" title="Yoga">Yoga</a></th><td class="infobox-data"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Patanjali" title="Patanjali">Patanjali</a></li></ul> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-style:italic;padding-right:1.5em;"><a href="/wiki/Vaisheshika" title="Vaisheshika">Vaisheshika</a></th><td class="infobox-data"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ka%E1%B9%87%C4%81da" title="Kaṇāda">Kaṇāda</a>, <a href="/wiki/Prashastapada" title="Prashastapada">Prashastapada</a></li></ul> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-style:italic;padding-right:1.5em;"><a href="/wiki/Secular" class="mw-redirect" title="Secular">Secular</a></th><td class="infobox-data"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Valluvar" class="mw-redirect" title="Valluvar">Valluvar</a></li></ul> </td></tr></tbody></table></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0.3em 0.5em 0.75em;;padding:1px 0;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#FFC569;;font-weight:normal;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Hindu_texts" title="Hindu texts">Major texts</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9Aruti" title="Śruti">Śruti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sm%E1%B9%9Bti" title="Smṛti">Smṛti</a></li></ul> <hr /> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Vedas" title="Vedas">Vedas</a></dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rigveda" title="Rigveda">Rigveda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yajurveda" title="Yajurveda">Yajurveda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samaveda" title="Samaveda">Samaveda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atharvaveda" title="Atharvaveda">Atharvaveda</a></li></ul> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Upanishads" 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href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Hindu_philosophy" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Hindu philosophy"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> Samkhya or Sankhya (<a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/ˈsɑːŋkjə/</a>; <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Sanskrit language">Sanskrit</a>: सांख्य, <a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Sanskrit" class="mw-redirect" title="Romanization of Sanskrit">romanized</a>: sāṃkhya) is a <a href="/wiki/Dualism_(Indian_philosophy)" title="Dualism (Indian philosophy)">dualistic</a> <a href="/wiki/%C4%80stika_and_n%C4%81stika" title="Āstika and nāstika">orthodox school</a> of <a href="/wiki/Hindu_philosophy" title="Hindu philosophy">Hindu philosophy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a> It views <a href="/wiki/Reality" title="Reality">reality</a> as composed of two independent principles, <a href="/wiki/Purusha" title="Purusha">Puruṣa</a> ('<a href="/wiki/Consciousness" title="Consciousness">consciousness</a>' or spirit) and <a href="/wiki/Prak%E1%B9%9Bti" title="Prakṛti">Prakṛti</a> (nature or matter, including the human mind and emotions).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELusthaus2018-5">[5]</a> Puruṣa is the witness-consciousness. It is absolute, independent, free, beyond perception, above any experience by mind or senses, and impossible to describe in words.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESharma1997155–7-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChapple200821-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOsto2018203-8">[8]</a> Prakriti is matter or nature. It is inactive, unconscious, and is a balance of the three <a href="/wiki/Gu%E1%B9%87a" title="Guṇa">guṇas</a> (qualities or innate tendencies),<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOsto2018204–205-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> namely <a href="/wiki/Sattva" title="Sattva">sattva</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rajas" title="Rajas">rajas</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Tamas_(philosophy)" title="Tamas (philosophy)">tamas</a>. When Prakṛti comes into contact with Purusha this balance is disturbed, and Prakriti becomes manifest, evolving twenty-three <a href="/wiki/Tattva" title="Tattva">tattvas</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOsto2018204-11">[11]</a> namely intellect (<a href="/wiki/Buddhi" title="Buddhi">buddhi</a>, mahat), ego (<a href="/wiki/Ahamkara" title="Ahamkara">ahamkara</a>), mind (<a href="/wiki/Manas_(early_Buddhism)" title="Manas (early Buddhism)">manas</a>); the five sensory capacities known as ears, skin, eyes, tongue and nose; the five action capacities known as hasta, pada, bak, anus, and upastha; and the five "subtle elements" or "modes of sensory content" (<a href="/wiki/Tanmatras" title="Tanmatras">tanmatras</a>), from which the five "gross elements" or "forms of perceptual objects" (earth, water, fire, air and space) emerge,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOsto2018204–205-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaney200242-12">[12]</a> in turn giving rise to the manifestation of sensory experience and cognition.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOsto2018205-13">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELarson199811-14">[14]</a> <a href="/wiki/Jiva" title="Jiva">Jiva</a> ('a living being') is the state in which Puruṣa is bonded to Prakriti.<a href="#cite_note-sambri-15">[15]</a> Human experience is an interplay of the two, Puruṣa being conscious of the various combinations of cognitive activities.<a href="#cite_note-sambri-15">[15]</a> The end of the bondage of Puruṣa to Prakriti is called <a href="/wiki/Moksha" title="Moksha">Moksha</a> (Liberation) or <a href="/wiki/Kaivalya" title="Kaivalya">Kaivalya</a> (Isolation).<a href="#cite_note-Gerald_James_Larson_2011_pages_36-47-16">[16]</a> Samkhya's <a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">epistemology</a> accepts three of six <a href="/wiki/Pramana" title="Pramana">pramanas</a> ('proofs') as the only reliable means of gaining knowledge, as does <a href="/wiki/Yoga" title="Yoga">yoga</a>. These are pratyakṣa ('<a href="/wiki/Perception" title="Perception">perception</a>'), anumāṇa ('<a href="/wiki/Inference" title="Inference">inference</a>') and śabda (āptavacana, meaning, 'word/testimony of reliable sources').<a href="#cite_note-Lpage9-17">[17]</a><a href="#cite_note-eliottjag-18">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-jag-19">[19]</a> Sometimes described as one of the <a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">rationalist</a> schools of <a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian philosophy</a>, it relies exclusively on reason.<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a><a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a> While Samkhya-like speculations can be found in the Rig Veda and some of the older Upanishads, some western scholars have proposed that Samkhya may have non-Vedic origins,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZimmer1951217,_314-22">[22]</a><a href="#cite_note-Zimmer-23">[note 1]</a> developing in ascetic milieus. Proto-Samkhya ideas developed c. 8th/7th BC and onwards, as evidenced in the middle Upanishads, the <a href="/wiki/Buddhacharita" title="Buddhacharita">Buddhacharita</a>, the Bhagavad Gita, and the Mokshadharma-section of the <a href="/wiki/Mahabharata" title="Mahabharata">Mahabharata</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELarson20144-24">[23]</a> It was related to the early ascetic traditions and meditation, spiritual practices, and religious cosmology,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELarson20145-25">[24]</a> and methods of reasoning that result in liberating knowledge (vidya, jnana, viveka) that end the cycle of <a href="/wiki/Du%E1%B8%A5kha" title="Duḥkha">duḥkha</a> (suffering) and rebirth<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELarson20144–5-26">[25]</a> allowing for "a great variety of philosophical formulations".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELarson20145-25">[24]</a> Pre-Karika systematic Samkhya existed around the beginning of the first millennium CE.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELarson20149–11-27">[26]</a> The defining method of Samkhya was established with the <a href="/wiki/Samkhyakarika" title="Samkhyakarika">Samkhyakarika</a> (4th c. CE). Samkhya might have been theistic or nontheistic, but with its classical systematization in the early first millennium CE, the existence of a deity became irrelevant.<a href="#cite_note-28">[27]</a><a href="#cite_note-29">[28]</a><a href="#cite_note-30">[29]</a><a href="#cite_note-andrew-31">[30]</a> Samkhya is strongly related to the <a href="/wiki/Yoga_(philosophy)" title="Yoga (philosophy)">Yoga</a> school of <a href="/wiki/Hinduism" title="Hinduism">Hinduism</a>, for which it forms the theoretical foundation, and it has influenced other schools of Indian philosophy.<a href="#cite_note-royper-32">[31]</a> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology">Etymology</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Samkhya&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Etymology">edit</a>]</div> Sāṃkhya (सांख्य) or sāṅkhya, also transliterated as samkhya and sankhya, respectively, is a <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit_grammar" title="Sanskrit grammar">Sanskrit word</a> that, depending on the context, means 'to reckon, count, enumerate, calculate, deliberate, reason, reasoning by numeric enumeration, relating to number, rational'.<a href="#cite_note-33">[32]</a> In the context of ancient Indian philosophies, Samkhya refers to the philosophical school in Hinduism based on systematic enumeration and rational examination.<a href="#cite_note-34">[33]</a> The word samkhya means 'empirical' or 'relating to numbers'.<a href="#cite_note-harvnb|Apte|1957|page=1664-35">[34]</a> Although the term had been used in the general sense of metaphysical knowledge before,<a href="#cite_note-36">[35]</a> in technical usage it refers to the Samkhya school of thought that evolved into a cohesive philosophical system in early centuries CE.<a href="#cite_note-37">[36]</a> The Samkhya system is called so because 'it "enumerates'" twenty five Tattvas or true principles; and its chief object is to effect the final emancipation of the twenty-fifth Tattva, i.e. the puruṣa or soul'.<a href="#cite_note-harvnb|Apte|1957|page=1664-35">[34]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Philosophy">Philosophy</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Samkhya&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Philosophy">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Puruṣa_and_Prakṛti">Puruṣa and Prakṛti</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Samkhya&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Puruṣa and Prakṛti">edit</a>]</div> Samkhya makes a distinction between two "irreducible, innate and independent realities",<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESharma1997149–168-38">[37]</a> <a href="/wiki/Purusha" title="Purusha">Purusha</a>, the witness-consciousness, and <a href="/wiki/Prak%E1%B9%9Bti" title="Prakṛti">Prakṛti</a>, "matter", the activities of mind and perception.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELusthaus2018-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaney200217-39">[38]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsaacDangwal1997339-40">[39]</a> According to Dan Lusthaus, <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">In Sāṃkhya puruṣa signifies the observer, the 'witness'. Prakṛti includes all the cognitive, moral, psychological, emotional, sensorial and physical aspects of reality. It is often mistranslated as 'matter' or 'nature' – in non-Sāṃkhyan usage it does mean 'essential nature' – but that distracts from the heavy Sāṃkhyan stress on prakṛti's cognitive, mental, psychological and sensorial activities. Moreover, subtle and gross matter are its most derivative byproducts, not its core. Only prakṛti acts.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELusthaus2018-5">[5]</a></blockquote> Puruṣa is considered as the conscious principle, a passive enjoyer (bhokta) and the Prakṛti is the enjoyed (bhogya). Samkhya believes that the puruṣa cannot be regarded as the source of inanimate world, because an intelligent principle cannot transform itself into the unconscious world. It is a pluralistic spiritualism, atheistic realism and uncompromising dualism.<a href="#cite_note-Sharma-41">[40]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Puruṣa_–_witness-consciousness">Puruṣa – witness-consciousness</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Samkhya&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Puruṣa – witness-consciousness">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Purusha-Pakriti.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Purusha-Pakriti.jpg/390px-Purusha-Pakriti.jpg" decoding="async" width="390" height="255" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Purusha-Pakriti.jpg/585px-Purusha-Pakriti.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Purusha-Pakriti.jpg/780px-Purusha-Pakriti.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1094" data-file-height="715" /></a><figcaption>Purusha-prakriti</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Purusha" title="Purusha">Puruṣa</a> is the witness-consciousness. It is absolute, independent, free, imperceptible, unknowable through other agencies, above any experience by mind or senses and beyond any words or explanations. It remains pure, "nonattributive consciousness". Puruṣa is neither produced nor does it produce.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESharma1997155–7-6">[6]</a> No appellations can qualify Purusha, nor can it be substantialized or objectified.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChapple200821-7">[7]</a> It "cannot be reduced, can't be 'settled'". Any designation of Purusha comes from Prakriti, and is a limitation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOsto2018203-8">[8]</a> Unlike <a href="/wiki/Advaita_Vedanta" title="Advaita Vedanta">Advaita Vedanta</a>, and like <a href="/wiki/M%C4%ABm%C4%81%E1%B9%83s%C4%81" title="Mīmāṃsā">Purva-Mīmāṃsā</a>, Samkhya believes in plurality of the Puruṣas.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESharma1997155–7-6">[6]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Prakṛti_-_cognitive_processes">Prakṛti - cognitive processes</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Samkhya&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Prakṛti - cognitive processes">edit</a>]</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Evolution_in_Samkhya.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Evolution_in_Samkhya.jpg/160px-Evolution_in_Samkhya.jpg" decoding="async" width="160" height="357" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/19/Evolution_in_Samkhya.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="202" data-file-height="451" /></a><figcaption>Elements in Samkhya philosophy</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Prak%E1%B9%9Bti" title="Prakṛti">Prakṛti</a></div> Prakṛti is the first cause of the world of our experiences.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOsto2018204-11">[11]</a> Since it is the first principle (tattva) of the universe, it is called the pradhāna (chief principle), but, as it is the unconscious and unintelligent principle, it is also called the jaḍa (unintelligent). It is composed of three essential characteristics (trigunas). These are: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sattva" title="Sattva">Sattva</a> – poise, fineness, lightness, illumination, and joy;</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rajas" title="Rajas">Rajas</a> – dynamism, activity, excitation, and pain;</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamas_(philosophy)" title="Tamas (philosophy)">Tamas</a> – inertia, coarseness, heaviness, obstruction, and sloth.<a href="#cite_note-Sharma-41">[40]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHiriyanna1993270–272-42">[41]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChattopadhyaya1986109–110-43">[42]</a></li></ul> Unmanifested Prakriti is infinite, inactive, and unconscious, with the three gunas in a state of equilibrium. When this equilibrium of the guṇas is disturbed then unmanifest Prakṛti, along with the omnipresent witness-consciousness, Purusha, gives rise to the manifest world of experience.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOsto2018205-13">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELarson199811-14">[14]</a> Prakriti becomes manifest as twenty-three <a href="/wiki/Tattva" title="Tattva">tattvas</a>:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOsto2018204-11">[11]</a> intellect (<a href="/wiki/Buddhi" title="Buddhi">buddhi</a>, mahat), ego (<a href="/wiki/Ahamkara" title="Ahamkara">ahamkara</a>) mind (<a href="/wiki/Manas_(early_Buddhism)" title="Manas (early Buddhism)">manas</a>); the five sensory capacities; the five action capacities; and the five "subtle elements" or "modes of sensory content" (tanmatras: form (<a href="/wiki/R%C5%ABpa" title="Rūpa">rūpa</a>), sound (shabda), smell (gandha), taste (rasa), touch (sparsha)), from which the five "gross elements" or "forms of perceptual objects" emerge (earth (prithivi), water (jala), fire (Agni), air (Vāyu), ether (Ākāsha)).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOsto2018204-205-44">[43]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaney200242-12">[12]</a> Prakriti is the source of our experience; it is not "the evolution of a series of material entities," but "the emergence of experience itself".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOsto2018205-13">[13]</a> It is description of experience and the relations between its elements, not an explanation of the origin of the universe.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOsto2018205-13">[13]</a> All Prakriti has these three guṇas in different proportions. Each guṇa is dominant at specific times of day. The interplay of these guṇa defines the character of someone or something, of nature and determines the progress of life.<a href="#cite_note-jamesg-45">[44]</a><a href="#cite_note-46">[45]</a> The Samkhya theory of guṇa was widely discussed, developed and refined by various schools of Indian philosophies. Samkhya's philosophical treatises also influenced the development of various theories of Hindu ethics.<a href="#cite_note-royper-32">[31]</a> Thought processes and mental events are conscious only to the extent they receive illumination from Purusha. In Samkhya, consciousness is compared to light which illuminates the material configurations or 'shapes' assumed by the mind. So intellect, after receiving cognitive structures from the mind and illumination from pure consciousness, creates thought structures that appear to be conscious.<a href="#cite_note-Isaac-47">[46]</a> Ahamkara, the ego or the phenomenal self, appropriates all mental experiences to itself and thus, personalizes the objective activities of mind and intellect by assuming possession of them.<a href="#cite_note-48">[47]</a> But consciousness is itself independent of the thought structures it illuminates.<a href="#cite_note-Isaac-47">[46]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Liberation_or_mokṣa">Liberation or mokṣa</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Samkhya&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Liberation or mokṣa">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1224211176"><div class="quotebox pullquote floatright" style="width:20em; ; color: #202122;background-color: #c6dbf7;"> <blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style=""> The Supreme Good is mokṣa which consists in the permanent impossibility of the incidence of pain... in the realisation of the Self as Self pure and simple. </blockquote> <cite class="right-aligned" style="">—Samkhyakarika I.3<a href="#cite_note-49">[48]</a></cite> </div> Samkhya school considers <a href="/wiki/Moksha" title="Moksha">moksha</a> as a natural quest of every jiva. The <a href="/wiki/Samkhyakarika" title="Samkhyakarika">Samkhyakarika</a> states, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"> <div class="poem"> As the unconscious milk functions for the sake of nourishment of the calf, so the Prakriti functions for the sake of moksha of the spirit. </div> <div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Samkhya karika, Verse 57<a href="#cite_note-50">[49]</a><a href="#cite_note-colebrookesktrans-51">[50]</a></cite></div></blockquote> Samkhya regards ignorance (<a href="/wiki/Avidy%C4%81_(Hinduism)" title="Avidyā (Hinduism)">avidyā</a>) as the root cause of suffering and bondage (<a href="/wiki/Sa%E1%B9%83s%C4%81ra" title="Saṃsāra">Samsara</a>). Samkhya states that the way out of this suffering is through knowledge (viveka). Mokṣa (liberation), states Samkhya school, results from knowing the difference between Prakṛti (avyakta-vyakta) and Puruṣa (jña).<a href="#cite_note-Lpage9-17">[17]</a> More specifically, the Puruṣa that has attained liberation is to be distinguished from a Puruṣa that is still bound on account of the liberated Puruṣa being free from its subtle body (synonymous with buddhi), in which is located the mental dispositions that individuates it and causes it to experience bondage.<a href="#cite_note-ref1-52">[51]</a>: 58  Puruṣa, the eternal pure consciousness, due to ignorance, identifies itself with products of Prakṛti such as intellect (buddhi) and ego (ahamkara). This results in endless transmigration and suffering. However, once the realization arises that Puruṣa is distinct from Prakṛti, is more than empirical ego, and that puruṣa is deepest conscious self within, the <a href="/wiki/%C4%80tman_(Hinduism)" title="Ātman (Hinduism)">Self</a> gains isolation (kaivalya) and freedom (moksha).<a href="#cite_note-53">[52]</a> Though in conventional terms the bondage is ascribed to the Puruṣa, this is ultimately a mistake. This is because the Samkhya school (Samkhya karika Verse 63) maintains that it is actually Prakriti that binds itself, and thus bondage should in reality be ascribed to Prakriti, not to the Puruṣa:<a href="#cite_note-54">[53]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">By seven modes nature binds herself by herself: by one, she releases (herself), for the soul's wish (Samkhya karika Verse 63) ·</blockquote> Vacaspati gave a metaphorical example to elaborate the position that the Puruṣa is only mistakenly ascribed bondage: although the king is ascribed victory or defeat, it is actually the soldiers that experience it.<a href="#cite_note-55">[54]</a> It is then not merely that bondage is only mistakenly ascribed to the Puruṣa, but that liberation is like bondage, wrongly ascribed to the Puruṣa and should be ascribed to Prakriti alone.<a href="#cite_note-ref1-52">[51]</a>: 60  Other forms of Samkhya teach that Mokṣa is attained by one's own development of the higher faculties of discrimination achieved by meditation and other yogic practices. Moksha is described by Samkhya scholars as a state of liberation, where sattva guṇa predominates.<a href="#cite_note-Gerald_James_Larson_2011_pages_36-47-16">[16]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Epistemology">Epistemology</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Samkhya&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Epistemology">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:3_Pramana_Epistemology_Samkhya_Yoga_Hindu_schools.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/3_Pramana_Epistemology_Samkhya_Yoga_Hindu_schools.svg/220px-3_Pramana_Epistemology_Samkhya_Yoga_Hindu_schools.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="351" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/3_Pramana_Epistemology_Samkhya_Yoga_Hindu_schools.svg/330px-3_Pramana_Epistemology_Samkhya_Yoga_Hindu_schools.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/3_Pramana_Epistemology_Samkhya_Yoga_Hindu_schools.svg/440px-3_Pramana_Epistemology_Samkhya_Yoga_Hindu_schools.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="817" /></a><figcaption>The Samkhya school considers perception, inference and reliable testimony as three reliable means to knowledge.<a href="#cite_note-Lpage9-17">[17]</a><a href="#cite_note-eliottjag-18">[18]</a></figcaption></figure> Samkhya considered Pratyakṣa or Dṛṣṭam (direct sense perception), Anumāna (inference), and Śabda or Āptavacana (verbal testimony of the sages or shāstras) to be the only valid means of knowledge or pramana.<a href="#cite_note-Lpage9-17">[17]</a> Unlike some other schools, Samkhya did not consider the following three pramanas to be epistemically proper: Upamāṇa (comparison and analogy), Arthāpatti (postulation, deriving from circumstances) or Anupalabdi (non-perception, negative/cognitive proof).<a href="#cite_note-eliottjag-18">[18]</a> <ul><li>Pratyakṣa (प्रत्यक्ष) means perception. It is of two types in Hindu texts: external and internal. External perception is described as that arising from the interaction of five senses and worldly objects, while internal perception is described by this school as that of inner sense, the mind.<a href="#cite_note-kamal-56">[55]</a><a href="#cite_note-57">[56]</a> The ancient and medieval Indian texts identify four requirements for correct perception:<a href="#cite_note-kpmat-58">[57]</a> Indriyarthasannikarsa (direct experience by one's sensory organ(s) with the object, whatever is being studied), Avyapadesya (non-verbal; correct perception is not through <a href="/wiki/Hearsay" title="Hearsay">hearsay</a>, according to ancient Indian scholars, where one's sensory organ relies on accepting or rejecting someone else's perception), Avyabhicara (does not wander; correct perception does not change, nor is it the result of deception because one's sensory organ or means of observation is drifting, defective, suspect) and Vyavasayatmaka (definite; correct perception excludes judgments of doubt, either because of one's failure to observe all the details, or because one is mixing inference with observation and observing what one wants to observe, or not observing what one does not want to observe).<a href="#cite_note-kpmat-58">[57]</a> Some ancient scholars proposed "unusual perception" as pramana and called it internal perception, a proposal contested by other Indian scholars. The internal perception concepts included pratibha (intuition), samanyalaksanapratyaksa (a form of induction from perceived specifics to a universal), and jnanalaksanapratyaksa (a form of perception of prior processes and previous states of a 'topic of study' by observing its current state).<a href="#cite_note-59">[58]</a> Further, some schools considered and refined rules of accepting uncertain knowledge from Pratyakṣa-pranama, so as to contrast nirnaya (definite judgment, conclusion) from anadhyavasaya (indefinite judgment).<a href="#cite_note-60">[59]</a></li> <li>Anumāna (अनुमान) means inference. It is described as reaching a new conclusion and truth from one or more observations and previous truths by applying reason.<a href="#cite_note-61">[60]</a> Observing smoke and inferring fire is an example of Anumana.<a href="#cite_note-kamal-56">[55]</a> In all except one Hindu philosophies,<a href="#cite_note-62">[61]</a> this is a valid and useful means to knowledge. The method of inference is explained by Indian texts as consisting of three parts: pratijna (hypothesis), hetu (a reason), and drshtanta (examples).<a href="#cite_note-jl4647-63">[62]</a> The hypothesis must further be broken down into two parts, state the ancient Indian scholars: sadhya (that idea which needs to proven or disproven) and paksha (the object on which the sadhya is predicated). The inference is conditionally true if sapaksha (positive examples as evidence) are present, and if vipaksha (negative examples as counter-evidence) are absent. For rigor, the Indian philosophies also state further epistemic steps. For example, they demand Vyapti - the requirement that the hetu (reason) must necessarily and separately account for the inference in "all" cases, in both sapaksha and vipaksha.<a href="#cite_note-jl4647-63">[62]</a><a href="#cite_note-64">[63]</a> A conditionally proven hypothesis is called a nigamana (conclusion).<a href="#cite_note-65">[64]</a></li> <li>Śabda (शब्द) means relying on word, testimony of past or present reliable experts.<a href="#cite_note-eliottjag-18">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-dpsb-66">[65]</a> Hiriyanna explains Sabda-pramana as a concept which means reliable expert testimony. The schools which consider it epistemically valid suggest that a human being needs to know numerous facts, and with the limited time and energy available, he can learn only a fraction of those facts and truths directly.<a href="#cite_note-mhir-67">[66]</a> He must cooperate with others to rapidly acquire and share knowledge and thereby enrich each other's lives. This means of gaining proper knowledge is either spoken or written, but through Sabda (words).<a href="#cite_note-mhir-67">[66]</a> The reliability of the source is important, and legitimate knowledge can only come from the Sabda of <a href="/wiki/Vedas" title="Vedas">Vedas</a>.<a href="#cite_note-eliottjag-18">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-mhir-67">[66]</a> The disagreement between the schools has been on how to establish reliability. Some schools, such as <a href="/wiki/Carvaka" class="mw-redirect" title="Carvaka">Carvaka</a>, state that this is never possible, and therefore Sabda is not a proper pramana. Other schools debate means to establish reliability.<a href="#cite_note-68">[67]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Causality">Causality</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Samkhya&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Causality">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a>. Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Samkhya" title="Special:EditPage/Samkhya">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>. (July 2012) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> The Samkhya system is based on <a href="/wiki/Satkaryavada" title="Satkaryavada">Sat-kārya-vāda</a> or the theory of causation. According to Satkāryavāda, the effect is pre-existent in the cause. There is only an apparent or illusory change in the makeup of the cause and not a material one, when it becomes effect. Since, effects cannot come from nothing, the original cause or ground of everything is seen as Prakṛti.<a href="#cite_note-69">[68]</a> More specifically, Samkhya system follows the prakṛti-Parināma Vāda. <a href="/wiki/Pari%E1%B9%87%C4%81mav%C4%81da" title="Pariṇāmavāda">Parināma</a> denotes that the effect is a real transformation of the cause. The cause under consideration here is Prakṛti or more precisely Moola-Prakṛti ("Primordial Matter"). The Samkhya system is therefore an exponent of an evolutionary theory of matter beginning with primordial matter. In evolution, Prakṛti is transformed and differentiated into multiplicity of objects. Evolution is followed by dissolution. In dissolution the physical existence, all the worldly objects mingle back into Prakṛti, which now remains as the undifferentiated, primordial substance. This is how the cycles of evolution and dissolution follow each other. But this theory is very different from the modern theories of science in the sense that Prakṛti evolves for each Jiva separately, giving individual bodies and minds to each and after liberation these elements of Prakṛti merges into the Moola-Prakṛti. Another uniqueness of Sāmkhya is that not only physical entities but even mind, ego and intelligence are regarded as forms of Unconsciousness, quite distinct from pure consciousness. Samkhya theorizes that Prakṛti is the source of the perceived world of becoming. It is pure potentiality that evolves itself successively into twenty four <a href="/wiki/Tattva" title="Tattva">tattvas</a> or principles. The evolution itself is possible because Prakṛti is always in a state of tension among its constituent strands or gunas – sattva, rajas and tamas. In a state of equilibrium of three gunas, when the three together are one, "unmanifest" Prakṛti which is unknowable. A guṇa is an entity that can change, either increase or decrease, therefore, pure consciousness is called nirguna or without any modification. The evolution obeys <a href="/wiki/Causality" title="Causality">causality</a> relationships, with primal Nature itself being the material cause of all physical creation. The cause and effect theory of Samkhya is called "Satkārya-vāda" ("theory of existent causes"), and holds that nothing can really be created from or destroyed into nothingness – all evolution is simply the transformation of primal Nature from one form to another. Samkhya <a href="/wiki/Religious_cosmology" title="Religious cosmology">cosmology</a> describes how life emerges in the universe; the relationship between Purusha and Prakṛti is crucial to <a href="/wiki/Patanjali" title="Patanjali">Patanjali</a>'s yoga system. The strands of Samkhya thought can be traced back to the <a href="/wiki/Vedas" title="Vedas">Vedic</a> speculation of creation. It is also frequently mentioned in the <a href="/wiki/Mahabharata" title="Mahabharata">Mahabharata</a> and <a href="/wiki/Yoga_Vasistha" title="Yoga Vasistha">Yogavasishta</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Historical_development">Historical development</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Samkhya&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Historical development">edit</a>]</div> Larson (1969) discerns four basic periods in the development of Samkhya:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELarson199875-70">[69]</a> <ol><li>8/9th c. BCE - 5th c. BCE: "ancient speculations," including speculative Vedic hymns and the oldest prose Upanishads</li> <li>4th.c. BCE-1st c. CE: proto-Samkhya speculations, as found in the middle Upanishads, the <a href="/wiki/Buddhacarita" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddhacarita">Buddhacarita</a>, the Bhagavad Gita, and the Mahabharata</li> <li>1st-10/11th c. CE: classical Samkhya</li> <li>15th-17th c.: renaissance of later Samkhya</li></ol> Larson (1987) discerns three phases of development of the term samkhya, relating to three different meanings:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELarson20143-71">[70]</a> <ol><li><a href="/wiki/Vedic_period" title="Vedic period">Vedic period</a> and the Mauryan Empire, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1500 BCE until the 4th and 3rd c. BCE:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELarson20143-71">[70]</a> "relating to number, enumeration or calculation."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELarson20143-71">[70]</a> Intellectual inquiry was "frequently cast in the format of elaborate enumerations;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELarson20143-71">[70]</a> references to samkhya do not denote integrated systems of thought.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELarson20144-24">[23]</a></li> <li>8th/7th c. BCE - first centuries CE:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELarson20144-24">[23]</a> as a masculine noun, referring to "someone who calculates, enumerates, or discriminates properly or correctly."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELarson20143-71">[70]</a> Proto-samkhya,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELarson20149-72">[71]</a> related to the early ascetic traditions,reflected in the Moksadharma section of the Mahabharata, the Bhagavad Gita, and the cosmological speculations of the Puranas.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELarson20144-24">[23]</a> The notion of samkhya becomes related to methods of reasoning that result in liberating knowledge (vidya, jnana, viveka) that end the cycle of dukkha and rebirth.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELarson20144-5-73">[72]</a> During this period, samkhya becomes explicitly related to meditation, spiritual practices, and religious cosmology,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELarson20145-25">[24]</a> and is "primarily a methodology for attaining liberation and appears to allow for a great variety of philosophical formulations."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELarson20145-25">[24]</a> According to Larson, "Samkhya means in the Upanishads and the Epic simply the way of salvation by knowledge."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELarson20145-25">[24]</a> As such, it contains "psychological analyses of experience" that "become dominant motifs in Jain and Buddhist meditation contexts."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELarson20146-74">[73]</a> Typical Samkhya terminology and issues develop.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELarson20146-74">[73]</a> While yoga emphasizes asanas breathing, and ascetic practices, samkhya is concerned with intellectual analyses and proper discernment,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELarson20146-74">[73]</a> but samkhya-reasonong is not really differentiated from yoga.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELarson20149-72">[71]</a> According to Van Buitenen, these ideas developed in the interaction between various sramanas and ascetic groups.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELarson20146-7-75">[74]</a> Numerous ancient teachers are named in the various texts, including Kapila and Pancasikha.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELarson20147-76">[75]</a></li> <li>1st c. BCE - first centuries CE:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELarson20149-72">[71]</a> as a neuter term, referring to the beginning of a technical philosophical system.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELarson20143,_9-77">[76]</a> Pre-karika-Samkhya (ca. 100 BCE – 200 CE).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELarson201414-18-78">[77]</a> This period ends with <a href="/wiki/Ishvara_Krishna" class="mw-redirect" title="Ishvara Krishna">Ishvara Krishna</a>'s (Iśvarakṛṣṇa, 350 CE) <a href="/wiki/Samkhyakarika" title="Samkhyakarika">Samkhyakarika</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELarson20149-72">[71]</a> According to Larson, the shift of Samkhya from speculations to the normative conceptualization hints—but does not conclusively prove—that Samkhya may be the oldest of the Indian technical philosophical schools (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Nyaya" title="Nyaya">Nyaya</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vaisheshika" title="Vaisheshika">Vaisheshika</a> and Buddhist ontology), one that evolved over time and influenced the technical aspects of Buddhism and <a href="/wiki/Jainism" title="Jainism">Jainism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELarson20143-11-79">[78]</a><a href="#cite_note-81">[note 2]</a></li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ancient_speculations">Ancient speculations</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Samkhya&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Ancient speculations">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1224211176"><div class="quotebox pullquote floatright" style="width:20em; ; color: #202122;background-color: #c6dbf7;"> <blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style=""> In the beginning this was Self alone, in the shape of a person (puruṣa). He looking around saw nothing but his Self (<a href="/wiki/Atman_(Hinduism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Atman (Hinduism)">Atman</a>). He first said, "This is I", therefore he became I by name. </blockquote> <cite class="right-aligned" style="">—Brihadaranyaka Upanishad 1.4.1<a href="#cite_note-82">[80]</a><a href="#cite_note-83">[81]</a></cite> </div> The early, speculative phase took place in the first half of the first millennium BCE,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELarson199875-70">[69]</a> when ascetic spirituality and monastic (sramana and yati) traditions came into vogue in India, and ancient scholars combined "enumerated set[s] of principles" with "a methodology of reasoning that results in spiritual knowledge (vidya, jnana, viveka)."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELarson20144-5-73">[72]</a> These early non-Samkhya speculations and proto-Samkhya ideas are visible in earlier Hindu scriptures such as the Vedas,<a href="#cite_note-84">[note 3]</a> early <a href="/wiki/Upanishads" title="Upanishads">Upanishads</a> such as the <a href="/wiki/Chandogya_Upanishad" title="Chandogya Upanishad">Chandogya Upanishad</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELarson20144-5-73">[72]</a><a href="#cite_note-Upanishads-89">[note 4]</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Bhagavad_Gita" title="Bhagavad Gita">Bhagavad Gita</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurley200615–16-90">[86]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELarson199875-70">[69]</a> However, these early speculations and proto-Samkhya ideas had not distilled and congealed into a distinct, complete philosophy.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELarson20143-4-91">[87]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Ascetic_origins">Ascetic origins</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Samkhya&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Ascetic origins">edit</a>]</div> While some earlier scholars have argued for Upanishadic origins of the Samkhya-tradition,<a href="#cite_note-Upanishads-89">[note 4]</a> and the Upanisads contain dualistic speculations which may have influenced proto-samkhya,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurley200615–16-90">[86]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELarson199882–90-92">[88]</a> other scholars have noted the dissimilarities of Shamkhya with the Vedic tradition. As early as 1898, <a href="/wiki/Richard_Karl_von_Garbe" title="Richard Karl von Garbe">Richard Karl von Garbe</a>, a German professor of philosophy and Indologist, wrote in 1898, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">The origin of the Sankhya system appears in the proper light only when we understand that in those regions of India which were little influenced by Brahmanism [political connotation given by the Christian missionary] the first attempt had been made to solve the riddles of the world and of our existence merely by means of reason. For the Sankhya philosophy is, in its essence, not only atheistic but also inimical to the Veda'.<a href="#cite_note-93">[89]</a></blockquote> <a href="/wiki/Ramchandra_Narayan_Dandekar" title="Ramchandra Narayan Dandekar">Dandekar</a>, similarly wrote in 1968, 'The origin of the Sankhya is to be traced to the pre-Vedic non-Aryan thought complex'.<a href="#cite_note-94">[90]</a> <a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Zimmer" title="Heinrich Zimmer">Heinrich Zimmer</a> states that Samkhya has non-Aryan origins.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZimmer1951217,_314-22">[22]</a><a href="#cite_note-Zimmer-23">[note 1]</a> <a href="/wiki/A._K._Warder" title="A. K. Warder">Anthony Warder</a> (1994; first ed. 1967) writes that the Samkhya and <a href="/wiki/M%C4%ABm%C4%81%E1%B9%83s%C4%81" title="Mīmāṃsā">Mīmāṃsā</a> schools appear to have been established before the Sramana traditions in India (~500 BCE), and he finds that "Samkhya represents a relatively free development of speculation among the Brahmans, independent of the Vedic revelation."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWarder200963-96">[92]</a> Warder writes, '[Samkhya] has indeed been suggested to be non-Brahmanical and even anti-Vedic in origin, but there is no tangible evidence for that except that it is very different than most Vedic speculation – but that is (itself) quite inconclusive. Speculations in the direction of the Samkhya can be found in the early Upanishads."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWarder200963–65-97">[93]</a> According to Ruzsa in 2006, "Sāṅkhya has a very long history. Its roots go deeper than textual traditions allow us to see,"<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERuzsa2006-98">[94]</a> stating that "Sāṅkhya likely grew out of speculations rooted in cosmic dualism and introspective meditational practice."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERuzsa2006-98">[94]</a> The dualism is rooted in agricultural concepts of the union of the male sky-god and the female earth-goddess, the union of "the spiritual, immaterial, lordly, immobile fertilizer (represented as the Śiva-liṅgam, or phallus) and of the active, fertile, powerful but subservient material principle (Śakti or Power, often as the horrible Dark Lady, Kālī)."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERuzsa2006-98">[94]</a> In contrast, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">The ascetic and meditative yoga practice, in contrast, aimed at overcoming the limitations of the natural body and achieving perfect stillness of the mind. A combination of these views may have resulted in the concept of the Puruṣa, the unchanging immaterial conscious essence, contrasted with Prakṛti, the material principle that produces not only the external world and the body but also the changing and externally determined aspects of the human mind (such as the intellect, ego, internal and external perceptual organs).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERuzsa2006-98">[94]</a></blockquote> According to Ruzsa, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">Both the agrarian theology of Śiva-Śakti/Sky-Earth and the tradition of yoga (meditation) do not appear to be rooted in the Vedas. Not surprisingly, classical Sāṅkhya is remarkably independent of orthodox Brahmanic traditions, including the Vedas. Sāṅkhya is silent about the Vedas, about their guardians (the Brahmins) and for that matter about the whole caste system, and about the Vedic gods; and it is slightly unfavorable towards the animal sacrifices that characterized the ancient Vedic religion. But all our early sources for the history of Sāṅkhya belong to the Vedic tradition, and it is thus reasonable to suppose that we do not see in them the full development of the Sāṅkhya system, but rather occasional glimpses of its development as it gained gradual acceptance in the Brahmanic fold.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERuzsa2006-98">[94]</a></blockquote> Burley argues for an <a href="/wiki/Ontogeny" title="Ontogeny">ontegenetic</a> or incremental development of Shamkya, instead of being established by one historical founder.<a href="#cite_note-99">[95]</a> Burley states that India's religio-cultural heritage is complicated and likely experienced a non-linear development.<a href="#cite_note-burleyorigins-100">[96]</a> Samkhya is not necessarily non-Vedic nor pre-Vedic nor a 'reaction to Brahmanic hegemony', states Burley.<a href="#cite_note-burleyorigins-100">[96]</a> It is most plausibly in its origins a lineage that grew and evolved from a combination of ascetic traditions and Vedic guru (teacher) and disciples. Burley suggests the link between Samkhya and Yoga as likely the root of this evolutionary origin during the Vedic era of India.<a href="#cite_note-burleyorigins-100">[96]</a> According to Van Buitenen, various ideas on yoga and meditation developed in the interaction between various sramanas and ascetic groups.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELarson20146-7-75">[74]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Rig_Vedic_speculations">Rig Vedic speculations</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Samkhya&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Rig Vedic speculations">edit</a>]</div> The earliest mention of <a href="/wiki/Dualism_(Indian_philosophy)" title="Dualism (Indian philosophy)">dualism</a> is in the <a href="/wiki/Rigveda" title="Rigveda">Rigveda</a>, a text that was compiled in the late second millennium BCE.,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESingh2008185-101">[97]</a> in various chapters. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1224211176"><div class="quotebox pullquote floatright" style="width:26em; ; color: #202122;background-color: #FFE0BB;"> <blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style=""> <a href="/wiki/Nasadiya_Sukta" title="Nasadiya Sukta">Nasadiya Sukta</a> (Hymn of non-Eternity, origin of universe): There was neither non-existence nor existence then; Neither the realm of space, nor the sky which is beyond; What stirred? Where? In whose protection? There was neither death nor immortality then; No distinguishing sign of night nor of day; That One breathed, windless, by its own impulse; Other than that there was nothing beyond. Darkness there was at first, by darkness hidden; Without distinctive marks, this all was water; That which, becoming, by the void was covered; That One by force of heat came into being; Who really knows? Who will here proclaim it? Whence was it produced? Whence is this creation? Gods came afterwards, with the creation of this universe. Who then knows whence it has arisen? Whether God's will created it, or whether He was mute; Perhaps it formed itself, or perhaps it did not; Only He who is its overseer in highest heaven knows, Only He knows, or perhaps He does not know. </blockquote> <cite class="right-aligned" style="">—<a href="/wiki/Rigveda" title="Rigveda">Rigveda</a> 10.129 (Abridged, Tr: Kramer / Christian)<a href="#cite_note-3translations-102">[98]</a> The hymn, as <a href="/wiki/Mandala_10" title="Mandala 10">Mandala 10</a> in general, is late within the Rigveda Samhita, and expresses thought more typical of later <a href="/wiki/Satkaryavada" title="Satkaryavada">Vedantic philosophy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-103">[99]</a></cite> </div> At a mythical level, dualism is found in the <a href="/wiki/Indra" title="Indra">Indra</a>–<a href="/wiki/Vritra" title="Vritra">Vritra</a> myth of <a href="/wiki/Rigveda_1.32" title="Rigveda 1.32">chapter 1.32 of the Rigveda</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELarson199879-104">[100]</a> Enumeration, the etymological root of the word samkhya, is found in numerous chapters of the Rigveda, such as 1.164, 10.90 and 10.129.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELarsonBhattacharyaPotter20145-6,_109-110,_180-105">[101]</a> According to Larson, it is likely that in the oldest period these enumerations were occasionally also applied in the context of meditation themes and religious cosmology, such as in the hymns of 1.164 (Riddle Hymns) and 10.129 (Nasadiya Hymns).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELarsonBhattacharyaPotter20145-106">[102]</a> However, these hymns present only the outline of ideas, not specific Samkhya theories and these theories developed in a much later period.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELarsonBhattacharyaPotter20145-106">[102]</a> The Riddle hymns of the Rigveda, famous for their numerous enumerations, structural language symmetry within the verses and the chapter, enigmatic word play with <a href="/wiki/Anagram" title="Anagram">anagrams</a> that symbolically portray parallelism in rituals and the cosmos, nature and the inner life of man.<a href="#cite_note-jamison1164-107">[103]</a> This hymn includes enumeration (counting) as well as a series of dual concepts cited by early Upanishads . For example, the hymns 1.164.2 - 1.164-3 mention "seven" multiple times, which in the context of other chapters of Rigveda have been interpreted as referring to both seven priests at a ritual and seven constellations in the sky, the entire hymn is a riddle that paints a ritual as well as the sun, moon, earth, three seasons, the transitory nature of living beings, the passage of time and spirit.<a href="#cite_note-jamison1164-107">[103]</a><a href="#cite_note-108">[104]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"> <div class="poem"> Seven to the one-wheeled chariot yoke the Courser; bearing seven names the single Courser draws it. Three-naved the wheel is, sound and undecaying, whereon are resting all these worlds of being. The seven [priests] who on the seven-wheeled car are mounted have horses, seven in tale, who draw them onward. Seven Sisters utter songs of praise together, in whom the names of the seven Cows are treasured. Who hath beheld him as he [Sun/Agni] sprang to being, seen how the boneless One [spirit] supports the bony [body]? Where is the blood of earth, the life, the spirit? Who will approach the one who knows, to ask this? </div> <div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Rigveda 1.164.2 - 1.164.4, <a href="#cite_note-Rigveda_1.164-109">[105]</a></cite></div></blockquote> The chapter 1.164 asks a number of metaphysical questions, such as "what is the One in the form of the Unborn that created the six realms of the world?".<a href="#cite_note-110">[106]</a><a href="#cite_note-111">[107]</a> Dualistic philosophical speculations then follow in chapter 1.164 of the Rigveda, particularly in the well studied "allegory of two birds" hymn (1.164.20 - 1.164.22), a hymn that is referred to in the <a href="/wiki/Mundaka_Upanishad" title="Mundaka Upanishad">Mundaka Upanishad</a> and other texts .<a href="#cite_note-jamison1164-107">[103]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELarsonBhattacharyaPotter2014295-296-112">[108]</a><a href="#cite_note-113">[109]</a> The two birds in this hymn have been interpreted to mean various forms of dualism: "the sun and the moon", the "two seekers of different kinds of knowledge", and "the body and the atman".<a href="#cite_note-114">[110]</a><a href="#cite_note-115">[111]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"> <div class="poem"> Two Birds with fair wings, knit with bonds of friendship, embrace the same tree. One of the twain eats the sweet fig; the other not eating keeps watch. Where those fine Birds hymn ceaselessly their portion of life eternal, and the sacred synods, There is the Universe's mighty Keeper, who, wise, hath entered into me the simple. The tree on which the fine Birds eat the sweetness, where they all rest and procreate their offspring, Upon its top they say the fig is sweetest, he who does not know the Father will not reach it. </div> <div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Rigveda 1.164.20 - 1.164.22, <a href="#cite_note-Rigveda_1.164-109">[105]</a></cite></div></blockquote> The emphasis of duality between existence (sat) and non-existence (asat) in the <a href="/wiki/Nasadiya_Sukta" title="Nasadiya Sukta">Nasadiya Sukta</a> of the Rigveda is similar to the vyakta–<a href="/wiki/Avyakta" title="Avyakta">avyakta</a> (manifest–unmanifest) polarity in Samkhya. The hymns about Puruṣa may also have had some influence on Samkhya.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELarson199859,_79–81-116">[112]</a> The Samkhya notion of buddhi or mahat is similar to the notion of <a href="/wiki/Hiranyagarbha" title="Hiranyagarbha">hiranyagarbha</a>, which appears in both the Rigveda and the <a href="/wiki/Shvetashvatara_Upanishad" title="Shvetashvatara Upanishad">Shvetashvatara Upanishad</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELarson199882-117">[113]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Early_Upanishads">Early Upanishads</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Samkhya&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Early Upanishads">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1224211176"><div class="quotebox pullquote floatright" style="width:20em; ; color: #202122;background-color: #c6dbf7;"> <blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style=""> Higher than the senses, stand the objects of senses. Higher than objects of senses, stands mind. Higher than mind, stands intellect. Higher than intellect, stands the great self. Higher than the great self, stands Avyaktam(unmenifested or indistinctive). Higher than Avyaktam, stands Purusha. Higher than this, there is nothing. He is the final goal and the highest point. In all beings, dwells this Purusha, as Atman (essence), invisible, concealed. He is only seen by the keenest thought, by the sublest of those thinkers who see into the subtle. </blockquote> <cite class="right-aligned" style="">—Katha Upanishad 3.10-13<a href="#cite_note-118">[114]</a><a href="#cite_note-119">[115]</a></cite> </div> The oldest of the <a href="/wiki/Mukhya_Upanishads" class="mw-redirect" title="Mukhya Upanishads">major Upanishads</a> (c. 900–600 BCE) contain speculations along the lines of classical Samkhya philosophy.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurley200615–16-90">[86]</a> The concept of <a href="/wiki/Ahamkara" title="Ahamkara">ahamkara</a> was traced back by Van Buitenen to chapters 1.2 and 1.4 of the <a href="/wiki/Brihadaranyaka_Upanishad" title="Brihadaranyaka Upanishad">Brihadaranyaka Upanishad</a> and chapter 7.25 of the <a href="/wiki/Ch%C4%81ndogya_Upani%E1%B9%A3ad" class="mw-redirect" title="Chāndogya Upaniṣad">Chāndogya Upaniṣad</a>, where it is a "cosmic entity," and not a psychological notion.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurley200615–16-90">[86]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELarson199882-117">[113]</a> Satkaryavada, the theory of causation in Samkhya, may in part be traced to the verses in sixth chapter which emphasize the primacy of sat (being) and describe creation from it. The idea that the three gunas or attributes influence creation is found in both Chandogya and <a href="/wiki/Shvetashvatara_Upanishad" title="Shvetashvatara Upanishad">Shvetashvatara Upanishads</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELarson199882–84-120">[116]</a> <a href="/wiki/Yajnavalkya" title="Yajnavalkya">Yajnavalkya</a>'s exposition on the Self in the <a href="/wiki/Brihadaranyaka_Upanishad" title="Brihadaranyaka Upanishad">Brihadaranyaka Upanishad</a>, and the dialogue between <a href="/wiki/Uddalaka_Aruni" class="mw-redirect" title="Uddalaka Aruni">Uddalaka Aruni</a> and his son Svetaketu in the <a href="/wiki/Chandogya_Upanishad" title="Chandogya Upanishad">Chandogya Upanishad</a> represent a more developed notion of the essence of man (Atman) as "pure subjectivity - i.e., the knower who is himself unknowable, the seer who cannot be seen," and as "pure conscious," discovered by means of speculations, or enumerations.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELarson199888–89-121">[117]</a> According to Larson, "it seems quite likely that both the monistic trends in Indian thought and the dualistic samkhya could have developed out of these ancient speculations."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELarson199889-122">[118]</a> According to Larson, the enumeration of <a href="/wiki/Tattva" title="Tattva">tattvas</a> in Samkhya is also found in <a href="/wiki/Taittiriya_Upanishad" title="Taittiriya Upanishad">Taittiriya Upanishad</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aitareya_Upanishad" title="Aitareya Upanishad">Aitareya Upanishad</a> and Yajnavalkya–Maitri dialogue in the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELarson199888–90-123">[119]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Proto_classical_samkhya">Proto classical samkhya</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Samkhya&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Proto classical samkhya">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Buddhist_and_Jainist_influences">Buddhist and Jainist influences</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Samkhya&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Buddhist and Jainist influences">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jainism" title="Jainism">Jainism</a> had developed in eastern India by the 5th century BCE. It is probable that these schools of thought and the earliest schools of Samkhya influenced each other.<a href="#cite_note-larson9193-124">[120]</a> According to Burely, there is no evidence that a systematic samkhya-philosophy existed prior to the founding of Buddhism and Jainism, sometime in the 5th or 4th century BCE.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurley200616-125">[121]</a> A prominent similarity between Buddhism and Samkhya is the greater emphasis on suffering (<a href="/wiki/Dukkha" class="mw-redirect" title="Dukkha">dukkha</a>) as the foundation for their respective <a href="/wiki/Soteriological" class="mw-redirect" title="Soteriological">soteriological</a> theories, than other Indian philosophies.<a href="#cite_note-larson9193-124">[120]</a> However, suffering appears central to Samkhya in its later literature, which likely suggests a Buddhist influence. <a href="/wiki/Eliade" class="mw-redirect" title="Eliade">Eliade</a>, however, presents the alternate theory that Samkhya and Buddhism developed their soteriological theories over time, benefiting from their mutual influence.<a href="#cite_note-larson9193-124">[120]</a> Likewise, the Jain doctrine of plurality of individual souls (<a href="/wiki/Jiva" title="Jiva">jiva</a>) could have influenced the concept of multiple purushas in Samkhya. However Hermann Jacobi, an Indologist, thinks that there is little reason to assume that Samkhya notion of Purushas was solely dependent on the notion of jiva in Jainism. It is more likely, that Samkhya was moulded by many ancient theories of soul in various Vedic and non-Vedic schools.<a href="#cite_note-larson9193-124">[120]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1224211176"><div class="quotebox pullquote floatright" style="width:20em; ; color: #202122;background-color: #c6dbf7;"> <blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style=""> This declared to you is the Yoga of the wisdom of Samkhya. Hear, now, of the integrated wisdom with which, Partha, you will cast off the bonds of karma. </blockquote> <cite class="right-aligned" style="">—Bhagavad Gita 2.39<a href="#cite_note-126">[122]</a></cite> </div> Larson, Bhattacharya and Potter state it to be likely that early Samkhya doctrines found in oldest Upanishads (~700-800 BCE) provided the contextual foundations and influenced Buddhist and Jaina doctrines, and these became contemporaneous, sibling intellectual movements with Samkhya and other schools of Hindu philosophy.<a href="#cite_note-127">[123]</a> This is evidenced, for example, by the references to Samkhya in ancient and medieval era Jaina literature.<a href="#cite_note-128">[124]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Middle_upanishads">Middle upanishads</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Samkhya&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Middle upanishads">edit</a>]</div> Samkhya and <a href="/wiki/Yoga" title="Yoga">Yoga</a> are mentioned together for first time in chapter 6.13 of the Shvetashvatra Upanishad,<a href="#cite_note-Burley2-129">[125]</a> as samkhya-yoga-adhigamya (literally, "to be understood by proper reasoning and spiritual discipline").<a href="#cite_note-130">[126]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Katha_Upanishad" title="Katha Upanishad">Katha Upanishad</a> (5th-1st c. BCE) in verses 3.10–13 and 6.7–11 describes a concept of puruṣa, and other concepts also found in later Samkhya.<a href="#cite_note-pauldeussen-131">[127]</a> The Shvetashvatara Upanishad in chapter 6.13 describes samkhya with Yoga philosophy, and Bhagavad Gita in book 2 provides axiological implications of Samkhya, therewith providing textual evidence of samkhyan terminology and concepts.<a href="#cite_note-Burley2-129">[125]</a> Katha Upanishad conceives the Purusha (cosmic spirit, consciousness) as same as the individual soul (<a href="/wiki/%C4%80tman_(Hinduism)" title="Ātman (Hinduism)">Ātman</a>, Self).<a href="#cite_note-pauldeussen-131">[127]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELarson199896-132">[128]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Bhagavad_Gita_and_Mahabharata">Bhagavad Gita and Mahabharata</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Samkhya&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Bhagavad Gita and Mahabharata">edit</a>]</div> The <a href="/wiki/Bhagavad_Gita" title="Bhagavad Gita">Bhagavad Gita</a> identifies Samkhya with understanding or knowledge.<a href="#cite_note-133">[129]</a> The three gunas are also mentioned in the Gita, though they are not used in the same sense as in classical Samkhya.<a href="#cite_note-134">[130]</a> The Gita integrates Samkhya thought with the devotion (<a href="/wiki/Bhakti" title="Bhakti">bhakti</a>) of theistic schools and the impersonal <a href="/wiki/Brahman" title="Brahman">Brahman</a> of <a href="/wiki/Vedanta" title="Vedanta">Vedanta</a>.<a href="#cite_note-King1-135">[131]</a> The Mokshadharma chapter of <a href="/wiki/Shanti_Parva" title="Shanti Parva">Shanti Parva</a> (Book of Peace) in the Mahabharata epic, composed between 400 BCE to 400 CE, explains Samkhya ideas along with other extant philosophies, and then lists numerous scholars in recognition of their philosophical contributions to various Indian traditions, and therein at least three Samkhya scholars can be recognized – <a href="/wiki/Kapila" title="Kapila">Kapila</a>, <a href="/wiki/Asuri_(Samkhya)" title="Asuri (Samkhya)">Asuri</a> and <a href="/wiki/Panchashikha" title="Panchashikha">Pancasikha</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELarsonBhattacharyaPotter20143-11-136">[132]</a><a href="#cite_note-137">[133]</a> The 12th chapter of the <a href="/wiki/Buddhacarita" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddhacarita">Buddhacarita</a>, a buddhist text composed in the early second century CE,<a href="#cite_note-138">[134]</a> suggests Samkhya philosophical tools of reliable reasoning were well formed by about 5th century BCE.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELarsonBhattacharyaPotter20143-11-136">[132]</a> According to Rusza, "The ancient Buddhist <a href="/wiki/A%C5%9Bvagho%E1%B9%A3a" title="Aśvaghoṣa">Aśvaghoṣa</a> (in his <a href="/wiki/Buddhacarita" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddhacarita">Buddha-Carita</a>) describes <a href="/wiki/%C4%80%E1%B8%B7%C4%81ra_K%C4%81l%C4%81ma" title="Āḷāra Kālāma">Āḷāra Kālāma</a>, the teacher of the young Buddha (ca. 420 B.C.E.) as following an archaic form of Sāṅkhya."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERuzsa2006-98">[94]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Classical_Samkhya">Classical Samkhya</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Samkhya&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Classical Samkhya">edit</a>]</div> According to Ruzsa, about 2,000 years ago "Sāṅkhya became the representative philosophy of Hindu thought in Hindu circles",<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERuzsa2006-98">[94]</a> influencing all strands of the Hindu tradition and Hindu texts.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERuzsa2006-98">[94]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Traditional_credited_founders">Traditional credited founders</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Samkhya&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Traditional credited founders">edit</a>]</div> Sage <a href="/wiki/Kapila" title="Kapila">Kapila</a> is traditionally credited as a founder of the Samkhya school.<a href="#cite_note-139">[135]</a> It is unclear in which century of the 1st millennium BCE Kapila lived.<a href="#cite_note-geraldl-140">[136]</a> Kapila appears in <a href="/wiki/Rigveda" title="Rigveda">Rigveda</a>, but context suggests that the word means 'reddish-brown color'. Both Kapila as a 'seer' and the term Samkhya appear in hymns of section 5.2 in <a href="/wiki/Shvetashvatara_Upanishad" title="Shvetashvatara Upanishad">Shvetashvatara Upanishad</a> (~300 BCE), suggesting Kapila's and Samkhya philosophy's origins may predate it. Numerous other ancient Indian texts mention Kapila; for example, Baudhayana Grhyasutra in chapter IV.16.1 describes a system of rules for ascetic life credited to Kapila called Kapila Sannyasa Vidha.<a href="#cite_note-geraldl-140">[136]</a> A 6th century CE Chinese translation and other texts consistently note Kapila as an <a href="/wiki/Sannyasa" title="Sannyasa">ascetic</a> and the founder of the school, mention Asuri as the inheritor of the teaching and a much later scholar named Pancasikha<a href="#cite_note-141">[137]</a> as the scholar who systematized it and then helped widely disseminate its ideas. <a href="/wiki/Isvarakrsna" class="mw-redirect" title="Isvarakrsna">Isvarakrsna</a> is identified in these texts as the one who summarized and simplified Samkhya theories of Pancasikha, many centuries later (roughly 4th or 5th century CE), in the form that was then translated into Chinese by <a href="/wiki/Paramartha" title="Paramartha">Paramartha</a> in the 6th century CE.<a href="#cite_note-geraldl-140">[136]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Samkhyakarika">Samkhyakarika</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Samkhya&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Samkhyakarika">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Samkhyakarika" title="Samkhyakarika">Samkhyakarika</a></div> The earliest surviving authoritative text on classical Samkhya philosophy is the <a href="/wiki/Samkhyakarika" title="Samkhyakarika">Samkhya Karika</a> (c. 200 CE<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBagchi1989-142">[138]</a> or 350–450 CE<a href="#cite_note-King1-135">[131]</a>) of Īśvarakṛṣṇa.<a href="#cite_note-King1-135">[131]</a> There were probably other texts in early centuries CE, however none of them are available today.<a href="#cite_note-143">[139]</a> Iśvarakṛṣṇa in his Kārikā describes a succession of the disciples from Kapila, through Āsuri and Pañcaśikha to himself. The text also refers to an earlier work of Samkhya philosophy called Ṣaṣṭitantra (science of sixty topics) which is now lost.<a href="#cite_note-King1-135">[131]</a> The text was imported and translated into Chinese about the middle of the 6th century CE.<a href="#cite_note-144">[140]</a> The records of <a href="/wiki/Al_Biruni" class="mw-redirect" title="Al Biruni">Al Biruni</a>, the Persian visitor to India in the early 11th century, suggests Samkhyakarika was an established and definitive text in India in his times.<a href="#cite_note-145">[141]</a> Samkhyakarika includes distilled statements on epistemology, metaphysics and soteriology of the Samkhya school. For example, the fourth to sixth verses of the text states it epistemic premises,<a href="#cite_note-henrysamkhya-146">[142]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">Perception, inference and right affirmation are admitted to be threefold proof; for they (are by all acknowledged, and) comprise every mode of demonstration. It is from proof that belief of that which is to be proven results. Perception is ascertainment of particular objects. Inference, which is of three sorts, premises an argument, and deduces that which is argued by it. Right affirmation is true revelation (Apta vacana and Sruti, testimony of reliable source and the Vedas). Sensible objects become known by perception; but it is by inference or reasoning that acquaintance with things transcending the senses is obtained. A truth which is neither to be directly perceived, nor to be inferred from reasoning, is deduced from Apta vacana and Sruti. <div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Samkhya Karika Verse 4–6, <a href="#cite_note-henrysamkhya-146">[142]</a></cite></div></blockquote> The most popular commentary on the Samkhyakarika was the Gauḍapāda Bhāṣya attributed to <a href="/wiki/Gaudapada" title="Gaudapada">Gauḍapāda</a>, the proponent of <a href="/wiki/Advaita_Vedanta" title="Advaita Vedanta">Advaita Vedanta</a> school of philosophy. Other important commentaries on the karika were Yuktidīpīka (c. 6th century CE) and <a href="/wiki/Vachaspati_Misra" class="mw-redirect" title="Vachaspati Misra">Vācaspati’s</a> Sāṁkhyatattvakaumudī (c. 10th century CE).<a href="#cite_note-147">[143]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Yuktidipika">Yuktidipika</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Samkhya&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Yuktidipika">edit</a>]</div> Between 1938 and 1967, two previously unknown manuscript editions of Yuktidipika (ca. 600–700 CE) were discovered and published.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELarson20149-11-148">[144]</a> Yuktidipika is an ancient review by an unknown author and has emerged as the most important commentary on the <a href="/wiki/Samkhyakarika" title="Samkhyakarika">Samkhyakarika</a>, itself an ancient key text of the Samkhya school.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELarsonBhattacharyaPotter20143-4-149">[145]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELarson20143-4-91">[87]</a> This commentary as well as the reconstruction of pre-karika epistemology and Samkhya emanation text (containing cosmology-ontology) from the earliest Puranas and Mokshadharma suggest that Samkhya as a technical philosophical system existed from about the last century BCE to the early centuries of the Common Era. Yuktidipika suggests that many more ancient scholars contributed to the origins of Samkhya in ancient India than were previously known and that Samkhya was a polemical philosophical system. However, almost nothing is preserved from the centuries when these ancient Samkhya scholars lived.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELarson20149-11-148">[144]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Samkhya_revival">Samkhya revival</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Samkhya&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Samkhya revival">edit</a>]</div> The 13th century text <a href="/wiki/Sarva-Darsana-Sangraha" title="Sarva-Darsana-Sangraha">Sarvadarsanasangraha</a> contains 16 chapters, each devoted to a separate school of Indian philosophy. The 13th chapter in this book contains a description of the Samkhya philosophy.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECowellGough188222-150">[146]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Samkhyapravachana_Sutra" class="mw-redirect" title="Samkhyapravachana Sutra">Sāṁkhyapravacana Sūtra</a> (c. 14th century CE) renewed interest in Samkhya in the medieval era. It is considered the second most important work of Samkhya after the karika.<a href="#cite_note-151">[147]</a> Commentaries on this text were written by Anirruddha (Sāṁkhyasūtravṛtti, c. 15th century CE), Vijñānabhikṣu (Sāṁkhyapravacanabhāṣya, c. 16th century CE), Mahādeva (vṛttisāra, c. 17th century CE) and Nāgeśa (Laghusāṁkhyasūtravṛtti).<a href="#cite_note-152">[148]</a> In his introduction, the commentator Vijnana Bhiksu stated that only a sixteenth part of the original Samkhya Sastra remained, and that the rest had been lost to time. <a href="#cite_note-153">[149]</a> While the commentary itself is no doubt medieval, the age of the underlying sutras is unknown and perhaps much older. According to <a href="/wiki/Surendranath_Dasgupta" title="Surendranath Dasgupta">Surendranath Dasgupta</a>, scholar of Indian philosophy, <a href="/wiki/Charaka_Samhita" title="Charaka Samhita">Charaka Samhita</a>, an ancient Indian medical treatise, also contains thoughts from an early Samkhya school.<a href="#cite_note-154">[150]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Views_on_God">Views on God</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Samkhya&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Views on God">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks plainlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of a series on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="font-size:200%;font-weight:normal;padding-bottom:0.15em;"><a href="/wiki/Atheism" title="Atheism">Atheism</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Concepts</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding:0.3em 0.3em 0.6em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Implicit_and_explicit_atheism" title="Implicit and explicit atheism">Implicit and explicit atheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Negative_and_positive_atheism" title="Negative and positive atheism">Negative and positive atheism</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">History</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding:0.3em 0.3em 0.6em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_atheism" title="History of atheism">History of atheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atheism_during_the_Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Atheism during the Age of Enlightenment">Atheism during the Age of Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Atheism" title="New Atheism">New Atheism</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Society</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding:0.3em 0.3em 0.6em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atheist_feminism" title="Atheist feminism">Atheist feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_religion" title="Criticism of religion">Criticism of religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_atheism" title="Demographics of atheism">Demographics of atheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_atheists" title="Discrimination against atheists">Discrimination against atheists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secular_ethics" title="Secular ethics">Secular ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secularism" title="Secularism">Secularism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_church_and_state" title="Separation of church and state">Separation of church and state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_atheism" title="State atheism">State atheism</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Arguments</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding:0.3em 0.3em 0.6em;;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;"><a href="/wiki/Existence_of_God#Arguments_against_its/their_existence" title="Existence of God">Arguments for atheism</a> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atheist%27s_wager" title="Atheist's wager">Atheist's wager</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_the_creator_of_God" title="Problem of the creator of God">Creator of God</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evil_God_challenge" title="Evil God challenge">Evil God challenge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fate_of_the_unlearned" title="Fate of the unlearned">Fate of the unlearned</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_free_will" title="Argument from free will">Free will</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_of_the_gaps" title="God of the gaps">God of the gaps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hitchens%27s_razor" title="Hitchens's razor">Hitchens's razor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incompatible-properties_argument" title="Incompatible-properties argument">Incompatible properties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_inconsistent_revelations" class="mw-redirect" title="Argument from inconsistent revelations">Inconsistent revelation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_nonbelief" title="Argument from nonbelief">Nonbelief</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occam%27s_razor#Religion" title="Occam's razor">Occam's razor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omnipotence_paradox" title="Omnipotence paradox">Omnipotence paradox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parody_religion" title="Parody religion">Parody religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_poor_design" title="Argument from poor design">Poor design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_evil" title="Problem of evil">Problem of evil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_Hell" title="Problem of Hell">Problem of Hell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russell%27s_teapot" title="Russell's teapot">Russell's teapot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theological_noncognitivism" title="Theological noncognitivism">Theological noncognitivism</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">People</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding:0.3em 0.3em 0.6em;"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Lists_of_atheists" title="Lists of atheists">Lists of atheists</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Julian_Baggini" title="Julian Baggini">Julian Baggini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Bakunin" title="Mikhail Bakunin">Mikhail Bakunin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mario_Bunge" title="Mario Bunge">Mario Bunge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Camus" title="Albert Camus">Albert Camus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Dawkins" title="Richard Dawkins">Richard Dawkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Dennett" title="Daniel Dennett">Daniel Dennett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denis_Diderot" title="Denis Diderot">Denis Diderot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Feuerbach" title="Ludwig Feuerbach">Ludwig Feuerbach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A._C._Grayling" title="A. C. Grayling">A. C. Grayling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sam_Harris" title="Sam Harris">Sam Harris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Hitchens" title="Christopher Hitchens">Christopher Hitchens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baron_d%27Holbach" title="Baron d'Holbach">Baron d'Holbach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Krauss" title="Lawrence Krauss">Lawrence Krauss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Lou_Martin" title="Michael Lou Martin">Michael Lou Martin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Karl Marx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Meslier" title="Jean Meslier">Jean Meslier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Friedrich Nietzsche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michel_Onfray" title="Michel Onfray">Michel Onfray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Singer" title="Peter Singer">Peter Singer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victor_J._Stenger" title="Victor J. Stenger">Victor J. Stenger</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Books</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding:0.3em 0.3em 0.6em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atheism:_The_Case_Against_God" title="Atheism: The Case Against God">Atheism: The Case Against God</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breaking_the_Spell:_Religion_as_a_Natural_Phenomenon" class="mw-redirect" title="Breaking the Spell: Religion as a Natural Phenomenon">Breaking the Spell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/De_rerum_natura" title="De rerum natura">De rerum natura</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_End_of_Faith" title="The End of Faith">The End of Faith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_God_Delusion" title="The God Delusion">The God Delusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_Is_Not_Great" title="God Is Not Great">God Is Not Great</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_System_of_Nature" title="The System of Nature">The System of Nature</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Related stances</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding:0.3em 0.3em 0.6em;;padding-bottom:0;"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Irreligion" title="Irreligion">Irreligion</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agnosticism" title="Agnosticism">Agnosticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freethought" title="Freethought">Freethought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secular_humanism" title="Secular humanism">Secular humanism</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Atheism_and_religion" title="Atheism and religion">Atheism and religion</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_atheism" title="Criticism of atheism">Criticism of atheism</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_atheism" title="Outline of atheism">Outline</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Atheism" title="Category:Atheism">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Philosophy" title="Portal:Philosophy">Philosophy portal</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/16px-People_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/24px-People_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/32px-People_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Atheism" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Atheism">WikiProject</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Atheism_sidebar" title="Template:Atheism sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Atheism_sidebar" title="Template talk:Atheism sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Atheism_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Atheism sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> Although the Samkhya school considers the <a href="/wiki/Vedas" title="Vedas">Vedas</a> a reliable source of knowledge, samkhya accepts the notion of higher selves or perfected beings but rejects the notion of God, according to <a href="/wiki/Paul_Deussen" title="Paul Deussen">Paul Deussen</a> and other scholars,<a href="#cite_note-:0-155">[151]</a><a href="#cite_note-lpfl-156">[152]</a> although other scholars believe that Samkhya is as much theistic as the <a href="/wiki/Yoga" title="Yoga">Yoga</a> school.<a href="#cite_note-:1-157">[153]</a><a href="#cite_note-andrew-31">[30]</a> According to <a href="/wiki/Rajadhyaksha" title="Rajadhyaksha">Rajadhyaksha</a>, classical Samkhya argues against the existence of God on <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">metaphysical</a> grounds. Samkhya theorists argue that an unchanging God cannot be the source of an ever-changing world and that God was only a necessary metaphysical assumption demanded by circumstances.<a href="#cite_note-158">[154]</a> The oldest commentary on the <a href="/wiki/Samkhyakarika" title="Samkhyakarika">Samkhakarika</a>, the Yuktidīpikā, asserts the existence of God, stating: "We do not completely reject the particular power of the Lord, since he assumes a majestic body and so forth. Our intended meaning is just that there is no being who is different from prakrti and purusa and who is the instigator of these two, as you claim. Therefore, your view is refuted. The conjunction between prakrti and purusa is not instigated by another being.<a href="#cite_note-andrew-31">[30]</a> A medieval commentary of Samkhakarika such as Sāṁkhyapravacana Sūtra in verse no. 1.92 directly states that existence of "Ishvara (God) is unproved". Hence there is no philosophical place for a creationist God in this system. It is also argued by commentators of this text that the existence of Ishvara cannot be proved and hence cannot be admitted to exist.<a href="#cite_note-Sinha-159">[155]</a> However, later in the text, the commentator Vijnana Bhiksu clarified that the subject of dispute between the Samkhyas and others was the existence of an eternal Isvara. Samkhya did accept the concept of an emergent Isvara previously absorbed into Prakriti.<a href="#cite_note-Nandalal_Sinha-160">[156]</a> A key difference between the Samkhya and Yoga schools, state scholars,<a href="#cite_note-lpfl-156">[152]</a><a href="#cite_note-161">[157]</a> is that the Yoga school accepts a 'personal, yet essentially inactive, deity' or 'personal god'.<a href="#cite_note-162">[158]</a> However, Radhanath Phukan, in the introduction to his translation of the Samkhya Karika of Isvarakrsna has argued that commentators who see the unmanifested as non-conscious make the mistake of regarding Samkhya as atheistic, though Samkhya is equally as theistic as Yoga.<a href="#cite_note-:1-157">[153]</a> A majority of modern academic scholars are of view that the concept of Ishvara was incorporated into the nirishvara (atheistic) Samkhya viewpoint only after it became associated with the <a href="/wiki/Yoga" title="Yoga">Yoga</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Pasupata" class="mw-redirect" title="Pasupata">Pasupata</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Bhagavata" class="mw-redirect" title="Bhagavata">Bhagavata</a> schools of philosophy. Others have traced the concept of the emergent Isvara accepted by Samkhya to as far back as the Rig Veda, where it was called Hiranyagarbha (the golden germ, golden egg).<a href="#cite_note-Larson-163">[159]</a> <a href="#cite_note-Hariharananda_Aranya-164">[160]</a> This theistic Samkhya philosophy is described in the <a href="/wiki/Mahabharata" title="Mahabharata">Mahabharata</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Puranas" title="Puranas">Puranas</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Bhagavad_Gita" title="Bhagavad Gita">Bhagavad Gita</a>.<a href="#cite_note-165">[161]</a> Chandradhar Sharma in 1960 affirmed that Samkhya in the beginning was based on the theistic absolute of Upanishads, but later on, under the influence of Jaina and Buddhist thought, it rejected theistic monism and was content with spiritualistic pluralism and atheistic realism. This also explains why some of the later Samkhya commentators, e.g. <a href="/wiki/Vijnanabhiksu" title="Vijnanabhiksu">Vijnanabhiksu</a> in the sixteenth century, tried to revive the earlier theism in Samkhya.<a href="#cite_note-Sharma2000-166">[162]</a>: 137  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Arguments_against_Ishvara's_existence">Arguments against Ishvara's existence</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Samkhya&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Arguments against Ishvara's existence">edit</a>]</div> According to Sinha, the following arguments were given by Samkhya philosophers against the idea of an eternal, self-caused, creator God:<a href="#cite_note-Sinha-159">[155]</a> <ul><li>If the existence of <a href="/wiki/Karma_(Hinduism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Karma (Hinduism)">karma</a> is assumed, the proposition of God as a moral governor of the universe is unnecessary. For, if God enforces the consequences of actions then he can do so without karma. If however, he is assumed to be within the law of karma, then karma itself would be the giver of consequences and there would be no need of a God.</li> <li>Even if karma is denied, God still cannot be the enforcer of consequences. Because the motives of an enforcer God would be either egoistic or altruistic. Now, God's motives cannot be assumed to be altruistic because an altruistic God would not create a world so full of suffering. If his motives are assumed to be egoistic, then God must be thought to have desire, as agency or authority cannot be established in the absence of desire. However, assuming that God has desire would contradict God's eternal freedom which necessitates no compulsion in actions. Moreover, desire, according to Samkhya, is an attribute of prakṛti and cannot be thought to grow in God. The testimony of the <a href="/wiki/Vedas" title="Vedas">Vedas</a>, according to Samkhya, also confirms this notion.</li> <li>Despite arguments to the contrary, if God is still assumed to contain unfulfilled desires, this would cause him to suffer pain and other similar human experiences. Such a worldly God would be no better than Samkhya's notion of higher self.</li> <li>Furthermore, there is no proof of the existence of God. He is not the object of perception, there exists no general proposition that can prove him by inference and the testimony of the Vedas speak of prakṛti as the origin of the world, not God.</li></ul> Therefore, Samkhya maintained that the various cosmological, ontological and teleological arguments could not prove God. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Influence_on_other_schools">Influence on other schools</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Samkhya&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Influence on other schools">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vaisheshika_and_Nyaya">Vaisheshika and Nyaya</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Samkhya&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Vaisheshika and Nyaya">edit</a>]</div> The <a href="/wiki/Vaisheshika" title="Vaisheshika">Vaisheshika</a> atomism, <a href="/wiki/Nyaya" title="Nyaya">Nyaya</a> epistemology may all have roots in the early Samkhya school of thought; but these schools likely developed in parallel with an evolving Samkhya tradition, as sibling intellectual movements.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELarsonBhattacharyaPotter201410-11-167">[163]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Yoga">Yoga</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Samkhya&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Yoga">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Siddhasana.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Siddhasana.svg/220px-Siddhasana.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="221" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Siddhasana.svg/330px-Siddhasana.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Siddhasana.svg/440px-Siddhasana.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="802" data-file-height="804" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Yoga" title="Yoga">Yoga</a> is closely related to Samkhya in its philosophical foundations.</figcaption></figure> The Yoga school derives its <a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">ontology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">epistemology</a> from Samkhya and adds to it the concept of <a href="/wiki/Isvara" class="mw-redirect" title="Isvara">Isvara</a>.<a href="#cite_note-168">[164]</a> However, scholarly opinion on the actual relationship between Yoga and Samkhya is divided. While <a href="/wiki/Jakob_Wilhelm_Hauer" title="Jakob Wilhelm Hauer">Jakob Wilhelm Hauer</a> and <a href="/wiki/Georg_Feuerstein" title="Georg Feuerstein">Georg Feuerstein</a> believe that Yoga was a tradition common to many Indian schools and its association with Samkhya was artificially foisted upon it by commentators such as <a href="/wiki/Vyasa" title="Vyasa">Vyasa</a>. <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Bronkhorst" title="Johannes Bronkhorst">Johannes Bronkhorst</a> and Eric Frauwallner think that Yoga never had a philosophical system separate from Samkhya. Bronkhorst further adds that the first mention of Yoga as a separate school of thought is no earlier than <a href="/wiki/Adi_Shankara" title="Adi Shankara">Śankara</a>'s (c. 788–820 CE)<a href="#cite_note-169">[165]</a> Brahmasūtrabhaśya.<a href="#cite_note-170">[166]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tantra">Tantra</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Samkhya&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Tantra">edit</a>]</div> The dualistic metaphysics of various <a href="/wiki/Tantra" title="Tantra">Tantric</a> traditions illustrates the strong influence of Samkhya on Tantra. <a href="/wiki/Shaiva_Siddhanta" title="Shaiva Siddhanta">Shaiva Siddhanta</a> was identical to Samkhya in its philosophical approach, barring the addition of a transcendent theistic reality.<a href="#cite_note-171">[167]</a> Knut A. Jacobsen, Professor of Religious Studies, notes the influence of Samkhya on <a href="/wiki/Srivaishnavism" class="mw-redirect" title="Srivaishnavism">Srivaishnavism</a>. According to him, this Tantric system borrows the abstract dualism of Samkhya and modifies it into a personified male–female dualism of <a href="/wiki/Vishnu" title="Vishnu">Vishnu</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sri_Lakshmi" class="mw-redirect" title="Sri Lakshmi">Sri Lakshmi</a>.<a href="#cite_note-172">[168]</a> Dasgupta speculates that the Tantric image of a wild <a href="/wiki/Kali" title="Kali">Kali</a> standing on a slumbering <a href="/wiki/Shiva" title="Shiva">Shiva</a> was inspired from the Samkhyan conception of prakṛti as a dynamic agent and Purusha as a passive witness. However, Samkhya and Tantra differed in their view on liberation. While Tantra sought to unite the male and female ontological realities, Samkhya held a withdrawal of consciousness from matter as the ultimate goal.<a href="#cite_note-173">[169]</a> According to Bagchi, the Samkhya Karika (in karika 70) identifies Sāmkhya as a <a href="/wiki/Tantra" title="Tantra">Tantra</a>,<a href="#cite_note-174">[170]</a> and its philosophy was one of the main influences both on the rise of the <a href="/wiki/Tantra" title="Tantra">Tantras</a> as a body of literature, as well as Tantra <a href="/wiki/Sadhana" class="mw-redirect" title="Sadhana">sadhana</a>.<a href="#cite_note-175">[171]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Advaita_Vedanta">Advaita Vedanta</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Samkhya&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Advaita Vedanta">edit</a>]</div> The Advaita Vedanta philosopher <a href="/wiki/Adi_Shankara" title="Adi Shankara">Adi Shankara</a> called Samkhya as the 'principal opponent' (pradhana-malla) of the Vedanta. He criticized the Samkhya view that the cause of the universe is the unintelligent Prakriti (Pradhan). According to Shankara, the Intelligent Brahman only can be such a cause.<a href="#cite_note-Sharma2000-166">[162]</a>: 242–244  He considered Samkhya philosophy as propounded in Samkhyakarika to be inconsistent with the teachings in the Vedas, and considered the dualism in Samkhya to be non-Vedic.<a href="#cite_note-176">[172]</a> In contrast, ancient Samkhya philosophers in India claimed Vedic authority for their views.<a href="#cite_note-177">[173]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Samkhya&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Advaita_Vedanta" title="Advaita Vedanta">Advaita Vedanta</a> of <a href="/wiki/Adi_Shankara" title="Adi Shankara">Adi Shankara</a>, a non-dualist strand within Hinduism</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Darshana_(Hinduism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Darshana (Hinduism)">Darshanas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khyativada" title="Khyativada">Khyativada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ratha_Kalpana" title="Ratha Kalpana">Ratha Kalpana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subtle_body" title="Subtle body">Subtle body</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Samkhya&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-columns-2"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Zimmer-23">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Zimmer_23-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Zimmer_23-1">b</a> Zimmer: "[Jainism] does not derive from Brahman-Aryan sources, but reflects the cosmology and anthropology of a much older pre-Aryan upper class of northeastern India - being rooted in the same subsoil of archaic metaphysical speculation as Yoga, Sankhya, and Buddhism, the other non-Vedic Indian systems."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZimmer1951217-95">[91]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a> With the publication of previously unknown editions of Yuktidipika about mid 20th century, Larson<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELarson201410-11-80">[79]</a> has suggested what he calls as "a tempting hypothesis", but uncertain, that Samkhya tradition may be the oldest of the Indian technical philosophical schools (Nyaya, Vaisheshika).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELarson201410-11-80">[79]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a> Early speculations such as Rg Veda 1.164, 10.90 and 10.129; see <a href="#CITEREFLarson2014">Larson (2014</a>, p. 5). </li> <li id="cite_note-Upanishads-89">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Upanishads_89-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Upanishads_89-1">b</a> Older authors have noted the references to samkhya in the Upanishads. <a href="/wiki/Surendranath_Dasgupta" title="Surendranath Dasgupta">Surendranath Dasgupta</a> stated in 1922 that Samkhya can be traced to Upanishads such as <a href="/wiki/Katha_Upanishad" title="Katha Upanishad">Katha Upanishad</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shvetashvatara_Upanishad" title="Shvetashvatara Upanishad">Shvetashvatara Upanishad</a> and <a href="/wiki/Maitrayaniya_Upanishad" title="Maitrayaniya Upanishad">Maitrayaniya Upanishad</a>, and that the 'extant Samkhya' is a system that unites the doctrine of permanence of the Upanishads with the doctrine of momentariness of Buddhism and the doctrine of relativism of Jainism.<a href="#cite_note-Dasgupta1975-85">[82]</a> Arthur Keith in 1925 said, '[That] Samkhya owes its origin to the Vedic-Upanisadic-epic heritage is quite evident',<a href="#cite_note-86">[83]</a> and 'Samkhya is most naturally derived out of the speculations in the Vedas, Brahmanas and the Upanishads'.<a href="#cite_note-87">[84]</a> Johnston in 1937 analyzed then available Hindu and Buddhist texts for the origins of Samkhya and wrote, '[T]he origin lay in the analysis of the individual undertaken in the <a href="/wiki/Brahmanas" class="mw-redirect" title="Brahmanas">Brahmanas</a> and earliest Upanishads, at first with a view to assuring the efficacy of the sacrificial rites and later in order to discover the meaning of salvation in the religious sense and the methods of attaining it. Here – in <a href="/wiki/Kaushitaki_Upanishad" title="Kaushitaki Upanishad">Kaushitaki Upanishad</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chandogya_Upanishad" title="Chandogya Upanishad">Chandogya Upanishad</a> – the germs are to be found (of) two of the main ideas of classical Samkhya'.<a href="#cite_note-88">[85]</a> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Samkhya&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELarson2014xi-1"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELarson2014xi_1-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLarson2014">Larson 2014</a>, p. xi. </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Knut_A._Jacobsen" title="Knut A. Jacobsen">Knut A. Jacobsen</a>, Theory and Practice of Yoga, Motilal Banarsidass, <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-8120832329" title="Special:BookSources/978-8120832329">978-8120832329</a>, pages 100–101. </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> "Samkhya", American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, Fifth Edition (2011), Quote: "Samkhya is a system of Hindu philosophy based on a dualism involving the ultimate principles of soul and matter." </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a> "Samkhya", Webster's College Dictionary (2010), Random House, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0375407413" title="Special:BookSources/978-0375407413">978-0375407413</a>, Quote: "Samkhya is a system of Hindu philosophy stressing the reality and duality of spirit and matter." </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELusthaus2018-5">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELusthaus2018_5-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELusthaus2018_5-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELusthaus2018_5-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFLusthaus2018">Lusthaus 2018</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESharma1997155–7-6">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESharma1997155–7_6-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESharma1997155–7_6-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESharma1997155–7_6-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFSharma1997">Sharma 1997</a>, pp. 155–7. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChapple200821-7">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChapple200821_7-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChapple200821_7-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFChapple2008">Chapple 2008</a>, p. 21. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOsto2018203-8">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOsto2018203_8-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOsto2018203_8-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFOsto2018">Osto 2018</a>, p. 203. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOsto2018204–205-9">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOsto2018204–205_9-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOsto2018204–205_9-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFOsto2018">Osto 2018</a>, p. 204–205. </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a> Gerald James Larson (2011), Classical Sāṃkhya: An Interpretation of Its History and Meaning, Motilal Banarsidass, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-8120805033" title="Special:BookSources/978-8120805033">978-8120805033</a>, pages 154–206. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOsto2018204-11">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOsto2018204_11-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOsto2018204_11-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOsto2018204_11-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFOsto2018">Osto 2018</a>, p. 204. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaney200242-12">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaney200242_12-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaney200242_12-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFHaney2002">Haney 2002</a>, p. 42. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOsto2018205-13">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOsto2018205_13-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOsto2018205_13-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOsto2018205_13-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOsto2018205_13-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFOsto2018">Osto 2018</a>, p. 205. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELarson199811-14">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELarson199811_14-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELarson199811_14-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFLarson1998">Larson 1998</a>, p. 11. </li> <li id="cite_note-sambri-15">^ <a href="#cite_ref-sambri_15-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-sambri_15-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Samkhya">"Samkhya"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_Britannica" class="mw-redirect" title="Encyclopedia Britannica">Encyclopedia Britannica</a>. 5 May 2015 [1998-07-20]. Retrieved 8 June 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Samkhya&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+Britannica&rft.date=2015-05-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Ftopic%2FSamkhya&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASamkhya" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gerald_James_Larson_2011_pages_36-47-16">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Gerald_James_Larson_2011_pages_36-47_16-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gerald_James_Larson_2011_pages_36-47_16-1">b</a> <a href="/wiki/Gerald_James_Larson" title="Gerald James Larson">Gerald James Larson</a> (2011), Classical Sāṃkhya: An Interpretation of Its History and Meaning, Motilal Banarsidass, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-8120805033" title="Special:BookSources/978-8120805033">978-8120805033</a>, pages 36–47. </li> <li id="cite_note-Lpage9-17">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lpage9_17-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lpage9_17-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lpage9_17-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lpage9_17-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFLarson1998">Larson 1998</a>, p. 9. </li> <li id="cite_note-eliottjag-18">^ <a href="#cite_ref-eliottjag_18-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-eliottjag_18-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-eliottjag_18-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-eliottjag_18-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-eliottjag_18-4">e</a> * Eliott Deutsche (2000), in Philosophy of Religion: Indian Philosophy Volume 4 (Editor: Roy Perrett), Routledge, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0815336112" title="Special:BookSources/978-0815336112">978-0815336112</a>, pages 245–248. <ul><li>John A. Grimes, A Concise Dictionary of Indian Philosophy: Sanskrit Terms Defined in English, State University of New York Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0791430675" title="Special:BookSources/978-0791430675">978-0791430675</a>, page 238.</li></ul> </li> <li id="cite_note-jag-19"><a href="#cite_ref-jag_19-0">^</a> John A. Grimes, A Concise Dictionary of Indian Philosophy: Sanskrit Terms Defined in English, State University of New York Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0791430675" title="Special:BookSources/978-0791430675">978-0791430675</a>, page 238. </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Mikel_Burley" title="Mikel Burley">Mikel Burley</a> (2012), Classical Samkhya and Yoga – An Indian Metaphysics of Experience, Routledge, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0415648875" title="Special:BookSources/978-0415648875">978-0415648875</a>, pages 43–46. </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a> David Kalupahana (1995), Ethics in Early Buddhism, University of Hawaii Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0824817022" title="Special:BookSources/978-0824817022">978-0824817022</a>, page 8, Quote: The rational argument is identified with the method of Samkhya, a rationalist school, upholding the view that "nothing comes out of nothing" or that "being cannot be non-being." </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEZimmer1951217,_314-22">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZimmer1951217,_314_22-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZimmer1951217,_314_22-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFZimmer1951">Zimmer 1951</a>, p. 217, 314. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELarson20144-24">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELarson20144_24-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELarson20144_24-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELarson20144_24-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELarson20144_24-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFLarson2014">Larson 2014</a>, p. 4. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELarson20145-25">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELarson20145_25-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELarson20145_25-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELarson20145_25-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELarson20145_25-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELarson20145_25-4">e</a> <a href="#CITEREFLarson2014">Larson 2014</a>, p. 5. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELarson20144–5-26"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELarson20144–5_26-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLarson2014">Larson 2014</a>, p. 4–5. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELarson20149–11-27"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELarson20149–11_27-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLarson2014">Larson 2014</a>, p. 9–11. </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMichaels2004">Michaels 2004</a>, p. 264. </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSen_Gupta1986">Sen Gupta 1986</a>, p. 6. </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRadhakrishnanMoore1957">Radhakrishnan & Moore 1957</a>, p. 89. </li> <li id="cite_note-andrew-31">^ <a href="#cite_ref-andrew_31-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-andrew_31-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-andrew_31-2">c</a> Andrew J. 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Hiriyanna (2000), The Essentials of Indian Philosophy, Motilal Banarsidass, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-8120813304" title="Special:BookSources/978-8120813304">978-8120813304</a>, page 43 </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a> P. Billimoria (1988), Śabdapramāṇa: Word and Knowledge, Studies of Classical India Volume 10, Springer, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-94-010-7810-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-94-010-7810-8">978-94-010-7810-8</a>, pages 1-30 </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLarson1998">Larson 1998</a>, p. 10 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELarson199875-70">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELarson199875_70-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELarson199875_70-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELarson199875_70-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFLarson1998">Larson 1998</a>, p. 75. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELarson20143-71">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELarson20143_71-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELarson20143_71-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELarson20143_71-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELarson20143_71-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELarson20143_71-4">e</a> <a href="#CITEREFLarson2014">Larson 2014</a>, p. 3. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELarson20149-72">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELarson20149_72-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELarson20149_72-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELarson20149_72-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELarson20149_72-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFLarson2014">Larson 2014</a>, p. 9. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELarson20144-5-73">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELarson20144-5_73-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELarson20144-5_73-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELarson20144-5_73-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFLarson2014">Larson 2014</a>, p. 4-5. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELarson20146-74">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELarson20146_74-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELarson20146_74-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELarson20146_74-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFLarson2014">Larson 2014</a>, p. 6. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELarson20146-7-75">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELarson20146-7_75-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELarson20146-7_75-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFLarson2014">Larson 2014</a>, p. 6-7. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELarson20147-76"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELarson20147_76-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLarson2014">Larson 2014</a>, p. 7. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELarson20143,_9-77"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELarson20143,_9_77-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLarson2014">Larson 2014</a>, p. 3, 9. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELarson201414-18-78"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELarson201414-18_78-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLarson2014">Larson 2014</a>, p. 14-18. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELarson20143-11-79"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELarson20143-11_79-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLarson2014">Larson 2014</a>, p. 3-11. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELarson201410-11-80">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELarson201410-11_80-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELarson201410-11_80-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFLarson2014">Larson 2014</a>, p. 10-11. </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a> Max Muller, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/SacredBooksEastVariousOrientalScholarsWithIndex.50VolsMaxMuller">Brihadaranyaka Upanishad</a>, Oxford University Press, page 85 </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRadhakrishnan1953">Radhakrishnan 1953</a>, p. 163 </li> <li id="cite_note-Dasgupta1975-85"><a href="#cite_ref-Dasgupta1975_85-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSurendranath_Dasgupta1975" class="citation book cs1">Surendranath Dasgupta (1975). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=PoaMFmS1_lEC">A History of Indian Philosophy</a>. Motilal Banarsidass. p. 212. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-208-0412-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-208-0412-8"><bdi>978-81-208-0412-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Indian+Philosophy&rft.pages=212&rft.pub=Motilal+Banarsidass&rft.date=1975&rft.isbn=978-81-208-0412-8&rft.au=Surendranath+Dasgupta&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DPoaMFmS1_lEC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASamkhya" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a> Gerald Larson (2011), Classical Sāṃkhya: An Interpretation of Its History and Meaning, Motilal Banarsidass, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-8120805033" title="Special:BookSources/978-8120805033">978-8120805033</a>, pages 31-32 </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a> Gerald Larson (2011), Classical Sāṃkhya: An Interpretation of Its History and Meaning, Motilal Banarsidass, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-8120805033" title="Special:BookSources/978-8120805033">978-8120805033</a>, page 29 </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a> EH Johnston (1937), Early Samkhya: An Essay on its Historical Development according to the Texts, The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, Volume XV, pages 80-81 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurley200615–16-90">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBurley200615–16_90-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBurley200615–16_90-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBurley200615–16_90-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBurley200615–16_90-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFBurley2006">Burley 2006</a>, pp. 15–16. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELarson20143-4-91">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELarson20143-4_91-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELarson20143-4_91-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFLarson2014">Larson 2014</a>, p. 3-4. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELarson199882–90-92"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELarson199882–90_92-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLarson1998">Larson 1998</a>, pp. 82–90. </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRichard_Garbe1892" class="citation book cs1">Richard Garbe (1892). Aniruddha's Commentary and the original parts of Vedantin Mahadeva's commentary on the Sankhya Sutras Translated, with an introduction to the age and origin of the Sankhya system. pp. xx–xxi.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Aniruddha%27s+Commentary+and+the+original+parts+of+Vedantin+Mahadeva%27s+commentary+on+the+Sankhya+Sutras+Translated%2C+with+an+introduction+to+the+age+and+origin+of+the+Sankhya+system&rft.pages=xx-xxi&rft.date=1892&rft.au=Richard+Garbe&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASamkhya" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFR.N._Dandekar1968" class="citation book cs1">R.N. Dandekar (1968). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/41694270">'God in Indian Philosophy' in Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute</a>. p. 444. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/41694270">41694270</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%27God+in+Indian+Philosophy%27+in+Annals+of+the+Bhandarkar+Oriental+Research+Institute&rft.pages=444&rft.date=1968&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F41694270%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.au=R.N.+Dandekar&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F41694270&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASamkhya" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEZimmer1951217-95"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZimmer1951217_95-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFZimmer1951">Zimmer 1951</a>, p. 217. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWarder200963-96"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWarder200963_96-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWarder2009">Warder 2009</a>, p. 63. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWarder200963–65-97"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWarder200963–65_97-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWarder2009">Warder 2009</a>, pp. 63–65. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERuzsa2006-98">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERuzsa2006_98-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERuzsa2006_98-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERuzsa2006_98-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERuzsa2006_98-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERuzsa2006_98-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERuzsa2006_98-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERuzsa2006_98-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERuzsa2006_98-7">h</a> <a href="#CITEREFRuzsa2006">Ruzsa 2006</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Mikel_Burley" title="Mikel Burley">Mikel Burley</a> (2012), Classical Samkhya and Yoga - An Indian Metaphysics of Experience, Routledge, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0415648875" title="Special:BookSources/978-0415648875">978-0415648875</a>, pages 37-38 </li> <li id="cite_note-burleyorigins-100">^ <a href="#cite_ref-burleyorigins_100-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-burleyorigins_100-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-burleyorigins_100-2">c</a> <a href="/wiki/Mikel_Burley" title="Mikel Burley">Mikel Burley</a> (2012), Classical Samkhya and Yoga - An Indian Metaphysics of Experience, Routledge, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0415648875" title="Special:BookSources/978-0415648875">978-0415648875</a>, pages 37-39 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESingh2008185-101"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESingh2008185_101-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSingh2008">Singh 2008</a>, p. 185. </li> <li id="cite_note-3translations-102"><a href="#cite_ref-3translations_102-0">^</a> <ul><li>Original Sanskrit: <a class="external text" href="https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/ऋग्वेद:_सूक्तं_१०.१२९">Rigveda 10.129</a> Wikisource;</li> <li>Translation 1: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMax_Muller1859" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Max_Muller" class="mw-redirect" title="Max Muller">Max Muller</a> (1859). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/historyofancient00mluoft#page/564/mode/2up">A History of Ancient Sanskrit Literature</a>. Williams and Norgate, London. pp. 559–565.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Ancient+Sanskrit+Literature&rft.pages=559-565&rft.pub=Williams+and+Norgate%2C+London&rft.date=1859&rft.au=Max+Muller&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2Fhistoryofancient00mluoft%23page%2F564%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASamkhya" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Translation 2: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKenneth_Kramer1986" class="citation book cs1">Kenneth Kramer (1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/worldscripturesi0000kram">World Scriptures: An Introduction to Comparative Religions</a>. Paulist Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/worldscripturesi0000kram/page/21">21</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8091-2781-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-8091-2781-4"><bdi>0-8091-2781-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=World+Scriptures%3A+An+Introduction+to+Comparative+Religions&rft.pages=21&rft.pub=Paulist+Press&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=0-8091-2781-4&rft.au=Kenneth+Kramer&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fworldscripturesi0000kram&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASamkhya" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Translation 3: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavid_Christian2011" class="citation book cs1">David Christian (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/mapstimeintroduc00chri_515">Maps of Time: An Introduction to Big History</a>. University of California Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/mapstimeintroduc00chri_515/page/n45">17</a>–18. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-95067-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-95067-2"><bdi>978-0-520-95067-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Maps+of+Time%3A+An+Introduction+to+Big+History&rft.pages=17-18&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-520-95067-2&rft.au=David+Christian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmapstimeintroduc00chri_515&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASamkhya" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a> "Although, no doubt, of high antiquity, the hymn appears to be less of a primary than of a secondary origin, being in fact a controversial composition levelled especially against the Sāṃkhya theory." Ravi Prakash Arya and K. L. Joshi. Ṛgveda Saṃhitā: Sanskrit Text, English Translation, Notes & Index of Verses. (Parimal Publications: Delhi, 2001) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/81-7110-138-7" title="Special:BookSources/81-7110-138-7">81-7110-138-7</a> (Set of four volumes). Parimal Sanskrit Series No. 45; 2003 reprint: 81-7020-070-9, Volume 4, p. 519. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELarson199879-104"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELarson199879_104-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLarson1998">Larson 1998</a>, p. 79. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELarsonBhattacharyaPotter20145-6,_109-110,_180-105"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELarsonBhattacharyaPotter20145-6,_109-110,_180_105-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLarsonBhattacharyaPotter2014">Larson, Bhattacharya & Potter 2014</a>, p. 5-6, 109-110, 180. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELarsonBhattacharyaPotter20145-106">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELarsonBhattacharyaPotter20145_106-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELarsonBhattacharyaPotter20145_106-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFLarsonBhattacharyaPotter2014">Larson, Bhattacharya & Potter 2014</a>, p. 5. </li> <li id="cite_note-jamison1164-107">^ <a href="#cite_ref-jamison1164_107-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-jamison1164_107-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-jamison1164_107-2">c</a> Stephanie Jamison and Joel Brereton (2014), The Rigveda, Oxford University Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0199370184" title="Special:BookSources/978-0199370184">978-0199370184</a>, pages 349-359 </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a> William Mahony (1997), The Artful Universe: An Introduction to the Vedic Religious Imagination, State University of New York Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0791435809" title="Special:BookSources/978-0791435809">978-0791435809</a>, pages 245-250 </li> <li id="cite_note-Rigveda_1.164-109">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Rigveda_1.164_109-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rigveda_1.164_109-1">b</a> <ul><li>Original Sanskrit: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%8B%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%82_%E0%A5%A7.%E0%A5%A7%E0%A5%AC%E0%A5%AA">ऋग्वेदः सूक्तं १.१६४ </a> [Rigveda Sukta] (in Sanskrit) – via <a href="/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%E0%A4%8B%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83+%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%82+%E0%A5%A7.%E0%A5%A7%E0%A5%AC%E0%A5%AA&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASamkhya" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Translation 1: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">The Rigveda. Translated by <a href="/wiki/Stephanie_W._Jamison" title="Stephanie W. Jamison">Jamison, Stephanie W.</a>; Brereton, Joel P. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. 2014 [c. 1500–1000 BCE]. pp. 349–359. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-937018-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-937018-4"><bdi>978-0-19-937018-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Rigveda&rft.pages=349-359&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0-19-937018-4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASamkhya" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Translation 2: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs1"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Rig_Veda/Mandala_1/Hymn_164">The Rig Veda: Mandala 1, Hymn 164 </a>. Translated by <a href="/wiki/Ralph_T._H._Griffith" title="Ralph T. H. Griffith">Griffith, Ralph T. H.</a> 1896 [c. 1500–1000 BCE] – via <a href="/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Rig+Veda%3A+Mandala+1%2C+Hymn+164&rft.date=1896&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASamkhya" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a> Stephanie Jamison and Joel Brereton (2014), The Rigveda, Oxford University Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0199370184" title="Special:BookSources/978-0199370184">978-0199370184</a>, pages 349-355 </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a> <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Rig_Veda/Mandala_1/Hymn_164" class="extiw" title="s:The Rig Veda/Mandala 1/Hymn 164">Rigveda 1.164.6</a> Ralph Griffith 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href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0691604411" title="Special:BookSources/978-0691604411">978-0691604411</a>, pages 6-7, 74-88, 113-122, 315-318 </li> <li id="cite_note-Burley2-129">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Burley2_129-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Burley2_129-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFBurley2006">Burley 2006</a>, pp. 15–18 </li> <li id="cite_note-130"><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a> GJ Larson, RS Bhattacharya and K Potter (2014), The Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies, Volume 4, Princeton University Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0691604411" title="Special:BookSources/978-0691604411">978-0691604411</a>, pages 6–7 </li> <li id="cite_note-pauldeussen-131">^ <a href="#cite_ref-pauldeussen_131-0">a</a> <a 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(2009), Yoga: Immortality and Freedom, Princeton University Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0691142036" title="Special:BookSources/978-0691142036">978-0691142036</a>, pages 392–393 </li> <li id="cite_note-138"><a href="#cite_ref-138">^</a> Willemen, Charles, transl. (2009), Buddhacarita: In Praise of Buddha's Acts, Berkeley, Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research, p. XIII. </li> <li id="cite_note-139"><a href="#cite_ref-139">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSharma1997">Sharma 1997</a>, p. 149 </li> <li id="cite_note-geraldl-140">^ <a href="#cite_ref-geraldl_140-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-geraldl_140-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-geraldl_140-2">c</a> Gerald James Larson and Ram Shankar Bhattacharya, The Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies, Volume 4, Princeton University Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0691604411" title="Special:BookSources/978-0691604411">978-0691604411</a>, pages 107-109 </li> <li id="cite_note-141"><a href="#cite_ref-141">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://sreenivasaraos.com/2012/10/03/samkhya-part-two-samkhya-teachers/">"Samkhya: Part Two: Samkhya Teachers"</a>. sreenivasarao's blogs. 3 October 2012. Retrieved 15 May 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=sreenivasarao%27s+blogs&rft.atitle=Samkhya%3A+Part+Two%3A+Samkhya+Teachers&rft.date=2012-10-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsreenivasaraos.com%2F2012%2F10%2F03%2Fsamkhya-part-two-samkhya-teachers%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASamkhya" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBagchi1989-142"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBagchi1989_142-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBagchi1989">Bagchi 1989</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-143"><a href="#cite_ref-143">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLarson1998">Larson 1998</a>, p. 4 </li> <li id="cite_note-144"><a href="#cite_ref-144">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLarson1998">Larson 1998</a>, pp. 147–149 </li> <li id="cite_note-145"><a href="#cite_ref-145">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLarson1998">Larson 1998</a>, pp. 150–151 </li> <li id="cite_note-henrysamkhya-146">^ <a href="#cite_ref-henrysamkhya_146-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-henrysamkhya_146-1">b</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.kouroo.info/kouroo/transclusions/18/37/1837_SankhyaKarikaHTColebrook.pdf">Samkhyakarika of Iswara Krishna</a> Henry Colebrook (Translator), Oxford University Press, pages 18-27; Sanskrit Original <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/SamkhyaKarikaGaudapada/sankhya_karika_gaudapada#page/n0/mode/2up">Samkhya karika with Gaudapada Bhasya</a>, Ashubodh Vidyabushanam, Kozhikode, Kerala </li> <li id="cite_note-147"><a href="#cite_ref-147">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKing1999">King 1999</a>, p. 64 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELarson20149-11-148">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELarson20149-11_148-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELarson20149-11_148-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFLarson2014">Larson 2014</a>, p. 9-11. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELarsonBhattacharyaPotter20143-4-149"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELarsonBhattacharyaPotter20143-4_149-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLarsonBhattacharyaPotter2014">Larson, Bhattacharya & Potter 2014</a>, p. 3-4. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECowellGough188222-150"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowellGough188222_150-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCowellGough1882">Cowell & Gough 1882</a>, p. 22. </li> <li id="cite_note-151"><a href="#cite_ref-151">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFEliadeTraskWhite2009">Eliade, Trask & White 2009</a>, p. 370 </li> <li id="cite_note-152"><a href="#cite_ref-152">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRadhakrishnan1923">Radhakrishnan 1923</a>, pp. 253–56 </li> <li id="cite_note-153"><a href="#cite_ref-153">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSinha1915" class="citation book cs1">Sinha, Nandalal (1915). 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New Delhi: Mushiram Manoharlal. p. 3. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/81-215-1097-X" title="Special:BookSources/81-215-1097-X"><bdi>81-215-1097-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Samkhya+Philosophy&rft.place=New+Delhi&rft.pages=3&rft.edition=2003&rft.pub=Mushiram+Manoharlal&rft.date=1915&rft.isbn=81-215-1097-X&rft.aulast=Sinha&rft.aufirst=Nandalal&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASamkhya" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-154"><a href="#cite_ref-154">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDasgupta1922">Dasgupta 1922</a>, pp. 213–7 </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-155"><a href="#cite_ref-:0_155-0">^</a> Mike Burley (2012), Classical Samkhya and Yoga - An Indian Metaphysics of Experience, Routledge, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0415648875" title="Special:BookSources/978-0415648875">978-0415648875</a>, page 39 </li> <li id="cite_note-lpfl-156">^ <a href="#cite_ref-lpfl_156-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-lpfl_156-1">b</a> Lloyd Pflueger, Person Purity and Power in Yogasutra, in Theory and Practice of Yoga (Editor: Knut Jacobsen), Motilal Banarsidass, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-8120832329" title="Special:BookSources/978-8120832329">978-8120832329</a>, pages 38-39 </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-157">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_157-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_157-1">b</a> Radhanath Phukan, Samkhya Karika of Isvarakrsna (Calcutta: Firma K. L. Mukhopadhyay, 1960), pp.36-40 </li> <li id="cite_note-158"><a href="#cite_ref-158">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRajadhyaksha1959">Rajadhyaksha 1959</a>, p. 95 </li> <li id="cite_note-Sinha-159">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Sinha_159-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sinha_159-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFSinha2012">Sinha 2012</a>, pp. xiii–iv </li> <li id="cite_note-Nandalal_Sinha-160"><a href="#cite_ref-Nandalal_Sinha_160-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSinha1915" class="citation book cs1">Sinha, Nandalal (1915). The Samkhya Philosophy (2003 ed.). New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers Pvt. Ltd. p. 332. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/81-215-1097-X" title="Special:BookSources/81-215-1097-X"><bdi>81-215-1097-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Samkhya+Philosophy&rft.place=New+Delhi&rft.pages=332&rft.edition=2003&rft.pub=Munshiram+Manoharlal+Publishers+Pvt.+Ltd&rft.date=1915&rft.isbn=81-215-1097-X&rft.aulast=Sinha&rft.aufirst=Nandalal&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASamkhya" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-161"><a href="#cite_ref-161">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Mikel_Burley" title="Mikel Burley">Mikel Burley</a> (2012), Classical Samkhya and Yoga - An Indian Metaphysics of Experience, Routledge, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0415648875" title="Special:BookSources/978-0415648875">978-0415648875</a>, page 39, 41 </li> <li id="cite_note-162"><a href="#cite_ref-162">^</a> Kovoor T. Behanan (2002), Yoga: Its Scientific Basis, Dover, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0486417929" title="Special:BookSources/978-0486417929">978-0486417929</a>, pages 56-58 </li> <li id="cite_note-Larson-163"><a href="#cite_ref-Larson_163-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLarson1969" class="citation book cs1">Larson, Gerald (1969). Classical Samkhya (2005 ed.). New Delhi: Motilal Banrsidass. p. 82. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/81-208-0503-8" title="Special:BookSources/81-208-0503-8"><bdi>81-208-0503-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Classical+Samkhya&rft.place=New+Delhi&rft.pages=82&rft.edition=2005&rft.pub=Motilal+Banrsidass&rft.date=1969&rft.isbn=81-208-0503-8&rft.aulast=Larson&rft.aufirst=Gerald&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASamkhya" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hariharananda_Aranya-164"><a href="#cite_ref-Hariharananda_Aranya_164-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAranya1963" class="citation book cs1">Aranya, Hariharananda (1963). Yoga Philosophy of Patanjali With Bhasvati. Calcutta: Calcutta University Press. pp. 676–685. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/81-87594-00-4" title="Special:BookSources/81-87594-00-4"><bdi>81-87594-00-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Yoga+Philosophy+of+Patanjali+With+Bhasvati&rft.place=Calcutta&rft.pages=676-685&rft.pub=Calcutta+University+Press&rft.date=1963&rft.isbn=81-87594-00-4&rft.aulast=Aranya&rft.aufirst=Hariharananda&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASamkhya" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-165"><a href="#cite_ref-165">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKarmarkar1962">Karmarkar 1962</a>, pp. 90–1 </li> <li id="cite_note-Sharma2000-166">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Sharma2000_166-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sharma2000_166-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChandradhar_Sharma2000" class="citation book cs1">Chandradhar Sharma (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Y3gQVd5WogsC">A Critical Survey of Indian Philosophy</a>. Motilal Banarsidass. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-208-0365-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-208-0365-7"><bdi>978-81-208-0365-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Critical+Survey+of+Indian+Philosophy&rft.pub=Motilal+Banarsidass&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-81-208-0365-7&rft.au=Chandradhar+Sharma&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DY3gQVd5WogsC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASamkhya" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELarsonBhattacharyaPotter201410-11-167"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELarsonBhattacharyaPotter201410-11_167-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLarsonBhattacharyaPotter2014">Larson, Bhattacharya & Potter 2014</a>, p. 10-11. </li> <li id="cite_note-168"><a href="#cite_ref-168">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLarson2008">Larson 2008</a>, p. 33 </li> <li id="cite_note-169"><a href="#cite_ref-169">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFIsayeva1993">Isayeva 1993</a>, p. 84 </li> <li id="cite_note-170"><a href="#cite_ref-170">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLarson2008">Larson 2008</a>, pp. 30–32 </li> <li id="cite_note-171"><a href="#cite_ref-171">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFlood2006">Flood 2006</a>, p. 69 </li> <li id="cite_note-172"><a href="#cite_ref-172">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFJacobsen2008">Jacobsen 2008</a>, pp. 129–130 </li> <li id="cite_note-173"><a href="#cite_ref-173">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKripal1998">Kripal 1998</a>, pp. 148–149 </li> <li id="cite_note-174"><a href="#cite_ref-174">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBagchi1989">Bagchi 1989</a>, p. 6 </li> <li id="cite_note-175"><a href="#cite_ref-175">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBagchi1989">Bagchi 1989</a>, p. 10 </li> <li id="cite_note-176"><a href="#cite_ref-176">^</a> Gerald Larson (2011), Classical Sāṃkhya: An Interpretation of Its History and Meaning, Motilal Banarsidass, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-8120805033" title="Special:BookSources/978-8120805033">978-8120805033</a>, pages 67-70 </li> <li id="cite_note-177"><a href="#cite_ref-177">^</a> Gerald Larson (2011), Classical Sāṃkhya: An Interpretation of Its History and Meaning, Motilal Banarsidass, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-8120805033" title="Special:BookSources/978-8120805033">978-8120805033</a>, page 213 </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Samkhya&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Sources">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 40em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFApte1957" class="citation book cs1">Apte, Vaman Shivaram (1957). The practical Sanskrit-English dictionary. Poona: Prasad Prakashan.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+practical+Sanskrit-English+dictionary&rft.place=Poona&rft.pub=Prasad+Prakashan&rft.date=1957&rft.aulast=Apte&rft.aufirst=Vaman+Shivaram&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASamkhya" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBagchi1989" class="citation cs2">Bagchi, P.C. (1989), Evolution of the Tantras, Studies on the Tantras, Kolkata: Ramakrishna Mission Institute of Culture, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/81-85843-36-8" title="Special:BookSources/81-85843-36-8"><bdi>81-85843-36-8</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Evolution+of+the+Tantras%2C+Studies+on+the+Tantras&rft.place=Kolkata&rft.pub=Ramakrishna+Mission+Institute+of+Culture&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=81-85843-36-8&rft.aulast=Bagchi&rft.aufirst=P.C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASamkhya" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBhattacharyya1975" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Haridas_Bhattacharya" title="Haridas Bhattacharya">Bhattacharyya, Haridas</a>, ed. (1975). The cultural heritage of India: Vol III: The philosophies. Calcutta: The Ramakrishna Mission Institute of Culture.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+cultural+heritage+of+India%3A+Vol+III%3A+The+philosophies&rft.place=Calcutta&rft.pub=The+Ramakrishna+Mission+Institute+of+Culture&rft.date=1975&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASamkhya" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBurley2006" class="citation cs2">Burley, Mikel (2006), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=EtIm_TgCfdUC">Classical Samkhya And Yoga: The Metaphysics Of Experience</a>, Taylor & Francis, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-39448-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-39448-2"><bdi>978-0-415-39448-2</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Classical+Samkhya+And+Yoga%3A+The+Metaphysics+Of+Experience&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-415-39448-2&rft.aulast=Burley&rft.aufirst=Mikel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DEtIm_TgCfdUC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASamkhya" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChapple2008" class="citation cs2">Chapple, Christopher Key (2008), Yoga and the Luminous: Patañjali's Spiritual Path to, SUNY Press</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Yoga+and+the+Luminous%3A+Pata%C3%B1jali%27s+Spiritual+Path+to&rft.pub=SUNY+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.aulast=Chapple&rft.aufirst=Christopher+Key&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASamkhya" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChattopadhyaya1986" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Debiprasad_Chattopadhyaya" title="Debiprasad Chattopadhyaya">Chattopadhyaya, Debiprasad</a> (1986), Indian Philosophy: A popular Introduction, New Delhi: People's Publishing House, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/81-7007-023-6" title="Special:BookSources/81-7007-023-6"><bdi>81-7007-023-6</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Indian+Philosophy%3A+A+popular+Introduction&rft.place=New+Delhi&rft.pub=People%27s+Publishing+House&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=81-7007-023-6&rft.aulast=Chattopadhyaya&rft.aufirst=Debiprasad&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASamkhya" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCowellGough1882" class="citation cs2">Cowell, E. B.; Gough, A. E. (1882), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xkrCRbOq-HUC">The Sarva-Darsana-Samgraha or Review of the Different Systems of Hindu Philosophy: Trubner's Oriental Series</a>, vol. 4, Taylor & Francis, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-24517-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-24517-3"><bdi>978-0-415-24517-3</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Sarva-Darsana-Samgraha+or+Review+of+the+Different+Systems+of+Hindu+Philosophy%3A+Trubner%27s+Oriental+Series&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=1882&rft.isbn=978-0-415-24517-3&rft.aulast=Cowell&rft.aufirst=E.+B.&rft.au=Gough%2C+A.+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DxkrCRbOq-HUC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASamkhya" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDasgupta1922" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Surendranath_Dasgupta" title="Surendranath Dasgupta">Dasgupta, Surendranath</a> (1922), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=PoaMFmS1_lEC&pg=PA258">A history of Indian philosophy, Volume 1</a>, New Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publ, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-208-0412-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-208-0412-8"><bdi>978-81-208-0412-8</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+history+of+Indian+philosophy%2C+Volume+1&rft.place=New+Delhi&rft.pub=Motilal+Banarsidass+Publ&rft.date=1922&rft.isbn=978-81-208-0412-8&rft.aulast=Dasgupta&rft.aufirst=Surendranath&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DPoaMFmS1_lEC%26pg%3DPA258&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASamkhya" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEliadeTraskWhite2009" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Mircea_Eliade" title="Mircea Eliade">Eliade, Mircea</a>; Trask, Willard Ropes; White, David Gordon (2009), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=V07l6gThaV0C&pg=PA370">Yoga: Immortality and Freedom</a>, Princeton University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-14203-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-14203-6"><bdi>978-0-691-14203-6</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Yoga%3A+Immortality+and+Freedom&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-691-14203-6&rft.aulast=Eliade&rft.aufirst=Mircea&rft.au=Trask%2C+Willard+Ropes&rft.au=White%2C+David+Gordon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DV07l6gThaV0C%26pg%3DPA370&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASamkhya" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFlood2006" class="citation cs2">Flood, Gavin (2006), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1Uer8W670IoC">The Tantric Body: The Secret Tradition of Hindu Religion</a>, I.B.Tauris, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84511-011-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84511-011-6"><bdi>978-1-84511-011-6</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Tantric+Body%3A+The+Secret+Tradition+of+Hindu+Religion&rft.pub=I.B.Tauris&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-1-84511-011-6&rft.aulast=Flood&rft.aufirst=Gavin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D1Uer8W670IoC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASamkhya" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFowler2012" class="citation cs2">Fowler, Jeaneane D (2012), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zU4E5ZidVr0C">The Bhagavad Gita: A Text and Commentary for Students</a>, Eastbourne: Sussex Academy Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84519-520-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84519-520-5"><bdi>978-1-84519-520-5</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Bhagavad+Gita%3A+A+Text+and+Commentary+for+Students&rft.place=Eastbourne&rft.pub=Sussex+Academy+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1-84519-520-5&rft.aulast=Fowler&rft.aufirst=Jeaneane+D&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DzU4E5ZidVr0C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASamkhya" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHaney2002" class="citation cs2">Haney, William S. (2002), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=HEI6QwSxrjsC">Culture and Consciousness: Literature Regained</a>, New Jersey: Bucknell University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1611481724" title="Special:BookSources/1611481724"><bdi>1611481724</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Culture+and+Consciousness%3A+Literature+Regained&rft.place=New+Jersey&rft.pub=Bucknell+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=1611481724&rft.aulast=Haney&rft.aufirst=William+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DHEI6QwSxrjsC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASamkhya" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHiriyanna1993" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/M._Hiriyanna" title="M. Hiriyanna">Hiriyanna, M.</a> (1993), Outlines of Indian Philosophy, New Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publ, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/81-208-1099-6" title="Special:BookSources/81-208-1099-6"><bdi>81-208-1099-6</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Outlines+of+Indian+Philosophy&rft.place=New+Delhi&rft.pub=Motilal+Banarsidass+Publ&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=81-208-1099-6&rft.aulast=Hiriyanna&rft.aufirst=M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASamkhya" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIsaacDangwal1997" class="citation cs2">Isaac, J. R.; Dangwal, Ritu (1997), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=V9Z0dFN3DN0C&q=Consciousness+matter+dualism+sankhya&pg=PA339">Proceedings. International conference on cognitive systems</a>, New Delhi: Allied Publishers Ltd, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/81-7023-746-7" title="Special:BookSources/81-7023-746-7"><bdi>81-7023-746-7</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Proceedings.+International+conference+on+cognitive+systems&rft.place=New+Delhi&rft.pub=Allied+Publishers+Ltd&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=81-7023-746-7&rft.aulast=Isaac&rft.aufirst=J.+R.&rft.au=Dangwal%2C+Ritu&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DV9Z0dFN3DN0C%26q%3DConsciousness%2Bmatter%2Bdualism%2Bsankhya%26pg%3DPA339&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASamkhya" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIsayeva1993" class="citation cs2">Isayeva, N. V. 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(1962), Religion and Philosophy of Epics in S. Radhakrishnan ed. The Cultural Heritage of India, Vol.II, Calcutta: The Ramakrishna Mission Institute of Culture, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/81-85843-03-1" title="Special:BookSources/81-85843-03-1"><bdi>81-85843-03-1</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Religion+and+Philosophy+of+Epics+in+S.+Radhakrishnan+ed.+The+Cultural+Heritage+of+India%2C+Vol.II&rft.place=Calcutta&rft.pub=The+Ramakrishna+Mission+Institute+of+Culture&rft.date=1962&rft.isbn=81-85843-03-1&rft.aulast=Karmarkar&rft.aufirst=A.P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASamkhya" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKing1999" class="citation cs2">King, Richard (1999), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uca8R72W8iQC&pg=PA63">Indian Philosophy: An Introduction to Hindu and Buddhist Thought</a>, Edinburgh University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7486-0954-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7486-0954-3"><bdi>978-0-7486-0954-3</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Indian+Philosophy%3A+An+Introduction+to+Hindu+and+Buddhist+Thought&rft.pub=Edinburgh+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-7486-0954-3&rft.aulast=King&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Duca8R72W8iQC%26pg%3DPA63&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASamkhya" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKripal1998" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Jeffrey_J._Kripal" title="Jeffrey J. Kripal">Kripal, Jeffrey J.</a> (1998), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ZUnBqcyTA3kC">Kali's Child: The Mystical and the Erotic in the Life and Teachings of Ramakrishna</a>, University of Chicago Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-45377-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-45377-4"><bdi>978-0-226-45377-4</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Kali%27s+Child%3A+The+Mystical+and+the+Erotic+in+the+Life+and+Teachings+of+Ramakrishna&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-226-45377-4&rft.aulast=Kripal&rft.aufirst=Jeffrey+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZUnBqcyTA3kC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASamkhya" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLarson1998" class="citation cs2">Larson, Gerald James (1998), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Ih2aGLp4d1gC">Classical Sāṃkhya: An Interpretation of Its History and Meaning</a>, London: Motilal Banarasidass, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/81-208-0503-8" title="Special:BookSources/81-208-0503-8"><bdi>81-208-0503-8</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Classical+S%C4%81%E1%B9%83khya%3A+An+Interpretation+of+Its+History+and+Meaning&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Motilal+Banarasidass&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=81-208-0503-8&rft.aulast=Larson&rft.aufirst=Gerald+James&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DIh2aGLp4d1gC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASamkhya" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLarson2008" class="citation cs2">Larson, Gerald James (2008), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=p6pURGdBBmIC">The Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies: Yoga: India's philosophy of meditation</a>, Motilal Banarsidass, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-208-3349-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-208-3349-4"><bdi>978-81-208-3349-4</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Encyclopedia+of+Indian+Philosophies%3A+Yoga%3A+India%27s+philosophy+of+meditation&rft.pub=Motilal+Banarsidass&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-81-208-3349-4&rft.aulast=Larson&rft.aufirst=Gerald+James&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dp6pURGdBBmIC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASamkhya" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLarson2014" class="citation cs2">Larson, G.J. (2014), "Introduction to the Philosophy of Samkhya", in Larson, G.J.; Bhattacharya, R.S. (eds.), The Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies, Volume 4, Princeton University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0691604411" title="Special:BookSources/978-0691604411"><bdi>978-0691604411</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Introduction+to+the+Philosophy+of+Samkhya&rft.btitle=The+Encyclopedia+of+Indian+Philosophies%2C+Volume+4&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0691604411&rft.aulast=Larson&rft.aufirst=G.J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASamkhya" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLarsonBhattacharyaPotter2014" class="citation cs2">Larson, G.J.; Bhattacharya, R.S.; Potter, K. (2014), The Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies, Volume 4, Princeton University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0691604411" title="Special:BookSources/978-0691604411"><bdi>978-0691604411</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Encyclopedia+of+Indian+Philosophies%2C+Volume+4&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0691604411&rft.aulast=Larson&rft.aufirst=G.J.&rft.au=Bhattacharya%2C+R.S.&rft.au=Potter%2C+K.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASamkhya" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeaman2000" class="citation cs2">Leaman, Oliver (2000), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=x3mZOf8iLQ0C">Eastern Philosophy: Key Readings</a>, New Delhi: Routledge, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-17357-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-17357-4"><bdi>0-415-17357-4</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Eastern+Philosophy%3A+Key+Readings&rft.place=New+Delhi&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=0-415-17357-4&rft.aulast=Leaman&rft.aufirst=Oliver&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dx3mZOf8iLQ0C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASamkhya" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLusthaus2018" class="citation cs2">Lusthaus, Dan (2018), Samkhya, acmuller.net, Resources for East Asian Language and Thought, Musashino University</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Samkhya&rft.pub=acmuller.net%2C+Resources+for+East+Asian+Language+and+Thought%2C+Musashino+University&rft.date=2018&rft.aulast=Lusthaus&rft.aufirst=Dan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASamkhya" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMichaels2004" class="citation cs2">Michaels, Axel (2004), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=PD-flQMc1ocC">Hinduism: Past and Present</a>, Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-691-08953-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-691-08953-1"><bdi>0-691-08953-1</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hinduism%3A+Past+and+Present&rft.place=Princeton%2C+New+Jersey&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=0-691-08953-1&rft.aulast=Michaels&rft.aufirst=Axel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DPD-flQMc1ocC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASamkhya" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOsto2018" class="citation cs2">Osto, Douglas (January 2018), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://muse.jhu.edu/article/682202">"No-Self in Sāṃkhya: A Comparative Look at Classical Sāṃkhya and Theravāda Buddhism"</a>, Philosophy East and West, 68 (1): 201–222, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fpew.2018.0010">10.1353/pew.2018.0010</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:171859396">171859396</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Philosophy+East+and+West&rft.atitle=No-Self+in+S%C4%81%E1%B9%83khya%3A+A+Comparative+Look+at+Classical+S%C4%81%E1%B9%83khya+and+Therav%C4%81da+Buddhism&rft.volume=68&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=201-222&rft.date=2018-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Fpew.2018.0010&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A171859396%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Osto&rft.aufirst=Douglas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmuse.jhu.edu%2Farticle%2F682202&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASamkhya" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRadhakrishnanMoore1957" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Sarvepalli_Radhakrishnan" title="Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan">Radhakrishnan, Sarvepalli</a>; Moore, C. A. (1957), <a href="/wiki/Radhakrishnan#Works_by_Sarvepalli_Radhakrishnan" class="mw-redirect" title="Radhakrishnan">A Source Book in Indian Philosophy</a>, Princeton, New Jersey: <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University_Press" title="Princeton University Press">Princeton University Press</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-691-01958-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-691-01958-4"><bdi>0-691-01958-4</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Source+Book+in+Indian+Philosophy&rft.place=Princeton%2C+New+Jersey&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1957&rft.isbn=0-691-01958-4&rft.aulast=Radhakrishnan&rft.aufirst=Sarvepalli&rft.au=Moore%2C+C.+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASamkhya" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRadhakrishnan1953" class="citation cs2">Radhakrishnan, Sarvepalli (1953), <a href="/wiki/The_Principal_Upanishads_(book)" class="mw-redirect" title="The Principal Upanishads (book)">The principal Upaniṣads</a>, Amherst, New York: <a href="/wiki/Prometheus_Books" title="Prometheus Books">Prometheus Books</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57392-548-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-57392-548-8"><bdi>978-1-57392-548-8</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+principal+Upani%E1%B9%A3ads&rft.place=Amherst%2C+New+York&rft.pub=Prometheus+Books&rft.date=1953&rft.isbn=978-1-57392-548-8&rft.aulast=Radhakrishnan&rft.aufirst=Sarvepalli&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASamkhya" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRadhakrishnan1923" class="citation cs2">Radhakrishnan, Sarvepalli (1923), <a href="/wiki/Radhakrishnan#Works_by_Sarvepalli_Radhakrishnan" class="mw-redirect" title="Radhakrishnan">Indian Philosophy</a>, Vol. II, New Delhi: Oxford University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-563820-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-563820-4"><bdi>0-19-563820-4</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Indian+Philosophy%2C+Vol.+II&rft.place=New+Delhi&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1923&rft.isbn=0-19-563820-4&rft.aulast=Radhakrishnan&rft.aufirst=Sarvepalli&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASamkhya" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRajadhyaksha1959" class="citation cs2">Rajadhyaksha, N. D. (1959), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ihkRAQAAIAAJ">The six systems of Indian philosophy</a>, Bombay (Mumbai), <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/11323515">11323515</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+six+systems+of+Indian+philosophy&rft.place=Bombay+%28Mumbai%29&rft.date=1959&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F11323515&rft.aulast=Rajadhyaksha&rft.aufirst=N.+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DihkRAQAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASamkhya" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Citation" title="Template:Citation">citation</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRuzsa2006" class="citation cs2">Ruzsa, Ferenc (2006), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/sankhya/">Sāṅkhya (Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy)</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=S%C4%81%E1%B9%85khya+%28Internet+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy%29&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Ruzsa&rft.aufirst=Ferenc&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iep.utm.edu%2Fsankhya%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASamkhya" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSen_Gupta1986" class="citation cs2">Sen Gupta, Anima (1986), The Evolution of the Samkhya School of Thought, New Delhi: South Asia Books, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/81-215-0019-2" title="Special:BookSources/81-215-0019-2"><bdi>81-215-0019-2</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Evolution+of+the+Samkhya+School+of+Thought&rft.place=New+Delhi&rft.pub=South+Asia+Books&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=81-215-0019-2&rft.aulast=Sen+Gupta&rft.aufirst=Anima&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASamkhya" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSharma1997" class="citation cs2">Sharma, C. (1997), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=6077639">A Critical Survey of Indian Philosophy</a>, New Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publ, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/81-208-0365-5" title="Special:BookSources/81-208-0365-5"><bdi>81-208-0365-5</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Critical+Survey+of+Indian+Philosophy&rft.place=New+Delhi&rft.pub=Motilal+Banarsidass+Publ&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=81-208-0365-5&rft.aulast=Sharma&rft.aufirst=C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.questia.com%2FPM.qst%3Fa%3Do%26d%3D6077639&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASamkhya" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSingh2008" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Upinder_Singh" title="Upinder Singh">Singh, Upinder</a> (2008), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=H3lUIIYxWkEC&pg=PA185">A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century</a>, Pearson Education India, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-317-1120-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-317-1120-0"><bdi>978-81-317-1120-0</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Ancient+and+Early+Medieval+India%3A+From+the+Stone+Age+to+the+12th+Century&rft.pub=Pearson+Education+India&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-81-317-1120-0&rft.aulast=Singh&rft.aufirst=Upinder&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DH3lUIIYxWkEC%26pg%3DPA185&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASamkhya" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSinha2012" class="citation cs2">Sinha, Nandlal (2012), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6l-CtwAACAAJ&q=The+samkhya+philosophy+by+Nandlal+Sinha">The Samkhya Philosophy</a>, New Delhi: Hard Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1407698915" title="Special:BookSources/978-1407698915"><bdi>978-1407698915</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Samkhya+Philosophy&rft.place=New+Delhi&rft.pub=Hard+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1407698915&rft.aulast=Sinha&rft.aufirst=Nandlal&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D6l-CtwAACAAJ%26q%3DThe%2Bsamkhya%2Bphilosophy%2Bby%2BNandlal%2BSinha&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASamkhya" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWarder2009" class="citation cs2">Warder, Anthony Kennedy (2009), A Course in Indian Philosophy, Motilal Banarsidass, Motilal Banarsidass Publ., <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-8120812444" title="Special:BookSources/978-8120812444"><bdi>978-8120812444</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Course+in+Indian+Philosophy%2C+Motilal+Banarsidass&rft.pub=Motilal+Banarsidass+Publ.&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-8120812444&rft.aulast=Warder&rft.aufirst=Anthony+Kennedy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASamkhya" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZimmer1951" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Zimmer" title="Heinrich Zimmer">Zimmer, Heinrich</a> (1951), Philosophies of India (reprint 1989), Princeton University Press</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Philosophies+of+India+%28reprint+1989%29&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1951&rft.aulast=Zimmer&rft.aufirst=Heinrich&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASamkhya" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Samkhya&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMikel_Burley2007" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Mikel_Burley" title="Mikel Burley">Mikel Burley</a> (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=K3B9AgAAQBAJ">Classical Samkhya and Yoga: An Indian Metaphysics of Experience</a>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-134-15978-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-134-15978-9"><bdi>978-1-134-15978-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Classical+Samkhya+and+Yoga%3A+An+Indian+Metaphysics+of+Experience&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1-134-15978-9&rft.au=Mikel+Burley&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DK3B9AgAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASamkhya" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJeaneane_D._Fowler2002" class="citation book cs1">Jeaneane D. Fowler (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8dRZ4E-qgz8C&pg=PA160">"Chapter Six: Samkhya"</a>. Perspectives of Reality: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Hinduism. Sussex Academic Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-898723-93-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-898723-93-6"><bdi>978-1-898723-93-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+Six%3A+Samkhya&rft.btitle=Perspectives+of+Reality%3A+An+Introduction+to+the+Philosophy+of+Hinduism&rft.pub=Sussex+Academic+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-1-898723-93-6&rft.au=Jeaneane+D.+Fowler&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D8dRZ4E-qgz8C%26pg%3DPA160&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASamkhya" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMichel_Hulin1978" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Michel_Hulin" title="Michel Hulin">Michel Hulin</a> (1978). Sāṃkhya Literature. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3447018999" title="Special:BookSources/978-3447018999"><bdi>978-3447018999</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=S%C4%81%E1%B9%83khya+Literature&rft.pub=Otto+Harrassowitz+Verlag&rft.date=1978&rft.isbn=978-3447018999&rft.au=Michel+Hulin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASamkhya" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGerald_James_Larson2001" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Gerald_James_Larson" title="Gerald James Larson">Gerald James Larson</a> (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Ih2aGLp4d1gC">Classical Sāṃkhya: An Interpretation of Its History and Meaning</a>. Motilal Banarsidass. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-208-0503-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-208-0503-3"><bdi>978-81-208-0503-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Classical+S%C4%81%E1%B9%83khya%3A+An+Interpretation+of+Its+History+and+Meaning&rft.pub=Motilal+Banarsidass&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-81-208-0503-3&rft.au=Gerald+James+Larson&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DIh2aGLp4d1gC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASamkhya" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMax_Müller1919" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Max_M%C3%BCller" title="Max Müller">Max Müller</a> (1919). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/sixsystemsofindi005498mbp#page/n7/mode/2up">Six Systems of Indian Philosophy</a>. Longmans Green And Co.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Six+Systems+of+Indian+Philosophy&rft.pub=Longmans+Green+And+Co&rft.date=1919&rft.au=Max+M%C3%BCller&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2Fsixsystemsofindi005498mbp%23page%2Fn7%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASamkhya" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJens_Lauschke2023" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jens_Lauschke&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jens Lauschke (page does not exist)">Jens Lauschke</a> (2023). SAMKHYA YOGA: An Interpretation of Iswara Krishna's Samkhya Karika. Taxila Publications. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3948459604" title="Special:BookSources/978-3948459604"><bdi>978-3948459604</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=SAMKHYA+YOGA%3A+An+Interpretation+of+Iswara+Krishna%27s+Samkhya+Karika&rft.pub=Taxila+Publications&rft.date=2023&rft.isbn=978-3948459604&rft.au=Jens+Lauschke&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASamkhya" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Samkhya&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>Ferenc Ruzsa, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/sankhya">"Samkhya"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Internet_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Samkhya&rft.btitle=Internet+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iep.utm.edu%2Fsankhya&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASamkhya" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Dan Lusthaus, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.acmuller.net/yogacara/schools/samkhya.html">Samkhya</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://faculty.franklin.uga.edu/kirkland/sites/faculty.franklin.uga.edu.kirkland/files/YOGA.pdf">Samkhya and Yoga: An Introduction</a>, Russell Kirkland, University of Georgia</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ksuweb.kennesaw.edu/~djones/documents/Samkhya.pdf">PDF file of Ishwarkrishna's Sankhyakarika</a>, in English</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://faculty.washington.edu/kpotter/xhome.htm">Bibliography of scholarly works: see [S] for Samkhya</a> by Karl Potter, University of Washington</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ochs.org.uk/lectures/">Lectures on Samkhya</a>, The Oxford Centre for Hindu Studies, Oxford University</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output 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srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Aum_Om_red.svg/23px-Aum_Om_red.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Aum_Om_red.svg/30px-Aum_Om_red.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="356" data-file-height="367" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Hinduism" title="Hinduism">Hinduism</a> <a href="/wiki/File:HinduSwastika.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/HinduSwastika.svg/14px-HinduSwastika.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/HinduSwastika.svg/21px-HinduSwastika.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/HinduSwastika.svg/28px-HinduSwastika.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="142" data-file-height="145" /></a> topics</div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3" style="background:#FFC569;;font-weight:bold;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_Hinduism_terms" title="Glossary of Hinduism terms">Glossary</a></li> <li>Index</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Hinduism" class="mw-redirect" title="Timeline of Hinduism">Timeline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#FFC569;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hindu_philosophy" title="Hindu philosophy">Philosophy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#FFC569;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_Hinduism_terms" title="Glossary of Hinduism terms">Concepts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brahman" title="Brahman">Brahman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Om" title="Om">Om</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ishvara" title="Ishvara">Ishvara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%80tman_(Hinduism)" title="Ātman (Hinduism)">Atman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_(religion)" title="Maya (religion)">Maya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karma" title="Karma">Karma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sa%E1%B9%83s%C4%81ra" title="Saṃsāra">Saṃsāra</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Puru%E1%B9%A3%C4%81rtha" title="Puruṣārtha">Puruṣārthas</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dharma" title="Dharma">Dharma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artha" title="Artha">Artha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kama" title="Kama">Kama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moksha" title="Moksha">Moksha</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_in_religion#Hindu_ethics" title="Ethics in religion">Niti</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ahimsa" title="Ahimsa">Ahimsa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achourya" title="Achourya">Asteya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aparigraha" class="mw-redirect" title="Aparigraha">Aparigraha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brahmacarya" class="mw-redirect" title="Brahmacarya">Brahmacharya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satya" title="Satya">Satya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D%C4%81na" title="Dāna">Dāna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temperance_(virtue)#Hinduism" title="Temperance (virtue)">Damah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compassion#Hinduism" title="Compassion">Dayā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akrodha" title="Akrodha">Akrodha</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#FFC569;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Hindu_philosophy" title="Hindu philosophy">Schools</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C4%80stika_and_n%C4%81stika" title="Āstika and nāstika">Āstika</a>: <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Samkhya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yoga" title="Yoga">Yoga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nyaya" title="Nyaya">Nyaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaisheshika" title="Vaisheshika">Vaisheshika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%C4%ABm%C4%81%E1%B9%83s%C4%81" title="Mīmāṃsā">Mīmāṃsā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vedanta" title="Vedanta">Vedanta</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dvaita_Vedanta" title="Dvaita Vedanta">Dvaita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Advaita_Vedanta" title="Advaita Vedanta">Advaita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vishishtadvaita" title="Vishishtadvaita">Vishishtadvaita</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%80stika_and_n%C4%81stika" title="Āstika and nāstika">Nāstika</a>: <a href="/wiki/Charvaka" title="Charvaka">Charvaka</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="5" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><img alt="Hindu "Om" symbol" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Aum_Om_navy_blue_circle_hollow_coral.svg/100px-Aum_Om_navy_blue_circle_hollow_coral.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="99" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Aum_Om_navy_blue_circle_hollow_coral.svg/150px-Aum_Om_navy_blue_circle_hollow_coral.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Aum_Om_navy_blue_circle_hollow_coral.svg/200px-Aum_Om_navy_blue_circle_hollow_coral.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="507" /></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#FFC569;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hindu_texts" title="Hindu texts">Texts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#FFC569;font-weight:normal;">Classification</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9Aruti" title="Śruti">Śruti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sm%E1%B9%9Bti" title="Smṛti">Smṛti</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#FFC569;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Vedas" title="Vedas">Vedas</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rigveda" title="Rigveda">Rigveda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yajurveda" title="Yajurveda">Yajurveda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samaveda" title="Samaveda">Samaveda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atharvaveda" title="Atharvaveda">Atharvaveda</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#FFC569;font-weight:normal;">Divisions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vedic_chant" title="Vedic chant">Samhita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brahmana" title="Brahmana">Brahmana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aranyaka" title="Aranyaka">Aranyaka</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#FFC569;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Upanishads" title="Upanishads">Upanishads</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aitareya_Upanishad" title="Aitareya Upanishad">Aitareya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaushitaki_Upanishad" title="Kaushitaki Upanishad">Kaushitaki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brihadaranyaka_Upanishad" title="Brihadaranyaka Upanishad">Brihadaranyaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isha_Upanishad" title="Isha Upanishad">Isha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taittiriya_Upanishad" title="Taittiriya Upanishad">Taittiriya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Katha_Upanishad" title="Katha Upanishad">Katha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maitrayaniya_Upanishad" title="Maitrayaniya Upanishad">Maitrayaniya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shvetashvatara_Upanishad" title="Shvetashvatara Upanishad">Shvetashvatara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chandogya_Upanishad" title="Chandogya Upanishad">Chandogya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kena_Upanishad" title="Kena Upanishad">Kena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mundaka_Upanishad" title="Mundaka Upanishad">Mundaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandukya_Upanishad" title="Mandukya Upanishad">Mandukya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prashna_Upanishad" title="Prashna Upanishad">Prashna</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#FFC569;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Upaveda" class="mw-redirect" title="Upaveda">Upavedas</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ayurveda" title="Ayurveda">Ayurveda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_martial_arts" title="Indian martial arts">Dhanurveda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natya_Shastra" title="Natya Shastra">Natyaveda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_temple_architecture" title="Hindu temple architecture">Sthapatyaveda</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#FFC569;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Vedanga" title="Vedanga">Vedanga</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shiksha" title="Shiksha">Shiksha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanskrit_prosody" title="Sanskrit prosody">Chandas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vy%C4%81kara%E1%B9%87a" title="Vyākaraṇa">Vyākaraṇa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nirukta" title="Nirukta">Nirukta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalpa_(Vedanga)" title="Kalpa (Vedanga)">Kalpa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jyotisha" class="mw-redirect" title="Jyotisha">Jyotisha</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#FFC569;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Hindu_texts" title="List of Hindu texts">Other</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bhagavad_Gita" title="Bhagavad Gita">Bhagavad Gita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agama_(Hinduism)" title="Agama (Hinduism)">Agamas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Itihasa-Purana" title="Itihasa-Purana">Itihasas</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ramayana" title="Ramayana">Ramayana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahabharata" title="Mahabharata">Mahabharata</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Puranas" title="Puranas">Puranas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upanishads#Classification" title="Upanishads">Minor Upanishads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthashastra" title="Arthashastra">Arthashastra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nitisara" title="Nitisara">Nitisara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dharma%C5%9B%C4%81stra" title="Dharmaśāstra">Dharmaśāstra</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Manusmriti" title="Manusmriti">Manusmriti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/N%C4%81radasm%E1%B9%9Bti" title="Nāradasmṛti">Nāradasmṛti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Y%C4%81j%C3%B1avalkya_Sm%E1%B9%9Bti" title="Yājñavalkya Smṛti">Yājñavalkya Smṛti</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sutra" title="Sutra">Sutras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stotra" title="Stotra">Stotras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subhashita" title="Subhashita">Subhashita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tantras_(Hinduism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tantras (Hinduism)">Tantras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yoga_Vasistha" title="Yoga Vasistha">Yoga Vasistha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yoga_Sutras_of_Patanjali" title="Yoga Sutras of Patanjali">Yoga Sutras of Patanjali</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#FFC569;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Sangam_literature" title="Sangam literature">Sangam literature</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tirumurai" title="Tirumurai">Tirumurai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divya_Prabandham" class="mw-redirect" title="Divya Prabandham">Divya Prabandham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tirumuruk%C4%81%E1%B9%9F%E1%B9%9Fuppa%E1%B9%ADai" title="Tirumurukāṟṟuppaṭai">Tirumurukāṟṟuppaṭai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thiruppugal" class="mw-redirect" title="Thiruppugal">Thiruppugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirukkural" class="mw-redirect" title="Thirukkural">Thirukkural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kamba_Ramayanam" class="mw-redirect" title="Kamba Ramayanam">Kamba Ramayanam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five_Great_Epics" title="Five Great Epics">Five Great Epics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eighteen_Greater_Texts" title="Eighteen Greater Texts">Eighteen Greater Texts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eighteen_Lesser_Texts" title="Eighteen Lesser Texts">Eighteen Lesser Texts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Athichudi" title="Athichudi">Athichudi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraiyanar_Akapporul" title="Iraiyanar Akapporul">Iraiyanar Akapporul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abhirami_Antati" class="mw-redirect" title="Abhirami Antati">Abhirami Antati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thiruvilaiyadal_Puranam" title="Thiruvilaiyadal Puranam">Thiruvilaiyadal Puranam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vinayagar_Agaval" title="Vinayagar Agaval">Vinayagar Agaval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vedarthasamgraha" title="Vedarthasamgraha">Vedarthasamgraha</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#FFC569;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hindu_deities" title="Hindu deities">Deities</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#FFC569;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Deva_(Hinduism)" title="Deva (Hinduism)">Gods</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Trimurti" title="Trimurti">Trimurti</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brahma" title="Brahma">Brahma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vishnu" title="Vishnu">Vishnu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shiva" title="Shiva">Shiva</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agni" title="Agni">Agni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dattatreya" title="Dattatreya">Dattatreya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ganesha" title="Ganesha">Ganesha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hanuman" title="Hanuman">Hanuman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indra" title="Indra">Indra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kartikeya" title="Kartikeya">Kartikeya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krishna" title="Krishna">Krishna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rama" title="Rama">Rama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surya" title="Surya">Surya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Varuna" title="Varuna">Varuna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vayu" title="Vayu">Vayu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Hindu_gods" title="Category:Hindu gods">more</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#FFC569;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Devi" title="Devi">Goddesses</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tridevi" title="Tridevi">Tridevi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Saraswati" title="Saraswati">Saraswati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lakshmi" title="Lakshmi">Lakshmi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parvati" title="Parvati">Parvati</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhumi_(goddess)" title="Bhumi (goddess)">Bhumi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Durga" title="Durga">Durga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kali" title="Kali">Kali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahavidya" title="Mahavidya">Mahavidya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matrika" class="mw-redirect" title="Matrika">Matrika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radha" title="Radha">Radha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rukmini" title="Rukmini">Rukmini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sati_(Hindu_goddess)" title="Sati (Hindu goddess)">Sati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shakti" title="Shakti">Shakti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shashthi" title="Shashthi">Shashthi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sita" title="Sita">Sita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Hindu_goddesses" title="Category:Hindu goddesses">more</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#FFC569;;width:1%">Practices</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#FFC569;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Worship_in_Hinduism" title="Worship in Hinduism">Worship</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_temple" title="Hindu temple">Temple</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murti" title="Murti">Murti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Puja_(Hinduism)" title="Puja (Hinduism)">Puja</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhakti" title="Bhakti">Bhakti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japa" title="Japa">Japa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhajan" title="Bhajan">Bhajan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naivedhya" class="mw-redirect" title="Naivedhya">Naivedhya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yajna" title="Yajna">Yajna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homa_(ritual)" title="Homa (ritual)">Homa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tapas_(Indian_religions)" title="Tapas (Indian religions)">Tapas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhy%C4%81na_in_Hinduism" class="mw-redirect" title="Dhyāna in Hinduism">Dhyāna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_pilgrimage_sites_in_India" title="Hindu pilgrimage sites in India">Tirthatana</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#FFC569;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Sanskara_(rite_of_passage)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sanskara (rite of passage)">Sanskaras</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Garbhadhana" title="Garbhadhana">Garbhadhana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pumsavana" title="Pumsavana">Pumsavana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pumsavana_Simantonayana" title="Pumsavana Simantonayana">Simantonayana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jatakarma" title="Jatakarma">Jatakarma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/N%C4%81makara%E1%B9%87a" title="Nāmakaraṇa">Namakarana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nishkramana" title="Nishkramana">Nishkramana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annaprashana" title="Annaprashana">Annaprashana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chudakarana" title="Chudakarana">Chudakarana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karnavedha" title="Karnavedha">Karnavedha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vidy%C4%81ra%E1%B9%83bha%E1%B9%83" title="Vidyāraṃbhaṃ">Vidyarambha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upanayana" title="Upanayana">Upanayana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keshanta" title="Keshanta">Keshanta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ritu_Kala_Samskaram" title="Ritu Kala Samskaram">Ritushuddhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samavartanam" title="Samavartanam">Samavartanam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vivaah" class="mw-redirect" title="Vivaah">Vivaha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antyesti" title="Antyesti">Antyeshti</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#FFC569;font-weight:normal;">Varnashrama</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Varna_(Hinduism)" title="Varna (Hinduism)">Varna</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brahmin" title="Brahmin">Brahmin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kshatriya" title="Kshatriya">Kshatriya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaishya" title="Vaishya">Vaishya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shudra" title="Shudra">Shudra</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ashrama_(stage)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ashrama (stage)">Ashrama</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brahmacarya" class="mw-redirect" title="Brahmacarya">Brahmacharya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grihastha" class="mw-redirect" title="Grihastha">Grihastha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vanaprastha" class="mw-redirect" title="Vanaprastha">Vanaprastha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sannyasa" title="Sannyasa">Sannyasa</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#FFC569;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Hindu_festivals" title="List of Hindu festivals">Festivals</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diwali" title="Diwali">Diwali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holi" title="Holi">Holi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maha_Shivaratri" title="Maha Shivaratri">Shivaratri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raksha_Bandhan" title="Raksha Bandhan">Raksha Bandhan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navaratri" title="Navaratri">Navaratri</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Durga_Puja" title="Durga Puja">Durga Puja</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramlila" title="Ramlila">Ramlila</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vijayadashami" title="Vijayadashami">Vijayadashami</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ganesh_Chaturthi" title="Ganesh Chaturthi">Ganesh Chaturthi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rama_Navami" title="Rama Navami">Rama Navami</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krishna_Janmashtami" title="Krishna Janmashtami">Janmashtami</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Onam" title="Onam">Onam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pongal_(festival)" title="Pongal (festival)">Pongal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Makar_Sankranti" title="Makar Sankranti">Makar Sankranti</a></li> <li>New Year <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bihu" title="Bihu">Bihu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gudi_Padwa" title="Gudi Padwa">Gudi Padwa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pahela_Baishakh" class="mw-redirect" title="Pahela Baishakh">Pahela Baishakh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Puthandu" title="Puthandu">Puthandu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaisakhi" title="Vaisakhi">Vaisakhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vishu" title="Vishu">Vishu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ugadi" title="Ugadi">Ugadi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kumbh_Mela" title="Kumbh Mela">Kumbh Mela</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Haridwar_Kumbh_Mela" title="Haridwar Kumbh Mela">Haridwar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nashik-Trimbakeshwar_Simhastha" title="Nashik-Trimbakeshwar Simhastha">Nashik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prayag_Kumbh_Mela" title="Prayag Kumbh Mela">Prayag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ujjain_Simhastha" title="Ujjain Simhastha">Ujjain</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ratha_Yatra_(Puri)" title="Ratha Yatra (Puri)">Ratha Yatra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teej" title="Teej">Teej</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vasant_Panchami" title="Vasant Panchami">Vasant Panchami</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Hindu_festivals" title="Template:Hindu festivals">Others</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#FFC569;font-weight:normal;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sv%C4%81dhy%C4%81ya" title="Svādhyāya">Svādhyāya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Namaste" title="Namaste">Namaste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bindi_(decoration)" title="Bindi (decoration)">Bindi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tilaka" title="Tilaka">Tilaka</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#FFC569;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Hinduism" title="Portal:Hinduism">Related</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hindus" title="Hindus">Hindus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hindus#Etymology" title="Hindus">Etymology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_Hindus" title="Lists of Hindus">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_denominations" title="Hindu denominations">Denominations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_law" title="Hindu law">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_calendar" title="Hindu calendar">Calendar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Hindu_sentiment" title="Anti-Hindu sentiment">Anti-Hindu sentiment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_Hinduism" title="Criticism of Hinduism">Criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Hindu_gurus_and_sants" title="List of Hindu gurus and sants">Hindu gurus and sants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_studies" title="Hindu studies">Hindu studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_iconography" title="Hindu iconography">Iconography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_mythology" title="Hindu mythology">Mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_nationalism" title="Hindu nationalism">Nationalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hindutva" title="Hindutva">Hindutva</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Hindus" title="Persecution of Hindus">Persecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_pilgrimage_sites" title="Hindu pilgrimage sites">Pilgrimage sites</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_pilgrimage_sites_in_India" title="Hindu pilgrimage sites in India">India</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hinduism_and_other_religions" title="Hinduism and other religions">Relations with other religions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_Faith_and_Hinduism" title="Baháʼí Faith and Hinduism">Baháʼí</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_and_Hinduism" title="Buddhism and Hinduism">Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu%E2%80%93Islamic_relations" title="Hindu–Islamic relations">Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jainism_and_Hinduism" class="mw-redirect" title="Jainism and Hinduism">Jainism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hinduism_and_Judaism" title="Hinduism and Judaism">Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hinduism_and_Sikhism" title="Hinduism and Sikhism">Sikhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hinduism_and_Theosophy" title="Hinduism and Theosophy">Theosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_Hinduism_terms" title="Glossary of Hinduism terms">Glossary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hinduism_by_country" title="Hinduism by country">Hinduism by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_temples" class="mw-redirect" title="Hindu temples">Hindu temples</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Hindu_temples" title="List of Hindu temples">List</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_temple_architecture" title="Hindu temple architecture">Architecture</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3" style="background:#FFC569;;font-weight:bold;"><div><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/10px-Global_thinking.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/15px-Global_thinking.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/21px-Global_thinking.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="130" data-file-height="200" /> <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Hinduism" title="Outline of Hinduism">Outline</a> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Hinduism" title="Category:Hinduism">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Hinduism" title="Portal:Hinduism">Portal</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/16px-People_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/24px-People_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/32px-People_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Hinduism" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Hinduism">WikiProject</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Indian_philosophy" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Indian_philosophy" title="Template:Indian philosophy"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Indian_philosophy" title="Template talk:Indian philosophy"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Indian_philosophy" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Indian philosophy"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Indian_philosophy" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian philosophy</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atheism_in_Hinduism" class="mw-redirect" title="Atheism in Hinduism">Atheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atomism" title="Atomism">Atomism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_idealism" class="mw-redirect" title="Hindu idealism">Idealism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_logic" title="Indian logic">Logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_views_on_monotheism" class="mw-redirect" title="Hindu views on monotheism">Monotheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_Vedic_religion#Philosophy" title="Historical Vedic religion">Vedic philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kama" title="Kama">Kama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artha" title="Artha">Artha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moksha" title="Moksha">Moksha</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ancient</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Hindu_philosophy" title="Hindu philosophy">Āstika</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_philosophy" title="Hindu philosophy">Hindu</a>: <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Samkhya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nyaya" title="Nyaya">Nyaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaisheshika" title="Vaisheshika">Vaisheshika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yoga_Sutras_of_Patanjali" title="Yoga Sutras of Patanjali">Yoga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%C4%ABm%C4%81%E1%B9%83s%C4%81" title="Mīmāṃsā">Mīmāṃsā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vedanta" title="Vedanta">Vedanta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaiva" class="mw-redirect" title="Shaiva">Shaiva</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rase%C5%9Bvara" title="Raseśvara">Raseśvara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pashupata_Shaivism" title="Pashupata Shaivism">Pashupata Shaivism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P%C4%81%E1%B9%87ini" title="Pāṇini">Pāṇiniya</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/%C4%80stika_and_n%C4%81stika" title="Āstika and nāstika">Nāstika</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C4%80j%C4%ABvika" title="Ājīvika">Ājīvika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aj%C3%B1ana" title="Ajñana">Ajñana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charvaka" title="Charvaka">Charvaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jain_philosophy" title="Jain philosophy">Jain</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anekantavada" title="Anekantavada">Anekantavada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anekantavada#Syādvāda" title="Anekantavada">Syādvāda</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_philosophy" title="Buddhist philosophy">Buddhist philosophy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Early_Buddhist_schools" title="Early Buddhist schools">Early Buddhist schools</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9A%C5%ABnyat%C4%81" title="Śūnyatā">Śūnyatā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madhyamaka" title="Madhyamaka">Madhyamaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yogachara" title="Yogachara">Yogachara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sautr%C4%81ntika" title="Sautrāntika">Sautrāntika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Svatantrika" class="mw-redirect" title="Svatantrika">Svatantrika</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Medieval</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vedanta" title="Vedanta">Vedanta</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Achintya_Bheda_Abheda" title="Achintya Bheda Abheda">Acintya bheda abheda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Advaita_Vedanta" title="Advaita Vedanta">Advaita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhedabheda" title="Bhedabheda">Bhedabheda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dvaita_Vedanta" title="Dvaita Vedanta">Dvaita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nimbarka_Sampradaya" title="Nimbarka Sampradaya">Nimbarka Sampradaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shuddhadvaita" title="Shuddhadvaita">Shuddhadvaita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vishishtadvaita" title="Vishishtadvaita">Vishishtadvaita</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navya-Ny%C4%81ya" title="Navya-Nyāya">Navya-Nyāya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sikhism#Philosophy_and_teachings" title="Sikhism">Sikh Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaiva" class="mw-redirect" title="Shaiva">Shaiva</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pratyabhijna" title="Pratyabhijna">Pratyabhijna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pashupata_Shaivism" title="Pashupata Shaivism">Pashupata Shaivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaiva_Siddhanta" title="Shaiva Siddhanta">Shaiva Siddhanta</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Modern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Integral_yoga" title="Integral yoga">Integral yoga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gandhism" title="Gandhism">Gandhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M._N._Roy#Radical_humanist" title="M. N. Roy">Radical Humanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressive_utilization_theory" title="Progressive utilization theory">Progressive utilization theory</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Texts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abhinavabharati" title="Abhinavabharati">Abhinavabharati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthashastra" title="Arthashastra">Arthashastra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhagavad_Gita" title="Bhagavad Gita">Bhagavad Gita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhagavata_Purana" title="Bhagavata Purana">Bhagavata Purana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brahma_Sutras" title="Brahma Sutras">Brahma Sutra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_texts" title="Buddhist texts">Buddhist texts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dharmashastra" class="mw-redirect" title="Dharmashastra">Dharmashastra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_texts" title="Hindu texts">Hindu texts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jain_Agamas_(%C5%9Av%C4%93t%C4%81mbara)" class="mw-redirect" title="Jain Agamas (Śvētāmbara)">Jain Agamas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kamasutra" class="mw-redirect" title="Kamasutra">Kamasutra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mimamsa_Sutras" class="mw-redirect" title="Mimamsa Sutras">Mimamsa Sutras</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Muktik%C4%81" title="Muktikā">All 108 texts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mukhya_Upanishads" class="mw-redirect" title="Mukhya Upanishads">Principal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ny%C4%81ya_S%C5%ABtras" title="Nyāya Sūtras">Nyāya Sūtras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nyayakusumanjali" title="Nyayakusumanjali">Nyayakusumanjali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panchadasi" title="Panchadasi">Panchadasi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samkhyapravachana_Sutra" class="mw-redirect" title="Samkhyapravachana Sutra">Samkhyapravachana Sutra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sangam_literature" title="Sangam literature">Sangam texts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarva-Darsana-Sangraha" title="Sarva-Darsana-Sangraha">Sarvadarsanasangraha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shiva_Sutras_of_Vasugupta" title="Shiva Sutras of Vasugupta">Shiva Sutras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tarka-Sangraha" title="Tarka-Sangraha">Tarka-Sangraha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tattvacint%C4%81ma%E1%B9%87i" class="mw-redirect" title="Tattvacintāmaṇi">Tattvacintāmaṇi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tirukku%E1%B9%9Fa%E1%B8%B7" class="mw-redirect" title="Tirukkuṟaḷ">Tirukkuṟaḷ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upanishads" title="Upanishads">Upanishads</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Upanishads#Classification" title="Upanishads">Minor</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vai%C5%9Be%E1%B9%A3ika_S%C5%ABtra" title="Vaiśeṣika Sūtra">Vaiśeṣika Sūtra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vedanga" title="Vedanga">Vedangas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vedas" title="Vedas">Vedas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yoga_Sutras_of_Patanjali" title="Yoga Sutras of Patanjali">Yoga Sutras of Patanjali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yoga_Vasistha" title="Yoga Vasistha">Yoga Vasistha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sutra" title="Sutra">More...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Philosophers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adi_Shankara" title="Adi Shankara">Adi Shankara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abhinavagupta" title="Abhinavagupta">Abhinavagupta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kum%C4%81rila_Bha%E1%B9%AD%E1%B9%ADa" title="Kumārila Bhaṭṭa">Kumārila Bhaṭṭa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ma%E1%B9%87%E1%B8%8Dana_Mi%C5%9Bra" title="Maṇḍana Miśra">Maṇḍana Miśra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valluvar" class="mw-redirect" title="Valluvar">Valluvar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avatsara" title="Avatsara">Avatsara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/V%C4%81chaspati_Misra" title="Vāchaspati Misra">Vāchaspati Misra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aruni" class="mw-redirect" title="Aruni">Uddalaka Aruni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gautama_Buddha" class="mw-redirect" title="Gautama Buddha">Gautama Buddha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yajnavalkya" title="Yajnavalkya">Yājñavalkya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G%C4%81rg%C4%AB_V%C4%81chaknav%C4%AB" title="Gārgī Vāchaknavī">Gārgī Vāchaknavī</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhaghosa" title="Buddhaghosa">Buddhaghosa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patanjali" title="Patanjali">Patañjali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ka%E1%B9%87%C4%81da_(philosopher)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kaṇāda (philosopher)">Kanada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kapila" title="Kapila">Kapila</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brihadratha_Ikshvaku" title="Brihadratha Ikshvaku">Brihadratha Ikshvaku</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jaimini" title="Jaimini">Jaimini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vyasa" title="Vyasa">Vyasa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chanakya" title="Chanakya">Chanakya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dharmakirti" title="Dharmakirti">Dharmakirti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akshapada_Gotama" class="mw-redirect" title="Akshapada Gotama">Akshapada Gotama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nagarjuna" title="Nagarjuna">Nagarjuna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Padmasambh%C4%81va" class="mw-redirect" title="Padmasambhāva">Padmasambhāva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vasubandhu" title="Vasubandhu">Vasubandhu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaudapada" title="Gaudapada">Gaudapada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramana_Maharshi" title="Ramana Maharshi">Ramana Maharshi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swami_Vivekananda" title="Swami Vivekananda">Vivekananda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dayananda_Saraswati" title="Dayananda Saraswati">Dayananda Saraswati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramanuja" title="Ramanuja">Ramanuja</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vedanta_Desika" title="Vedanta Desika">Vedanta Desika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raikva" title="Raikva">Raikva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sadananda_(of_Vedantasara)" title="Sadananda (of Vedantasara)">Sadananda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sakayanya" title="Sakayanya">Sakayanya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satyakama_Jabala" class="mw-redirect" title="Satyakama Jabala">Satyakama Jabala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madhvacharya" title="Madhvacharya">Madhvacharya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahavira" title="Mahavira">Mahavira</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guru_Nanak" title="Guru Nanak">Guru Nanak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Indian_philosophers" title="Category:Indian philosophers">More...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abhava" title="Abhava">Abhava</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abhasavada" title="Abhasavada">Abhasavada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-difference_(Abheda)" title="Non-difference (Abheda)">Abheda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adarsana" title="Adarsana">Adarsana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adrishta" class="mw-redirect" title="Adrishta">Adrishta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Advaita_Vedanta" title="Advaita Vedanta">Advaita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aham_(Kashmir_Shaivism)" title="Aham (Kashmir Shaivism)">Aham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahimsa" title="Ahimsa">Ahimsa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aishvarya" class="mw-redirect" title="Aishvarya">Aishvarya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akrodha" title="Akrodha">Akrodha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aksara" class="mw-redirect" title="Aksara">Aksara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anatta" class="mw-redirect" title="Anatta">Anatta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ananta_(infinite)" title="Ananta (infinite)">Ananta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anavastha" title="Anavastha">Anavastha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anupalabdhi" title="Anupalabdhi">Anupalabdhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apauru%E1%B9%A3hey%C4%81" class="mw-redirect" title="Apauruṣheyā">Apauruṣheyā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artha" title="Artha">Artha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asiddhatva" title="Asiddhatva">Asiddhatva</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Asatkalpa&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Asatkalpa (page does not exist)">Asatkalpa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%80tman_(Hinduism)" title="Ātman (Hinduism)">Ātman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avyakta" title="Avyakta">Avyakta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhrama_(Hinduism)" title="Bhrama (Hinduism)">Bhrama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brahman" title="Brahman">Brahman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhuman" title="Bhuman">Bhuman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhumika" title="Bhumika">Bhumika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catu%E1%B9%A3ko%E1%B9%ADi" title="Catuṣkoṭi">Catuṣkoṭi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chaitanya_(consciousness)" title="Chaitanya (consciousness)">Chaitanya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chidabhasa" title="Chidabhasa">Chidabhasa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cittabhumi" title="Cittabhumi">Cittabhumi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D%C4%81na" title="Dāna">Dāna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deva_(Hinduism)" title="Deva (Hinduism)">Devatas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dharma" title="Dharma">Dharma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhi_(Hindu_thought)" title="Dhi (Hindu thought)">Dhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dravya" title="Dravya">Dravya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhrti" title="Dhrti">Dhrti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ekagrata" title="Ekagrata">Ekagrata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gu%E1%B9%87a" title="Guṇa">Guṇa</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hit%C4%81&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hitā (page does not exist)">Hitā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idam" title="Idam">Idam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ikshana" title="Ikshana">Ikshana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ishvaratva" title="Ishvaratva">Ishvaratva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jivatva" title="Jivatva">Jivatva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kama" title="Kama">Kama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karma" title="Karma">Karma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kasaya_(attachment)" title="Kasaya (attachment)">Kasaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kshetrajna" title="Kshetrajna">Kshetrajna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lakshana" title="Lakshana">Lakshana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matsya_Nyaya" title="Matsya Nyaya">Matsya Nyaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mithyatva" class="mw-redirect" title="Mithyatva">Mithyatva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moksha" title="Moksha">Mokṣa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nididhyasana" class="mw-redirect" title="Nididhyasana">Nididhyasana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nirvana" title="Nirvana">Nirvāṇa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niyama" title="Niyama">Niyama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pad%C4%81rtha" title="Padārtha">Padārtha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paramatman" title="Paramatman">Paramatman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paramananda_(Hinduism)" title="Paramananda (Hinduism)">Paramananda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parameshashakti" title="Parameshashakti">Parameshashakti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parinama-vada_(Hindu_thought)" class="mw-redirect" title="Parinama-vada (Hindu thought)">Parinama-vada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pradhana" title="Pradhana">Pradhana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prajna_(Vedic)" class="mw-redirect" title="Prajna (Vedic)">Prajna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prak%E1%B9%9Bti" title="Prakṛti">Prakṛti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pratibimbavada" title="Pratibimbavada">Pratibimbavada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prat%C4%ABtyasamutp%C4%81da" title="Pratītyasamutpāda">Pratītyasamutpāda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Purusha" title="Purusha">Puruṣa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rajamandala" title="Rajamandala">Rājamaṇḍala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E1%B9%9Ata" title="Ṛta">Ṛta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sakshi_(Witness)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sakshi (Witness)">Sakshi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samadhi" title="Samadhi">Samadhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sa%E1%B9%83s%C4%81ra" title="Saṃsāra">Saṃsāra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satya" title="Satya">Satya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satkaryavada" title="Satkaryavada">Satkaryavada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shabda_Brahman" title="Shabda Brahman">Shabda Brahman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spho%E1%B9%ADa" title="Sphoṭa">Sphoṭa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sthiti" title="Sthiti">Sthiti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9A%C5%ABnyat%C4%81" title="Śūnyatā">Śūnyatā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sutram" title="Sutram">Sutram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Svatantrya" title="Svatantrya">Svātantrya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Svecchamrityu_(Iccha-mrityu)" class="mw-redirect" title="Svecchamrityu (Iccha-mrityu)">Iccha-mrityu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anekantavada#Syādvāda" title="Anekantavada">Syādvāda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taijasa" title="Taijasa">Taijasa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tajjalan" title="Tajjalan">Tajjalan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tanmatras" title="Tanmatras">Tanmatra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ty%C4%81ga" title="Tyāga">Tyāga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uparati" title="Uparati">Uparati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upekkha" class="mw-redirect" title="Upekkha">Upekkhā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utsaha" class="mw-redirect" title="Utsaha">Utsaha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vivartavada" title="Vivartavada">Vivartavada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viraj" class="mw-redirect" title="Viraj">Viraj</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yamas" title="Yamas">Yamas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yoga" title="Yoga">Yoga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Hindu_philosophical_concepts" title="Category:Hindu philosophical concepts">More...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Samkhya&oldid=1255782193">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Samkhya&oldid=1255782193</a>"</div></div> <div 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