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class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Islamic period</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Islamic_period-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Kurdish_revolts_under_British_control" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kurdish_revolts_under_British_control"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Kurdish revolts under British control</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kurdish_revolts_under_British_control-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Barzani_Revolt_(1960–1970)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Barzani_Revolt_(1960–1970)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Barzani Revolt (1960–1970)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Barzani_Revolt_(1960–1970)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Second_Kurdish_Iraqi_War_Algiers_Agreement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Second_Kurdish_Iraqi_War_Algiers_Agreement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.5</span> <span>Second Kurdish Iraqi War Algiers Agreement</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Second_Kurdish_Iraqi_War_Algiers_Agreement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Arabization_campaign_and_PUK_insurgency" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Arabization_campaign_and_PUK_insurgency"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.6</span> <span>Arabization campaign and PUK insurgency</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Arabization_campaign_and_PUK_insurgency-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Iran–Iraq_War_and_Anfal_Campaign" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Iran–Iraq_War_and_Anfal_Campaign"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.7</span> <span>Iran–Iraq War and Anfal Campaign</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Iran–Iraq_War_and_Anfal_Campaign-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Autonomous_period" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Autonomous_period"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.8</span> <span>Autonomous period</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Autonomous_period-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-After_the_Persian_Gulf_War" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#After_the_Persian_Gulf_War"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.8.1</span> <span>After the Persian Gulf War</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-After_the_Persian_Gulf_War-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-During_and_after_US-led_invasion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#During_and_after_US-led_invasion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.8.2</span> <span>During and after US-led invasion</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-During_and_after_US-led_invasion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Following_US_withdrawal" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Following_US_withdrawal"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.8.3</span> <span>Following US withdrawal</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Following_US_withdrawal-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Culture</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" 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Available in 11 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-11" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">11 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%83%D8%B1%D8%AF%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%86_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%82" title="كردستان العراق – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="كردستان العراق" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%82_%DA%A9%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%AF%D9%88%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C" title="عراق کوردوستانی – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="عراق کوردوستانی" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D8%B1%D8%AF%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%86_%D8%B9%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%82" title="کردستان عراق – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="کردستان عراق" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%BB%D6%80%D5%A1%D6%84%D5%B5%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%94%D5%B8%D6%82%D6%80%D5%A4%D5%AB%D5%BD%D5%BF%D5%A1%D5%B6" title="Իրաքյան Քուրդիստան – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Իրաքյան Քուրդիստան" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ba%C5%9F%C3%BBr%C3%AA_Kurdistan%C3%AA" title="Başûrê Kurdistanê – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Başûrê Kurdistanê" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%82%DB%8C_%DA%A9%D8%B1%D8%AF%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%86" title="عراقی کردستان – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="عراقی کردستان" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple badge-Q70893996 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iraqi_Kurdistan" title="Iraqi Kurdistan – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Iraqi Kurdistan" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B4%D9%88%D9%88%D8%B1%DB%8C_%DA%A9%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%AF%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%86" title="باشووری کوردستان – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="باشووری کوردستان" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%86%E0%AE%B1%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%81_%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B8%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8D" title="தெற்கு குர்திஸ்தான் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="தெற்கு குர்திஸ்தான்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irak_K%C3%BCrdistan%C4%B1" title="Irak Kürdistanı – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Irak Kürdistanı" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%82%DB%8C_%DA%A9%D8%B1%D8%AF%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%86" title="عراقی کردستان – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="عراقی 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href="https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Iraqi_Kurdistan&params=36_55_N_44_2_E_source:plwiki_region:IQ_scale:10000"><span class="geo-default"><span class="geo-dms" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location"><span class="latitude">36°55′N</span> <span class="longitude">44°2′E</span></span></span><span class="geo-multi-punct"> / </span><span class="geo-nondefault"><span class="geo-dec" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location">36.917°N 44.033°E</span><span style="display:none"> / <span class="geo">36.917; 44.033</span></span></span></a></span></span></div></div> <div id="mw-indicator-pp-default" class="mw-indicator"><div class="mw-parser-output"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Protection_policy#semi" title="This article is semi-protected."><img alt="Page semi-protected" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/20px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/30px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/40px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"><span class="mw-redirectedfrom">(Redirected from <a href="/w/index.php?title=Demographics_of_Iraqi_Kurdistan&redirect=no" class="mw-redirect" title="Demographics of Iraqi Kurdistan">Demographics of Iraqi Kurdistan</a>)</span></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Kurdish-inhabited region in Iraq</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the Kurdish-inhabited region of Iraq. For the semi-autonomous federal region, see <a href="/wiki/Kurdistan_Region" title="Kurdistan Region">Kurdistan Region</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Iraqi_Kurdistan_in_Iraq_(de-facto_and_disputed_hatched).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Iraqi_Kurdistan_in_Iraq_%28de-facto_and_disputed_hatched%29.svg/220px-Iraqi_Kurdistan_in_Iraq_%28de-facto_and_disputed_hatched%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="224" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Iraqi_Kurdistan_in_Iraq_%28de-facto_and_disputed_hatched%29.svg/330px-Iraqi_Kurdistan_in_Iraq_%28de-facto_and_disputed_hatched%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Iraqi_Kurdistan_in_Iraq_%28de-facto_and_disputed_hatched%29.svg/440px-Iraqi_Kurdistan_in_Iraq_%28de-facto_and_disputed_hatched%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1241" data-file-height="1264" /></a><figcaption>Approximate map of the Kurdish-populated region of Iraq</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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.sidebar-heading{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content{padding:0 0.5em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content-with-subgroup{padding:0.1em 0.4em 0.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-below{padding:0.3em 0.8em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-below{border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-navbar{text-align:right;font-size:115%;padding:0 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:left;font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6em;font-size:105%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title-c{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:center;margin:0 3.3em}@media(max-width:640px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title" style="font-size:85%;"><span style="padding-left:2.25em;"> </span> <div style="line-height:1.2em;padding-bottom:0.4em;"> <span class="nobold">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Kurds" title="Category:Kurds">a series</a> on</span><br /><br /> <span style="font-size:135%;"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Kurds" title="History of the Kurds">Kurdish history</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kurdish_culture" title="Kurdish culture">Kurdish culture</a></span></div></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Roj_emblem.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Roj_emblem.svg/150px-Roj_emblem.svg.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Roj_emblem.svg/225px-Roj_emblem.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Roj_emblem.svg/300px-Roj_emblem.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="1000" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Kurds" title="Kurds">People</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Kurds" title="List of Kurds">List of Kurds</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Kurdish_population" title="Kurdish population">Population</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><i><b>Homeland</b></i></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kurdistan" title="Kurdistan">Kurdistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey">Turkey</a> (<a href="/wiki/Turkish_Kurdistan" title="Turkish Kurdistan">Northern Kurdistan</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a> (<a href="/wiki/Iranian_Kurdistan" title="Iranian Kurdistan">Eastern Kurdistan</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a> (<a class="mw-selflink selflink">Southern Kurdistan</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a> (<a href="/wiki/Syrian_Kurdistan" title="Syrian Kurdistan">Western Kurdistan</a>)</li></ul> <ul><li><i><b><a href="/wiki/Kurdish_diaspora" class="mw-redirect" title="Kurdish diaspora">Diaspora</a></b></i></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kurds_in_Belgium" title="Kurds in Belgium">Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurdish_Canadians" title="Kurdish Canadians">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caucasian_Kurds" title="Caucasian Kurds">Caucasia</a> (<a href="/wiki/Kurds_in_Armenia" title="Kurds in Armenia">Armenia</a>) (<a href="/wiki/Kurds_in_Azerbaijan" title="Kurds in Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a>) (<a href="/wiki/Kurds_in_Georgia" title="Kurds in Georgia">Georgia</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurds_in_Denmark" title="Kurds in Denmark">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurds_in_Finland" title="Kurds in Finland">Finland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurds_in_France" title="Kurds in France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurds_in_Germany" title="Kurds in Germany">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurds_in_Greece" title="Kurds in Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurds_in_Iraq" title="Kurds in Iraq">Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurds_in_Iran" title="Kurds in Iran">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurdish_Jews_in_Israel" title="Kurdish Jews in Israel">Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurds_in_Japan" title="Kurds in Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurds_in_Jordan" title="Kurds in Jordan">Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurds_in_Kazakhstan" title="Kurds in Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurds_in_Lebanon" title="Kurds in Lebanon">Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurds_in_the_Netherlands" title="Kurds in the Netherlands">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurds_in_Norway" title="Kurds in Norway">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurds_in_Palestine" title="Kurds in Palestine">Palestine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurds_in_Pakistan" title="Kurds in Pakistan">Pakistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurds_in_Russia" title="Kurds in Russia">Russia</a> (<a href="/wiki/Chechen_Kurds" title="Chechen Kurds">Chechnya</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurds_in_Syria" title="Kurds in Syria">Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurds_in_Sweden" title="Kurds in Sweden">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurds_in_Turkmenistan" title="Kurds in Turkmenistan">Turkmenistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurds_in_Turkey" title="Kurds in Turkey">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurds_in_Ukraine" title="Kurds in Ukraine">Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurds_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Kurds in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurdish_Americans" title="Kurdish Americans">United States</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Kurds" title="History of the Kurds">History</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Kurdish_uprisings" title="Timeline of Kurdish uprisings">Timeline of Kurdish uprisings</a></li></ul> <p><b>Ancient</b><br /> </p> <dl><dt><span class="nobold">Karduchian dynasties</span></dt> <dd><br /><a href="/wiki/Corduene" class="mw-redirect" title="Corduene">Corduene</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Zabdicene" title="Zabdicene">Zabdicene</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Cyrtians" title="Cyrtians">Cyrtians</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Moxoene" title="Moxoene">Moxoene</a></dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Kayus" class="mw-redirect" title="House of Kayus">Kayusids</a></li></ul> <p><b>Medieval</b><br /> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shahrizor" title="Shahrizor">Shahrizor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mir_Jafar_Dasni" title="Mir Jafar Dasni">Mir Jafar Dasni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aishanids" class="mw-redirect" title="Aishanids">Aishanids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daisam" class="mw-redirect" title="Daisam">Daisam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaddadids" title="Shaddadids">Shaddadids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rawadid_dynasty" title="Rawadid dynasty">Rawadids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hasanwayhids" title="Hasanwayhids">Hasanwayhids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annazids" title="Annazids">Annazids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marwanids_(Diyar_Bakr)" title="Marwanids (Diyar Bakr)">Marwanids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hadhabani" class="mw-redirect" title="Hadhabani">Hadhabani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hazaraspids" title="Hazaraspids">Hazaraspids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayyubid_dynasty" title="Ayyubid dynasty">Ayyubids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zand_dynasty" title="Zand dynasty">Zands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Bitlis" title="Principality of Bitlis">Badlis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ardalan" title="Ardalan">Ardalan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bahdinan" title="Bahdinan">Badinan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soran_Emirate" title="Soran Emirate">Soran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mokryan" class="mw-redirect" title="Mokryan">Mokryan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baban" title="Baban">Baban</a></li></ul> <p><b>Modern</b><br /> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kurdistansky_Uyezd" class="mw-redirect" title="Kurdistansky Uyezd">Kurdistansky Uyezd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurdish_rebellions_during_World_War_I" title="Kurdish rebellions during World War I">Kurdish rebellions during World War I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simko_Shikak_revolt" class="mw-redirect" title="Simko Shikak revolt">Simko Shikak revolt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ko%C3%A7giri_Rebellion" class="mw-redirect" title="Koçgiri Rebellion">Koçgiri Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ararat_rebellion" title="Ararat rebellion">Ararat rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dersim_Rebellion" class="mw-redirect" title="Dersim Rebellion">Dersim Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kurdistan" title="Kingdom of Kurdistan">Kingdom of Kurdistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurdish_Republic_of_Ararat" class="mw-redirect" title="Kurdish Republic of Ararat">Kurdish Republic of Ararat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Mahabad" title="Republic of Mahabad">Republic of Mahabad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Anfal_campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Anfal campaign">Al-Anfal campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurdish_Republic_of_Lachin" title="Kurdish Republic of Lachin">Kurdish Republic of Lachin</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Iraqi Kurdistan</a> (<a href="/wiki/Kurdistan_Region" title="Kurdistan Region">Kurdistan Region</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_Kurdistan" title="Iranian Kurdistan">Iranian Kurdistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_Kurdistan" title="Turkish Kurdistan">Turkish Kurdistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_Kurdistan" title="Syrian Kurdistan">Syrian Kurdistan</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Kurdish_culture" title="Kurdish culture">Culture</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kurdish_culture" title="Kurdish culture">Kurdish culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurdish_clothing" class="mw-redirect" title="Kurdish clothing">Clothing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurdish_cuisine" title="Kurdish cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newroz_as_celebrated_by_Kurds" title="Newroz as celebrated by Kurds">Celebrations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurdish_dance" title="Kurdish dance">Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_Kurdistan" title="Flag of Kurdistan">Flag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Kurdish_historical_sites" title="List of Kurdish historical sites">Historical sites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurdish_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Kurdish languages">Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurdish_mythology" title="Kurdish mythology">Folklore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurdish_literature" title="Kurdish literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurdish_music" title="Kurdish music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Kurdish_philosophers" title="List of Kurdish philosophers">Kurdish philosophers</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Kurdish_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Kurdish languages">Languages</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <dl><dt><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/Kurdish_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Kurdish languages">Kurdish languages</a></span></dt> <dd><br /></dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kurmanji" title="Kurmanji">Kurmanji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sorani" title="Sorani">Sorani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Kurdish" title="Southern Kurdish">Xwarin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zaza_language" title="Zaza language">Zaza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laki_language" title="Laki language">Laki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gorani_language_(Zaza-Gorani)" class="mw-redirect" title="Gorani language (Zaza-Gorani)">Gorani</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Kurdistan" title="Religion in Kurdistan">Religion</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spread_of_Islam_among_Kurds" title="Spread of Islam among Kurds">Spread</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurdish_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Kurdish Jews">Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shabakism" class="mw-redirect" title="Shabakism">Shabakism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yarsanism" title="Yarsanism">Yarsanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yazd%C3%A2nism" title="Yazdânism">Yazdânism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yazidism" title="Yazidism">Yazidism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoroastrianism" title="Zoroastrianism">Zoroastrianism</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Kurds" title="Template:Kurds"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Kurds" title="Template talk:Kurds"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Kurds" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Kurds"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Iraqi Kurdistan</b> or <b>Southern Kurdistan</b><sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (<a href="/wiki/Kurdish_language" title="Kurdish language">Kurdish</a>: <span lang="ku" dir="rtl">باشووری کوردستان</span>, <small><a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Kurdish" title="Romanization of Kurdish">romanized</a>: </small><span title="Kurdish-language romanization"><i lang="ku-Latn">Başûrê Kurdistanê</i></span>)<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> refers to the <a href="/wiki/Kurds" title="Kurds">Kurdish</a>-populated part of northern <a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a>. It is considered one of the four parts of <a href="/wiki/Greater_Kurdistan" class="mw-redirect" title="Greater Kurdistan">Greater Kurdistan</a> in <a href="/wiki/West_Asia" title="West Asia">West Asia</a>, which also includes parts of southeastern <a href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey">Turkey</a> (<a href="/wiki/Northern_Kurdistan" class="mw-redirect" title="Northern Kurdistan">Northern Kurdistan</a>), northern <a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a> (<a href="/wiki/Western_Kurdistan" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Kurdistan">Western Kurdistan</a>), and northwestern <a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a> (<a href="/wiki/Eastern_Kurdistan" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Kurdistan">Eastern Kurdistan</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Much of the geographical and cultural region of Iraqi Kurdistan is part of the <a href="/wiki/Kurdistan_Region" title="Kurdistan Region">Kurdistan Region</a> (KRI), a semi-<a href="/wiki/Autonomous_administrative_division" title="Autonomous administrative division">autonomous region</a><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>recognized by the <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Iraq" title="Constitution of Iraq">Constitution of Iraq</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As with the rest of Kurdistan, and unlike most of the rest of Iraq, the region is inland and mountainous.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology">Etymology</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hewler-Kurdistan.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Hewler-Kurdistan.jpg/260px-Hewler-Kurdistan.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="133" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Hewler-Kurdistan.jpg/390px-Hewler-Kurdistan.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Hewler-Kurdistan.jpg/520px-Hewler-Kurdistan.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2054" data-file-height="1053" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Erbil" title="Erbil">Erbil</a>, capital of Kurdistan Region</figcaption></figure> <p>The exact origins of the name <i>Kurd</i> are unclear. The <a href="/wiki/Suffix" title="Suffix">suffix</a> <i>-stan</i> is an <a href="/wiki/Iranian_languages" title="Iranian languages">Iranian</a> term for region. The <a href="/wiki/Literal_translation" title="Literal translation">literal translation</a> for Kurdistan is "Land of Kurds". </p><p>The name was also formerly spelled <i>Curdistan</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One of the ancient names of Kurdistan is <i><a href="/wiki/Corduene" class="mw-redirect" title="Corduene">Corduene</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-A.D._Lee,_1991_pp._366–374_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-A.D._Lee,_1991_pp._366–374-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><span class="anchor" id="Background"></span> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Geography">Geography</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Kurdistan" class="mw-redirect" title="Geography of Kurdistan">Geography of Kurdistan</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sulamani-kurdistan_(3).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Sulamani-kurdistan_%283%29.jpg/220px-Sulamani-kurdistan_%283%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="138" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Sulamani-kurdistan_%283%29.jpg/330px-Sulamani-kurdistan_%283%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Sulamani-kurdistan_%283%29.jpg/440px-Sulamani-kurdistan_%283%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1257" data-file-height="787" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Lake_Dukan" title="Lake Dukan">Lake Dukan</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Greater_Zab_River_near_Erbil_Iraqi_Kurdistan.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Greater_Zab_River_near_Erbil_Iraqi_Kurdistan.jpg/220px-Greater_Zab_River_near_Erbil_Iraqi_Kurdistan.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Greater_Zab_River_near_Erbil_Iraqi_Kurdistan.jpg/330px-Greater_Zab_River_near_Erbil_Iraqi_Kurdistan.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Greater_Zab_River_near_Erbil_Iraqi_Kurdistan.jpg/440px-Greater_Zab_River_near_Erbil_Iraqi_Kurdistan.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Greater_Zab_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Greater Zab River">Greater Zab River</a> near Erbil</figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Canyon,_north_eastern_Kurdistan.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Canyon%2C_north_eastern_Kurdistan.jpg/221px-Canyon%2C_north_eastern_Kurdistan.jpg" decoding="async" width="221" height="166" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Canyon%2C_north_eastern_Kurdistan.jpg/332px-Canyon%2C_north_eastern_Kurdistan.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Canyon%2C_north_eastern_Kurdistan.jpg/442px-Canyon%2C_north_eastern_Kurdistan.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="2250" /></a><figcaption>A canyon near the northern city of <a href="/wiki/Rawandiz" title="Rawandiz">Rawandiz</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Iraqi Kurdistan is largely mountainous, with the highest point being a 3,611 m (11,847 ft) point known locally as <a href="/wiki/Cheekha_Dar" title="Cheekha Dar">Cheekha Dar</a> ("black tent").<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Mountains in Iraqi Kurdistan include the <a href="/wiki/Zagros" class="mw-redirect" title="Zagros">Zagros</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sinjar_Mountains" title="Sinjar Mountains">Sinjar Mountains</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hamrin_Mountains" title="Hamrin Mountains">Hamrin Mountains</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mount_Nisir" title="Mount Nisir">Mount Nisir</a> and <a href="/wiki/Qandil_mountains" class="mw-redirect" title="Qandil mountains">Qandil mountains</a>. There are many rivers running through the region, which is distinguished by its fertile lands, plentiful water, and picturesque nature. The <a href="/wiki/Great_Zab" title="Great Zab">Great Zab</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Little_Zab" title="Little Zab">Little Zab</a> flow east–west in the region. The <a href="/wiki/Tigris" title="Tigris">Tigris</a> river enters Iraqi Kurdistan from <a href="/wiki/Turkish_Kurdistan" title="Turkish Kurdistan">Turkish Kurdistan</a>. </p><p>The mountainous nature of Iraqi Kurdistan, the difference of temperatures in its various parts, and its numerous bodies of water make it a land of agriculture and tourism. The largest lake in the region is <a href="/wiki/Lake_Dukan" title="Lake Dukan">Lake Dukan</a>. There are also several smaller lakes, such as Darbandikhan Lake and Duhok Lake. The western and southern parts of Iraqi Kurdistan are not as mountainous as the east. Instead, it is rolling hills and <a href="/wiki/Plains" class="mw-redirect" title="Plains">plains</a> vegetated by <a href="/wiki/Sclerophyll" title="Sclerophyll">sclerophyll</a> scrubland.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Climate">Climate</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Erbil_governorate_shanidar_cave.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Erbil_governorate_shanidar_cave.jpg/220px-Erbil_governorate_shanidar_cave.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="151" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Erbil_governorate_shanidar_cave.jpg/330px-Erbil_governorate_shanidar_cave.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Erbil_governorate_shanidar_cave.jpg/440px-Erbil_governorate_shanidar_cave.jpg 2x" data-file-width="749" data-file-height="515" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Shanidar_Cave" title="Shanidar Cave">Shanidar Cave</a> is surrounded by <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_vegetation" class="mw-redirect" title="Mediterranean vegetation">Mediterranean vegetation</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Due to its latitude and altitude, Iraqi Kurdistan is cooler and much wetter than the rest of Iraq. Most areas in the region fall within the <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_climate" title="Mediterranean climate">Mediterranean climate</a> zone (<i>Csa</i>), with areas to the southwest being <a href="/wiki/Semi-arid" class="mw-redirect" title="Semi-arid">semi-arid</a> (<i>BSh</i>). </p><p>Average summer temperatures range from 35 °C (95 °F) in the cooler northernmost areas to blistering 40 °C (104 °F) in the southwest, with lows around 21 °C (70 °F) to 24 °C (75 °F). Winters, however, are dramatically cooler than the rest of Iraq, with highs averaging between 9 °C (48 °F) and 11 °C (52 °F) and with lows hovering around 3 °C (37 °F) in some areas and <a href="/wiki/Freezing" title="Freezing">freezing</a> in others, dipping to −2 °C (28 °F) and 0 °C (32 °F) on average.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Among other cities in the climate table below, <a href="/wiki/Soran,_Iraq" title="Soran, Iraq">Soran</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shaqlawa" title="Shaqlawa">Shaqlawa</a> and <a href="/wiki/Halabja" title="Halabja">Halabja</a> also experience lows which average below 0 °C (32 °F) in winter. <a href="/wiki/Duhok" title="Duhok">Duhok</a> has the hottest summers in the region, with highs averaging around 42 °C (108 °F). Annual rainfall differs across Iraqi Kurdistan, with some places seeing rainfall as low as 500 millimetres (20 in) in Erbil to as high as 900 millimetres (35 in) in places like Amadiya. Most of the rain falls in winter and spring, and is usually heavy. Summer and early autumn are virtually dry, and spring is fairly tepid. Iraqi Kurdistan sees <a href="/wiki/Snowfall" class="mw-redirect" title="Snowfall">snowfall</a> occasionally in the winter, and <a href="/wiki/Frost" title="Frost">frost</a> is common. There is a <a href="/wiki/Seasonal_lag" title="Seasonal lag">seasonal lag</a> in some places in summer, with temperatures peaking around August and September<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>. </p> <div> <table class="wikitable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="width:auto; text-align:center; line-height:1.2em;"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="14">Climate data for <a href="/wiki/Erbil" title="Erbil">Erbil</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Month </th> <th scope="col">Jan </th> <th scope="col">Feb </th> <th scope="col">Mar </th> <th scope="col">Apr </th> <th scope="col">May </th> <th scope="col">Jun </th> <th scope="col">Jul </th> <th scope="col">Aug </th> <th scope="col">Sep </th> <th scope="col">Oct </th> <th scope="col">Nov </th> <th scope="col">Dec </th> <th scope="col" style="border-left-width:medium">Year </th></tr> <tr style="text-align: center;"> <th scope="row" style="height: 16px;">Record high °C (°F) </th> <td style="background: #FF9429; color:#000000;" class="notheme">20<br />(68) </td> <td style="background: #FF6300; color:#000000;" class="notheme">27<br />(81) </td> <td style="background: #FF4F00; color:#000000;" class="notheme">30<br />(86) </td> <td style="background: #FF3300; color:#000000;" class="notheme">34<br />(93) </td> <td style="background: #F80000; color:#FFFFFF;" class="notheme">42<br />(108) </td> <td style="background: #DC0000; color:#FFFFFF;" class="notheme">44<br />(111) </td> <td style="background: #A50000; color:#FFFFFF;" class="notheme">48<br />(118) </td> <td style="background: #970000; color:#FFFFFF;" class="notheme">49<br />(120) </td> <td style="background: #CE0000; color:#FFFFFF;" class="notheme">45<br />(113) </td> <td style="background: #FF1100; color:#FFFFFF;" class="notheme">39<br />(102) </td> <td style="background: #FF4800; color:#000000;" class="notheme">31<br />(88) </td> <td style="background: #FF7800; color:#000000;" class="notheme">24<br />(75) </td> <td style="background: #970000; color:#FFFFFF; border-left-width:medium" class="notheme">49<br />(120) </td></tr> <tr style="text-align: center;"> <th scope="row" style="height: 16px;">Mean daily maximum °C (°F) </th> <td style="background: #FFC892; color:#000000;" class="notheme">12.4<br />(54.3) </td> <td style="background: #FFBC79; color:#000000;" class="notheme">14.2<br />(57.6) </td> <td style="background: #FFA143; color:#000000;" class="notheme">18.1<br />(64.6) </td> <td style="background: #FF7800; color:#000000;" class="notheme">24.0<br />(75.2) </td> <td style="background: #FF4400; color:#000000;" class="notheme">31.5<br />(88.7) </td> <td style="background: #FF1700; color:#FFFFFF;" class="notheme">38.1<br />(100.6) </td> <td style="background: #F80000; color:#FFFFFF;" class="notheme">42.0<br />(107.6) </td> <td style="background: #F90000; color:#FFFFFF;" class="notheme">41.9<br />(107.4) </td> <td style="background: #FF1800; color:#FFFFFF;" class="notheme">37.9<br />(100.2) </td> <td style="background: #FF4A00; color:#000000;" class="notheme">30.7<br />(87.3) </td> <td style="background: #FF8B18; color:#000000;" class="notheme">21.2<br />(70.2) </td> <td style="background: #FFBA76; color:#000000;" class="notheme">14.4<br />(57.9) </td> <td style="background: #FF6200; color:#000000; border-left-width:medium" class="notheme">27.2<br />(81.0) </td></tr> <tr style="text-align: center;"> <th scope="row" style="height: 16px;">Daily mean °C (°F) </th> <td style="background: #FFEBD7; color:#000000;" class="notheme">7.4<br />(45.3) </td> <td style="background: #FFE0C2; color:#000000;" class="notheme">8.9<br />(48.0) </td> <td style="background: #FFC892; color:#000000;" class="notheme">12.4<br />(54.3) </td> <td style="background: #FFA54B; color:#000000;" class="notheme">17.5<br />(63.5) </td> <td style="background: #FF7700; color:#000000;" class="notheme">24.1<br />(75.4) </td> <td style="background: #FF5100; color:#000000;" class="notheme">29.7<br />(85.5) </td> <td style="background: #FF3700; color:#000000;" class="notheme">33.4<br />(92.1) </td> <td style="background: #FF3900; color:#000000;" class="notheme">33.1<br />(91.6) </td> <td style="background: #FF5600; color:#000000;" class="notheme">29.0<br />(84.2) </td> <td style="background: #FF8205; color:#000000;" class="notheme">22.6<br />(72.7) </td> <td style="background: #FFB66E; color:#000000;" class="notheme">15.0<br />(59.0) </td> <td style="background: #FFDFBF; color:#000000;" class="notheme">9.1<br />(48.4) </td> <td style="background: #FF9226; color:#000000; border-left-width:medium" class="notheme">20.2<br />(68.3) </td></tr> <tr style="text-align: center;"> <th scope="row" style="height: 16px;">Mean daily minimum °C (°F) </th> <td style="background: #F3F3FF; color:#000000;" class="notheme">2.4<br />(36.3) </td> <td style="background: #FAFAFF; color:#000000;" class="notheme">3.6<br />(38.5) </td> <td style="background: #FFEFE0; color:#000000;" class="notheme">6.7<br />(44.1) </td> <td style="background: #FFD1A4; color:#000000;" class="notheme">11.1<br />(52.0) </td> <td style="background: #FFAA56; color:#000000;" class="notheme">16.7<br />(62.1) </td> <td style="background: #FF8A16; color:#000000;" class="notheme">21.4<br />(70.5) </td> <td style="background: #FF7200; color:#000000;" class="notheme">24.9<br />(76.8) </td> <td style="background: #FF7500; color:#000000;" class="notheme">24.4<br />(75.9) </td> <td style="background: #FF9327; color:#000000;" class="notheme">20.1<br />(68.2) </td> <td style="background: #FFBA75; color:#000000;" class="notheme">14.5<br />(58.1) </td> <td style="background: #FFE0C2; color:#000000;" class="notheme">8.9<br />(48.0) </td> <td style="background: #FBFBFF; color:#000000;" class="notheme">3.9<br />(39.0) </td> <td style="background: #FFC387; color:#000000; border-left-width:medium" class="notheme">13.2<br />(55.8) </td></tr> <tr style="text-align: center;"> <th scope="row" style="height: 16px;">Record low °C (°F) </th> <td style="background: #D1D1FF; color:#000000;" class="notheme">−4<br />(25) </td> <td style="background: #C6C6FF; color:#000000;" class="notheme">−6<br />(21) </td> <td style="background: #E1E1FF; color:#000000;" class="notheme">−1<br />(30) </td> <td style="background: #F6F6FF; color:#000000;" class="notheme">3<br />(37) </td> <td style="background: #FFF4EA; color:#000000;" class="notheme">6<br />(43) </td> <td style="background: #FFD9B3; color:#000000;" class="notheme">10<br />(50) </td> <td style="background: #FFC489; color:#000000;" class="notheme">13<br />(55) </td> <td style="background: #FFA852; color:#000000;" class="notheme">17<br />(63) </td> <td style="background: #FFD2A5; color:#000000;" class="notheme">11<br />(52) </td> <td style="background: #FCFCFF; color:#000000;" class="notheme">4<br />(39) </td> <td style="background: #DBDBFF; color:#000000;" class="notheme">−2<br />(28) </td> <td style="background: #DBDBFF; color:#000000;" class="notheme">−2<br />(28) </td> <td style="background: #C6C6FF; color:#000000; border-left-width:medium" class="notheme">−6<br />(21) </td></tr> <tr style="text-align: center;"> <th scope="row" style="height: 16px;">Average rainfall mm (inches) </th> <td style="background: #59FF59; color:#000000;" class="notheme">111<br />(4.4) </td> <td style="background: #60FF60; color:#000000;" class="notheme">97<br />(3.8) </td> <td style="background: #7AFF7A; color:#000000;" class="notheme">89<br />(3.5) </td> <td style="background: #94FF94; color:#000000;" class="notheme">69<br />(2.7) </td> <td style="background: #D8FFD8; color:#000000;" class="notheme">26<br />(1.0) </td> <td style="background: #FFFFFF; color:#000000;" class="notheme">0<br />(0) </td> <td style="background: #FFFFFF; color:#000000;" class="notheme">0<br />(0) </td> <td style="background: #FFFFFF; color:#000000;" class="notheme">0<br />(0) </td> <td style="background: #FFFFFF; color:#000000;" class="notheme">0<br />(0) </td> <td style="background: #EDFFED; color:#000000;" class="notheme">12<br />(0.5) </td> <td style="background: #A8FFA8; color:#000000;" class="notheme">56<br />(2.2) </td> <td style="background: #87FF87; color:#000000;" class="notheme">80<br />(3.1) </td> <td style="background: #BAFFBA; color:#000000; border-left-width:medium" class="notheme">540<br />(21.2) </td></tr> <tr style="text-align: center;"> <th scope="row" style="height: 16px;">Average rainy days </th> <td style="background: #8F8FFF; color:#000000;" class="notheme">9 </td> <td style="background: #8585FF; color:#000000;" class="notheme">9 </td> <td style="background: #8383FF; color:#000000;" class="notheme">10 </td> <td style="background: #8C8CFF; color:#000000;" class="notheme">9 </td> <td style="background: #CDCDFF; color:#000000;" class="notheme">4 </td> <td style="background: #F2F2FF; color:#000000;" class="notheme">1 </td> <td style="background: #FFFFFF; color:#000000;" class="notheme">0 </td> <td style="background: #FFFFFF; color:#000000;" class="notheme">0 </td> <td style="background: #F2F2FF; color:#000000;" class="notheme">1 </td> <td style="background: #D9D9FF; color:#000000;" class="notheme">3 </td> <td style="background: #B2B2FF; color:#000000;" class="notheme">6 </td> <td style="background: #8383FF; color:#000000;" class="notheme">10 </td> <td style="background: #BEBEFF; color:#000000; border-left-width:medium" class="notheme">62 </td></tr> <tr style="text-align: center;"> <th scope="row" style="height: 16px;">Average snowy days </th> <td style="background: #F2F2FF; color:#000000;" class="notheme">1 </td> <td style="background: #FFFFFF; color:#000000;" class="notheme">0 </td> <td style="background: #FFFFFF; color:#000000;" class="notheme">0 </td> <td style="background: #FFFFFF; color:#000000;" class="notheme">0 </td> <td style="background: #FFFFFF; color:#000000;" class="notheme">0 </td> <td style="background: #FFFFFF; color:#000000;" class="notheme">0 </td> <td style="background: #FFFFFF; color:#000000;" class="notheme">0 </td> <td style="background: #FFFFFF; color:#000000;" class="notheme">0 </td> <td style="background: #FFFFFF; color:#000000;" class="notheme">0 </td> <td style="background: #FFFFFF; color:#000000;" class="notheme">0 </td> <td style="background: #FFFFFF; color:#000000;" class="notheme">0 </td> <td style="background: #FFFFFF; color:#000000;" class="notheme">0 </td> <td style="background: #FDFDFF; color:#000000; border-left-width:medium" class="notheme">1 </td></tr> <tr style="text-align: center;"> <th scope="row" style="height: 16px;">Average <a href="/wiki/Relative_humidity" class="mw-redirect" title="Relative humidity">relative humidity</a> (%) </th> <td style="background: #0000E1; color:#FFFFFF;" class="notheme">74.5 </td> <td style="background: #0000F2; color:#FFFFFF;" class="notheme">70 </td> <td style="background: #0606FF; color:#FFFFFF;" class="notheme">65 </td> <td style="background: #1F1FFF; color:#FFFFFF;" class="notheme">58.5 </td> <td style="background: #6060FF; color:#FFFFFF;" class="notheme">41.5 </td> <td style="background: #9191FF; color:#000000;" class="notheme">28.5 </td> <td style="background: #9F9FFF; color:#000000;" class="notheme">25 </td> <td style="background: #9595FF; color:#000000;" class="notheme">27.5 </td> <td style="background: #8A8AFF; color:#000000;" class="notheme">30.5 </td> <td style="background: #5858FF; color:#FFFFFF;" class="notheme">43.5 </td> <td style="background: #1717FF; color:#FFFFFF;" class="notheme">60.5 </td> <td style="background: #0000DD; color:#FFFFFF;" class="notheme">75.5 </td> <td style="background: #3F3FFF; color:#FFFFFF; border-left-width:medium" class="notheme">50.0 </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="14" style="text-align:center;font-size:95%;">Source 1: <i>Climate-Data.org</i>,<sup id="cite_ref-Climate-Data.org_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Climate-Data.org-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>My Forecast</i> for records, humidity, snow and precipitation days<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="14" style="text-align:center;font-size:95%;">Source 2: <i>What's the Weather Like.org</i>,<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>Erbilia</i><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr></tbody></table> </div> <div> <table class="wikitable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="width:auto; text-align:center; line-height:1.2em;"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="14">Climate data for <a href="/wiki/Amadiya" class="mw-redirect" title="Amadiya">Amadiya</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Month </th> <th scope="col">Jan </th> <th scope="col">Feb </th> <th scope="col">Mar </th> <th scope="col">Apr </th> <th scope="col">May </th> <th scope="col">Jun </th> <th scope="col">Jul </th> <th scope="col">Aug </th> <th scope="col">Sep </th> <th scope="col">Oct </th> <th scope="col">Nov </th> <th scope="col">Dec </th> <th scope="col" style="border-left-width:medium">Year </th></tr> <tr style="text-align: center;"> <th scope="row" style="height: 16px;">Mean daily maximum °C (°F) </th> <td style="background: #FFF3E7; color:#000000;" class="notheme">6.2<br />(43.2) </td> <td style="background: #FFE8D1; color:#000000;" class="notheme">7.8<br />(46.0) </td> <td style="background: #FFCA96; color:#000000;" class="notheme">12.1<br />(53.8) </td> <td style="background: #FFA347; color:#000000;" class="notheme">17.8<br />(64.0) </td> <td style="background: #FF7100; color:#000000;" class="notheme">25.1<br />(77.2) </td> <td style="background: #FF4200; color:#000000;" class="notheme">31.9<br />(89.4) </td> <td style="background: #FF2300; color:#000000;" class="notheme">36.3<br />(97.3) </td> <td style="background: #FF2400; color:#000000;" class="notheme">36.2<br />(97.2) </td> <td style="background: #FF4000; color:#000000;" class="notheme">32.2<br />(90.0) </td> <td style="background: #FF7500; color:#000000;" class="notheme">24.4<br />(75.9) </td> <td style="background: #FFB368; color:#000000;" class="notheme">15.4<br />(59.7) </td> <td style="background: #FFE4C9; color:#000000;" class="notheme">8.4<br />(47.1) </td> <td style="background: #FF8B18; color:#000000; border-left-width:medium" class="notheme">21.2<br />(70.1) </td></tr> <tr style="text-align: center;"> <th scope="row" style="height: 16px;">Mean daily minimum °C (°F) </th> <td style="background: #D9D9FF; color:#000000;" class="notheme">−2.4<br />(27.7) </td> <td style="background: #DFDFFF; color:#000000;" class="notheme">−1.3<br />(29.7) </td> <td style="background: #F3F3FF; color:#000000;" class="notheme">2.4<br />(36.3) </td> <td style="background: #FFECD9; color:#000000;" class="notheme">7.2<br />(45.0) </td> <td style="background: #FFC790; color:#000000;" class="notheme">12.5<br />(54.5) </td> <td style="background: #FFA64D; color:#000000;" class="notheme">17.4<br />(63.3) </td> <td style="background: #FF8A16; color:#000000;" class="notheme">21.4<br />(70.5) </td> <td style="background: #FF8D1C; color:#000000;" class="notheme">20.9<br />(69.6) </td> <td style="background: #FFAA55; color:#000000;" class="notheme">16.8<br />(62.2) </td> <td style="background: #FFD2A6; color:#000000;" class="notheme">10.9<br />(51.6) </td> <td style="background: #FFFBF8; color:#000000;" class="notheme">5.0<br />(41.0) </td> <td style="background: #E6E6FF; color:#000000;" class="notheme">0.0<br />(32.0) </td> <td style="background: #FFDEBE; color:#000000; border-left-width:medium" class="notheme">9.2<br />(48.6) </td></tr> <tr style="text-align: center;"> <th scope="row" style="height: 16px;">Average <a href="/wiki/Precipitation" title="Precipitation">precipitation</a> mm (inches) </th> <td style="background: #43FF43; color:#000000;" class="notheme">126<br />(5.0) </td> <td style="background: #00DE00; color:#000000;" class="notheme">176<br />(6.9) </td> <td style="background: #16FF16; color:#000000;" class="notheme">156<br />(6.1) </td> <td style="background: #39FF39; color:#000000;" class="notheme">128<br />(5.0) </td> <td style="background: #ABFFAB; color:#000000;" class="notheme">56<br />(2.2) </td> <td style="background: #FFFFFF; color:#000000;" class="notheme">0<br />(0) </td> <td style="background: #FFFFFF; color:#000000;" class="notheme">0<br />(0) </td> <td style="background: #FFFFFF; color:#000000;" class="notheme">0<br />(0) </td> <td style="background: #FDFFFD; color:#000000;" class="notheme">1<br />(0.0) </td> <td style="background: #CFFFCF; color:#000000;" class="notheme">32<br />(1.3) </td> <td style="background: #6BFF6B; color:#000000;" class="notheme">96<br />(3.8) </td> <td style="background: #43FF43; color:#000000;" class="notheme">126<br />(5.0) </td> <td style="background: #8DFF8D; color:#000000; border-left-width:medium" class="notheme">897<br />(35.3) </td></tr> <tr style="text-align: center;"> <th scope="row" style="height: 16px;">Average precipitation days </th> <td style="background: #A8A8FF; color:#000000;" class="notheme">7 </td> <td style="background: #ADADFF; color:#000000;" class="notheme">6 </td> <td style="background: #8383FF; color:#000000;" class="notheme">10 </td> <td style="background: #9999FF; color:#000000;" class="notheme">8 </td> <td style="background: #CDCDFF; color:#000000;" class="notheme">4 </td> <td style="background: #FFFFFF; color:#000000;" class="notheme">0 </td> <td style="background: #FFFFFF; color:#000000;" class="notheme">0 </td> <td style="background: #FFFFFF; color:#000000;" class="notheme">0 </td> <td style="background: #F2F2FF; color:#000000;" class="notheme">1 </td> <td style="background: #A8A8FF; color:#000000;" class="notheme">7 </td> <td style="background: #A5A5FF; color:#000000;" class="notheme">7 </td> <td style="background: #8383FF; color:#000000;" class="notheme">10 </td> <td style="background: #C0C0FF; color:#000000; border-left-width:medium" class="notheme">60 </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="14" style="text-align:center;font-size:95%;">Source 1: <i>World Weather Online</i> (precipitation days)<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="14" style="text-align:center;font-size:95%;">Source 2: <i>Climate-Data</i> (temperatures and rainfall amount)<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr></tbody></table> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Economy">Economy</h2></div> <p>The provinces of Duhok, Erbil and Sulaymanyah are rich in agricultural lands. Wheat and other cereals are grown there.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most of the areas are <a href="/wiki/Rainfed_agriculture" title="Rainfed agriculture">rainfed</a>, but there are also some smaller <a href="/wiki/Irrigation_systems" class="mw-redirect" title="Irrigation systems">irrigation systems</a> in place.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Tourism is another branch which draws the attention of the KRI,<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which achieved the declaration of Erbil as the Tourism Capital by the Arab Council of Tourism in 2014.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Kurds" title="History of the Kurds">History of the Kurds</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pre-Islamic_period">Pre-Islamic period</h3></div> <p>In prehistoric times, the region was home to a <a href="/wiki/Neanderthal" title="Neanderthal">Neanderthal</a> culture such as has been found at the <a href="/wiki/Shanidar_Cave" title="Shanidar Cave">Shanidar Cave</a>. The region was host to the <a href="/wiki/Jarmo" title="Jarmo">Jarmo</a> culture <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 7000 BCE</span>. The earliest <a href="/wiki/Neolithic" title="Neolithic">neolithic</a> site in Kurdistan is at <a href="/wiki/Hassuna" class="mw-redirect" title="Hassuna">Tell Hassuna</a>, the centre of the <i>Hassuna culture</i>, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 6000 BCE</span>. </p><p>In Early and Middle Bronze Age the region was geographically known as <a href="/wiki/Subartu" title="Subartu">Subartu</a> and was inhabited by the Hurrian speaking Subarians along with <a href="/wiki/Gutian_people" title="Gutian people">Gutians</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lullubi" title="Lullubi">Lullubi</a>. In 2200 BCE <a href="/wiki/Naram-Sin_of_Akkad" title="Naram-Sin of Akkad">Naram-Sin of Akkad</a> conquered the region<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and it came under the rule of the Gutians in 2150 BCE.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The main cities of the region attested in the inscriptions in this period are <a href="/wiki/Mardaman" title="Mardaman">Mardaman</a>, Azuhinum,<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ninet <sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (Nineveh), <a href="/wiki/Arrapha" title="Arrapha">Arrapha</a>, <a href="/wiki/Urbilum" class="mw-redirect" title="Urbilum">Urbilum</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Kurda" title="Kurda">Kurda</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In early 2nd millennium the region was ruled by the kingdom of Kurda<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> except for two decades in 18th century BCE when it was conquered by the <a href="/wiki/Amorites" title="Amorites">Amorite</a> <a href="/wiki/Shamshi-Adad_I" title="Shamshi-Adad I">Shamshi Adad</a><sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and was incorporated into the Kingdom of Upper Mesopotamia.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1760s BCE the kingdom of Kurda faced an invasion by <a href="/wiki/Elam" title="Elam">Elam</a> and <a href="/wiki/Eshnunna" title="Eshnunna">Eshnunna</a> during the Babylonian-Elam war and the kingdom eventually sided with Mari and Babylon.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 16th century BCE the <a href="/wiki/Mitannians" class="mw-redirect" title="Mitannians">Mitannians</a> incorporated the region into their Hurrian empire. Following the destruction of the Mitannian Empire by the Hittites, between 14th-13th century BCE the region gradually came under the rule of the Assyrians.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Tukulti-Ninurta I in the 13th century BCE finally conquered the whole region and appointed one of his commanders as the governor of the villages and towns of Kurda.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Kurda was reduced to a province centering around modern Sinjar.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Erbil's name was Akkadianized to Arba-ilu<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and during the Neo-Assyrian Empire the city was noted for its distinctive cult of <a href="/wiki/Ishtar" class="mw-redirect" title="Ishtar">Ishtar</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-semorig_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-semorig-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The region was partially under the rule of <a href="/wiki/Urartu" title="Urartu">Urartu</a> and the kingdom of Musasir in early 1st millennium BCE.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Modern <a href="/wiki/Rawandiz" title="Rawandiz">Rawandiz</a> district was a religious center of the Urartians.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_51-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Medes conquered the region in 7th century BCE. Later it came under the rule of the Achaemenids and remained as part of the satrapy of Media.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When Xenophon passed through the region in 4th century BCE, it was inhabited by the Medes.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 332 BC the region fell to <a href="/wiki/Alexander_The_Great" class="mw-redirect" title="Alexander The Great">Alexander The Great</a> and was thereafter ruled by the Greek <a href="/wiki/Seleucid" class="mw-redirect" title="Seleucid">Seleucid</a> Empire until the middle of the second century BCE when it fell to <a href="/wiki/Mithridates_I_of_Parthia" title="Mithridates I of Parthia">Mithridates I of Parthia</a>. During the four centuries of the Parthian era (247 BCE to 226 AD) the region was ruled by semi-independent principalities of Barzan and Sharazur,<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and in 1st century it was partially under the rule of the Jewish kingdom of <a href="/wiki/Adiabene" title="Adiabene">Adiabene</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Between 3rd and 4th centuries the region was ruled by the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Kayus" class="mw-redirect" title="House of Kayus">House of Kayus</a> until it was incorporated into the <a href="/wiki/Sassanian_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Sassanian Empire">Sassanian Empire</a> in 380 AD and it was renamed to Nodshēragān.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The region was gradually converted to Christianity between 1st and 5th centuries and Erbil became the seat of the metropolitan of Hadhyab of the <a href="/wiki/Church_of_the_East" title="Church of the East">Church of the East</a><sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and it was divided into several bishoprics namely Marga, Beth Garmai, Beth Qardu, Beth MahQard, Beth BihQard, Beth Nuhadra and Shahr-Qard. In Syriac the region was commonly called Beth Qardwaye.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Islamic_period">Islamic period</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Spread_of_Islam_among_Kurds" title="Spread of Islam among Kurds">Spread of Islam among Kurds</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ottoman_vilayets_of_Van_and_Mossoul_1899.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Ottoman_vilayets_of_Van_and_Mossoul_1899.png/220px-Ottoman_vilayets_of_Van_and_Mossoul_1899.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="298" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Ottoman_vilayets_of_Van_and_Mossoul_1899.png/330px-Ottoman_vilayets_of_Van_and_Mossoul_1899.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Ottoman_vilayets_of_Van_and_Mossoul_1899.png/440px-Ottoman_vilayets_of_Van_and_Mossoul_1899.png 2x" data-file-width="549" data-file-height="743" /></a><figcaption>Ottoman <a href="/wiki/Vilayets" class="mw-redirect" title="Vilayets">vilayets</a> of Van and Mossoul, 1899. Modern Iraqi Kurdistan is covered by the Mosul vilayet (green), which is divided into the <a href="/wiki/Sanjak" title="Sanjak">sanjaks</a> of Mossoul (<a href="/wiki/Nineveh_Governorate" title="Nineveh Governorate">Mosul</a>), Kerkouk (<a href="/wiki/Kirkuk_Governorate" title="Kirkuk Governorate">Kirkuk</a> and <a href="/wiki/Erbil_Governorate" title="Erbil Governorate">Erbil</a>), and Souleimanié (<a href="/wiki/Sulaymaniyah_Governorate" title="Sulaymaniyah Governorate">Sulaymaniyah</a>). To the east is Persia and south is the vilayet of Bagdad.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ethnographical_Map_of_the_contested_territory_(1922-1924)_(Mosul_vilayet).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Ethnographical_Map_of_the_contested_territory_%281922-1924%29_%28Mosul_vilayet%29.jpg/220px-Ethnographical_Map_of_the_contested_territory_%281922-1924%29_%28Mosul_vilayet%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="172" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Ethnographical_Map_of_the_contested_territory_%281922-1924%29_%28Mosul_vilayet%29.jpg/330px-Ethnographical_Map_of_the_contested_territory_%281922-1924%29_%28Mosul_vilayet%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Ethnographical_Map_of_the_contested_territory_%281922-1924%29_%28Mosul_vilayet%29.jpg/440px-Ethnographical_Map_of_the_contested_territory_%281922-1924%29_%28Mosul_vilayet%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1851" data-file-height="1443" /></a><figcaption>Ethnographical Map of the contested territory, compiled by the Commission according to the latest statistics drawn up by the Government of Iraq (1922–1924), League of Nations. Green shows the Kurdish population in the region, while yellow is used for Arabs and purple for Yazidis</figcaption></figure> <p>The region was conquered by <a href="/wiki/Arab" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab">Arab</a> <a href="/wiki/Muslims" title="Muslims">Muslims</a> in the mid 7th century AD as the invading forces <a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Iran" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim conquest of Iran">conquered the Sassanian Empire</a>, the region fell to Muslims after they fought the Kurds in Mosul and Tikrit<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> 'Utba ibn Farqad captured all the forts of the Kurds when he conquered Erbil in 641.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The area became part of the Muslim Arab <a href="/wiki/Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Rashidun Caliphate">Rashidun</a>, <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad</a>, and later the <a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasid</a> Caliphates, before becoming part of various <a href="/wiki/Iranian_peoples" title="Iranian peoples">Iranian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Turkic_peoples" title="Turkic peoples">Turkic</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Mongol" class="mw-redirect" title="Mongol">Mongol</a> <a href="/wiki/Emirate" title="Emirate">emirates</a>. Following the disintegration of the <a href="/wiki/Ak_Koyunlu" class="mw-redirect" title="Ak Koyunlu">Ak Koyunlu</a>, all of its territories including what is modern-day Iraqi Kurdistan passed to the Iranian <a href="/wiki/Safavids" class="mw-redirect" title="Safavids">Safavids</a> in the earliest 16th century.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Between the 16th and 17th century the area nowadays known as Iraqi Kurdistan, (formerly ruled by three principalities of <a href="/wiki/Baban" title="Baban">Baban</a>, <a href="/wiki/Badinan_Emirate" class="mw-redirect" title="Badinan Emirate">Badinan</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Soran_Emirate" title="Soran Emirate">Soran</a>) was continuously passed back and forth between archrivals the <a href="/wiki/Safavid_dynasty" title="Safavid dynasty">Safavids</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottomans</a>, until the Ottomans managed to decisively seize power in the region starting from the mid 17th century through the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman%E2%80%93Safavid_War_(1623%E2%80%9339)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottoman–Safavid War (1623–39)">Ottoman–Safavid War (1623–39)</a> and the resulting <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Zuhab" title="Treaty of Zuhab">Treaty of Zuhab</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Roemer285_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Roemer285-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the early 18th century, it briefly passed to the Iranian <a href="/wiki/Afsharids" class="mw-redirect" title="Afsharids">Afsharids</a> led by <a href="/wiki/Nader_Shah" title="Nader Shah">Nader Shah</a>. Following Nader's death in 1747, Ottoman suzerainty was reimposed, and in 1831, direct <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman</a> rule was established which lasted until <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a>, when the Ottomans were defeated by the <a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Kurdish_revolts_under_British_control">Kurdish revolts under British control</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mahmud_Barzanji.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Mahmud_Barzanji.jpg/220px-Mahmud_Barzanji.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="357" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ac/Mahmud_Barzanji.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="308" data-file-height="500" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Mahmud_Barzanji" title="Mahmud Barzanji">Mahmud Barzanji</a> was the leader of a series of Kurdish uprisings against the British Mandate of Iraq.</figcaption></figure> <p>During World War I, the British and French divided <a href="/wiki/West_Asia" title="West Asia">West Asia</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Sykes-Picot_Agreement" class="mw-redirect" title="Sykes-Picot Agreement">Sykes-Picot Agreement</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_S%C3%A8vres" title="Treaty of Sèvres">Treaty of Sèvres</a> (which did not enter into force), and the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Lausanne" title="Treaty of Lausanne">Treaty of Lausanne</a> which superseded it, led to the advent of modern West Asia and the modern Republic of Turkey. The <a href="/wiki/League_of_Nations" title="League of Nations">League of Nations</a> granted France mandates over <a href="/wiki/French_Mandate_of_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="French Mandate of Syria">Syria</a> and <a href="/wiki/French_Mandate_of_Lebanon" class="mw-redirect" title="French Mandate of Lebanon">Lebanon</a> and granted the United Kingdom mandates over <a href="/wiki/Mandatory_Palestine" title="Mandatory Palestine">Palestine</a> (which then consisted of two autonomous regions: <a href="/wiki/Mandatory_Palestine" title="Mandatory Palestine">Mandatory Palestine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Emirate_of_Transjordan" title="Emirate of Transjordan">Transjordan</a>) and what was to become <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Iraq_(British_administration)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Iraq (British administration)">Iraq</a>. Parts of the Ottoman Empire on the <a href="/wiki/Arabian_Peninsula" title="Arabian Peninsula">Arabian Peninsula</a> were eventually taken over by <a href="/wiki/Saudi_Arabia" title="Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Yemen" title="Yemen">Yemen</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kingdom_of_Kurdistan_(1923).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Kingdom_of_Kurdistan_%281923%29.png/250px-Kingdom_of_Kurdistan_%281923%29.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="225" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Kingdom_of_Kurdistan_%281923%29.png/375px-Kingdom_of_Kurdistan_%281923%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Kingdom_of_Kurdistan_%281923%29.png/500px-Kingdom_of_Kurdistan_%281923%29.png 2x" data-file-width="1106" data-file-height="996" /></a><figcaption>Kingdom of Kurdistan in 1923</figcaption></figure> <p>In 1922, Britain restored <a href="/wiki/Mahmud_Barzanji" title="Mahmud Barzanji">Shaikh Mahmud Barzanji</a> to power, hoping that he would organize the Kurds to act as a buffer against the <a href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey">Turks</a>, who had territorial claims over <a href="/wiki/Mosul" title="Mosul">Mosul</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kirkuk" title="Kirkuk">Kirkuk</a>. However, defiant to the British, in 1922 Shaikh Mahmud declared a <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kurdistan" title="Kingdom of Kurdistan">Kurdish Kingdom</a> with himself as king. It took two years for the British to bring Kurdish areas into submission, while Shaikh Mahmud found refuge in an unknown location.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>In 1930, following the announcement of the admission of Iraq to the League of Nations, Shaikh Mahmud started a third uprising which was suppressed with British air and ground forces.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By 1927, the <a href="/wiki/Barzani_Kurds" class="mw-redirect" title="Barzani Kurds">Barzani clan</a> had become vocal supporters of Kurdish rights in Iraq. In 1929, the Barzani demanded the formation of a Kurdish province in northern Iraq. Emboldened by these demands, in 1931 Kurdish notables petitioned the League of Nations to set up an independent Kurdish government. In late 1931, <a href="/wiki/Ahmed_Barzani" title="Ahmed Barzani">Ahmed Barzani</a> initiated a Kurdish <a href="/wiki/Ahmed_Barzani_revolt" title="Ahmed Barzani revolt">rebellion</a> against Iraq, and though defeated within several months, the movement gained a major importance in the Kurdish struggle later on, creating the ground for such a notable Kurdish rebel as <a href="/wiki/Mustafa_Barzani" title="Mustafa Barzani">Mustafa Barzani</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>During World War II, the power vacuum in Iraq was exploited by the Kurdish tribes and under the leadership of Mustafa Barzani a rebellion broke out in the north, effectively gaining control of Kurdish areas until 1945, when Iraqis could once again subdue the Kurds with British support. Under pressure from the Iraqi government and the British, the most influential leader of the clan, <a href="/wiki/Mustafa_Barzani" title="Mustafa Barzani">Mustafa Barzani</a> was forced into exile in Iran in 1945. Later he moved to the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> after the collapse of the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Mahabad" title="Republic of Mahabad">Republic of Mahabad</a> in 1946.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Barzani_Revolt_(1960–1970)"><span id="Barzani_Revolt_.281960.E2.80.931970.29"></span>Barzani Revolt (1960–1970)</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/First_Iraqi%E2%80%93Kurdish_War" title="First Iraqi–Kurdish War">First Iraqi–Kurdish War</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:3.7inchHowitzerBarzanOperations1932.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/3.7inchHowitzerBarzanOperations1932.jpg/220px-3.7inchHowitzerBarzanOperations1932.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/3.7inchHowitzerBarzanOperations1932.jpg/330px-3.7inchHowitzerBarzanOperations1932.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/3.7inchHowitzerBarzanOperations1932.jpg/440px-3.7inchHowitzerBarzanOperations1932.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="450" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/First_Iraqi%E2%80%93Kurdish_War" title="First Iraqi–Kurdish War">The Barzani revolt</a>, June 1932</figcaption></figure> <p>After the <a href="/wiki/14_July_Revolution" title="14 July Revolution">military coup</a> by Arab nationalists on the 14 July 1958,<sup id="cite_ref-:1_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Mustafa_Barzani" title="Mustafa Barzani">Mustafa Barzani</a> was invited by <a href="/wiki/Abdul_Karim_Qasim" class="mw-redirect" title="Abdul Karim Qasim">Abdul Karim Qasim</a> to return from exile, where he was greeted with a hero's welcome. As part of the deal arranged between Qasim and Barzani, Qasim had promised to give the Kurds regional autonomy in return for Barzani's support for his policies. The Provisional Constitution described Iraq being included in the Arab world but saw the Kurds as partners within an Iraqi statehood and the coat of arms included a Kurdish dagger besides the Arab sword.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_71-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Meanwhile, during 1959–1960, Barzani became the head of the <a href="/wiki/Kurdistan_Democratic_Party" title="Kurdistan Democratic Party">Kurdistan Democratic Party</a> (KDP), which was granted legal status in 1960. By early 1960, it became apparent that Qasim would not follow through with his promise of regional autonomy. As a result, the KDP began to agitate for regional autonomy. In the face of growing Kurdish dissent, as well as Barzani's personal power, Qasim began to incite the Barzanis historical enemies, the <i>Baradost</i> and <i>Zebari</i> tribes, which led to intertribal warfare throughout 1960 and early 1961.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Barzani_%26_Qasim.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Barzani_%26_Qasim.jpg/220px-Barzani_%26_Qasim.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="138" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Barzani_%26_Qasim.jpg/330px-Barzani_%26_Qasim.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/da/Barzani_%26_Qasim.jpg 2x" data-file-width="340" data-file-height="213" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Mustafa_Barzani" title="Mustafa Barzani">Mustafa Barzani</a> with <a href="/wiki/Abd_al-Karim_Qasim" class="mw-redirect" title="Abd al-Karim Qasim">Abd al-Karim Qasim</a></figcaption></figure> <p>By February 1961, Barzani had successfully defeated the pro-government forces and consolidated his position as leader of the Kurds. At this point, Barzani ordered his forces to occupy and expel government officials from all Kurdish territory. This was not received well in Baghdad, and the Third Kurdish Teachers Congress was cancelled and Qasim even denied that "Kurds" constituted an own nation.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_71-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Qasim began to prepare for a military offensive against the north to return government control of the region. Meanwhile, in June 1961, the KDP issued a detailed ultimatum to Qasim outlining Kurdish grievances, demanding that the Kurdish language would become an official language in Kurdish majority regions.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_71-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Qasim ignored the Kurdish demands and continued his planning for war.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>It was not until September 10, when an Iraqi army column was ambushed by a group of Kurds, that the Kurdish revolt truly began. In response to the attack, Qasim lashed out and ordered the <a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Air_Force" title="Iraqi Air Force">Iraqi Air Force</a> to indiscriminately bomb Kurdish villages, which ultimately served to rally the entire Kurdish population to Barzani's standard. Due to Qasim's profound distrust of the <a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Army" class="mw-redirect" title="Iraqi Army">Iraqi Army</a>, which he purposely failed to adequately arm (in fact, Qasim implemented a policy of ammunition rationing), Qasim's government was not able to subdue the insurrection. This stalemate irritated powerful factions within the military and is said to be one of the main reasons behind the <a href="/wiki/Ba%27athism" title="Ba'athism">Ba'athist</a> coup against Qasim in February 1963. In November 1963, after considerable infighting amongst the civilian and military wings of the Ba'athists, they were ousted by <a href="/wiki/Abdul_Salam_Arif" title="Abdul Salam Arif">Abdul Salam Arif</a> in a coup. Then, after another failed offensive, Arif declared a ceasefire in February 1964 which provoked a split among Kurdish urban radicals on one hand and <a href="/wiki/Peshmerga" title="Peshmerga">Peshmerga</a> (Freedom fighters) forces led by Barzani on the other.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Barzani agreed to the ceasefire and fired the radicals from the party. Following the unexpected death of Arif, whereupon he was replaced by his brother, <a href="/wiki/Abdul_Rahman_Arif" title="Abdul Rahman Arif">Abdul Rahman Arif</a>, the Iraqi government launched a last-ditch effort to defeat the Kurds. This campaign failed in May 1966, when Barzani forces thoroughly defeated the Iraqi Army at the Battle of Mount Handrin, near <a href="/wiki/Rawandiz" title="Rawandiz">Rawandiz</a>. At this battle, it was said that the Kurds slaughtered an entire brigade.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Recognizing the futility of continuing this campaign, Rahamn Arif announced a 12-point peace program in June 1966, which was not implemented due to the overthrow of Rahman Arif in a 1968 coup by the <a href="/wiki/Ba%27ath_Party" title="Ba'ath Party">Ba'ath Party</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The Ba'ath government started a campaign to end the Kurdish insurrection, which stalled in 1969. This can be partly attributed to the internal power struggle in Baghdad and also tensions with Iran. Moreover, the Soviet Union pressured the Iraqis to come to terms with Barzani. A peace plan was announced in March 1970 and provided for broader Kurdish autonomy. The plan also gave Kurds representation in government bodies, to be implemented in four years.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite this, the Iraqi government embarked on an Arabization program in the oil rich regions of Kirkuk and <a href="/wiki/Khanaqin" title="Khanaqin">Khanaqin</a> in the same period.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the following years, Baghdad government overcame its internal divisions and concluded a treaty of friendship with the Soviet Union in April 1972 and ended its isolation within the Arab world. On the other hand, Kurds remained dependent on the Iranian military support and could do little to strengthen their forces.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Second_Kurdish_Iraqi_War_Algiers_Agreement">Second Kurdish Iraqi War Algiers Agreement</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Second_Iraqi%E2%80%93Kurdish_War" title="Second Iraqi–Kurdish War">Second Iraqi–Kurdish War</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kurdistan_1975.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Kurdistan_1975.png/181px-Kurdistan_1975.png" decoding="async" width="181" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Kurdistan_1975.png/272px-Kurdistan_1975.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Kurdistan_1975.png/362px-Kurdistan_1975.png 2x" data-file-width="1106" data-file-height="955" /></a><figcaption>Kurdistan Autonomous Region in 1975</figcaption></figure> <p>In 1973, the US made a secret agreement with the Shah of Iran to begin covertly funding Kurdish rebels against Baghdad through the <a href="/wiki/Central_Intelligence_Agency" title="Central Intelligence Agency">Central Intelligence Agency</a> and in collaboration with the <a href="/wiki/Mossad" title="Mossad">Mossad</a>, both of which would be active in the country through the launch of the <a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_Iraq" class="mw-redirect" title="Invasion of Iraq">Iraqi invasion</a> and into the present.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By 1974, the Iraqi government retaliated with a <a href="/wiki/Second_Iraqi%E2%80%93Kurdish_War" title="Second Iraqi–Kurdish War">new offensive</a> against the Kurds and pushed them close to the border with Iran. Iraq informed <a href="/wiki/Tehran" title="Tehran">Tehran</a> that it was willing to satisfy other Iranian demands in return for an end to its aid to the Kurds. With mediation by <a href="/wiki/Algeria" title="Algeria">Algerian</a> President <a href="/wiki/Houari_Boumediene" class="mw-redirect" title="Houari Boumediene">Houari Boumediene</a>, Iran and Iraq reached a comprehensive settlement in March 1975 known as the <i><a href="/wiki/1975_Algiers_Agreement" title="1975 Algiers Agreement">Algiers Pact</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The agreement left the Kurds helpless and Tehran cut supplies to the Kurdish movement. Barzani went to Iran with many of his supporters. Others surrendered <i>en masse</i> and the rebellion ended after a few days.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>As a result, the Iraqi government extended its control over the northern region after 15 years and in order to secure its influence, started an <a href="/wiki/Arabization" title="Arabization">Arabization</a> program by moving Arabs to the vicinity of oil fields in northern Iraq, particularly those around Kirkuk, and other regions, which were populated by <a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Turkmen" title="Iraqi Turkmen">Turkmen</a>, Kurds and Christians.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The repressive measures carried out by the government against the Kurds after the Algiers agreement led to renewed clashes between the Iraqi Army and Kurdish guerrillas in 1977. In 1978 and 1979, 600 Kurdish villages were burned down and around 200,000 Kurds were deported to the other parts of the country.<sup id="cite_ref-Farouk-Sluglett_24_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Farouk-Sluglett_24-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Arabization_campaign_and_PUK_insurgency">Arabization campaign and PUK insurgency</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/PUK_insurgency" title="PUK insurgency">PUK insurgency</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ba%27athist_Arabization_campaigns_in_northern_Iraq" title="Ba'athist Arabization campaigns in northern Iraq">Ba'athist Arabization campaigns in northern Iraq</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Ba%27ath_Party_(Iraq)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ba'ath Party (Iraq)">Ba'athist</a> government of Iraq <a href="/wiki/Ba%27athist_Arabization_campaigns_in_North_Iraq" class="mw-redirect" title="Ba'athist Arabization campaigns in North Iraq">forcibly displaced and culturally Arabized</a> minorities (<a href="/wiki/Kurds_in_Iraq" title="Kurds in Iraq">Kurds</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yazidis" title="Yazidis">Yezidis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Assyrian_people" title="Assyrian people">Assyrians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shabak_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Shabak people">Shabaks</a>, <a href="/wiki/Armenians_in_Iraq" class="mw-redirect" title="Armenians in Iraq">Armenians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Turkmen" title="Iraqi Turkmen">Turkmen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mandeans" class="mw-redirect" title="Mandeans">Mandeans</a>), in line with <a href="/wiki/Settler_colonialism" title="Settler colonialism">settler colonialist</a> policies, from the 1960s to the early 2000s, in order to shift the demographics of North Iraq towards Arab domination. The Baath party under <a href="/wiki/Saddam_Hussein" title="Saddam Hussein">Saddam Hussein</a> engaged in active expulsion of minorities from the mid-1970s onwards.<sup id="cite_ref-savelberg_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-savelberg-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1978 and 1979, 600 Kurdish villages were burned down and around 200,000 Kurds were deported to the other parts of the country.<sup id="cite_ref-Farouk-Sluglett_24_79-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Farouk-Sluglett_24-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The campaigns took place during the <a href="/wiki/Iraqi%E2%80%93Kurdish_conflict" title="Iraqi–Kurdish conflict">Iraqi–Kurdish conflict</a>, being largely motivated by the Kurdish–Arab ethnic and political conflict. Arab settlement programs reached their peak during the late 1970s, in line with <a href="/wiki/Depopulation" class="mw-redirect" title="Depopulation">depopulation</a> efforts of the <a href="/wiki/Baathist_Iraq" class="mw-redirect" title="Baathist Iraq">Ba'athist regime</a>. The Baathist policies motivating those events are sometimes referred to as "internal colonialism",<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> described by Dr. Francis Kofi Abiew as a "Colonial 'Arabization<span style="padding-right:.15em;">'</span>" program, including large-scale Kurdish deportations and forced Arab settlement in the region.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Iran–Iraq_War_and_Anfal_Campaign"><span id="Iran.E2.80.93Iraq_War_and_Anfal_Campaign"></span>Iran–Iraq War and Anfal Campaign</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Kurdish_rebellion_of_1983" class="mw-redirect" title="Kurdish rebellion of 1983">Kurdish rebellion of 1983</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Family_Graves_for_Victims_of_1988_Chemical_Attack_-_Halabja_-_Kurdistan_-_Iraq.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Family_Graves_for_Victims_of_1988_Chemical_Attack_-_Halabja_-_Kurdistan_-_Iraq.jpg/220px-Family_Graves_for_Victims_of_1988_Chemical_Attack_-_Halabja_-_Kurdistan_-_Iraq.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Family_Graves_for_Victims_of_1988_Chemical_Attack_-_Halabja_-_Kurdistan_-_Iraq.jpg/330px-Family_Graves_for_Victims_of_1988_Chemical_Attack_-_Halabja_-_Kurdistan_-_Iraq.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Family_Graves_for_Victims_of_1988_Chemical_Attack_-_Halabja_-_Kurdistan_-_Iraq.jpg/440px-Family_Graves_for_Victims_of_1988_Chemical_Attack_-_Halabja_-_Kurdistan_-_Iraq.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3456" data-file-height="2304" /></a><figcaption>Graves of the Halabja chemical attack victims</figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kurdish_refugees_travel_by_truck,_Turkey,_1991.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Kurdish_refugees_travel_by_truck%2C_Turkey%2C_1991.jpeg/300px-Kurdish_refugees_travel_by_truck%2C_Turkey%2C_1991.jpeg" decoding="async" width="300" height="195" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Kurdish_refugees_travel_by_truck%2C_Turkey%2C_1991.jpeg/450px-Kurdish_refugees_travel_by_truck%2C_Turkey%2C_1991.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Kurdish_refugees_travel_by_truck%2C_Turkey%2C_1991.jpeg/600px-Kurdish_refugees_travel_by_truck%2C_Turkey%2C_1991.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="2840" data-file-height="1850" /></a><figcaption> <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Iraqi Kurds</a> fleeing to Turkey in April 1991, during the <a href="/wiki/Gulf_War" title="Gulf War">Gulf War</a></figcaption></figure> <p>During the <a href="/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93Iraq_War" title="Iran–Iraq War">Iran–Iraq War</a>, the Iraqi government again implemented anti-Kurdish policies and a <i>de facto</i> civil war broke out. Iraq was widely condemned by the international community, but was never seriously punished for oppressive measures, including the use of <a href="/wiki/Chemical_warfare" title="Chemical warfare">chemical weapons</a> against the Kurds,<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Halabja_chemical_attack" class="mw-redirect" title="Halabja chemical attack">which resulted in thousands of deaths</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Anfal_campaign" title="Anfal campaign">Anfal campaign</a> constituted a systematic <a href="/wiki/Genocide" title="Genocide">genocide</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Kurdish_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Kurdish people">Kurdish people</a> in Iraq. </p><p>The second and more extensive and widespread wave began from March 29, 1987, until April 23, 1989, when the Iraqi army under the command of <a href="/wiki/Saddam_Hussein" title="Saddam Hussein">Saddam Hussein</a> & <a href="/wiki/Ali_Hassan_al-Majid" title="Ali Hassan al-Majid">Ali Hassan al-Majid</a> carried out a genocidal campaign against the Kurds, characterized by the following <a href="/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human rights">human rights</a> violations: The widespread use of chemical weapons, the wholesale destruction of some 2,000 villages, and slaughter of around 50,000 rural Kurds, by the most conservative estimates. The large Kurdish town of <a href="/wiki/Qala_Dizeh" class="mw-redirect" title="Qala Dizeh">Qala Dizeh</a> (population 70,000) was completely destroyed by the Iraqi army. The campaign also included Arabization of Kirkuk, a program to drive Kurds and other ethnic groups out of the oil-rich city and replace them with Arab settlers from central and southern Iraq.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Autonomous_period">Autonomous period</h3></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="After_the_Persian_Gulf_War">After the Persian Gulf War</h4></div> <p>Even though autonomy had been agreed in 1970, the local population did not enjoy any democratic freedom, facing similar conditions to the rest of Iraq. Things began to change after the 1991 uprising against <a href="/wiki/Saddam_Hussein" title="Saddam Hussein">Saddam Hussein</a> at the end of the Persian Gulf War. The <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Security_Council_Resolution_688" title="United Nations Security Council Resolution 688">United Nations Security Council Resolution 688</a> gave birth to a <i>safe haven</i> following international concern for the safety of Kurdish refugees. The U.S. and the Coalition established a No Fly Zone over a large part of northern Iraq (see <a href="/wiki/Operation_Provide_Comfort" title="Operation Provide Comfort">Operation Provide Comfort</a>),<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> however, it left out Sulaymaniyah, Kirkuk and other important Kurdish populated regions. Bloody clashes between Iraqi forces and Kurdish troops continued and, after an uneasy and shaky balance of power was reached, the Iraqi government fully withdrew its military and other personnel from the region in October 1991 allowing Iraqi Kurdistan to function de facto independently. The region was to be ruled by the two principal Kurdish parties; the Kurdish Democratic Party (KDP) and the <a href="/wiki/Patriotic_Union_of_Kurdistan" title="Patriotic Union of Kurdistan">Patriotic Union of Kurdistan</a> (PUK). The region also has its own flag and <a href="/wiki/National_anthem" title="National anthem">national anthem</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>At the same time, Iraq imposed an economic blockade over the region, reducing its oil and food supplies.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/1992_Iraqi_Kurdistan_parliamentary_election" class="mw-redirect" title="1992 Iraqi Kurdistan parliamentary election">Elections held in June 1992</a> produced an inconclusive outcome, with the assembly divided almost equally between the two main parties and their allies. During this period, the Kurds were subjected to a double <a href="/wiki/Embargo" class="mw-redirect" title="Embargo">embargo</a>: one imposed by the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a> on Iraq and one imposed by Saddam Hussein on their region. The severe economic hardships caused by the embargoes fueled tensions between the two dominant political parties, the KDP and the PUK, over control of trade routes and resources.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Relations between the PUK and the KDP started to become dangerously strained from September 1993 after rounds of amalgamations occurred between parties.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After 1996, 13% of the Iraqi oil sales were allocated for Iraqi Kurdistan and this led to relative prosperity in the region.<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In return, the Kurds under KDP enabled Saddam to establish an oil smuggling route through territory controlled by the KDP, with the active involvement of senior Barzani family members. The taxation of this trade at the crossing point between Saddam's territory and Kurdish controlled territory and then into Turkey, along with associated service revenue, meant that whoever controlled Dohuk and <a href="/wiki/Zakho" title="Zakho">Zakho</a> had the potential to earn several million dollars a week.<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Direct <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> mediation led the two parties to a formal ceasefire in what was termed the <i>Washington Agreement</i> in September 1998. It is also argued that the <a href="/wiki/Oil-for-Food_Programme" title="Oil-for-Food Programme">Oil-for-Food Programme</a> from 1997 onward had an important effect on cessation of hostilities.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:KurdishFederation1998.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/KurdishFederation1998.png/220px-KurdishFederation1998.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="193" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/KurdishFederation1998.png/330px-KurdishFederation1998.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/KurdishFederation1998.png/440px-KurdishFederation1998.png 2x" data-file-width="966" data-file-height="846" /></a><figcaption>Kurdish Federation in 1998</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="During_and_after_US-led_invasion">During and after US-led invasion</h4></div> <p>Iraqi Kurds played an important role in the <a href="/wiki/Iraq_War" title="Iraq War">Iraq War</a>. Kurdish parties joined forces against the Iraqi government during the war in Spring 2003. Kurdish military forces, known as <a href="/wiki/Peshmerga" title="Peshmerga">Peshmerga</a>, played an important role in the overthrow of the Iraqi government;<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> however, Kurds have been reluctant to send troops into Baghdad since then, preferring not to be dragged into the sectarian struggle that dominates much of Iraq.<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A new constitution of Iraq was established in 2005, defining Iraq as a federalist state consisting of Regions and Governorate's. The Kurdistan region includes the Governorate <a href="/wiki/Erbil_Governorate" title="Erbil Governorate">Erbil</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sulaymaniyah_Governorate" title="Sulaymaniyah Governorate">Sulaymaniyah</a> and <a href="/wiki/Duhok_Governorate" title="Duhok Governorate">Duhok</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It recognized both the Kurdistan Region and all laws passed by the KRG since 1992. There is provision for Governorates to create, join or leave Regions. However, as of late 2015, no new Regions have been formed, and the KRG remains the only regional government within Iraq.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>PUK leader <a href="/wiki/Jalal_Talabani" title="Jalal Talabani">Jalal Talabani</a> was elected President of the new Iraqi administration, while KDP leader <a href="/wiki/Masoud_Barzani" title="Masoud Barzani">Masoud Barzani</a> became President of the Kurdistan Regional Government.<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Following_US_withdrawal">Following US withdrawal</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Disputed_territories_of_Northern_Iraq" class="mw-redirect" title="Disputed territories of Northern Iraq">Disputed territories of Northern Iraq</a> and <a href="/wiki/2017_Kurdistan_Region_independence_referendum" title="2017 Kurdistan Region independence referendum">2017 Kurdistan Region independence referendum</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Disputed_areas_in_Iraq.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Disputed_areas_in_Iraq.svg/220px-Disputed_areas_in_Iraq.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="254" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Disputed_areas_in_Iraq.svg/330px-Disputed_areas_in_Iraq.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Disputed_areas_in_Iraq.svg/440px-Disputed_areas_in_Iraq.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="650" data-file-height="750" /></a><figcaption>Disputed areas in Iraq prior to the 2014 Northern Iraq offensive <div style="font-size: 85%;"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r981673959">.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}</style><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#ff80e5; color:black;"> </span> Disputed and part of the Kurdish Regional Government since 1991.</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#decd87; color:black;"> </span> Disputed and under the control of central government.</div></div></figcaption></figure> <p>Tensions between Iraqi Kurdistan and the central Iraqi government mounted through 2011–2012 on the issues of power sharing, oil production and territorial control. In April 2012, the president of Iraq's semi-autonomous northern Kurdish region demanded that officials agree to their demands or face the prospect of secession from Baghdad by September 2012.<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In September 2012, the Iraqi government ordered the KRG to transfer its powers over the Peshmerga to the central government. Relations became further strained by the formation of a new command center (Tigris Operation Command) for Iraqi forces to operate in a disputed area over which both Baghdad and the <a href="/wiki/Kurdistan_Regional_Government" class="mw-redirect" title="Kurdistan Regional Government">Kurdistan Regional Government</a> claim jurisdiction.<sup id="cite_ref-reuters1711_97-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-reuters1711-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On 16 November 2012 a military clash between the Iraqi forces and the Peshmerga resulted in one person killed.<sup id="cite_ref-reuters1711_97-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-reuters1711-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> CNN reported that two people were killed (one of them an Iraqi soldier) and ten wounded in clashes at the Tuz Khurmato town.<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As of 2014, Iraqi Kurdistan is in dispute with the Federal Iraqi government on the issues of territorial control, export of oil and budget distribution and is functioning largely outside Baghdad's control. With the escalation of the <a href="/wiki/Iraqi_insurgency_(post-U.S._withdrawal)" class="mw-redirect" title="Iraqi insurgency (post-U.S. withdrawal)">Iraqi crisis</a> and fears of Iraq's collapse, Kurds have increasingly debated the issue of independence. During the <a href="/wiki/Northern_Iraq_offensive_(June_2014)" title="Northern Iraq offensive (June 2014)">2014 Northern Iraq offensive</a>, Iraqi Kurdistan seized the city of <a href="/wiki/Kirkuk" title="Kirkuk">Kirkuk</a> and the surrounding area, as well as most of the disputed territories in Northern Iraq. On 1 July 2014, <a href="/wiki/Masoud_Barzani" title="Masoud Barzani">Masoud Barzani</a> announced that "Iraq's Kurds will hold an independence referendum within months."<sup id="cite_ref-Kurdish_Leader:_We_Will_Vote_For_Independence_Soon_99-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kurdish_Leader:_We_Will_Vote_For_Independence_Soon-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After previously opposing the independence for Iraqi Kurdistan, Turkey later gave signs that it could recognize an independent Kurdish state.<sup id="cite_ref-Kurdish_Leader:_We_Will_Vote_For_Independence_Soon_99-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kurdish_Leader:_We_Will_Vote_For_Independence_Soon-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-The_tide_is_finally_turning_for_the_Kurds_-_Especially_in_Turkey_100-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-The_tide_is_finally_turning_for_the_Kurds_-_Especially_in_Turkey-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On 11 July 2014, KRG forces seized control of the Bai Hassan and <a href="/wiki/Kirkuk_Field" title="Kirkuk Field">Kirkuk oilfields</a>, prompting a condemnation from Baghdad and a threat of "dire consequences" if the oilfields were not relinquished back to Iraq's control.<sup id="cite_ref-KurdsOilfields_101-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-KurdsOilfields-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pre-referendum,_pro-Kurdistan,_pro-independence_rally_in_Erbil,_Kurdistan_Region_of_Iraq_25.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Pre-referendum%2C_pro-Kurdistan%2C_pro-independence_rally_in_Erbil%2C_Kurdistan_Region_of_Iraq_25.jpg/220px-Pre-referendum%2C_pro-Kurdistan%2C_pro-independence_rally_in_Erbil%2C_Kurdistan_Region_of_Iraq_25.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Pre-referendum%2C_pro-Kurdistan%2C_pro-independence_rally_in_Erbil%2C_Kurdistan_Region_of_Iraq_25.jpg/330px-Pre-referendum%2C_pro-Kurdistan%2C_pro-independence_rally_in_Erbil%2C_Kurdistan_Region_of_Iraq_25.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Pre-referendum%2C_pro-Kurdistan%2C_pro-independence_rally_in_Erbil%2C_Kurdistan_Region_of_Iraq_25.jpg/440px-Pre-referendum%2C_pro-Kurdistan%2C_pro-independence_rally_in_Erbil%2C_Kurdistan_Region_of_Iraq_25.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6000" data-file-height="4000" /></a><figcaption>Pro-independence rally in <a href="/wiki/Erbil" title="Erbil">Erbil</a> in September 2017</figcaption></figure> <p>In September, Kurdish leaders decided to postpone the referendum so as to focus on the fight against ISIL.<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In November, <a href="/wiki/Ed_Royce_(politician)" title="Ed Royce (politician)">Ed Royce</a>, Chairman of the Foreign Affairs Committee of the United States House of Representatives, introduced legislation to arm the Kurds directly, rather than continue working through the local governments.<sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In August 2014, the US began a <a href="/wiki/American-led_intervention_in_Iraq_(2014%E2%80%93present)" class="mw-redirect" title="American-led intervention in Iraq (2014–present)">campaign of airstrikes</a> in Iraq, in part to protect Kurdish areas such as Erbil from the militants.<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In February 2016, Kurdish president Barzani stated once again that "Now the time is ripe for the people of Kurdistan to decide their future through a referendum", supporting an independence referendum and citing similar referendums in <a href="/wiki/Scotland" title="Scotland">Scotland</a>, <a href="/wiki/Catalonia" title="Catalonia">Catalonia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Quebec" title="Quebec">Quebec</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On March 23, Barzani officially declared that Iraqi Kurdistan will hold the referendum some time "before October" of that year.<sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On April 2, 2017, the two governing parties released a joint statement announcing they would form a joint committee to prepare for a referendum to be held on 25 September.<sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/2017_Kurdistan_Region_independence_referendum" title="2017 Kurdistan Region independence referendum">2017 Kurdistan Region independence referendum</a> took place on September 25, with 92.73% voting in favor of independence.<sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This triggered a <a href="/wiki/2017_Iraqi%E2%80%93Kurdish_conflict" title="2017 Iraqi–Kurdish conflict">military operation</a> in which the Iraqi government retook control of Kirkuk and surrounding areas,<sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and forced the KRG to annul the referendum.<sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Scholars have argued that the retaking of Kirkuk, a PUK stronghold, and the loss of other territory to Iraq, has actually consolidated the power of the Barzani family and the KDP, who remain in power.<sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Following Kurdistan Region’s failed attempt to achieve independence after its referendum in 2017, the government of Iraq has exacted severe punishment against KRI in a number of punitive measures; ultimately striving to remove its autonomy.<sup id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some Kurdish officials in Iraq have described this as evidence of the Iraqi government’s aim to return to a centralised political system and abandon the federal system it adopted in 2005.<sup id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In September 2023, the prime minister of KRG, <a href="/wiki/Masrour_Barzani" title="Masrour Barzani">Masrour Barzani</a> sent a letter to the president of the United States, imploring him to intervene, and warning of a potential collapse of Kurdistan Region and the “<a href="/wiki/Federalism" title="Federalism">federal model</a>” in Iraq.<sup id="cite_ref-114" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Culture">Culture</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Iraqi_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Iraqi culture">Iraqi culture</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kurdish_culture" title="Kurdish culture">Kurdish culture</a></div> <p>Kurdish culture is a group of distinctive cultural traits practiced by Kurdish people. The Kurdish culture is a legacy from the various ancient peoples who shaped modern Kurds and their society, but primarily Iranian. Among their neighbours, the Kurdish culture is closest to Persian culture. For example, they celebrate <a href="/wiki/Newroz" class="mw-redirect" title="Newroz">Newroz</a> as the new year day, which is celebrated on March 21. It is the first day of the month of <i>Xakelêwe</i> in Kurdish calendar and the first day of spring.<sup id="cite_ref-115" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1259569809">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Flag_of_Kurdistan.svg/32px-Flag_of_Kurdistan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="21" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Flag_of_Kurdistan.svg/48px-Flag_of_Kurdistan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Flag_of_Kurdistan.svg/64px-Flag_of_Kurdistan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Kurdistan" title="Portal:Kurdistan">Kurdistan portal</a></span></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Terra.png/28px-Terra.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Terra.png/42px-Terra.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Terra.png/56px-Terra.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Geography" title="Portal:Geography">Geography portal</a></span></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Asia_(orthographic_projection).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Asia_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/28px-Asia_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Asia_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/42px-Asia_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Asia_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/56px-Asia_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="541" data-file-height="541" /></a></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Asia" title="Portal:Asia">Asia portal</a></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 33em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFAli1997" class="citation journal cs1">Ali, Othman (October 1997). "Southern Kurdistan during the last phase of Ottoman control: 1839–1914". <i>Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs</i>. <b>17</b> (2): 283–291. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F13602009708716377">10.1080/13602009708716377</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Muslim+Minority+Affairs&rft.atitle=Southern+Kurdistan+during+the+last+phase+of+Ottoman+control%3A+1839%E2%80%931914&rft.volume=17&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=283-291&rft.date=1997-10&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F13602009708716377&rft.aulast=Ali&rft.aufirst=Othman&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIraqi+Kurdistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://shafaq.com/ku/%D9%85%DB%8E%DA%98%D9%88%D9%88/%D9%85%DB%8E%DA%98%D9%88%D9%88-%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%88%D8%A7-%D9%84%D9%87-%D9%83%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%AF%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%86/">"مێژوو "وارماوا" له‌ كوردستان"</a> (in Kurdish). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220809214730/https://shafaq.com/ku/%D9%85%DB%8E%DA%98%D9%88%D9%88/%D9%85%DB%8E%DA%98%D9%88%D9%88-%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%88%D8%A7-%D9%84%D9%87-%D9%83%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%AF%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%86/">Archived</a> from the original on 9 August 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 December</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=%D9%85%DB%8E%DA%98%D9%88%D9%88+%22%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%88%D8%A7%22+%D9%84%D9%87%E2%80%8C+%D9%83%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%AF%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%86&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fshafaq.com%2Fku%2F%25D9%2585%25DB%258E%25DA%2598%25D9%2588%25D9%2588%2F%25D9%2585%25DB%258E%25DA%2598%25D9%2588%25D9%2588-%25D9%2588%25D8%25A7%25D8%25B1%25D9%2585%25D8%25A7%25D9%2588%25D8%25A7-%25D9%2584%25D9%2587-%25D9%2583%25D9%2588%25D8%25B1%25D8%25AF%25D8%25B3%25D8%25AA%25D8%25A7%25D9%2586%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIraqi+Kurdistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYassin2008" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-script cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Yassin, Borhan (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lup.lub.lu.se/search/publication/d4d7a466-a3a4-4197-8f9f-331568a4e5d6"><bdi lang="ku">عێراقی دوای سەددام و چارەنووسی باشووری کوردستان</bdi></a>. <i>Lund University</i> (Catalog record) (in Kurdish). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210308195521/https://lup.lub.lu.se/search/publication/d4d7a466-a3a4-4197-8f9f-331568a4e5d6">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-03-08<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2019-12-24</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Lund+University&rft.atitle=%D8%B9%DB%8E%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%82%DB%8C+%D8%AF%D9%88%D8%A7%DB%8C+%D8%B3%DB%95%D8%AF%D8%AF%D8%A7%D9%85+%D9%88+%DA%86%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%95%D9%86%D9%88%D9%88%D8%B3%DB%8C+%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B4%D9%88%D9%88%D8%B1%DB%8C+%DA%A9%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%AF%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%86&rft.date=2008&rft.aulast=Yassin&rft.aufirst=Borhan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flup.lub.lu.se%2Fsearch%2Fpublication%2Fd4d7a466-a3a4-4197-8f9f-331568a4e5d6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIraqi+Kurdistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://previous.cabinet.gov.krd/p/page.aspx?l=16&smap=010000&p=282">"Ala û sirûda netewiya Kurdistanê"</a> (in Kurdish). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220728044306/http://previous.cabinet.gov.krd/p/page.aspx?l=16&smap=010000&p=282">Archived</a> from the original on 28 July 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 December</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Ala+%C3%BB+sir%C3%BBda+netewiya+Kurdistan%C3%AA&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fprevious.cabinet.gov.krd%2Fp%2Fpage.aspx%3Fl%3D16%26smap%3D010000%26p%3D282&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIraqi+Kurdistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBengio2014" class="citation book cs1">Bengio, Ofra (2014). <i>Kurdish Awakening: Nation Building in a Fragmented Homeland</i>. University of Texas Press. p. 2. <q>Hence the terms: <i>rojhalat</i> (east, Iran), <i>bashur</i> (south, Iraq), <i>bakur</i> (north, Turkey), and <i>rojava</i> (west, Syria).</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Kurdish+Awakening%3A+Nation+Building+in+a+Fragmented+Homeland&rft.pages=2&rft.pub=University+of+Texas+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.aulast=Bengio&rft.aufirst=Ofra&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIraqi+Kurdistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKhalil1992" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Khalil, Fadel (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=TrZVAAAAYAAJ"><i>Kurden heute</i></a> (in German). Europaverlag. pp. 5, 18–19. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-203-51097-9" title="Special:BookSources/3-203-51097-9"><bdi>3-203-51097-9</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230703052547/https://books.google.com/books?id=TrZVAAAAYAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 2023-07-03<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-11-06</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Kurden+heute&rft.pages=5%2C+18-19&rft.pub=Europaverlag&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=3-203-51097-9&rft.aulast=Khalil&rft.aufirst=Fadel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DTrZVAAAAYAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIraqi+Kurdistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/iraq/">"Iraq"</a>. CIA - The World Factbook.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Iraq&rft.pub=CIA+-+The+World+Factbook&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cia.gov%2Fthe-world-factbook%2Fcountries%2Firaq%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIraqi+Kurdistan" class="Z3988"></span>”Iraq’s constitution also established the Kurdistan Regional Government (KRG), a semi-autonomous region that administers the governorates of Erbil, Dahuk, and As Sulaymaniyah.”</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161128152712/http://www.iraqinationality.gov.iq/attach/iraqi_constitution.pdf">"Archived copy"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iraqinationality.gov.iq/attach/iraqi_constitution.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2016-11-28<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2016-11-15</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Archived+copy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iraqinationality.gov.iq%2Fattach%2Firaqi_constitution.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIraqi+Kurdistan" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_web" title="Template:Cite web">cite web</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_archived_copy_as_title" title="Category:CS1 maint: archived copy as title">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJason_Dittmer,_Jo_Sharp" class="citation book cs1">Jason Dittmer, Jo Sharp. <i>Geopolitics: An Introductory Reader</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Geopolitics%3A+An+Introductory+Reader&rft.au=Jason+Dittmer%2C+Jo+Sharp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIraqi+Kurdistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The Edinburgh encyclopaedia, conducted by D. Brewster—Page 511, Original from Oxford University—published 1830</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">An Account of the State of Roman-Catholick Religion, Sir Richard Steele, Published 1715</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">N. Maxoudian, "Early Armenia as an Empire: The Career of Tigranes III, 95–55 BC", <i>Journal of the Royal Central Asian Society</i>, Vol. 39, Issue 2, April 1952, pp. 156–163.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-A.D._Lee,_1991_pp._366–374-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-A.D._Lee,_1991_pp._366–374_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">A.D. Lee, <i>The Role of Hostages in Roman Diplomacy with Sasanian Persia</i>, Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte, Vol. 40, No. 3 (1991), pp. 366–374 (see p.371)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Climate-Data.org-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Climate-Data.org_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://en.climate-data.org/location/4976/">"Climate: Arbil – Climate graph, Temperature graph, Climate table"</a>. Climate-Data.org. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131110185410/http://en.climate-data.org/location/4976/">Archived</a> from the original on 10 November 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 August</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Climate%3A+Arbil+%E2%80%93+Climate+graph%2C+Temperature+graph%2C+Climate+table&rft.pub=Climate-Data.org&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fen.climate-data.org%2Flocation%2F4976%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIraqi+Kurdistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131004215139/http://www.myforecast.com/bin/climate.m?city=66293&metric=true">"Irbil, Iraq Climate"</a>. My Forecast. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.myforecast.com/bin/climate.m?city=66293&metric=true">the original</a> on 4 October 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 July</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Irbil%2C+Iraq+Climate&rft.pub=My+Forecast&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.myforecast.com%2Fbin%2Fclimate.m%3Fcity%3D66293%26metric%3Dtrue&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIraqi+Kurdistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131004215222/http://www.whatstheweatherlike.org/iraq/erbil.htm">"Erbil climate info"</a>. What's the Weather Like.org. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.whatstheweatherlike.org/iraq/erbil.htm">the original</a> on 4 October 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 August</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Food+and+Agricultural+Organization+of+the+United+Nations&rft.atitle=The+Republic+of+Iraq%2C+Drought+in+northern+parts+of+the+country&rft.date=2021-06-11&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.fao.org%2F3%2Fcb5144en%2Fcb5144en.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIraqi+Kurdistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ishtartv.com/en/viewarticle,36256.html">"Shaqlawa"</a>. <i>Ishtar Broadcasting Corporation</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160827045836/http://www.ishtartv.com/en/viewarticle,36256.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2016-08-27<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2017-01-21</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Ishtar+Broadcasting+Corporation&rft.atitle=Shaqlawa&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ishtartv.com%2Fen%2Fviewarticle%2C36256.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIraqi+Kurdistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://unpo.org/article/15167">"UNPO: Iraqi Kurdistan: Erbil Best Arab Tourism Capital"</a>. <i>unpo.org</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210808070725/https://unpo.org/article/15167">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-08-08<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-08-08</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=unpo.org&rft.atitle=UNPO%3A+Iraqi+Kurdistan%3A+Erbil+Best+Arab+Tourism+Capital&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Funpo.org%2Farticle%2F15167&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIraqi+Kurdistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLiverani1993" class="citation book cs1">Liverani, Mario (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=CHYMAQAAMAAJ&q=naram+sin+subartu"><i>Akkad: The First World Empire: Structure, Ideology, Traditions</i></a>. Sargon. p. 139. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-88-11-20468-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-88-11-20468-8"><bdi>978-88-11-20468-8</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230703052547/https://books.google.com/books?id=CHYMAQAAMAAJ&q=naram+sin+subartu">Archived</a> from the original on 2023-07-03<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-05-04</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Akkad%3A+The+First+World+Empire%3A+Structure%2C+Ideology%2C+Traditions&rft.pages=139&rft.pub=Sargon&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-88-11-20468-8&rft.aulast=Liverani&rft.aufirst=Mario&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DCHYMAQAAMAAJ%26q%3Dnaram%2Bsin%2Bsubartu&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIraqi+Kurdistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUrDe_JongGiraudOsborne2013" class="citation journal cs1">Ur, Jason Alik; De Jong, Lidewijde; Giraud, Jessica; Osborne, James F.; MacGinnis, John (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dash.harvard.edu/bitstream/handle/1/11510264/Ur%20etal%202013%20EPAS%20Iraq.pdf">"Ancient Cities and Landscapes in the Kurdistan Region of Iraq: The Erbil Plain Archaeological Survey 2012 Season"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Iraq</i>: 99. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0021-0889">0021-0889</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210421014544/https://dash.harvard.edu/bitstream/handle/1/11510264/Ur%20etal%202013%20EPAS%20Iraq.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 2021-04-21<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-04-21</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Iraq&rft.atitle=Ancient+Cities+and+Landscapes+in+the+Kurdistan+Region+of+Iraq%3A+The+Erbil+Plain+Archaeological+Survey+2012+Season&rft.pages=99&rft.date=2013&rft.issn=0021-0889&rft.aulast=Ur&rft.aufirst=Jason+Alik&rft.au=De+Jong%2C+Lidewijde&rft.au=Giraud%2C+Jessica&rft.au=Osborne%2C+James+F.&rft.au=MacGinnis%2C+John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdash.harvard.edu%2Fbitstream%2Fhandle%2F1%2F11510264%2FUr%2520etal%25202013%2520EPAS%2520Iraq.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIraqi+Kurdistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLiverani1993" class="citation book cs1">Liverani, Mario (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=CHYMAQAAMAAJ&q=naram+sin+year+subartu"><i>Akkad: The First World Empire: Structure, Ideology, Traditions</i></a>. Sargon. p. 139. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-88-11-20468-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-88-11-20468-8"><bdi>978-88-11-20468-8</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230703052547/https://books.google.com/books?id=CHYMAQAAMAAJ&q=naram+sin+year+subartu">Archived</a> from the original on 2023-07-03<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-05-04</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Akkad%3A+The+First+World+Empire%3A+Structure%2C+Ideology%2C+Traditions&rft.pages=139&rft.pub=Sargon&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-88-11-20468-8&rft.aulast=Liverani&rft.aufirst=Mario&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DCHYMAQAAMAAJ%26q%3Dnaram%2Bsin%2Byear%2Bsubartu&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIraqi+Kurdistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWestenholz2004" class="citation journal cs1">Westenholz, Joan Goodnick (2004). "The Old Akkadian Presence in Nineveh: Fact or Fiction". <i>Iraq</i>. <b>66</b>: 7–18. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F4200552">10.2307/4200552</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0021-0889">0021-0889</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4200552">4200552</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Iraq&rft.atitle=The+Old+Akkadian+Presence+in+Nineveh%3A+Fact+or+Fiction&rft.volume=66&rft.pages=7-18&rft.date=2004&rft.issn=0021-0889&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F4200552%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F4200552&rft.aulast=Westenholz&rft.aufirst=Joan+Goodnick&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIraqi+Kurdistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPotts2020" class="citation book cs1">Potts, D. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-05-04</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+History+of+the+Ancient+Near+East%3A+Volume+I%3A+from+the+Beginnings+to+Old+Kingdom+Egypt+and+the+Dynasty+of+Akkad&rft.pages=731&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-0-19-068785-4&rft.aulast=Potts&rft.aufirst=D.+T.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DGSrtDwAAQBAJ%26q%3DKurda%2BNaram-Sin%26pg%3DPA731&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIraqi+Kurdistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCotsen1998" class="citation book cs1">Cotsen, Lloyd E. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-05-04</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Urkesh+and+the+Hurrians%3A+Studies+in+Honor+of+Lloyd+Cotsen&rft.pages=91-2&rft.pub=Undena+Publications&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-89003-501-6&rft.aulast=Cotsen&rft.aufirst=Lloyd+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D07FtAAAAMAAJ%26q%3DAzuhinum&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIraqi+Kurdistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHeimpel2003" class="citation book cs1">Heimpel, Wolfgang (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tiHwDe7JmCEC&q=major+kingdoms"><i>Letters to the King of Mari: A New Translation, with Historical Introduction, Notes, and Commentary</i></a>. Eisenbrauns. pp. xx, 48. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57506-080-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-57506-080-4"><bdi>978-1-57506-080-4</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230703052902/https://books.google.com/books?id=tiHwDe7JmCEC&q=major+kingdoms">Archived</a> from the original on 2023-07-03<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-05-04</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Letters+to+the+King+of+Mari%3A+A+New+Translation%2C+with+Historical+Introduction%2C+Notes%2C+and+Commentary&rft.pages=xx%2C+48&rft.pub=Eisenbrauns&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-1-57506-080-4&rft.aulast=Heimpel&rft.aufirst=Wolfgang&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DtiHwDe7JmCEC%26q%3Dmajor%2Bkingdoms&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIraqi+Kurdistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMichael_C._Astour1987" class="citation book cs1">Michael C. Astour (1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0Rwals-oh6kC&q=astour++Eblaitica&pg=PA103"><i>History of Ebla, in " Eblaitica: Essays on the Ebla Archives and Eblaite Language"</i></a>. Eisenbrauns. p. 169. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57506-060-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-57506-060-6"><bdi>978-1-57506-060-6</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230703052902/https://books.google.com/books?id=0Rwals-oh6kC&q=astour++Eblaitica&pg=PA103">Archived</a> from the original on 2023-07-03<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-05-04</span></span>. <q>Kurda was one of the five most influential states in Upper Mesopotamia.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+Ebla%2C+in+%22+Eblaitica%3A+Essays+on+the+Ebla+Archives+and+Eblaite+Language%22&rft.pages=169&rft.pub=Eisenbrauns&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=978-1-57506-060-6&rft.au=Michael+C.+Astour&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D0Rwals-oh6kC%26q%3Dastour%2B%2BEblaitica%26pg%3DPA103&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIraqi+Kurdistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5tBtAAAAMAAJ&q=Kurda+must+have+fallen+into+the+hands+of+%C5%A0am%C5%A1i+-+Adad+around+the+time+that+he+took+%C5%A0ubat+-+Enlil+,+hence+around+20+-+25+years+before+the+end+of+his+reign+and+the+advent+of+Zimri+-+Lim"><i>Altorientalische Forschungen</i></a> (in German). Akademie-Verlag. 2001. p. 94. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230703052903/https://books.google.com/books?id=5tBtAAAAMAAJ&q=Kurda+must+have+fallen+into+the+hands+of+%C5%A0am%C5%A1i+-+Adad+around+the+time+that+he+took+%C5%A0ubat+-+Enlil+,+hence+around+20+-+25+years+before+the+end+of+his+reign+and+the+advent+of+Zimri+-+Lim">Archived</a> from the original on 2023-07-03<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-05-04</span></span>. <q>Kurda must have fallen into the hands of Šamši - Adad around the time that he took Šubat - Enlil , hence around 20 - 25 years before the end of his reign and the advent of Zimri - Lim .</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Altorientalische+Forschungen&rft.pages=94&rft.pub=Akademie-Verlag.&rft.date=2001&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D5tBtAAAAMAAJ%26q%3DKurda%2Bmust%2Bhave%2Bfallen%2Binto%2Bthe%2Bhands%2Bof%2B%25C5%25A0am%25C5%25A1i%2B-%2BAdad%2Baround%2Bthe%2Btime%2Bthat%2Bhe%2Btook%2B%25C5%25A0ubat%2B-%2BEnlil%2B%2C%2Bhence%2Baround%2B20%2B-%2B25%2Byears%2Bbefore%2Bthe%2Bend%2Bof%2Bhis%2Breign%2Band%2Bthe%2Badvent%2Bof%2BZimri%2B-%2BLim&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIraqi+Kurdistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCaubetPouyssegur1998" class="citation book cs1">Caubet, Annie; Pouyssegur, Patrick (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=q0IUAQAAIAAJ&q=Shamshi+Adad+Ekallatum"><i>The Ancient Near East: The Origins of Civilization</i></a>. Terrail. p. 97. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-87939-152-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-87939-152-6"><bdi>978-2-87939-152-6</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230703052903/https://books.google.com/books?id=q0IUAQAAIAAJ&q=Shamshi+Adad+Ekallatum">Archived</a> from the original on 2023-07-03<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-05-04</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Ancient+Near+East%3A+The+Origins+of+Civilization&rft.pages=97&rft.pub=Terrail&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-2-87939-152-6&rft.aulast=Caubet&rft.aufirst=Annie&rft.au=Pouyssegur%2C+Patrick&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dq0IUAQAAIAAJ%26q%3DShamshi%2BAdad%2BEkallatum&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIraqi+Kurdistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLiverani2013" class="citation book cs1">Liverani, Mario (2013-12-04). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_EtJAgAAQBAJ&q=shamshi+adad"><i>The Ancient Near East: History, Society and Economy</i></a>. Routledge. p. 226. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-134-75091-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-134-75091-7"><bdi>978-1-134-75091-7</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230703052903/https://books.google.com/books?id=_EtJAgAAQBAJ&q=shamshi+adad">Archived</a> from the original on 2023-07-03<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-05-04</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Ancient+Near+East%3A+History%2C+Society+and+Economy&rft.pages=226&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2013-12-04&rft.isbn=978-1-134-75091-7&rft.aulast=Liverani&rft.aufirst=Mario&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_EtJAgAAQBAJ%26q%3Dshamshi%2Badad&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIraqi+Kurdistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMieroop2015" class="citation book cs1">Mieroop, Marc Van De (2015-08-03). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=L9bECQAAQBAJ&q=Marc+Van+De+Mieroop+%282015%29.+A+History+of+the+Ancient+Near+East"><i>A History of the Ancient Near East, ca. 3000-323 BC</i></a>. John Wiley & Sons. p. x. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-118-71816-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-118-71816-2"><bdi>978-1-118-71816-2</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230703053218/https://books.google.com/books?id=L9bECQAAQBAJ&q=Marc+Van+De+Mieroop+%282015%29.+A+History+of+the+Ancient+Near+East">Archived</a> from the original on 2023-07-03<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-05-04</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+the+Ancient+Near+East%2C+ca.+3000-323+BC&rft.pages=x&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2015-08-03&rft.isbn=978-1-118-71816-2&rft.aulast=Mieroop&rft.aufirst=Marc+Van+De&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DL9bECQAAQBAJ%26q%3DMarc%2BVan%2BDe%2BMieroop%2B%25282015%2529.%2BA%2BHistory%2Bof%2Bthe%2BAncient%2BNear%2BEast&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIraqi+Kurdistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMieroop2008" class="citation book cs1">Mieroop, Marc Van De (2008-04-30). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ELMAGvmJ7YIC&q=Marc+Van+De+(2008).+King+Hammurabi+of+Babylon:+A+Biography"><i>King Hammurabi of Babylon: A Biography</i></a>. John Wiley & Sons. p. 51. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-470-69534-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-470-69534-0"><bdi>978-0-470-69534-0</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230703053829/https://books.google.com/books?id=ELMAGvmJ7YIC&q=Marc+Van+De+%282008%29.+King+Hammurabi+of+Babylon:+A+Biography">Archived</a> from the original on 2023-07-03<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-05-04</span></span>. <q>King of Elam to King of Kurda: Keep Subartu under your control and don't give troops to the prince of Babylon. Send a message to Zimri-Lim of Mari that also he should give none to the prince of Babylon</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=King+Hammurabi+of+Babylon%3A+A+Biography&rft.pages=51&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2008-04-30&rft.isbn=978-0-470-69534-0&rft.aulast=Mieroop&rft.aufirst=Marc+Van+De&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DELMAGvmJ7YIC%26q%3DMarc%2BVan%2BDe%2B%282008%29.%2BKing%2BHammurabi%2Bof%2BBabylon%3A%2BA%2BBiography&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIraqi+Kurdistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoss1970" class="citation journal cs1">Ross, James F. (1970). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/harvard-theological-review/article/abs/prophecy-in-hamath-israel-and-mari/2059704595F36CE70CB3B13CC694E283">"Prophecy in Hamath, Israel, and Mari"</a>. <i>Harvard Theological Review</i>. <b>63</b> (1): 1–28. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0017816000004004">10.1017/S0017816000004004</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1475-4517">1475-4517</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:161096506">161096506</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210421014533/https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/harvard-theological-review/article/abs/prophecy-in-hamath-israel-and-mari/2059704595F36CE70CB3B13CC694E283">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-04-21<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-04-21</span></span>. <q>Eshnunna also demanded that Kurda remain neutral and hold on to Subartu.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Harvard+Theological+Review&rft.atitle=Prophecy+in+Hamath%2C+Israel%2C+and+Mari&rft.volume=63&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=1-28&rft.date=1970&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A161096506%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1475-4517&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0017816000004004&rft.aulast=Ross&rft.aufirst=James+F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cambridge.org%2Fcore%2Fjournals%2Fharvard-theological-review%2Farticle%2Fabs%2Fprophecy-in-hamath-israel-and-mari%2F2059704595F36CE70CB3B13CC694E283&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIraqi+Kurdistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHeimpel2000" class="citation journal cs1">Heimpel, Wolfgang (June 2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sepoa.fr/wp/wp-content/uploads/2012/05/2000-2.pdf">"Mari Archive Letters ARM 2 23"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Nouvelles Assyriologiques Brèves et Utilitaires</i> (2): 39. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230703053829/http://sepoa.fr/wp/wp-content/uploads/2012/05/2000-2.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 2023-07-03<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-04-21</span></span>. <q>Kurda resisted the Elamite attempt of controlling the area of the upper land.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nouvelles+Assyriologiques+Br%C3%A8ves+et+Utilitaires&rft.atitle=Mari+Archive+Letters+ARM+2+23&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=39&rft.date=2000-06&rft.aulast=Heimpel&rft.aufirst=Wolfgang&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsepoa.fr%2Fwp%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2012%2F05%2F2000-2.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIraqi+Kurdistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGordonRendsburgWinter1987" class="citation book cs1">Gordon, Cyrus Herzl; Rendsburg, Gary; Winter, Nathan H. (1987-01-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0Rwals-oh6kC&q=astour++Eblaitica&pg=PA103"><i>Eblaitica</i></a>. Eisenbrauns. p. 98. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57506-060-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-57506-060-6"><bdi>978-1-57506-060-6</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230703052902/https://books.google.com/books?id=0Rwals-oh6kC&q=astour++Eblaitica&pg=PA103">Archived</a> from the original on 2023-07-03<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-05-04</span></span>. <q>for the Old Babylonian kings, Subartu is neither Assyria nor Ekallatum but the agglomeration of the little city-kingdoms in northern Mesopotamia</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Eblaitica&rft.pages=98&rft.pub=Eisenbrauns&rft.date=1987-01-01&rft.isbn=978-1-57506-060-6&rft.aulast=Gordon&rft.aufirst=Cyrus+Herzl&rft.au=Rendsburg%2C+Gary&rft.au=Winter%2C+Nathan+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D0Rwals-oh6kC%26q%3Dastour%2B%2BEblaitica%26pg%3DPA103&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIraqi+Kurdistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDüring2020" class="citation book cs1">Düring, Bleda S. (2020-01-30). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1NLKDwAAQBAJ&q=Bleda+S.+D%C3%BCring+(2020).+The+Imperialisation+of+Assyria:+An+Archaeological+Approach"><i>The Imperialisation of Assyria: An Archaeological Approach</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 41. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-108-47874-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-108-47874-8"><bdi>978-1-108-47874-8</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230703053843/https://books.google.com/books?id=1NLKDwAAQBAJ&q=Bleda+S.+D%C3%BCring+%282020%29.+The+Imperialisation+of+Assyria:+An+Archaeological+Approach">Archived</a> from the original on 2023-07-03<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-05-04</span></span>. <q>Between 1500 and 1200 BCE Assyria successfully transformed from a relatively insignificant small city state into one of the great powers of the Amarna Age</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Imperialisation+of+Assyria%3A+An+Archaeological+Approach&rft.pages=41&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2020-01-30&rft.isbn=978-1-108-47874-8&rft.aulast=D%C3%BCring&rft.aufirst=Bleda+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D1NLKDwAAQBAJ%26q%3DBleda%2BS.%2BD%25C3%25BCring%2B%282020%29.%2BThe%2BImperialisation%2Bof%2BAssyria%3A%2BAn%2BArchaeological%2BApproach&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIraqi+Kurdistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBryce2009" class="citation book cs1">Bryce, Trevor (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QD9GrxiILH8C&q=arrapha+mitanni&pg=PA67"><i>The Routledge Handbook of the Peoples and Places of Ancient Western Asia: From the Early Bronze Age to the Fall of the Persian Empire</i></a>. Taylor & Francis. pp. 60, 67. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-39485-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-39485-7"><bdi>978-0-415-39485-7</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230703053832/https://books.google.com/books?id=QD9GrxiILH8C&q=arrapha+mitanni&pg=PA67">Archived</a> from the original on 2023-07-03<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-05-04</span></span>. <q>Early in 1st millennium ,the city, now called Arbela (Assyrian Arbail) became part of the Neo-Assyrian Empire. p.60. and "Arrapha was incorporated into Assyria after the destruction of Mitanni. p.67</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Routledge+Handbook+of+the+Peoples+and+Places+of+Ancient+Western+Asia%3A+From+the+Early+Bronze+Age+to+the+Fall+of+the+Persian+Empire&rft.pages=60%2C+67&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-415-39485-7&rft.aulast=Bryce&rft.aufirst=Trevor&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQD9GrxiILH8C%26q%3Darrapha%2Bmitanni%26pg%3DPA67&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIraqi+Kurdistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBangScheidel2013" class="citation book cs1">Bang, Peter Fibiger; Scheidel, Walter (2013-01-31). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GCj09AmtvvwC&q=radner+assur+city+transformed&pg=PA138"><i>The Oxford Handbook of the State in the Ancient Near East and Mediterranean</i></a>. OUP USA. p. 138. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-518831-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-518831-8"><bdi>978-0-19-518831-8</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230703053832/https://books.google.com/books?id=GCj09AmtvvwC&q=radner+assur+city+transformed&pg=PA138">Archived</a> from the original on 2023-07-03<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-05-04</span></span>. <q>during 1360-1100 BCE Assyria rose to power and transitioned from a city state to empire</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Handbook+of+the+State+in+the+Ancient+Near+East+and+Mediterranean&rft.pages=138&rft.pub=OUP+USA&rft.date=2013-01-31&rft.isbn=978-0-19-518831-8&rft.aulast=Bang&rft.aufirst=Peter+Fibiger&rft.au=Scheidel%2C+Walter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DGCj09AmtvvwC%26q%3Dradner%2Bassur%2Bcity%2Btransformed%26pg%3DPA138&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIraqi+Kurdistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTinneySonik2019" class="citation book cs1">Tinney, Steve; Sonik, Karen (2019-05-17). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Gp67DwAAQBAJ&q=assyria+conquered+northern+iraq&pg=PA251"><i>Journey to the City: A Companion to the Middle East Galleries at the Penn Museum</i></a>. University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 251. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-931707-14-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-931707-14-5"><bdi>978-1-931707-14-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230703053833/https://books.google.com/books?id=Gp67DwAAQBAJ&q=assyria+conquered+northern+iraq&pg=PA251">Archived</a> from the original on 2023-07-03<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-05-04</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Journey+to+the+City%3A+A+Companion+to+the+Middle+East+Galleries+at+the+Penn+Museum&rft.pages=251&rft.pub=University+of+Pennsylvania+Press&rft.date=2019-05-17&rft.isbn=978-1-931707-14-5&rft.aulast=Tinney&rft.aufirst=Steve&rft.au=Sonik%2C+Karen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DGp67DwAAQBAJ%26q%3Dassyria%2Bconquered%2Bnorthern%2Biraq%26pg%3DPA251&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIraqi+Kurdistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBangBaylyBaylyScheidel2020" class="citation book cs1">Bang, Peter Fibiger; Bayly, C. A.; Bayly, Vere Harmsworth Professor of Imperial and Naval History C. A.; Scheidel, Professor of Classics and by Courtesy History Walter; Scheidel, Walter (2020-12-16). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=nz0HEAAAQBAJ&q=assur+city+transformed+empire&pg=PA96"><i>The Oxford World History of Empire: Volume Two: the History of Empires</i></a>. Oxford University Press. pp. 82–3. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-753276-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-753276-8"><bdi>978-0-19-753276-8</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230703054111/https://books.google.com/books?id=nz0HEAAAQBAJ&q=assur+city+transformed+empire&pg=PA96">Archived</a> from the original on 2023-07-03<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-05-04</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+World+History+of+Empire%3A+Volume+Two%3A+the+History+of+Empires&rft.pages=82-3&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2020-12-16&rft.isbn=978-0-19-753276-8&rft.aulast=Bang&rft.aufirst=Peter+Fibiger&rft.au=Bayly%2C+C.+A.&rft.au=Bayly%2C+Vere+Harmsworth+Professor+of+Imperial+and+Naval+History+C.+A.&rft.au=Scheidel%2C+Professor+of+Classics+and+by+Courtesy+History+Walter&rft.au=Scheidel%2C+Walter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dnz0HEAAAQBAJ%26q%3Dassur%2Bcity%2Btransformed%2Bempire%26pg%3DPA96&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIraqi+Kurdistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFValk2018" class="citation thesis cs1">Valk, Jonathan (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.nyu.edu/handle/2451/59994"><i>Assyrian Collective Identity in the Second Millennium BCE: A Social Categories Approach</i></a> (Thesis). p. 232. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210421014534/https://archive.nyu.edu/handle/2451/59994">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-04-21<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-04-21</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&rft.title=Assyrian+Collective+Identity+in+the+Second+Millennium+BCE%3A+A+Social+Categories+Approach&rft.date=2018&rft.aulast=Valk&rft.aufirst=Jonathan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.nyu.edu%2Fhandle%2F2451%2F59994&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIraqi+Kurdistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBonatz2014" class="citation book cs1">Bonatz, Dominik (2014-04-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fM3mBQAAQBAJ&q=Kurda+dominik&pg=PA74"><i>The Archaeology of Political Spaces: The Upper Mesopotamian Piedmont in the Second Millennium BCE</i></a>. Walter de Gruyter. pp. 73–4. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-026640-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-11-026640-5"><bdi>978-3-11-026640-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230703054112/https://books.google.com/books?id=fM3mBQAAQBAJ&q=Kurda+dominik&pg=PA74">Archived</a> from the original on 2023-07-03<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-05-04</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Archaeology+of+Political+Spaces%3A+The+Upper+Mesopotamian+Piedmont+in+the+Second+Millennium+BCE&rft.pages=73-4&rft.pub=Walter+de+Gruyter&rft.date=2014-04-01&rft.isbn=978-3-11-026640-5&rft.aulast=Bonatz&rft.aufirst=Dominik&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DfM3mBQAAQBAJ%26q%3DKurda%2Bdominik%26pg%3DPA74&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIraqi+Kurdistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wasRAQAAMAAJ&q=kurda+Suppiluliuma"><i>SMEA</i></a> (in Italian). Edizioni dell'Ateneo & Bizzari. 1984. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230703054351/https://books.google.com/books?id=wasRAQAAMAAJ&q=kurda+Suppiluliuma">Archived</a> from the original on 2023-07-03<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-05-04</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=SMEA&rft.pub=Edizioni+dell%27Ateneo+%26+Bizzari&rft.date=1984&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DwasRAQAAMAAJ%26q%3Dkurda%2BSuppiluliuma&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIraqi+Kurdistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLlop" class="citation journal cs1">Llop, Jaume. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/274283999">"The Development of the Middle Assyrian Provinces"</a>. <i>Altorientalische Forschungen, 2012, 39(1):87-111</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Altorientalische+Forschungen%2C+2012%2C+39%281%29%3A87-111&rft.atitle=The+Development+of+the+Middle+Assyrian+Provinces&rft.aulast=Llop&rft.aufirst=Jaume&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F274283999&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIraqi+Kurdistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPostgate2014" class="citation book cs1">Postgate, Nicholas (2014-01-13). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KDcUAgAAQBAJ&q=ninurta+kurda&pg=PA98"><i>Bronze Age Bureaucracy: Writing and the Practice of Government in Assyria</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 98. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-107-51327-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-107-51327-3"><bdi>978-1-107-51327-3</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230703054112/https://books.google.com/books?id=KDcUAgAAQBAJ&q=ninurta+kurda&pg=PA98">Archived</a> from the original on 2023-07-03<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-05-04</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Bronze+Age+Bureaucracy%3A+Writing+and+the+Practice+of+Government+in+Assyria&rft.pages=98&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2014-01-13&rft.isbn=978-1-107-51327-3&rft.aulast=Postgate&rft.aufirst=Nicholas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DKDcUAgAAQBAJ%26q%3Dninurta%2Bkurda%26pg%3DPA98&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIraqi+Kurdistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLacheman1981" class="citation book cs1">Lacheman, Ernest René (1981). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=agi4O1c3UhQC&q=upper+country+subartu&pg=PA10"><i>In Honor of Ernest R. Lacheman on His Seventy-fifth Birthday, April 29, 1981</i></a>. Eisenbrauns. p. 11. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-931464-08-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-931464-08-9"><bdi>978-0-931464-08-9</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230703054128/https://books.google.com/books?id=agi4O1c3UhQC&q=upper+country+subartu&pg=PA10">Archived</a> from the original on 2023-07-03<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-05-04</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=In+Honor+of+Ernest+R.+Lacheman+on+His+Seventy-fifth+Birthday%2C+April+29%2C+1981&rft.pages=11&rft.pub=Eisenbrauns&rft.date=1981&rft.isbn=978-0-931464-08-9&rft.aulast=Lacheman&rft.aufirst=Ernest+Ren%C3%A9&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dagi4O1c3UhQC%26q%3Dupper%2Bcountry%2Bsubartu%26pg%3DPA10&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIraqi+Kurdistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-semorig-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-semorig_50-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarton1902" class="citation book cs1">Barton, George Aaron (1902). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/SketchOfSemiticOriginsSocialAndReligious"><i>A sketch of Semitic origins: social and religious</i></a>. The Macmillan Company. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/SketchOfSemiticOriginsSocialAndReligious/page/n281">262</a>. <q>ishtar shrine arbela.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+sketch+of+Semitic+origins%3A+social+and+religious&rft.pages=262&rft.pub=The+Macmillan+Company&rft.date=1902&rft.aulast=Barton&rft.aufirst=George+Aaron&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2FSketchOfSemiticOriginsSocialAndReligious&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIraqi+Kurdistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_51-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_51-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChahin2001" class="citation book cs1">Chahin, M. (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=OR_PHoKZ6ycC&q=kingdom+Musasir&pg=PA90"><i>The Kingdom of Armenia: A History</i></a>. Psychology Press. p. 90. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7007-1452-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7007-1452-0"><bdi>978-0-7007-1452-0</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230703054612/https://books.google.com/books?id=OR_PHoKZ6ycC&q=kingdom+Musasir&pg=PA90">Archived</a> from the original on 2023-07-03<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-05-04</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Kingdom+of+Armenia%3A+A+History&rft.pages=90&rft.pub=Psychology+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-7007-1452-0&rft.aulast=Chahin&rft.aufirst=M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DOR_PHoKZ6ycC%26q%3Dkingdom%2BMusasir%26pg%3DPA90&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIraqi+Kurdistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDandamaev1989" class="citation book cs1">Dandamaev, M. A. (1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ms30qA6nyMsC&q=Achaemenids+media+province&pg=PA43"><i>A Political History of the Achaemenid Empire</i></a>. BRILL. p. 43. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-09172-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-09172-6"><bdi>978-90-04-09172-6</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230703054349/https://books.google.com/books?id=ms30qA6nyMsC&q=Achaemenids+media+province&pg=PA43">Archived</a> from the original on 2023-07-03<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-05-04</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Political+History+of+the+Achaemenid+Empire&rft.pages=43&rft.pub=BRILL&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-90-04-09172-6&rft.aulast=Dandamaev&rft.aufirst=M.+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dms30qA6nyMsC%26q%3DAchaemenids%2Bmedia%2Bprovince%26pg%3DPA43&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIraqi+Kurdistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJoseph2000" class="citation book cs1">Joseph, John (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=79wj2hj4wKUC&q=xenophon+nimrud+median+john+joseph&pg=PA8"><i>The Modern Assyrians of the Middle East: A History of Their Encounter with Western Christian Missions, Archaeologists, and Colonial Powers</i></a>. BRILL. p. 8. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-11641-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-11641-2"><bdi>978-90-04-11641-2</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230703054349/https://books.google.com/books?id=79wj2hj4wKUC&q=xenophon+nimrud+median+john+joseph&pg=PA8">Archived</a> from the original on 2023-07-03<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-05-04</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Modern+Assyrians+of+the+Middle+East%3A+A+History+of+Their+Encounter+with+Western+Christian+Missions%2C+Archaeologists%2C+and+Colonial+Powers&rft.pages=8&rft.pub=BRILL&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-90-04-11641-2&rft.aulast=Joseph&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D79wj2hj4wKUC%26q%3Dxenophon%2Bnimrud%2Bmedian%2Bjohn%2Bjoseph%26pg%3DPA8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIraqi+Kurdistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>Anabasis III.IV.10-11</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Anabasis+III.IV.10-11&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIraqi+Kurdistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMclachlan2016" class="citation book cs1">Mclachlan, Keith (2016-11-10). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xvp5DQAAQBAJ&q=parthian+empire+barchan&pg=PT83"><i>The Boundaries of Modern Iran</i></a>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-315-39936-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-315-39936-2"><bdi>978-1-315-39936-2</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230703054349/https://books.google.com/books?id=xvp5DQAAQBAJ&q=parthian+empire+barchan&pg=PT83">Archived</a> from the original on 2023-07-03<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-05-04</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Boundaries+of+Modern+Iran&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2016-11-10&rft.isbn=978-1-315-39936-2&rft.aulast=Mclachlan&rft.aufirst=Keith&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dxvp5DQAAQBAJ%26q%3Dparthian%2Bempire%2Bbarchan%26pg%3DPT83&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIraqi+Kurdistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarciak2017" class="citation book cs1">Marciak, Michał (2017-07-17). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hwEtDwAAQBAJ&q=Adiabene%2C+the+Ancient+Jewish+Kingdom&pg=PA491"><i>Sophene, Gordyene, and Adiabene: Three Regna Minora of Northern Mesopotamia Between East and West</i></a>. BRILL. pp. 278–81. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-35072-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-35072-4"><bdi>978-90-04-35072-4</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230703054613/https://books.google.com/books?id=hwEtDwAAQBAJ&q=Adiabene%2C+the+Ancient+Jewish+Kingdom&pg=PA491">Archived</a> from the original on 2023-07-03<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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(2002-11-14), "The Royal Family of Adiabene", <i>Ancient Jewish Novels: An Anthology</i>, Oxford University Press, pp. 213–226, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2F0195151429.003.0010">10.1093/0195151429.003.0010</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-515142-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-515142-8"><bdi>978-0-19-515142-8</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Royal+Family+of+Adiabene&rft.btitle=Ancient+Jewish+Novels%3A+An+Anthology&rft.pages=213-226&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2002-11-14&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2F0195151429.003.0010&rft.isbn=978-0-19-515142-8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIraqi+Kurdistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>Tameanko, M. 2005: 'Adiabene, the Ancient Jewish Kingdom, and its Coins' Shekel 38, 16–25</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Tameanko%2C+M.+2005%3A+%27Adiabene%2C+the+Ancient+Jewish+Kingdom%2C+and+its+Coins%27+Shekel+38%2C+16%E2%80%9325.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIraqi+Kurdistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrye,_Richard_Nelson_(1984).1984" class="citation book cs1">Frye, Richard Nelson (1984). (1984). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyofancient0000frye"><i>The History of Ancient Iran</i></a>. C.H.Beck. p. 222. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-406-09397-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-406-09397-5"><bdi>978-3-406-09397-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+History+of+Ancient+Iran.&rft.pages=222&rft.pub=C.H.Beck.&rft.date=1984&rft.isbn=978-3-406-09397-5&rft.au=Frye%2C+Richard+Nelson+%281984%29.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhistoryofancient0000frye&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIraqi+Kurdistan" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_numeric_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=BiEZAQAAIAAJ&q=metropolitan+hadyab"><i>Encyclopaedia Iranica</i></a>. Routledge & Kegan Paul. 1985. p. 459. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7100-9090-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7100-9090-4"><bdi>978-0-7100-9090-4</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230703054615/https://books.google.com/books?id=BiEZAQAAIAAJ&q=metropolitan+hadyab">Archived</a> from the original on 2023-07-03<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-05-04</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopaedia+Iranica&rft.pages=459&rft.pub=Routledge+%26+Kegan+Paul&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=978-0-7100-9090-4&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DBiEZAQAAIAAJ%26q%3Dmetropolitan%2Bhadyab&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIraqi+Kurdistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrone2012" class="citation book cs1">Crone, Patricia (2012-06-28). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7k0hAwAAQBAJ&q=Beth+Qardwaye&pg=PA63"><i>The Nativist Prophets of Early Islamic Iran: Rural Revolt and Local Zoroastrianism</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 63. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-139-51076-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-139-51076-9"><bdi>978-1-139-51076-9</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230703054613/https://books.google.com/books?id=7k0hAwAAQBAJ&q=Beth+Qardwaye&pg=PA63">Archived</a> from the original on 2023-07-03<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-05-04</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Nativist+Prophets+of+Early+Islamic+Iran%3A+Rural+Revolt+and+Local+Zoroastrianism&rft.pages=63&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2012-06-28&rft.isbn=978-1-139-51076-9&rft.aulast=Crone&rft.aufirst=Patricia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D7k0hAwAAQBAJ%26q%3DBeth%2BQardwaye%26pg%3DPA63&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIraqi+Kurdistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDaviauWeiglWevers2001" class="citation book cs1">Daviau, P. M. Michèle; Weigl, Michael; Wevers, John W. (2001-06-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=WWyvAwAAQBAJ&q=and+the+inhabitants+of+that+region+Qardians&pg=PA171"><i>The World of the Aramaeans: Studies in Honour of Paul-Eugène Dion, Volume 3</i></a>. A&C Black. p. 171. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-567-63737-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-567-63737-6"><bdi>978-0-567-63737-6</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230703054614/https://books.google.com/books?id=WWyvAwAAQBAJ&q=and+the+inhabitants+of+that+region+Qardians&pg=PA171">Archived</a> from the original on 2023-07-03<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Brill's First Encyclopaedia of Islam, 1913-1936</i></a>. BRILL. p. 1136. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-09790-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-09790-2"><bdi>978-90-04-09790-2</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230703054902/https://books.google.com/books?id=7CP7fYghBFQC&q=The+Kurds+%27+first+contact+with+the+Muslim+armies+was+in+637&pg=PA1136">Archived</a> from the original on 2023-07-03<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-05-04</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=E.+J.+Brill%27s+First+Encyclopaedia+of+Islam%2C+1913-1936&rft.pages=1136&rft.pub=BRILL&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-90-04-09790-2&rft.aulast=Houtsma&rft.aufirst=M.+Th&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D7CP7fYghBFQC%26q%3DThe%2BKurds%2B%2527%2Bfirst%2Bcontact%2Bwith%2Bthe%2BMuslim%2Barmies%2Bwas%2Bin%2B637%26pg%3DPA1136&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIraqi+Kurdistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMorony2005" class="citation book cs1">Morony, Michael G. (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=igdQAQAACAAJ&q=michael+g.+morony"><i>Iraq After the Muslim Conquest</i></a>. Gorgias Press. p. 264. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59333-315-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-59333-315-7"><bdi>978-1-59333-315-7</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230703054902/https://books.google.com/books?id=igdQAQAACAAJ&q=michael+g.+morony">Archived</a> from the original on 2023-07-03<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-05-04</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Iraq+After+the+Muslim+Conquest&rft.pages=264&rft.pub=Gorgias+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-1-59333-315-7&rft.aulast=Morony&rft.aufirst=Michael+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DigdQAQAACAAJ%26q%3Dmichael%2Bg.%2Bmorony&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIraqi+Kurdistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Roemer285-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Roemer285_66-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Roemer (1989), p. 285</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDahlman2002" class="citation journal cs1">Dahlman, C. (2002). "The Political Geography of Kurdistan". <i>Eurasian Geography and Economics</i>. <b>43</b> (4): 271–299 [p. 286]. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2747%2F1538-7216.43.4.271">10.2747/1538-7216.43.4.271</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:146638619">146638619</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Eurasian+Geography+and+Economics&rft.atitle=The+Political+Geography+of+Kurdistan&rft.volume=43&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=271-299+p.+286&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2747%2F1538-7216.43.4.271&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A146638619%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Dahlman&rft.aufirst=C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIraqi+Kurdistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEskander2000" class="citation journal cs1">Eskander, Saad (2000). "Britain's Policy in Southern Kurdistan: The Formation and Termination of the First Kurdish Government, 1918-1919". <i>British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies</i>. <b>27</b> (2): 139–163 [pp. 151, 152, 155, 160]. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F13530190020000501">10.1080/13530190020000501</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144862193">144862193</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=British+Journal+of+Middle+Eastern+Studies&rft.atitle=Britain%27s+Policy+in+Southern+Kurdistan%3A+The+Formation+and+Termination+of+the+First+Kurdish+Government%2C+1918-1919&rft.volume=27&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=139-163+pp.+151%2C+152%2C+155%2C+160&rft.date=2000&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F13530190020000501&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A144862193%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Eskander&rft.aufirst=Saad&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIraqi+Kurdistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarris1977" class="citation journal cs1">Harris, G. S. (1977). "Ethnic Conflict and the Kurds". <i>Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science</i>. <b>433</b> (1): 112–124 [p. 118]. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F000271627743300111">10.1177/000271627743300111</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145235862">145235862</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annals+of+the+American+Academy+of+Political+and+Social+Science&rft.atitle=Ethnic+Conflict+and+the+Kurds&rft.volume=433&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=112-124+p.+118&rft.date=1977&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F000271627743300111&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A145235862%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Harris&rft.aufirst=G.+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIraqi+Kurdistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSaedi2008" class="citation book cs1">Saedi, Michael J. Kelly (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4eMhpwyDJlwC"><i>Ghosts of Halabja: Saddam Hussein and the Kurdish genocide</i></a>. Westport, Conn.: Praeger Security International. p. 18. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-275-99210-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-275-99210-1"><bdi>978-0-275-99210-1</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160107174842/https://books.google.com/books?id=4eMhpwyDJlwC">Archived</a> from the original on 2016-01-07<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2015-10-12</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ghosts+of+Halabja%3A+Saddam+Hussein+and+the+Kurdish+genocide&rft.place=Westport%2C+Conn.&rft.pages=18&rft.pub=Praeger+Security+International&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-275-99210-1&rft.aulast=Saedi&rft.aufirst=Michael+J.+Kelly&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D4eMhpwyDJlwC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIraqi+Kurdistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_71-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_71-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_71-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_71-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHassanpour1992" class="citation book cs1">Hassanpour, Amir (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fP9jAAAAMAAJ"><i>Nationalism and Language in Kurdistan, 1918-1985</i></a>. Mellen Research University Press. p. 119. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7734-9816-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-7734-9816-8"><bdi>0-7734-9816-8</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230703054903/https://books.google.com/books?id=fP9jAAAAMAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 2023-07-03<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-05-04</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nationalism+and+Language+in+Kurdistan%2C+1918-1985&rft.pages=119&rft.pub=Mellen+Research+University+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=0-7734-9816-8&rft.aulast=Hassanpour&rft.aufirst=Amir&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DfP9jAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIraqi+Kurdistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFO'Ballance1973" class="citation book cs1">O'Ballance, Edgar (1973). <i>The Kurdish Revolt, 1961–1970</i>. Hamden: Archon Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-208-01395-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-208-01395-4"><bdi>0-208-01395-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Kurdish+Revolt%2C+1961%E2%80%931970&rft.place=Hamden&rft.pub=Archon+Books&rft.date=1973&rft.isbn=0-208-01395-4&rft.aulast=O%27Ballance&rft.aufirst=Edgar&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIraqi+Kurdistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPollack2002" class="citation book cs1">Pollack, Kenneth M. (2002). <i>Arabs at War</i>. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8032-3733-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-8032-3733-2"><bdi>0-8032-3733-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Arabs+at+War&rft.place=Lincoln&rft.pub=University+of+Nebraska+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=0-8032-3733-2&rft.aulast=Pollack&rft.aufirst=Kenneth+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIraqi+Kurdistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarris1977" class="citation journal cs1">Harris, G. S. (1977). "Ethnic Conflict and the Kurds". <i>Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science</i>. <b>433</b> (1): 112–124 [pp. 118–120]. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F000271627743300111">10.1177/000271627743300111</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145235862">145235862</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annals+of+the+American+Academy+of+Political+and+Social+Science&rft.atitle=Ethnic+Conflict+and+the+Kurds&rft.volume=433&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=112-124+pp.+118-120&rft.date=1977&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F000271627743300111&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A145235862%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Harris&rft.aufirst=G.+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIraqi+Kurdistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hrw.org/reports/1993/iraqanfal/ANFALINT.htm">"Introduction: GENOCIDE IN IRAQ: The Anfal Campaign Against the Kurds (Human Rights Watch Report, 1993)"</a>. Hrw.org. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100615232023/http://www.hrw.org/reports/1993/iraqanfal/ANFALINT.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 2010-06-15<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2010-12-28</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Introduction%3A+GENOCIDE+IN+IRAQ%3A+The+Anfal+Campaign+Against+the+Kurds+%28Human+Rights+Watch+Report%2C+1993%29&rft.pub=Hrw.org&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhrw.org%2Freports%2F1993%2Firaqanfal%2FANFALINT.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIraqi+Kurdistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/saddam/kurds/cron.html">"A Chronology of U.S.-Kurdish History"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171010095609/https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/saddam/kurds/cron.html">Archived</a> 2017-10-10 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, PBS. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2013-06-23</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=CNN&rft.atitle=Two+dead%2C+10+wounded+after+Iraqi%2C+Kurdish+forces+clash+in+northern+Iraq+%E2%80%93+CNN.com&rft.date=2012-11-19&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fedition.cnn.com%2F2012%2F11%2F16%2Fworld%2Fmeast%2Firaq-violence%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIraqi+Kurdistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kurdish_Leader:_We_Will_Vote_For_Independence_Soon-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kurdish_Leader:_We_Will_Vote_For_Independence_Soon_99-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kurdish_Leader:_We_Will_Vote_For_Independence_Soon_99-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAgence_France_Presse2014" class="citation web cs1">Agence France Presse (1 July 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.businessinsider.com/kurdish-leader-vote-for-independence-soon-2014-7?nr_email_referer=1">"Kurdish Leader: We Will Vote For Independence Soon"</a>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 July</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Kurdish+Leader%3A+We+Will+Vote+For+Independence+Soon&rft.pub=Business+Insider&rft.date=2014-07-01&rft.au=Agence+France+Presse&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.businessinsider.com%2Fkurdish-leader-vote-for-independence-soon-2014-7%3Fnr_email_referer%3D1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIraqi+Kurdistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-The_tide_is_finally_turning_for_the_Kurds_-_Especially_in_Turkey-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-The_tide_is_finally_turning_for_the_Kurds_-_Especially_in_Turkey_100-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.businessinsider.com/turkey-may-support-independent-kurdistan-2014-7">"The tide is finally turning for the Kurds – Especially in Turkey"</a>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 July</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+tide+is+finally+turning+for+the+Kurds+%E2%80%93+Especially+in+Turkey&rft.pub=Business+Insider&rft.date=2014-07-03&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.businessinsider.com%2Fturkey-may-support-independent-kurdistan-2014-7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIraqi+Kurdistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-KurdsOilfields-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-KurdsOilfields_101-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/middle_east/tensions-mount-between-baghdad-and-iraqs-kurds/2014/07/11/7baeea5e-2bfe-4d07-942b-1653af3d60a3_story.html">"Tensions mount between Baghdad and Kurdish region as Kurds seize oil fields"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Washington_Post" class="mw-redirect" title="Washington Post">Washington Post</a></i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140712001455/http://www.washingtonpost.com/world/middle_east/tensions-mount-between-baghdad-and-iraqs-kurds/2014/07/11/7baeea5e-2bfe-4d07-942b-1653af3d60a3_story.html">Archived</a> from the original on 12 July 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 July</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Washington+Post&rft.atitle=Tensions+mount+between+Baghdad+and+Kurdish+region+as+Kurds+seize+oil+fields&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Fworld%2Fmiddle_east%2Ftensions-mount-between-baghdad-and-iraqs-kurds%2F2014%2F07%2F11%2F7baeea5e-2bfe-4d07-942b-1653af3d60a3_story.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIraqi+Kurdistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGutman2014" class="citation news cs1">Gutman, Roy (2014-09-05). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thestar.com/news/world/2014/09/05/kurds_agree_to_postpone_independence_referendum.html">"Kurdish leaders are postponing plans for a referendum on independence and say they instead will devote their efforts to forging a new Iraqi government"</a>. <i>The Toronto Star</i>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0319-0781">0319-0781</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160317034731/http://www.thestar.com/news/world/2014/09/05/kurds_agree_to_postpone_independence_referendum.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2016-03-17<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2016-03-30</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Toronto+Star&rft.atitle=Kurdish+leaders+are+postponing+plans+for+a+referendum+on+independence+and+say+they+instead+will+devote+their+efforts+to+forging+a+new+Iraqi+government.&rft.date=2014-09-05&rft.issn=0319-0781&rft.aulast=Gutman&rft.aufirst=Roy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thestar.com%2Fnews%2Fworld%2F2014%2F09%2F05%2Fkurds_agree_to_postpone_independence_referendum.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIraqi+Kurdistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcLEARY2014" class="citation news cs1">McLEARY, PAUL (20 November 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20141120201019/http://www.defensenews.com/article/20141120/DEFREG04/311200037">"House Republican Wants To Work Around Baghdad, Arm the Kurds"</a>. <i>www.defensenews.com</i>. <a href="/wiki/Gannett" title="Gannett">Gannett</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.defensenews.com/article/20141120/DEFREG04/311200037">the original</a> on November 20, 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 November</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=www.defensenews.com&rft.atitle=House+Republican+Wants+To+Work+Around+Baghdad%2C+Arm+the+Kurds&rft.date=2014-11-20&rft.aulast=McLEARY&rft.aufirst=PAUL&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.defensenews.com%2Farticle%2F20141120%2FDEFREG04%2F311200037&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIraqi+Kurdistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFArun1970" class="citation web cs1">Arun, Neil (1970-01-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-28711493">"BBC News – Iraq conflict: Why Irbil matters"</a>. Bbc.co.uk. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140809174127/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-28711493">Archived</a> from the original on 2014-08-09<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2014-08-09</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=BBC+News+%E2%80%93+Iraq+conflict%3A+Why+Irbil+matters&rft.pub=Bbc.co.uk&rft.date=1970-01-01&rft.aulast=Arun&rft.aufirst=Neil&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.co.uk%2Fnews%2Fworld-middle-east-28711493&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIraqi+Kurdistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBy_Rudaw" class="citation web cs1">By Rudaw. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.rudaw.net/english/kurdistan/02022016">"Barzani: Time is ripe for referendum; Kurdish independence brings the region peace"</a>. <i>Rudaw</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181029152046/http://www.rudaw.net/english/kurdistan/02022016">Archived</a> from the original on 2018-10-29<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2018-10-29</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Rudaw&rft.atitle=Barzani%3A+Time+is+ripe+for+referendum%3B+Kurdish+independence+brings+the+region+peace&rft.au=By+Rudaw&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.rudaw.net%2Fenglish%2Fkurdistan%2F02022016&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIraqi+Kurdistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.kurdistan24.net/en/news/05609d37-3569-4a8f-a39e-98b97c732503/Barzani--Kurdistan-will-hold-referendum-before-October">"Barzani: Kurdistan will hold referendum before October"</a>. <i>Kudistan24</i>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 25,</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Kudistan24&rft.atitle=Barzani%3A+Kurdistan+will+hold+referendum+before+October&rft.date=2016-03-23&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.kurdistan24.net%2Fen%2Fnews%2F05609d37-3569-4a8f-a39e-98b97c732503%2FBarzani--Kurdistan-will-hold-referendum-before-October&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIraqi+Kurdistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.rudaw.net/english/kurdistan/020420171">"Kurdistan will hold independence referendum in 2017, senior official"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170402152842/http://www.rudaw.net/english/kurdistan/020420171">Archived</a> from the original on 2017-04-02<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2017-04-02</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Kurdistan+will+hold+independence+referendum+in+2017%2C+senior+official&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.rudaw.net%2Fenglish%2Fkurdistan%2F020420171&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIraqi+Kurdistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://rappler.com/world/middle-east/massive-yes-vote-iraqi-kurd-independence-referendum">"Massive 'yes' vote in Iraqi Kurd independence referendum"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Rappler" title="Rappler">Rappler</a></i>. 27 September 2017. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211027053847/https://www.rappler.com/world/middle-east/massive-yes-vote-iraqi-kurd-independence-referendum">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-10-27<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-08-11</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Rappler&rft.atitle=Massive+%27yes%27+vote+in+Iraqi+Kurd+independence+referendum&rft.date=2017-09-27&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frappler.com%2Fworld%2Fmiddle-east%2Fmassive-yes-vote-iraqi-kurd-independence-referendum&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIraqi+Kurdistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-iraq-kurds-kirkuk/iraqi-forces-seize-oil-city-kirkuk-from-kurds-in-bold-advance-idUSKBN1CK0XL">"Iraqi forces seize oil city Kirkuk from Kurds in bold advance"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Reuters" title="Reuters">Reuters</a></i>. 17 October 2017. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180704123112/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-iraq-kurds-kirkuk/iraqi-forces-seize-oil-city-kirkuk-from-kurds-in-bold-advance-idUSKBN1CK0XL">Archived</a> from the original on 2018-07-04<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2017-08-11</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Reuters&rft.atitle=Iraqi+forces+seize+oil+city+Kirkuk+from+Kurds+in+bold+advance&rft.date=2017-10-17&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.reuters.com%2Farticle%2Fus-mideast-crisis-iraq-kurds-kirkuk%2Firaqi-forces-seize-oil-city-kirkuk-from-kurds-in-bold-advance-idUSKBN1CK0XL&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIraqi+Kurdistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-iraq-kurds/iraqs-kurdistan-says-to-respect-court-decision-banning-secession-idUSKBN1DE0XD">"Iraq's Kurdistan says to respect court decision banning secession"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Reuters" title="Reuters">Reuters</a></i>. 14 November 2017. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200802231015/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-iraq-kurds/iraqs-kurdistan-says-to-respect-court-decision-banning-secession-idUSKBN1DE0XD">Archived</a> from the original on 2020-08-02<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-08-11</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Reuters&rft.atitle=Iraq%27s+Kurdistan+says+to+respect+court+decision+banning+secession&rft.date=2017-11-14&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.reuters.com%2Farticle%2Fus-mideast-crisis-iraq-kurds%2Firaqs-kurdistan-says-to-respect-court-decision-banning-secession-idUSKBN1DE0XD&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIraqi+Kurdistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Nicola Degli Esposti (2021) The 2017 independence referendum and the political economy of Kurdish nationalism in Iraq, Third World Quarterly, 42:10, 2317-2333, <a href="//doi.org/10.1080/01436597.2021.1949978" class="extiw" title="doi:10.1080/01436597.2021.1949978">doi:10.1080/01436597.2021.1949978</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtoninstitute.org/policy-analysis/house-divided-can-kurdistan-preserve-its-autonomy">"A House Divided: Can Kurdistan preserve its Autonomy?"</a>. Washington Institute.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=A+House+Divided%3A+Can+Kurdistan+preserve+its+Autonomy%3F&rft.pub=Washington+Institute&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtoninstitute.org%2Fpolicy-analysis%2Fhouse-divided-can-kurdistan-preserve-its-autonomy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIraqi+Kurdistan" class="Z3988"></span> “These rulings come as the latest in a series of developments reshaping the relationship between Erbil and Baghdad since the 2017 Kurdish independence referendum signalled a turning point for KRG autonomy. Since this failed bid at complete independence from Baghdad, there has been a gradual but consistent erosion of self-governance in the KRI.”</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-113"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.rudaw.net/english/kurdistan/220320243-amp">"Iraqi court decisions divide Kurdistan's ruling parties"</a>. Rudaw.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Iraqi+court+decisions+divide+Kurdistan%E2%80%99s+ruling+parties&rft.pub=Rudaw&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.rudaw.net%2Fenglish%2Fkurdistan%2F220320243-amp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIraqi+Kurdistan" class="Z3988"></span> “The KDP’s politburo said that the court ruling was a continuation of its “unconstitutional rulings against the Kurdistan Region in the past four years” and an attempt to “return Iraq to a centralized system.”</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-114"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.al-monitor.com/originals/2023/09/letter-biden-barzani-warns-iraqi-kurdistans-collapse-urges-mediation">"In letter to Biden, Barzani warns of Iraqi Kurdistan's collapse, urges mediation"</a>. Al Monitor.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=In+letter+to+Biden%2C+Barzani+warns+of+Iraqi+Kurdistan%27s+collapse%2C+urges+mediation&rft.pub=Al+Monitor&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.al-monitor.com%2Foriginals%2F2023%2F09%2Fletter-biden-barzani-warns-iraqi-kurdistans-collapse-urges-mediation&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIraqi+Kurdistan" class="Z3988"></span> Barzani wrote, “I write to you now at another critical juncture in our history, one that I fear we may have difficulty overcoming. …[W]e are bleeding economically and hemorrhaging politically. For the first time in my tenure as prime minister, I hold grave concerns that this dishonorable campaign against us may cause the collapse of … the very model of a Federal Iraq that the United States sponsored in 2003 and purported to stand by since.”</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-115"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20010419135404/http://www.culturalorientation.net/kurds/krelig.html">"Cultural Orientation Resource Center"</a>. Archived from the original on 2001-04-19<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2008-10-22</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Cultural+Orientation+Resource+Center&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.culturalorientation.net%2Fkurds%2Fkrelig.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIraqi+Kurdistan" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_web" title="Template:Cite web">cite web</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_bot:_original_URL_status_unknown" title="Category:CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown">link</a>)</span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/40px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/60px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/80px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="193" data-file-height="193" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikivoyage has a travel guide for <i><b><a href="https://en.wikivoyage.org/wiki/Iraqi_Kurdistan#Q66711956" class="extiw" title="wikivoyage:Iraqi Kurdistan">Iraqi Kurdistan</a></b></i>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.institutkurde.org/en/">The Kurdish Institute of Paris</a> – Provides news, bulletins, articles and conference information on the situation in Iraqi Kurdistan.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-15467672">Iraqi Kurdistan timeline</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://carnegie-mec.org/2015/08/17/kurdistan-s-politicized-society-confronts-sultanistic-system/ieta">Kurdistan's Politicized Society Confronts a Sultanistic System (Carnegie Paper)</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150820232502/http://carnegie-mec.org/2015/08/17/kurdistan-s-politicized-society-confronts-sultanistic-system/ieta">Archived</a> 2015-08-20 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thekurdsofiraq.com/">The Kurds of Iraq</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120213070440/http://www.theotheriraq.com/">Kurdistan – The Other Iraq</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (archived 2012-02-13)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://webarchive.loc.gov/all/20151115054819/http://www.baghdadinvest.com/">Baghdad Invest</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress" title="Library of Congress">Library of Congress</a> Web Archives (archived 2015-11-15) – Kurdistan Investment Research</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131030022117/https://egiuliani.wordpress.com/2013/10/20/who-are-the-kurds-part-i/">Kurds in the Contemporary Middle East</a></li></ul> <p><br /> </p> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output 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.hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Iraqi_Kurdistan_articles" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Iraqi_Kurdistan_topics" title="Template:Iraqi Kurdistan topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Iraqi_Kurdistan_topics" title="Template talk:Iraqi Kurdistan topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Iraqi_Kurdistan_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Iraqi Kurdistan topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Iraqi_Kurdistan_articles" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Iraqi Kurdistan</a> articles</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#History">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi%E2%80%93Kurdish_conflict" title="Iraqi–Kurdish conflict">Iraqi–Kurdish conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_insurgency_(2011%E2%80%932013)" title="Iraqi insurgency (2011–2013)">Iraqi insurgency (2011–2013)</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="6" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Kurdistan_Region" title="Kurdistan Region"><img alt="Kurdistan Region" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Flag_of_Kurdistan.svg/60px-Flag_of_Kurdistan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="60" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Flag_of_Kurdistan.svg/90px-Flag_of_Kurdistan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Flag_of_Kurdistan.svg/120px-Flag_of_Kurdistan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Geography">Geography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kurdistan" title="Kurdistan">Kurdistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erbil_Governorate" title="Erbil Governorate">Erbil <span style="font-size:85%;">(Hewlêr)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halabja_Governorate" title="Halabja Governorate">Halabja <span style="font-size:85%;"> (Helebce)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dohuk_Governorate" class="mw-redirect" title="Dohuk Governorate">Dohuk <span style="font-size:85%;">(Dihok)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sulaymaniyah_Governorate" title="Sulaymaniyah Governorate">Sulaymaniyah <span style="font-size:85%;">(Slêmanî)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disputed_territories_of_Northern_Iraq" class="mw-redirect" title="Disputed territories of Northern Iraq">Disputed territories</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Kurdistan_Region#Government_and_politics" title="Kurdistan Region">Politics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kurdistan_Region" title="Kurdistan Region">Kurdistan Region</a> (autonomous region)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Iraqi_Kurdistan" title="Human rights in Iraqi Kurdistan">Human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peshmerga" title="Peshmerga">Military <span style="font-size:85%;">(<i>Peshmerga</i>)</span></a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kurdistan_Presidency_Council" class="mw-redirect" title="Kurdistan Presidency Council">Presidency Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurdistan_Parliament" class="mw-redirect" title="Kurdistan Parliament">Parliament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/President_of_Kurdistan_Region" title="President of Kurdistan Region">President</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vice_President_of_Kurdistan_Region" title="Vice President of Kurdistan Region">Vice President</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Kurdistan_Region" title="Prime Minister of Kurdistan Region">Prime Minister</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_Iraqi_Kurdistan" class="mw-redirect" title="Foreign relations of Iraqi Kurdistan">Foreign relations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_diplomatic_missions_in_Kurdistan_Region" title="List of diplomatic missions in Kurdistan Region">Foreign missions in Iraqi Kurdistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_diplomatic_missions_of_Kurdistan_Region" title="List of diplomatic missions of Kurdistan Region">Missions of Iraqi Kurdistan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Two-state_solution_(Iraqi%E2%80%93Kurdish_negotiations)" class="mw-redirect" title="Two-state solution (Iraqi–Kurdish negotiations)">Two-state solution (Iraqi–Kurdish negotiations)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2017_Kurdistan_Region_independence_referendum" title="2017 Kurdistan Region independence referendum">Independence referendum</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Kurdistan_Region" title="Economy of Kurdistan Region">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oil_reserves_of_Iraqi_Kurdistan" class="mw-redirect" title="Oil reserves of Iraqi Kurdistan">Oil reserves</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kirkuk%E2%80%93Ceyhan_Oil_Pipeline" title="Kirkuk–Ceyhan Oil Pipeline">Taqtaq-Feshkhabur pipeline</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_Iraqi_Kurdistan" class="mw-redirect" title="Demographics of Iraqi Kurdistan">Demographics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Culture">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ey_Req%C3%AEb" title="Ey Reqîb">Anthem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_Kurdistan" title="Flag of Kurdistan">Flag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurdish_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Kurdish people">People</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Security forces</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Peshmerga" title="Peshmerga">Peshmerga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parastin_u_Zanyari" title="Parastin u Zanyari">Parastin u Zanyari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asayish_(Kurdistan_Regional_Government)" class="mw-redirect" title="Asayish (Kurdistan Regional Government)">Asaish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zeravani" title="Zeravani">Zeravani</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3" style="font-weight:bold;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Iraqi_Kurdistan" title="Category:Iraqi Kurdistan">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Kurdistan" title="Portal:Kurdistan">Portal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="23x15px&#124;border_&#124;alt=Iraq&#124;link=Iraq_Iraq_topics" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Iraq_topics" title="Template:Iraq topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Iraq_topics" title="Template talk:Iraq topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Iraq_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Iraq topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="23x15px&#124;border_&#124;alt=Iraq&#124;link=Iraq_Iraq_topics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span style="position:relative; bottom:1px;"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq"><img alt="Iraq" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Flag_of_Iraq.svg/23px-Flag_of_Iraq.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Flag_of_Iraq.svg/35px-Flag_of_Iraq.svg.png 1.5x, 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title="History of Iraq">Chronology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ubaid_period" title="Ubaid period">Ubaid period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hassuna_culture" title="Hassuna culture">Hassuna culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halaf_culture" title="Halaf culture">Halaf culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halaf-Ubaid_Transitional_period" title="Halaf-Ubaid Transitional period">Halaf-Ubaid Transitional period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samarra_culture" title="Samarra culture">Samarra culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uruk_period" title="Uruk period">Uruk period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jemdet_Nasr_period" title="Jemdet Nasr period">Jemdet Nasr period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sumer" title="Sumer">Sumer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subartu" title="Subartu">Subartu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akkadian_Empire" title="Akkadian Empire">Akkadian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gutian_rule_in_Mesopotamia" title="Gutian rule in Mesopotamia">Gutian dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Dynasty_of_Ur" title="Third Dynasty of Ur">Neo-Sumerian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isin-Larsa_period" title="Isin-Larsa period">Isin-Larsa period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Babylonian_Empire" title="Old Babylonian Empire">First Babylonian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Assyrian_Period" class="mw-redirect" title="Old Assyrian Period">Old Assyrian Period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Assyrian_Empire" title="Middle Assyrian Empire">Middle Assyrian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kassites" title="Kassites">Kassite dynasty of the Babylonian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simurrum" title="Simurrum">Simurrum culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babylonia" title="Babylonia">Babylonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyria" title="Assyria">Assyria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Assyrian_Empire" title="Neo-Assyrian Empire">Neo-Assyrian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Babylonian_Empire" title="Neo-Babylonian Empire">Neo-Babylonian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babylonian_captivity" title="Babylonian captivity">Babylonian captivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Babylon" title="Fall of Babylon">Fall of Babylon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Assyria" title="Achaemenid Assyria">Achaemenid Assyria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid Babylonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthian Babylonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asoristan" title="Asoristan">Sassanid Asorestan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.2em;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">638–1958</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Persia" title="Muslim conquest of Persia">Muslim conquest of Mesopotamia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad Caliphate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasid Caliphate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buyid_dynasty" title="Buyid dynasty">Buyid dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qara_Qoyunlu" title="Qara Qoyunlu">Qara Qoyunlu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aq_Qoyunlu" title="Aq Qoyunlu">Aq Qoyunlu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safavid_Iran" title="Safavid Iran">Safavids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Iraq" title="Ottoman Iraq">Ottoman Iraq</a> (incl. <a href="/wiki/Mamluk_dynasty_(Iraq)" title="Mamluk dynasty (Iraq)">Mamluk dynasty</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandate_for_Mesopotamia" title="Mandate for Mesopotamia">Mandate for Mesopotamia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandatory_Iraq" title="Mandatory Iraq">Mandatory Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Iraq" title="Kingdom of Iraq">Kingdom of Iraq</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_kings_of_Iraq" title="List of kings of Iraq">Kings</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Federation" title="Arab Federation">Arab Federation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.2em;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Republic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Republic_(1958%E2%80%931968)" title="Iraqi Republic (1958–1968)">1958–1968</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ba%27athist_Iraq" title="Ba'athist Iraq">1968–2003</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_Iraq_(2003%E2%80%932011)" title="Occupation of Iraq (2003–2011)">2003–2011</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">2011–<span style="font-size:85%;">present</span></a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Socialist_Ba%27ath_Party_%E2%80%93_Iraq_Region" title="Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Iraq Region">Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Iraq Region</a> (<a href="/wiki/Ba%27ath_Party_(Iraqi-dominated_faction)" title="Ba'ath Party (Iraqi-dominated faction)">National Command</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saddam_Hussein" title="Saddam Hussein">Saddam Hussein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi%E2%80%93Kurdish_conflict" title="Iraqi–Kurdish conflict">Iraqi–Kurdish conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1974%E2%80%9375_Shatt_al-Arab_conflict" title="1974–75 Shatt al-Arab conflict">1974–1975 Shatt al-Arab clashes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1977_Shia_uprising_in_Iraq" title="1977 Shia uprising in Iraq">1977 Shia uprising in Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1979%E2%80%931980_Shia_uprising_in_Iraq" title="1979–1980 Shia uprising in Iraq">1979–1980 Shia uprising in Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraq_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="Iraq and weapons of mass destruction">Weapons of mass destruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93Iraq_War" title="Iran–Iraq War">Iran–Iraq War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Opera" title="Operation Opera">Operation Opera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_Kuwait" class="mw-redirect" title="Invasion of Kuwait">Invasion of Kuwait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gulf_War" title="Gulf War">Gulf War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1991_Iraqi_uprisings" title="1991 Iraqi uprisings">1991 uprisings</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanctions_against_Iraq" class="mw-redirect" title="Sanctions against Iraq">Sanctions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraq_War" title="Iraq War">Iraq War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2003_invasion_of_Iraq" title="2003 invasion of Iraq">U.S. invasion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_insurgency_(2003%E2%80%932011)" title="Iraqi insurgency (2003–2011)">Iraqi insurgency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Withdrawal_of_United_States_troops_from_Iraq_(2007%E2%80%932011)" title="Withdrawal of United States troops from Iraq (2007–2011)">U.S. troop withdrawal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_insurgency_(2011%E2%80%932013)" title="Iraqi insurgency (2011–2013)">Insurgency (2011–2013)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_in_Iraq_(2013%E2%80%932017)" title="War in Iraq (2013–2017)">War (2014–2017)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Mosul" title="Fall of Mosul">Fall of Mosul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mosul_(2016%E2%80%932017)" title="Battle of Mosul (2016–2017)">Mosul liberation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_State_insurgency_in_Iraq_(2017%E2%80%93present)" title="Islamic State insurgency in Iraq (2017–present)">Insurgency</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2019%E2%80%932021_Iraqi_protests" title="2019–2021 Iraqi protests">2019–2021 protests</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2021%E2%80%932022_Iraqi_political_crisis" title="2021–2022 Iraqi political crisis">2021–2022 Iraqi political crisis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Geography" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Iraq" title="Geography of Iraq">Geography</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Faw_peninsula" title="Al-Faw peninsula">Faw peninsula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upper_Mesopotamia" title="Upper Mesopotamia">Upper Mesopotamia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lower_Mesopotamia" title="Lower Mesopotamia">Lower Mesopotamia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Borders_of_Iraq" title="Template:Borders of Iraq">Borders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euphrates" title="Euphrates">Euphrates river</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamrin_Mountains" title="Hamrin Mountains">Hamrin Mountains</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Iraqi Kurdistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Lakes_of_Iraq" title="Category:Lakes of Iraq">Lakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_of_Iraq" title="List of islands of Iraq">Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamian_Marshes" title="Mesopotamian Marshes">Mesopotamian Marshes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_Gulf" title="Persian Gulf">Persian Gulf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_places_in_Iraq" title="List of places in Iraq">Places</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shatt_al-Arab" title="Shatt al-Arab">Shatt al-Arab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_Desert" title="Syrian Desert">Syrian Desert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tigris" title="Tigris">Tigris river</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umm_Qasr" title="Umm Qasr">Umm Qasr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zagros_Mountains" title="Zagros Mountains">Zagros Mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildlife_of_Iraq" title="Wildlife of Iraq">Wildlife</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinjar_Mountains" title="Sinjar Mountains">Sinjar Mountains</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Politics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Iraq" title="Politics of Iraq">Politics</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Governorates_of_Iraq" title="Governorates of Iraq">Administrative divisions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Iraq" title="Constitution of Iraq">Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Representatives_of_Iraq" title="Council of Representatives of Iraq">Council of Representatives <span style="font-size:85%;">(legislative)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy_in_Iraq" title="Democracy in Iraq">Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_Iraq" title="Elections in Iraq">Elections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_aid_to_Iraq" title="Foreign aid to Iraq">Foreign aid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_Iraq" title="Foreign relations of Iraq">Foreign relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_government_of_Iraq" title="Federal government of Iraq">Government</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Ministers_(Iraq)" title="Council of Ministers (Iraq)">Council of Ministers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidency_Council_of_Iraq" title="Presidency Council of Iraq">Presidency Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/President_of_Iraq" title="President of Iraq">President</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_Iraq" title="List of presidents of Iraq">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Iraq" title="Prime Minister of Iraq">Prime Minister</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_prime_ministers_of_Iraq" title="List of prime ministers of Iraq">List</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Iraq" title="Human rights in Iraq">Human rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_pre-Saddam_Iraq" title="Human rights in pre-Saddam Iraq">in pre-Saddam Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Saddam_Hussein%27s_Iraq" class="mw-redirect" title="Human rights in Saddam Hussein's Iraq">in Saddam Hussein's Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_post-invasion_Iraq" title="Human rights in post-invasion Iraq">in post-invasion Iraq</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Islamic_State-controlled_territory" title="Human rights in Islamic State-controlled territory">in ISIL-controlled territory</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_Iraq" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights in Iraq">LGBT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_religion_in_Iraq" title="Freedom of religion in Iraq">Freedom of religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Iraq" title="Women in Iraq">Women</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Iraq" title="Law of Iraq">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Armed_Forces" title="Iraqi Armed Forces">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Police" title="Iraqi Police">Police</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_parties_in_Iraq" title="List of political parties in Iraq">Political parties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judiciary_of_Iraq" title="Judiciary of Iraq">Judiciary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_wars_involving_Iraq" title="List of wars involving Iraq">Wars and conflicts</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Economy" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Iraq" title="Economy of Iraq">Economy</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_banks_in_Iraq" title="List of banks in Iraq">Banks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Bank_of_Iraq" title="Central Bank of Iraq">Central Bank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_companies_of_Iraq" title="List of companies of Iraq">Companies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Iraq" title="Corruption in Iraq">Corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_dinar" title="Iraqi dinar">Dinar <span style="font-size:85%;">(currency)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infrastructure_of_Iraq" title="Infrastructure of Iraq">Infrastructure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Investment_in_post-invasion_Iraq" title="Investment in post-invasion Iraq">Foreign Investment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petroleum_industry_in_Iraq" title="Petroleum industry in Iraq">Oil Industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oil_reserves_in_Iraq" title="Oil reserves in Iraq">Oil reserves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Investment_in_post-invasion_Iraq" title="Investment in post-invasion Iraq">Reconstruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraq_Stock_Exchange" title="Iraq Stock Exchange">Stock Exchange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Iraq" title="Telecommunications in Iraq">Telecommunications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_in_Iraq" title="Transport in Iraq">Transportation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_airlines_of_Iraq" title="List of airlines of Iraq">Airlines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Republic_Railways" title="Iraqi Republic Railways">Railways</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_Iraq" title="Tourism in Iraq">Tourism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Society" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Category:Society_of_Iraq" title="Category:Society of Iraq">Society</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_Iraq" title="Demographics of Iraq">Demographics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iraqis" title="Iraqis">Iraqis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Iraq" title="Languages of Iraq">Languages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamian_Arabic" title="Mesopotamian Arabic">Mesopotamian Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Aramaic_languages" title="Neo-Aramaic languages">Aramaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurdish_language" title="Kurdish language">Kurdish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Turkmen#Language" title="Iraqi Turkmen">Iraqi Turkmen/Turkoman dialects</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_language" title="Persian language">Persian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minorities_in_Iraq" title="Minorities in Iraq">Minorities</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Armenians" title="Iraqi Armenians">Armenians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyrian_people" title="Assyrian people">Assyrians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circassians_in_Iraq" title="Circassians in Iraq">Circassians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurds_in_Iraq" title="Kurds in Iraq">Kurds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandaeans" title="Mandaeans">Mandaeans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marsh_Arabs" title="Marsh Arabs">Marsh Arabs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ajam_of_Iraq" class="mw-redirect" title="Ajam of Iraq">Persians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solluba" title="Solluba">Solluba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Turkmen" title="Iraqi Turkmen">Iraqi Turkmen</a>/Turkoman</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Iraq" title="History of the Jews in Iraq">Jews</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Iraq" title="Religion in Iraq">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secularism_in_Iraq" title="Secularism in Iraq">Secularism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Iraq" title="Islam in Iraq">Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Iraq" title="Christianity in Iraq">Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandaeism" title="Mandaeism">Mandaeism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yazidis" title="Yazidis">Yazidis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irreligion_in_Iraq" title="Irreligion in Iraq">Irreligion</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_art" title="Iraqi art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinema_of_Iraq" title="Cinema of Iraq">Cinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_cuisine" title="Iraqi cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Iraq" title="Culture of Iraq">Culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literature_of_Iraq" class="mw-redirect" title="Literature of Iraq">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Iraq" title="Education in Iraq">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_in_Iraq" title="Health in Iraq">Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_media_in_Iraq" title="Mass media in Iraq">Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Television_in_Iraq" title="Television in Iraq">Television</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Iraq" title="Music of Iraq">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smoking_in_Iraq" title="Smoking in Iraq">Smoking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sport_in_Iraq" title="Sport in Iraq">Sports</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Squatting_in_Iraq" title="Squatting in Iraq">Squatting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_holidays_in_Iraq" title="Public holidays in Iraq">Public holidays</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Akitu" title="Akitu">Mesopotamian spring festival (Akitu)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dehwa_Rabba" title="Dehwa Rabba">Mandaean New Year</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Iraq" title="Category:Iraq">Category</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Iraq" title="Portal:Iraq">Portal</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="WikiProject"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/16px-People_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/24px-People_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/32px-People_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Iraq" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Iraq">WikiProject</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Iraq" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Iraq">Commons</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Irredentism" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Irredentism" title="Template:Irredentism"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Irredentism" title="Template talk:Irredentism"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Irredentism" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Irredentism"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Irredentism" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Irredentism" title="Irredentism">Irredentism</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Africa</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greater_Mauritania" title="Greater Mauritania">Mauritania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greater_Morocco" title="Greater Morocco">Morocco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greater_Somalia" title="Greater Somalia">Somalia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greater_South_Africa" title="Greater South Africa">South Africa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">North America</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_proposed_provinces_and_territories_of_Canada" title="List of proposed provinces and territories of Canada">Canada</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Canada%E2%80%93Turks_and_Caicos_Islands_relations" title="Canada–Turks and Caicos Islands relations">Turks and Caicos Islands</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconquista_(Mexico)" title="Reconquista (Mexico)">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unification_of_Saint_Martin" title="Unification of Saint Martin">Saint Martin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/51st_state" title="51st state">United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Movements_for_the_annexation_of_Canada_to_the_United_States" title="Movements for the annexation of Canada to the United States">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proposals_for_the_United_States_to_purchase_Greenland" title="Proposals for the United States to purchase Greenland">Greenland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/All_of_Mexico_Movement" title="All of Mexico Movement">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ostend_Manifesto" title="Ostend Manifesto">Cuba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proposed_annexation_of_Santo_Domingo" title="Proposed annexation of Santo Domingo">Dominican Republic</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">South America</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Argentine_irredentism" title="Argentine irredentism">Argentina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chilean_expansionism" title="Chilean expansionism">Chile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reunification_of_Gran_Colombia" title="Reunification of Gran Colombia">Colombia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Western Asia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_Armenia" title="United Armenia">Armenia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Artsakh" title="Republic of Artsakh">Artsakh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karabakh_movement" title="Karabakh movement">Karabakh</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyrian_homeland" title="Assyrian homeland">Assyria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whole_Azerbaijan" title="Whole Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Azerbaijan_(irredentist_concept)" title="Western Azerbaijan (irredentist concept)">Western Azerbaijan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyprus_problem" title="Cyprus problem">Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurdistan" title="Kurdistan">Kurdistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-Iranism" title="Pan-Iranism">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_nationalism#Irredentism" title="Iraqi nationalism">Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greater_Israel" title="Greater Israel">Israel</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gathering_of_Israel" title="Gathering of Israel">Gathering of Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zionism" title="Zionism">Zionism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_nationalism#Pan-Syrianism" title="Syrian nationalism">Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Ottomanism" title="Neo-Ottomanism">Turkey</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aegean_dispute" title="Aegean dispute">Aegean dispute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_invasion_of_Cyprus" title="Turkish invasion of Cyprus">Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-Turkism" title="Pan-Turkism">Pan-Turkism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greater_Yemen" title="Greater Yemen">Yemen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Southern Asia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greater_Bangladesh" title="Greater Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greater_India" title="Greater India">India</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Akhand_Bharat" title="Akhand Bharat">Akhand Bharat</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greater_Nepal" title="Greater Nepal">Nepal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pakistani_nationalism" title="Pakistani nationalism">Pakistan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/East_Pakistan" title="East Pakistan">East Pakistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kashmir_independence_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Kashmir independence movement">Kashmir</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pashtunistan" title="Pashtunistan">Pashtunistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greater_Tamil_Nadu" title="Greater Tamil Nadu">Tamil Nadu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Eastern and Southeastern Asia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cambodian_irredentism" title="Cambodian irredentism">Cambodia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_irredentism" title="Chinese irredentism">China</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_unification" title="Chinese unification">unification with Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annexation_of_Tibet_by_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="Annexation of Tibet by the People's Republic of China">annexation of Tibet</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greater_Indonesia" title="Greater Indonesia">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_colonial_empire" title="Japanese colonial empire">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_reunification" title="Korean reunification">Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malay_world" title="Malay world">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-Mongolism" title="Pan-Mongolism">Mongolia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Territories_claimed_by_the_Philippines" title="Territories claimed by the Philippines">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-Thaiism" title="Pan-Thaiism">Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Timor" title="Great Timor">Timor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_irredentism" title="Vietnamese irredentism">Vietnam</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Central and Eastern Europe</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Belarusian_Democratic_Republic#Territory" title="Belarusian Democratic Republic">Belarus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Czechoslovakism" title="Czechoslovakism">Czechoslovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungarian_irredentism" title="Hungarian irredentism">Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greater_Moldova" title="Greater Moldova">Moldova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_irredentism" title="Polish irredentism">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greater_Romania" title="Greater Romania">Romania</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Unification_of_Moldova_and_Romania" title="Unification of Moldova and Romania">unification with Moldova</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_irredentism" title="Russian irredentism">Russia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Annexation_of_Crimea_by_the_Russian_Federation" title="Annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation">annexation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Russian_occupation_of_Crimea" title="Russian occupation of Crimea">occupation of Crimea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proposed_Russian_annexation_of_South_Ossetia" title="Proposed Russian annexation of South Ossetia">proposed annexation of South Ossetia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine" title="Russian invasion of Ukraine">invasion</a> and <a href="/wiki/Russian-occupied_territories_of_Ukraine" title="Russian-occupied territories of Ukraine">occupation of Ukraine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Slovenia" title="United Slovenia">Slovenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_irredentism" class="mw-redirect" title="Ukrainian irredentism">Ukraine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Southern Europe</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greater_Albania" title="Greater Albania">Albania</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Unification_of_Albania_and_Kosovo" title="Unification of Albania and Kosovo">unification with Kosovo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greater_Bosnia" title="Greater Bosnia">Bosnia and Herzegovina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulgarian_irredentism" title="Bulgarian irredentism">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greater_Croatia" title="Greater Croatia">Croatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_nationalism" title="Greek nationalism">Greece</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aegean_dispute" title="Aegean dispute">Aegean dispute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_Cypriot_nationalism" title="Greek Cypriot nationalism">Cyprus</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Enosis" title="Enosis">Enosis</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Megali_Idea" title="Megali Idea">Megali Idea</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Macedonia" title="United Macedonia">North Macedonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greater_Serbia" title="Greater Serbia">Serbia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kosovo_Myth" title="Kosovo Myth">Kosovo Myth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Partition_of_Kosovo" title="Partition of Kosovo">partition of Kosovo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_irredentism" title="Spanish irredentism">Spain</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Galicia_irredenta" title="Galicia irredenta">Galicia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yugoslav_irredentism" title="Yugoslav irredentism">Yugoslavia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Italy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Italian_irredentism" title="Italian irredentism">Italy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Italian_irredentism_in_Corfu" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian irredentism in Corfu">Corfu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_irredentism_in_Corsica" title="Italian irredentism in Corsica">Corsica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_irredentism_in_Dalmatia" title="Italian irredentism in Dalmatia">Dalmatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_irredentism_in_Istria" title="Italian irredentism in Istria">Istria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_irredentism_in_Switzerland" title="Italian irredentism in Switzerland">Italian Grisons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_irredentism_in_Malta" title="Italian irredentism in Malta">Malta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_irredentism_in_Nice" title="Italian irredentism in Nice">Nice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_irredentism_in_Savoy" title="Italian irredentism in Savoy">Savoy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_irredentism_in_Switzerland" title="Italian irredentism in Switzerland">Ticino</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Northern Europe</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greater_Finland" title="Greater Finland">Finland</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Karelian_question" title="Karelian question">Karelia</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Western Europe</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greater_Belgium" title="Greater Belgium">Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_union" title="Celtic union">Celtics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_borders_of_France" title="Natural borders of France">France</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rattachism" title="Rattachism">Wallonia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_question" title="German question">Germany</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/German_nationalism_in_Austria" title="German nationalism in Austria">Austria</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anschluss" title="Anschluss">annexation of Austria</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-Germanism" title="Pan-Germanism">Pan-Germanism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greater_Germanic_Reich" title="Greater Germanic Reich">Greater Germanic Reich</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Lebensraum" title="Lebensraum">Lebensraum</a></i></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Ireland" title="United Ireland">Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greater_Netherlands" title="Greater Netherlands">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enlargement_of_Switzerland" class="mw-redirect" title="Enlargement of Switzerland">Switzerland</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Oceania</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_proposed_states_of_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="List of proposed states of Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papuan_unification" class="mw-redirect" title="Papuan unification">Papua New Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samoan_unification" title="Samoan unification">Samoa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><i>Related concepts:</i> <i><b><a href="/wiki/List_of_national_border_changes_since_1914" class="mw-redirect" title="List of national border changes since 1914">Border changes since 1914</a> · <a href="/wiki/Partition_(politics)" title="Partition (politics)">Partitionism</a> · <a href="/wiki/Political_union" title="Political union">Reunification</a> · <a href="/wiki/Revanchism" title="Revanchism">Revanchism</a> · <a href="/wiki/Revanchism" title="Revanchism">Revisionism</a> · <a href="/wiki/Rump_state" title="Rump state">Rump state</a></b></i></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <p><span class="geo-inline-hidden noexcerpt"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1156832818">.mw-parser-output .geo-default,.mw-parser-output .geo-dms,.mw-parser-output .geo-dec{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .geo-nondefault,.mw-parser-output .geo-multi-punct,.mw-parser-output .geo-inline-hidden{display:none}.mw-parser-output .longitude,.mw-parser-output .latitude{white-space:nowrap}</style><span class="plainlinks nourlexpansion"><a class="external text" href="https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Iraqi_Kurdistan&params=36_55_N_44_2_E_source:plwiki_region:IQ_scale:10000"><span class="geo-default"><span class="geo-dms" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location"><span class="latitude">36°55′N</span> <span class="longitude">44°2′E</span></span></span><span class="geo-multi-punct"> / </span><span class="geo-nondefault"><span class="geo-dec" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location">36.917°N 44.033°E</span><span style="display:none"> / <span class="geo">36.917; 44.033</span></span></span></a></span></span> </p>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1&useformat=desktop" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Iraqi_Kurdistan&oldid=1260791855">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Iraqi_Kurdistan&oldid=1260791855</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: 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