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</button> <ul id="toc-Islamic_legal_positions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Enslavement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Enslavement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Enslavement </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Enslavement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Social_rights" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Social_rights"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Social rights </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Social_rights-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Umm_walad" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Umm_walad"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2.1 Umm walad </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Umm_walad-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sexual_consent" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sexual_consent"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 Sexual 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class="vector-toc-link" href="#Women_of_Hawazin"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1.1 Women of Hawazin </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Women_of_Hawazin-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Umayyad_Caliphate" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Umayyad_Caliphate"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Umayyad Caliphate </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Umayyad_Caliphate-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Abbasid_Caliphate" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Abbasid_Caliphate"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 Abbasid Caliphate </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Abbasid_Caliphate-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Al-Andalus_empires" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Al-Andalus_empires"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4 Al-Andalus empires </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Al-Andalus_empires-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Islamic_Egypt" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Islamic_Egypt"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.5 Islamic Egypt </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Islamic_Egypt-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ottoman_Empire" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ottoman_Empire"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.6 Ottoman Empire </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ottoman_Empire-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Enslavement_as_a_tool_of_the_state" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Enslavement_as_a_tool_of_the_state"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.6.1 Enslavement as a tool of the state </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Enslavement_as_a_tool_of_the_state-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Barbary_Coast" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Barbary_Coast"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.7 Barbary Coast </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Barbary_Coast-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Zanzibar" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Zanzibar"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.8 Zanzibar </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Zanzibar-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Practice_in_Asia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Practice_in_Asia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Practice in Asia </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Practice_in_Asia-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Practice in Asia subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Practice_in_Asia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Delhi_Sultanate" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Delhi_Sultanate"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Delhi Sultanate </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Delhi_Sultanate-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Timurids" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Timurids"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Timurids </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Timurids-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mughal_Empire" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mughal_Empire"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Mughal Empire </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mughal_Empire-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Abolition_in_the_Muslim_World" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Abolition_in_the_Muslim_World"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Abolition in the Muslim World </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Abolition_in_the_Muslim_World-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_Muslim_perspectives" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_Muslim_perspectives"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Modern Muslim perspectives </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modern_Muslim_perspectives-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_parallels" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_parallels"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Modern parallels </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Modern_parallels-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Modern parallels subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Modern_parallels-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Muslim_community_response" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Muslim_community_response"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 Muslim community response </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Muslim_community_response-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_popular_culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_popular_culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 In popular culture </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_popular_culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 References </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle References subsection </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" 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href="/wiki/Islam_and_slavery_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Islam and slavery (disambiguation)">Islam and slavery (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Harem_Scene_with_Mothers_and_Daughters_in_Varying_Costumes,_One_of_274_Vintage_Photographs,_late_19th-early_20th_century.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Harem_Scene_with_Mothers_and_Daughters_in_Varying_Costumes%2C_One_of_274_Vintage_Photographs%2C_late_19th-early_20th_century.jpg/220px-Harem_Scene_with_Mothers_and_Daughters_in_Varying_Costumes%2C_One_of_274_Vintage_Photographs%2C_late_19th-early_20th_century.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="168" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Harem_Scene_with_Mothers_and_Daughters_in_Varying_Costumes%2C_One_of_274_Vintage_Photographs%2C_late_19th-early_20th_century.jpg/330px-Harem_Scene_with_Mothers_and_Daughters_in_Varying_Costumes%2C_One_of_274_Vintage_Photographs%2C_late_19th-early_20th_century.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Harem_Scene_with_Mothers_and_Daughters_in_Varying_Costumes%2C_One_of_274_Vintage_Photographs%2C_late_19th-early_20th_century.jpg/440px-Harem_Scene_with_Mothers_and_Daughters_in_Varying_Costumes%2C_One_of_274_Vintage_Photographs%2C_late_19th-early_20th_century.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1536" data-file-height="1172" /></a><figcaption>Harem Scene with Mothers and Daughters in Varying Costumes from <a href="/wiki/Qajar_Iran" title="Qajar Iran">Qajar Iran</a>, late 19th or early 20th century<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Aurut_Bazaar,_or_Slave_Market_-_Walsh_Robert_%26_Allom_Thomas_-_1836_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/The_Aurut_Bazaar%2C_or_Slave_Market_-_Walsh_Robert_%26_Allom_Thomas_-_1836_%28cropped%29.jpg/220px-The_Aurut_Bazaar%2C_or_Slave_Market_-_Walsh_Robert_%26_Allom_Thomas_-_1836_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="149" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/The_Aurut_Bazaar%2C_or_Slave_Market_-_Walsh_Robert_%26_Allom_Thomas_-_1836_%28cropped%29.jpg/330px-The_Aurut_Bazaar%2C_or_Slave_Market_-_Walsh_Robert_%26_Allom_Thomas_-_1836_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/The_Aurut_Bazaar%2C_or_Slave_Market_-_Walsh_Robert_%26_Allom_Thomas_-_1836_%28cropped%29.jpg/440px-The_Aurut_Bazaar%2C_or_Slave_Market_-_Walsh_Robert_%26_Allom_Thomas_-_1836_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="542" /></a><figcaption>The Aurut Bazaar, or Slave Market, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1836.</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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.sidebar{display:table!important;float:right!important;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em!important}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-subgroup{width:100%;margin:0;border-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-left{float:left;clear:left;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-none{float:none;clear:both;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-outer-title{padding:0 0.4em 0.2em;font-size:125%;line-height:1.2em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-image{padding:0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-caption,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle-with-top-image,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-caption{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle{padding:0.4em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.2em 0.8em;font-size:145%;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-image{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-heading{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content{padding:0 0.5em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content-with-subgroup{padding:0.1em 0.4em 0.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-below{padding:0.3em 0.8em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-below{border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-navbar{text-align:right;font-size:115%;padding:0 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:left;font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6em;font-size:105%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title-c{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:center;margin:0 3.3em}@media(max-width:640px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Slavery" title="Category:Slavery">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Forced_labour" title="Forced labour">Forced labour</a> and <a href="/wiki/Slavery" title="Slavery">slavery</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><a href="/wiki/File:IJzeren_voetring_voor_gevangenen_transparent_background.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Shackles" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/IJzeren_voetring_voor_gevangenen_transparent_background.png/125px-IJzeren_voetring_voor_gevangenen_transparent_background.png" decoding="async" width="125" height="68" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/IJzeren_voetring_voor_gevangenen_transparent_background.png/188px-IJzeren_voetring_voor_gevangenen_transparent_background.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/IJzeren_voetring_voor_gevangenen_transparent_background.png/250px-IJzeren_voetring_voor_gevangenen_transparent_background.png 2x" data-file-width="498" data-file-height="272" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_21st_century" title="Slavery in the 21st century">Contemporary</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Child_labour" title="Child labour">Child Labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Children_in_the_military" title="Children in the military">Child soldiers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conscription" title="Conscription">Conscription</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Debt_bondage" title="Debt bondage">Debt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_marriage" title="Forced marriage">Forced marriage</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bride_buying" title="Bride buying">Bride buying</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_marriage" title="Child marriage">Child marriage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wife_selling" title="Wife selling">Wife selling</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_prostitution" title="Forced prostitution">Forced prostitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking" title="Human trafficking">Human trafficking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Involuntary_servitude" title="Involuntary servitude">Involuntary servitude</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peon" title="Peon">Peonage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penal_labour" title="Penal labour">Penal labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_contemporary_Africa" title="Slavery in contemporary Africa">Contemporary Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_21st-century_jihadism" title="Slavery in 21st-century jihadism">21st-century jihadism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_slavery" title="Sexual slavery">Sexual slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wage_slavery" title="Wage slavery">Wage slavery</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery" title="History of slavery">Historical</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_antiquity" title="Slavery in antiquity">Antiquity</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_ancient_Egypt" title="Slavery in ancient Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babylonian_law#Three_classes" title="Babylonian law">Babylonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_ancient_Greece" title="Slavery in ancient Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_ancient_Rome" title="Slavery in ancient Rome">Rome</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_medieval_Europe" title="Slavery in medieval Europe">Medieval Europe</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancillae" title="Ancillae">Ancillae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Sea_slave_trade" title="Black Sea slave trade">Black Sea slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="Slavery in the Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kholop" title="Kholop">Kholop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prague_slave_trade" title="Prague slave trade">Prague slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serfdom" title="Serfdom">Serfs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_serfdom" title="History of serfdom">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serfdom_in_Russia" title="Serfdom in Russia">In Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emancipation_reform_of_1861" title="Emancipation reform of 1861">Emancipation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thrall" title="Thrall">Thrall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genoese_slave_trade" title="Genoese slave trade">Genoese slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venetian_slave_trade" title="Venetian slave trade">Venetian slave trade</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Balkan_slave_trade" title="Balkan slave trade">Balkan slave trade</a></li></ul></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_the_Muslim_world" title="History of slavery in the Muslim world">Muslim world</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Slavery in the Abbasid Caliphate">Slavery in the Abbasid Caliphate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_al-Andalus" title="Slavery in al-Andalus">Slavery in al-Andalus</a> ‎</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baqt" title="Baqt">Baqt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mukataba" title="Mukataba">Contract of manumission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bukhara_slave_trade" title="Bukhara slave trade">Bukhara slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crimean_slave_trade" class="mw-redirect" title="Crimean slave trade">Crimean slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khazar_slave_trade" title="Khazar slave trade">Khazar slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khivan_slave_trade" title="Khivan slave trade">Khivan slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Slavery in the Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Avret_Pazarlar%C4%B1" title="Avret Pazarları">Avret Pazarları</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_on_the_Barbary_Coast" title="Slavery on the Barbary Coast">Barbary Coast</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Barbary_slave_trade" title="Barbary slave trade">slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbary_pirates" title="Barbary pirates">pirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sack_of_Baltimore" title="Sack of Baltimore">Sack of Baltimore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_raid_of_Su%C3%B0uroy" title="Slave raid of Suðuroy">Slave raid of Suðuroy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_Abductions" title="Turkish Abductions">Turkish Abductions</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_views_on_concubinage" title="Islamic views on concubinage">Concubinage</a> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ma_malakat_aymanukum" class="mw-redirect" title="Ma malakat aymanukum">Ma malakat aymanukum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avret_Pazarlar%C4%B1" title="Avret Pazarları">Avret Pazarları</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harem" title="Harem">Harem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abbasid_harem" title="Abbasid harem">Abbasid harem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Imperial_Harem" title="Ottoman Imperial Harem">Ottoman Imperial Harem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safavid_imperial_harem" title="Safavid imperial harem">Safavid imperial harem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qajar_harem" title="Qajar harem">Qajar harem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jarya" title="Jarya">Jarya</a>/<a href="/wiki/Cariye" title="Cariye">Cariye</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Odalisque" title="Odalisque">Odalisque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qiyan" title="Qiyan">Qiyan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umm_al-walad" title="Umm al-walad">Umm al-walad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circassian_slave_trade" class="mw-redirect" title="Circassian slave trade">Circassian slave trade</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saqaliba" title="Saqaliba">Saqaliba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Slavery in the Rashidun Caliphate">Slavery in the Rashidun Caliphate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Slavery in the Umayyad Caliphate">Slavery in the Umayyad Caliphate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Slavery in the Abbasid Caliphate">Slavery in the Abbasid Caliphate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volga_Bulgarian_slave_trade" title="Volga Bulgarian slave trade">Volga Bulgarian slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_21st-century_jihadism" title="Slavery in 21st-century jihadism">21st century</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">Atlantic slave trade</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bristol_slave_trade" title="Bristol slave trade">Bristol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade_to_Brazil" title="Atlantic slave trade to Brazil">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voyages:_The_Trans-Atlantic_Slave_Trade_Database" title="Voyages: The Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade Database">Database</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Slave_Coast" title="Dutch Slave Coast">Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Passage" title="Middle Passage">Middle Passage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nantes_slave_trade" title="Nantes slave trade">Nantes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_New_France" title="Slavery in New France">New France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panyarring" title="Panyarring">Panyarring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_colonial_Spanish_America" title="Slavery in colonial Spanish America">Spanish Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_Coast_of_West_Africa" title="Slave Coast of West Africa">Slave Coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_colonial_history_of_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the colonial history of the United States">Thirteen colonies</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>Topics and practice</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conscription" title="Conscription">Conscription</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ghilman" title="Ghilman">Ghilman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mamluk" title="Mamluk">Mamluk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Devshirme" title="Devshirme">Devshirme</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blackbirding" title="Blackbirding">Blackbirding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coolie" title="Coolie">Coolie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corv%C3%A9e" title="Corvée">Corvée labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Field_slaves_in_the_United_States" title="Field slaves in the United States">Field slaves in the United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Treatment_of_slaves_in_the_United_States" title="Treatment of slaves in the United States">Treatment</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_slave" title="House slave">House slaves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saqaliba" title="Saqaliba">Saqaliba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_market" title="Slave market">Slave market</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_raiding" title="Slave raiding">Slave raiding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_children_in_the_military" title="History of children in the military">Child soldiers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_slavery" title="White slavery">White slavery</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>Naval</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Galley_slave" title="Galley slave">Galley slave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impressment" title="Impressment">Impressment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbary_pirates" title="Barbary pirates">Pirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shanghaiing" title="Shanghaiing">Shanghaiing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_ship" title="Slave ship">Slave ship</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">By country or region</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Africa" title="Slavery in Africa">Sub-Saharan Africa</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_contemporary_Africa" title="Slavery in contemporary Africa">Contemporary Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trans-Saharan_slave_trade" title="Trans-Saharan slave trade">Trans-Saharan slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Sea_slave_trade" title="Red Sea slave trade">Red Sea slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean_slave_trade" title="Indian Ocean slave trade">Indian Ocean slave trade</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zanzibar_slave_trade" class="mw-redirect" title="Zanzibar slave trade">Zanzibar slave trade</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Angola" title="Slavery in Angola">Angola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking_in_Chad" title="Human trafficking in Chad">Chad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Comoros" title="Slavery in the Comoros">Comoros</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Ethiopia" title="Slavery in Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Mali" title="Slavery in Mali">Mali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Mauritania" title="Slavery in Mauritania">Mauritania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Niger" title="Slavery in Niger">Niger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Nigeria" title="Slavery in Nigeria">Nigeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Seychelles" title="Slavery in Seychelles">Seychelles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Somalia" title="Slavery in Somalia">Somalia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Somali_slave_trade" class="mw-redirect" title="Somali slave trade">Somali slave trade</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_South_Africa" title="Slavery in South Africa">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Sudan" title="Slavery in Sudan">Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Zanzibar" title="Slavery in Zanzibar">Zanzibar</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Americas" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in the Americas">North and South America</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Pre-Columbian_America" title="Slavery in Pre-Columbian America">Pre-Columbian America</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aztec_slavery" class="mw-redirect" title="Aztec slavery">Aztec</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_among_the_indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery among the indigenous peoples of the Americas">Americas indigenous</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_among_Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery among Native Americans in the United States">U.S. Natives</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Field_slaves_in_the_United_States" title="Field slaves in the United States">Field slaves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Female_slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Female slavery in the United States">female</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_slavery_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Contemporary slavery in the United States">Contemporary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_states_and_free_states" title="Slave states and free states">maps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Partus_sequitur_ventrem" title="Partus sequitur ventrem">partus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penal_labor_in_the_United_States" title="Penal labor in the United States">prison labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_codes" title="Slave codes">Slave codes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treatment_of_the_enslaved_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Treatment of the enslaved in the United States">Treatment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_trade_in_the_United_States" title="Slave trade in the United States">interregional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking_in_the_United_States" title="Human trafficking in the United States">Human trafficking</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Bahamas" title="Slavery in the Bahamas">The Bahamas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Canada" title="Slavery in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_British_and_French_Caribbean" title="Slavery in the British and French Caribbean">Caribbean</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Barbados_Slave_Code" title="Barbados Slave Code">Barbados</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_British_Virgin_Islands" title="Slavery in the British Virgin Islands">British Virgin Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Trinidad" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in Trinidad">Trinidad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Code_Noir" title="Code Noir">Code Noir</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Latin_America" title="Slavery in Latin America">Latin America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Brazil" title="Slavery in Brazil">Brazil</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lei_%C3%81urea" title="Lei Áurea">Lei Áurea</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Colombia" title="Slavery in Colombia">Colombia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Cuba" title="Slavery in Cuba">Cuba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Haiti" title="Slavery in Haiti">Haiti</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Haitian_Revolution" title="Haitian Revolution">revolt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restavek" title="Restavek">Restavek</a></li></ul></li> <li>(<a href="/wiki/Encomienda" title="Encomienda">Encomienda</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afro%E2%80%93Puerto_Ricans" title="Afro–Puerto Ricans">Puerto Rico</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Asia" title="Slavery in Asia">East, Southeast, and South Asia</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking_in_Southeast_Asia" title="Human trafficking in Southeast Asia">Human trafficking in Southeast Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Bhutan" title="Slavery in Bhutan">Bhutan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Brunei" title="Slavery in Brunei">Brunei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_China" title="Slavery in China">China</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Booi_Aha" title="Booi Aha">Booi Aha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laogai" title="Laogai">Laogai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penal_system_in_China" title="Penal system in China">penal system</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_India" title="Slavery in India">India</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Debt_bondage_in_India" title="Debt bondage in India">Debt bondage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chukri_System" class="mw-redirect" title="Chukri System">Chukri System</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Indonesia" title="Slavery in Indonesia">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Japan" title="Slavery in Japan">Japan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Comfort_women" title="Comfort women">comfort women</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Korea" title="Slavery in Korea">Korea</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kwalliso" title="Kwalliso">Kwalliso</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Malaysia" title="Slavery in Malaysia">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Maldives" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in the Maldives">Maldives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Mongol_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in the Mongol Empire">Slavery in the Mongol Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Thailand" title="Slavery in Thailand">Thailand</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_military_and_prostitution_in_South_Korea" title="United States military and prostitution in South Korea">Yankee princess</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Vietnam" title="Slavery in Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Oceania" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in Oceania">Australia and Oceania</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Australia" title="Slavery in Australia">Australia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking_in_Australia" title="Human trafficking in Australia">Human trafficking</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blackbirding" title="Blackbirding">Blackbirding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_raiding_in_Easter_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="Slave raiding in Easter Island">Slave raiding in Easter Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking_in_Papua_New_Guinea" title="Human trafficking in Papua New Guinea">Human trafficking in Papua New Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blackbirding_in_Polynesia" class="mw-redirect" title="Blackbirding in Polynesia">Blackbirding in Polynesia</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>Europe and North Asia</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sex_trafficking_in_Europe" title="Sex trafficking in Europe">Sex trafficking in Europe</a></li> <li>United Kingdom <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Penal_labour_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Penal labour in the United Kingdom">Penal Labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Britain" title="Slavery in Britain">Slavery</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danish_slave_trade" title="Danish slave trade">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Slave_Coast" title="Dutch Slave Coast">Dutch Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_labour_under_German_rule_during_World_War_II" title="Forced labour under German rule during World War II">Germany in World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Malta" title="Slavery in Malta">Malta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thrall" title="Thrall">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Poland" title="Slavery in Poland">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Portugal" title="Slavery in Portugal">Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Romania" title="Slavery in Romania">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Russia" title="Slavery in Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Spain" title="Slavery in Spain">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_slave_trade" title="Swedish slave trade">Sweden</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>North Africa and West Asia</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Afghanistan" title="Slavery in Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Algeria" title="Slavery in Algeria">Algeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Bahrain" title="Slavery in Bahrain">Bahrain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Egypt" title="Slavery in Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking_in_the_Middle_East" title="Human trafficking in the Middle East">Human trafficking in the Middle East</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Iran" title="Slavery in Iran">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Iraq" title="Slavery in Iraq">Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Jordan" title="Slavery in Jordan">Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Kuwait" title="Slavery in Kuwait">Kuwait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Lebanon" title="Slavery in Lebanon">Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Libya" title="Slavery in Libya">Libya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Morocco" title="Slavery in Morocco">Morocco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Oman" title="Slavery in Oman">Oman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Palestine" title="Slavery in Palestine">Palestine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Saudi_Arabia" title="Slavery in Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Syria" title="Slavery in Syria">Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Tunisia" title="Slavery in Tunisia">Tunisia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Qatar" title="Slavery in Qatar">Qatar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Yemen" title="Slavery in Yemen">Yemen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in the United Arab Emirates">United Arab Emirates</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Slavery_and_religion" title="Slavery and religion">Religion</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Bible_and_slavery" title="The Bible and slavery">Bible</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_views_on_slavery" title="Christian views on slavery">Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_and_slavery" title="Catholic Church and slavery">Catholicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mormonism_and_slavery" title="Mormonism and slavery">Mormonism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_views_on_slavery" title="Islamic views on slavery">Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_views_on_slavery" title="Jewish views on slavery">Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_Faith_and_slavery" class="mw-redirect" title="Baháʼí Faith and slavery">Baháʼí Faith</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism" title="Abolitionism">Opposition and resistance</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism" title="Abolitionism">Abolitionism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Abolitionism in the United Kingdom">U.K.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_States" title="Abolitionism in the United States">U.S.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brussels_Anti-Slavery_Conference_1889%E2%80%9390" title="Brussels Anti-Slavery Conference 1889–90">Brussels Anti-Slavery Conference 1889–90</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temporary_Slavery_Commission" title="Temporary Slavery Commission">Temporary Slavery Commission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1926_Slavery_Convention" title="1926 Slavery Convention">1926 Slavery Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Committee_of_Experts_on_Slavery" title="Committee of Experts on Slavery">Committee of Experts on Slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Advisory_Committee_of_Experts_on_Slavery" title="Advisory Committee of Experts on Slavery">Advisory Committee of Experts on Slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ad_Hoc_Committee_on_Slavery" title="Ad Hoc Committee on Slavery">Ad Hoc Committee on Slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supplementary_Convention_on_the_Abolition_of_Slavery" title="Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery">Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_abolitionists" title="List of abolitionists">Abolitionists</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Egyptian_Slave_Trade_Convention" title="Anglo-Egyptian Slave Trade Convention">Anglo-Egyptian Slave Trade Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Slavery_International" title="Anti-Slavery International">Anti-Slavery International</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blockade_of_Africa" title="Blockade of Africa">Blockade of Africa</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/West_Africa_Squadron" title="West Africa Squadron">U.K.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Slave_Trade_Patrol" title="African Slave Trade Patrol">U.S.</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Colonization_Society" title="American Colonization Society">Colonization</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Liberia" title="Liberia">Liberia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sierra_Leone" title="Sierra Leone">Sierra Leone</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compensated_emancipation" title="Compensated emancipation">Compensated emancipation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedman" title="Freedman">Freedman</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Manumission" title="Manumission">Manumission</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_suit" title="Freedom suit">Freedom suit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_Power" title="Slave Power">Slave Power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underground_Railroad" title="Underground Railroad">Underground Railroad</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Songs_of_the_Underground_Railroad" title="Songs of the Underground Railroad">songs</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_rebellion" title="Slave rebellion">Slave rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_Trade_Act" title="Slave Trade Act">Slave Trade Acts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_international_law" title="Slavery in international law">International law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Servile_War" title="Third Servile War">Third Servile War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">13th Amendment to the United States Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_abolition_of_slavery_and_serfdom" title="Timeline of abolition of slavery and serfdom">Timeline of abolition of slavery and serfdom</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Abolition_of_slave_trade_in_Persian_gulf&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Abolition of slave trade in Persian gulf (page does not exist)">Abolition of slave trade in Persian gulf</a> [<a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%85%D9%86%D9%88%D8%B9%DB%8C%D8%AA_%D8%AA%D8%AC%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AA_%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%AF%D9%87_%D8%AF%D8%B1_%D8%AE%D9%84%DB%8C%D8%AC_%D9%81%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%B3" class="extiw" title="fa:ممنوعیت تجارت برده در خلیج فارس">fa</a>]</li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Related</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_at_common_law" title="Slavery at common law">Common law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indentured_servitude" title="Indentured servitude">Indentured servitude</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_labour" title="Forced labour">Forced labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fugitive_slaves_in_the_United_States" title="Fugitive slaves in the United States">Fugitive slaves</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fugitive_slave_laws_in_the_United_States" title="Fugitive slave laws in the United States">laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fugitive_Slave_Convention" title="Fugitive Slave Convention">convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Dismal_Swamp_maroons" title="Great Dismal Swamp maroons">Great Dismal Swamp maroons</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_slaves" title="List of slaves">List of slaves</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_slave_owners" title="List of slave owners">owners</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_last_survivors_of_American_slavery" title="List of last survivors of American slavery">last survivors of American slavery</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_slavery-related_memorials_and_museums" title="List of slavery-related memorials and museums">List of slavery-related memorials and museums</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_marriages_in_the_United_States" title="Slave marriages in the United States">Slave marriages in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_narrative" title="Slave narrative">Slave narrative</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_films_featuring_slavery" title="List of films featuring slavery">films</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_Songs_of_the_United_States" title="Slave Songs of the United States">songs</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_name" title="Slave name">Slave name</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_catcher" title="Slave catcher">Slave catcher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_patrol" title="Slave patrol">Slave patrol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Slave_Route_Project" title="The Slave Route Project">Slave Route Project</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slave_breeding_in_the_United_States" title="Slave breeding in the United States">breeding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_court_cases_in_the_United_States_involving_slavery" title="List of court cases in the United States involving slavery">court cases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Washington_and_slavery" title="George Washington and slavery">Washington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson_and_slavery" title="Thomas Jefferson and slavery">Jefferson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Quincy_Adams_and_abolitionism" title="John Quincy Adams and abolitionism">J.Q. Adams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln_and_slavery" title="Abraham Lincoln and slavery">Lincoln</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emancipation_Proclamation" title="Emancipation Proclamation">Emancipation Proclamation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forty_acres_and_a_mule" title="Forty acres and a mule">40 acres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedmen%27s_Bureau" title="Freedmen's Bureau">Freedmen's Bureau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_iron_bit" title="Slave iron bit">Iron bit</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emancipation_Day" title="Emancipation Day">Emancipation Day</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Forced_labour" title="Template:Forced labour"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Forced_labour" title="Template talk:Forced labour"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Forced_labour" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Forced labour"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <a href="/wiki/Concubinage" title="Concubinage">Concubinage</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Muslim_world" title="Muslim world">Muslim world</a> was the practice of Muslim men entering into <a href="/wiki/Intimate_relationship" title="Intimate relationship">intimate relationships</a> without marriage,<a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a> with enslaved women,<a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a> though in rare, exceptional cases, sometimes with free women.<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a> If the concubine gave birth to a child, she attained a higher status known as <a href="/wiki/Umm_al-walad" title="Umm al-walad">umm al-walad</a>.<a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> It was a common practice in the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Near_East" title="Ancient Near East">Ancient Near East</a> for the owners of slaves to have intimate relations with individuals considered their property,<a href="#cite_note-8">[a]</a> and <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Mediterranean_region" title="History of the Mediterranean region">Mediterranean societies</a>, and had persisted among the three major <a href="/wiki/Abrahamic_religions" title="Abrahamic religions">Abrahamic religions</a>, with distinct legal differences, since antiquity.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENirenberg201442–43-9">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYagur2020101–102-10">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-11">[b]</a> <a href="/wiki/Islamic_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic law">Islamic law</a> has traditionalist and modern interpretations,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMufti20191–6-12">[10]</a> and while the former historically allowed men to have sexual relations with their female slaves,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClarence-Smith200622-13">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTE''Brandeis_University''-14">[12]</a> most modern Muslims and Islamic scholars consider slavery in general and slave-concubinage to be unacceptable practices.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAli2015a52-15">[13]</a> Concubinage was widely practiced throughout the <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_dynasty" title="Umayyad dynasty">Umayyad</a>, <a href="/wiki/Abbasid_dynasty" title="Abbasid dynasty">Abbasid</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mamluk" title="Mamluk">Mamluk</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman</a>, <a href="/wiki/Timurid_dynasty" title="Timurid dynasty">Timurid</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mughal_emperors" class="mw-redirect" title="Mughal emperors">Mughal</a> Empires. The prevalence within royal courts also resulted in many Muslim rulers over the centuries being the children of concubines. The practice of concubinage declined with the <a href="/wiki/Abolitionism" title="Abolitionism">abolition</a> of slavery.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECortese2013-16">[14]</a> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Characteristics">Characteristics</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_concubinage_in_the_Muslim_world&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Characteristics">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jules_Laurens_14.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Painting of seated women, with man standing" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Jules_Laurens_14.jpg/220px-Jules_Laurens_14.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="142" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Jules_Laurens_14.jpg/330px-Jules_Laurens_14.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Jules_Laurens_14.jpg/440px-Jules_Laurens_14.jpg 2x" data-file-width="548" data-file-height="354" /></a><figcaption>Women of the Harem by <a href="/wiki/Jules_Laurens" title="Jules Laurens">Jules Laurens</a>, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1847</figcaption></figure> Classifications of concubinage often defines practices in Islamic societies as a distinct variant. In one reading, there are three cultural patterns of concubinage: European, Islamic and Asian.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERodriguez2011203-17">[15]</a> Concubinage has also been categorised in terms of form and function, which in the Islamic world varied between times and places. The International Encyclopedia of Anthropology gives four distinct forms of concubinage,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThe_International_Encyclopedia_of_Anthropology1999-18">[16]</a> three of which are applicable to the Muslim Word: 'elite concubinage', where concubine ownership was primarily related to social status, such as under the <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyads</a>; royal concubinage, where concubines became consorts to the ruler and perpetuated the <a href="/wiki/Royal_bloodline" class="mw-redirect" title="Royal bloodline">royal bloodline</a> and politics and reproduction were deeply intertwined, including under the <a href="/wiki/Abbasids" class="mw-redirect" title="Abbasids">Abbasids</a> and in the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottoman empire">Ottoman empire</a>; and concubinage as a patriarchal function where concubines were of low status and the children of concubines became permanently inferior to the children of wives, such as in <a href="/wiki/Mughal_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Mughal India">Mughal India</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThe_International_Encyclopedia_of_Anthropology1999-18">[16]</a> The expansion of various Muslim dynasties resulted in the acquisitions of concubines, through purchase, gifts from other rulers, and captives of war. To have a large number of concubines became a symbol of status.<a href="#cite_note-cor06-19">[17]</a> While <a href="/wiki/Muslims" title="Muslims">Muslim</a> soldiers in the <a href="/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests" title="Early Muslim conquests">early Islamic conquests</a> were given female captives as a reward for military participation, they were later frequently purchased and men were permitted to have as many concubines as they could afford. As slaves for pleasure were expensive, they were typically the preserve of privileged elites.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMyrne2019203-20">[18]</a> The concubines of Islamic rulers could achieve considerable power,<a href="#cite_note-Klein-21">[19]</a> and often enjoyed higher status than other slaves. <a href="/wiki/Abu_Hanifa" title="Abu Hanifa">Abu Hanifa</a> and others argued for the extension of Islamic modesty practices to concubines, recommending that the concubine be established in the home and their chastity be protected from friends or kin.<a href="#cite_note-Fleet-22">[20]</a> Most Islamic schools of thought restricted concubinage to a relationship where the female slave was required to be monogamous to her master.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBloomBlair200248-23">[21]</a> While scholars exhorted masters to treat their slaves equally, a master was allowed to show favoritism towards a concubine.<a href="#cite_note-Fleet-22">[20]</a> Some scholars recommended holding a banquet (<a href="/wiki/Walima" title="Walima">walima</a>) to celebrate the concubinage relationship, though not required by the teachings of Islam.<a href="#cite_note-Fleet-22">[20]</a> In slave-owning societies, most concubines were slaves, but not all.<a href="#cite_note-Klein-21">[19]</a> Concubines were typically freed after giving birth in the <a href="/wiki/Muslim_world" title="Muslim world">Muslim world</a>, as in about one-third of non-Islamic slave-holding societies.<a href="#cite_note-24">[c]</a> In Islamic culture, a slave who bore a child to a free man was known as an <a href="/wiki/Umm_al-walad" title="Umm al-walad">umm al-walad</a>, could not be sold, and, in most circumstances, at her owner's death, was freed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGordonHain2017328-25">[22]</a> The children of concubines in Islamic societies were generally declared as legitimate.<a href="#cite_note-Fleet-22">[20]</a> Among societies that did not legally require the manumission of concubines, it was often done anyway.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Almost all <a href="/wiki/Abbasid_caliph" class="mw-redirect" title="Abbasid caliph">Abbasid caliphs</a> were born to concubines and several <a href="/wiki/Twelver_Shi%E2%80%99ism" class="mw-redirect" title="Twelver Shi’ism">Twelver Shia</a> imams were also born to concubines.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] The Ottoman sultans also appeared to have preferred concubinage to marriage,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeirce199330-26">[23]</a> and for a time all royal children were born of concubines.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeirce199339-27">[24]</a> Over time, the concubines of the <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Harem" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperial Harem">Imperial Harem</a> came to exercise a considerable degree of influence over Ottoman politics.<a href="#cite_note-cor06-19">[17]</a> The consorts of Ottoman sultans were often neither Turkish, nor Muslim by birth, and it has been argued that this was intentional so as to limit the political leverage a concubine might possess as compared to a princess or a daughter of the local elite.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeirce199337–39-28">[25]</a> Ottoman sultans also appeared to have only one son with each concubine, and after a concubine gave birth to a son, would no longer have intercourse with them. This also limited the power of each concubine and son.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeirce199342-43-29">[26]</a> Even so, many concubines developed social networks, and accumulated personal wealth, both of which allowed them to rise in terms of social status.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] The practice declined with the abolition of slavery, starting in the 19th century.<a href="#cite_note-cor06-19">[17]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Islamic_legal_positions">Islamic legal positions</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_concubinage_in_the_Muslim_world&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Islamic legal positions">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Inspecting_New_Arrivals_by_Giulio_Rosati_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Inspecting_New_Arrivals_by_Giulio_Rosati_2.jpg/250px-Inspecting_New_Arrivals_by_Giulio_Rosati_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="149" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Inspecting_New_Arrivals_by_Giulio_Rosati_2.jpg/375px-Inspecting_New_Arrivals_by_Giulio_Rosati_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Inspecting_New_Arrivals_by_Giulio_Rosati_2.jpg/500px-Inspecting_New_Arrivals_by_Giulio_Rosati_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1430" data-file-height="854" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Giulio_Rosati" title="Giulio Rosati">Giulio Rosati</a>, Inspection of New Arrivals, 1858–1917, <a href="/wiki/Circassian_beauties" class="mw-redirect" title="Circassian beauties">Circassian beauties</a> </figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Islamic_views_on_concubinage" title="Islamic views on concubinage">Islamic views on concubinage</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Enslavement">Enslavement</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_concubinage_in_the_Muslim_world&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Enslavement">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Islamic_views_on_slavery" title="Islamic views on slavery">Islamic views on slavery</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Sale_of_Circassian_Captives_to_a_Turkish_Bashaw_(Pacha)_(1816).webp" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/The_Sale_of_Circassian_Captives_to_a_Turkish_Bashaw_%28Pacha%29_%281816%29.webp/220px-The_Sale_of_Circassian_Captives_to_a_Turkish_Bashaw_%28Pacha%29_%281816%29.webp.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/The_Sale_of_Circassian_Captives_to_a_Turkish_Bashaw_%28Pacha%29_%281816%29.webp/330px-The_Sale_of_Circassian_Captives_to_a_Turkish_Bashaw_%28Pacha%29_%281816%29.webp.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/The_Sale_of_Circassian_Captives_to_a_Turkish_Bashaw_%28Pacha%29_%281816%29.webp/440px-The_Sale_of_Circassian_Captives_to_a_Turkish_Bashaw_%28Pacha%29_%281816%29.webp.png 2x" data-file-width="4593" data-file-height="3000" /></a><figcaption>The Sale of Circassian Captives to a Turkish Bashaw (Pacha) (1816)</figcaption></figure> The enslavement of other Muslims was expressly forbidden by Islamic jurists.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAli2015a53–54-30">[27]</a> However, in times of war, non-Muslims who were captured in battle could be enslaved,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBadawi201917-31">[28]</a> and the population of a conquered territory could also be enslaved, paving the way for concubinage.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClarence-Smith200627–28-32">[29]</a> During the early <a href="/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests" title="Early Muslim conquests">Muslim conquests</a>, capture in war was a major source of concubines, but this source declined to a very small proportion later on.<a href="#cite_note-purchase-33">[30]</a> Enslavement was intended both as a form of <a href="/wiki/Humiliation" title="Humiliation">humiliation</a> to the defeated for previous or continuing disbelief,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcMahon201318-34">[31]</a> and as a debt.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClarence-Smith200627–28-32">[29]</a> However, non-Muslims could not be enslaved if they were either residents of a Muslim state (dhimmis) or protected foreign visitors (mustamin).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAntunesTrivellatoHalevi201457-35">[32]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMyrne2019203-20">[18]</a> The sexual relationship between a concubine and her master was viewed as a debt upon the woman until she gave birth to her master's child and the master's later death.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWillis2014-36">[33]</a> Some men purchased female slaves, whereas <a href="/wiki/Muslims" title="Muslims">Muslim</a> soldiers in the <a href="/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests" title="Early Muslim conquests">early Islamic conquests</a> were given female captives as a reward for military participation. Men were permitted to have as many concubines as they could afford, but as slaves for pleasure were expensive, they were typically an elite privilege.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMyrne2019203-20">[18]</a> At the same time, the <a href="/wiki/Qur%27an" class="mw-redirect" title="Qur'an">Qur'an</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Hadith" title="Hadith">hadith</a> traditions hailed the <a href="/wiki/Manumission" title="Manumission">manumission</a> of slaves as a virtue that would be rewarded in the afterlife.<a href="#cite_note-37">[d]</a> Some jurists argued that prisoners were either to be enslaved or killed. Others maintained that a Muslim military commander could choose between unconditionally releasing, ransoming or enslaving these war captives.<a href="#cite_note-38">[e]</a> Later on in Muslim history, the purchase of slaves from outside the Muslim world became the most important source of concubines.<a href="#cite_note-purchase-33">[30]</a> Hereditary slavery, though technically possible,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEErdem199652-39">[34]</a> was rarely practiced in the Muslim world.<a href="#cite_note-40">[35]</a><a href="#cite_note-41">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-42">[37]</a> Slave-girls by descent are those that are born to slave mothers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClarence-Smith200622-13">[11]</a> Although a slave girl who bore children to their master bore free children, owners who would marry off their female slaves to someone else, would be the masters of any children born from that marriage too.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAli2015a57-43">[38]</a> <dl><dt>Exceptions</dt></dl> Despite the Islamic prohibition, there were historical instances where Muslims enslaved Muslims from other ethnic groups.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAli2015a53–54-30">[27]</a> In the 12th century, amid internecine war in <a href="/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus">Al-Andalus</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad caliph</a> <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_II_of_C%C3%B3rdoba" title="Muhammad II of Córdoba">Muhammad II of Córdoba</a> ordered that Berber women in <a href="/wiki/C%C3%B3rdoba,_Spain" title="Córdoba, Spain">Cordoba</a> be captured and sold. The Berber <a href="/wiki/Almohad_Caliphate" title="Almohad Caliphate">Almohads</a> in turn captured and sold Umayyad women.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGleave2015166–168-44">[39]</a> There are also reports of <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman</a> generals enslaving <a href="/wiki/Mamluk" title="Mamluk">Mamluk</a> wives and girls in the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman%E2%80%93Mamluk_War_(1516%E2%80%931517)" title="Ottoman–Mamluk War (1516–1517)">Ottoman–Mamluk War (1516–1517)</a>, and in 1786–87, in the region of modern-day <a href="/wiki/Chad" title="Chad">Chad</a>, Muslim women and children from the <a href="/wiki/Sultanate_of_Bagirmi" title="Sultanate of Bagirmi">Sultanate of Bagirmi</a> were likewise enslaved by the <a href="/wiki/List_of_rulers_of_Wadai" title="List of rulers of Wadai">ruler of Wadai</a> around 1800.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClarence-Smith200643–44-45">[40]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Social_rights">Social rights</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_concubinage_in_the_Muslim_world&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Social rights">edit</a>]</div> Islamic law obliged slave owners to provide their female slaves with food, clothing, and shelter, and gave female slaves protection from sexual exploitation by anyone who was not their owner.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMyrne2019222–223-46">[41]</a> If she bore her master a child and if he accepted paternity she could obtain the position of an <a href="/wiki/Umm_walad" class="mw-redirect" title="Umm walad">Umm walad</a>. Separately, if someone bought a woman with child, they could not be separated until, according to <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Abi_Zayd_al-Qayrawani" title="Ibn Abi Zayd al-Qayrawani">Ibn Abi Zayd</a>, the child was six years old.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBellagambaGreeneKlein201624-47">[42]</a> However, while slave concubines could rise to positions of influence, these position did not legally protect them from forced labour, forced marriage and sex, and even elite slaves were still traded as chattel.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMyrne2019222–223-46">[41]</a> As sexual commodities, female slaves were, in some historical periods, not allowed to cover themselves in the fashion of free women.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKamrava2011193-48">[43]</a> The Caliph <a href="/wiki/Umar" title="Umar">Umar</a> prohibited slave girls from resembling free women and forbade them from covering their face.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbou_El_Fadl2014198-49">[44]</a> Slave women were also not required to cover their arms, hair or legs below the knees.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbou_El_Fadl2006198-50">[45]</a> Myrne writes Islamic jurists required female slaves to cover their whole body (except face and hands).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMyrne2019218-51">[46]</a> There is disagreement over what Hanafi jurists allowed: according to <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Abidin" title="Ibn Abidin">Ibn Abidin</a> most Hanafi scholars did not allow the exposure of a female slave's body (including chest or back),<a href="#cite_note-52">[47]</a> but Myrne writes they allowed this in the case of potential male buyers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMyrne2019218-51">[46]</a> <a href="/wiki/Amira_Bennison" title="Amira Bennison">Amira Bennison</a> writes that, during the Abbasid period, male buyers could not in practice examine female slaves (except her face and hands), but could request her examination by other women.<a href="#cite_note-53">[48]</a> In accordance with their lesser status, if a slave fornicated they received less punishment than a free woman. Female slaves could also be traded freely among many men, with few, if any, apparent restrictions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAfary200981–82-54">[49]</a> While bearing a master's child could lead to freedom for a slave-girl, the motive that this gave female slaves to have sex with their owners was a cause of regular opposition to concubinage from free wives, and early moral stories depicted wives as the victims of concubinage.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClarence-Smith200681-55">[50]</a> While a free Muslim woman was considered to be a man's honour, a slave-girl was merely property and not a man's honour.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBouachrine20148-56">[51]</a> Medieval Muslim literature and legal documents show that those female slaves whose main use was for sexual purposes were distinguished in markets from those whose primary use was for domestic duties. The term suriyya was used for female slaves with whom masters enjoyed sexual relations. The Arabic term surriyya has been widely translated in Western scholarship as "concubine"<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELayish331-57">[52]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrown201970-58">[53]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERobinson90-59">[54]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERedaAmin228-60">[55]</a> or "slave concubine".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrown201970-58">[53]</a> In other texts they are referred to as "slaves for pleasure" or "slave-girls for sexual intercourse".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMyrne2019196–197-61">[56]</a> It was not a secure status as the <a href="/wiki/Concubinage" title="Concubinage">concubine</a> could be traded as long as the master had not impregnated her.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAli2015a50–51-62">[57]</a> Many female slaves became <a href="/wiki/Islamic_views_on_concubinage" title="Islamic views on concubinage">concubines</a> to their owners and bore their children. Others were just used for sex before being transferred. The allowance for men to use contraception with female slaves assisted in thwarting unwanted pregnancies.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMyrne2019196–197-61">[56]</a> Withdrawal before ejaculation (<a href="/wiki/Coitus_interruptus" title="Coitus interruptus">azl</a>) did not require the consent of the slave.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAli2017-63">[58]</a> Islamic law and Sunni ulama historically recognised two categories of concubines.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClarence-Smith200622-13">[11]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Umm_walad">Umm walad</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_concubinage_in_the_Muslim_world&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Umm walad">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Umm_walad" class="mw-redirect" title="Umm walad">Umm walad</a></div> Umm walad (<a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a>: أم ولد, <a href="/wiki/Literal_translation" title="Literal translation">lit.</a> 'mother of the child') was the title given to a slave-<a href="/wiki/Concubine" class="mw-redirect" title="Concubine">concubine</a> in the Muslim world after she had born her master a child. She could not be sold, and became automatically free on her master's death.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowen192813-64">[59]</a><a href="#cite_note-Oxford-65">[60]</a> The offspring of an umm walad were free and considered legitimate children of their father, including full rights of name and inheritance.<a href="#cite_note-Oxford-65">[60]</a> The Sunni law schools disagreements existed among some of the four major schools of Sunni law regarding the concubine's entitlement to this status. <a href="/wiki/Hanafi" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanafi">Hanafi jurists</a> state that the umm walad status is contingent on the master acknowledging paternity of the child. If he does not accept that he is the father of the child then both the mother and child remain slaves. <a href="/wiki/Maliki" class="mw-redirect" title="Maliki">Maliki jurists</a> ruled that the concubine becomes entitled to the status of umm walad even if her master did not acknowledge that the child is his.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrockopp2000195–196-66">[61]</a> This is decidedly different from the case of enslaved women who bore children to their masters in Mediterranean Christian cultures: there the child retained the same slave status as his mother.<a href="#cite_note-67">[f]</a> The offspring of slave relationships could rise to great eminence, with no prejudice attached to their origins: most of the <a href="/wiki/Caliph" class="mw-redirect" title="Caliph">caliphs</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasid Caliphate</a> were born from relationships with enslaved concubines as were half of the <a href="/wiki/Twelver_Shi%27ism" title="Twelver Shi'ism">imams of Imami Shi'ism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-68">[g]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sexual_consent">Sexual consent</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_concubinage_in_the_Muslim_world&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Sexual consent">edit</a>]</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gustave_L%C3%A9onard_de_Jonghe_-_The_Afternoon_Siesta.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Gustave_L%C3%A9onard_de_Jonghe_-_The_Afternoon_Siesta.jpg/300px-Gustave_L%C3%A9onard_de_Jonghe_-_The_Afternoon_Siesta.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="225" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Gustave_L%C3%A9onard_de_Jonghe_-_The_Afternoon_Siesta.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="300" /></a><figcaption>A Reclining Odalisque, painted by <a href="/wiki/Gustave_L%C3%A9onard_de_Jonghe" title="Gustave Léonard de Jonghe">Gustave Léonard de Jonghe</a>, c. 1870</figcaption></figure> Classical Islamic family law generally recognized marriage and the creation of a master–slave relationship as the two legal instruments rendering permissible sexual relations between people and classical Islamic jurists made an analogy between the marriage contract and sale of concubines. They state that the factor of male ownership in both is what makes sex lawful with both a wife and female slave.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEQuraishi-Landes2016178-69">[62]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAli2017-63">[58]</a> Hina Azam notes that in certain interpretations of Islamic law "coercion within marriage or concubinage may be repugnant, but it remained fundamentally legal".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAzam201569-70">[63]</a> According to <a href="/wiki/Kecia_Ali" title="Kecia Ali">Kecia Ali</a>, the Qurʾanic passages on slavery differ strikingly in terms of their terminology and main preoccupations compared to the jurisprudential texts, that the text of the Qurʾan does not permit sexual access simply by the virtue of her being a milk al-yamīn or concubine while the "Jurists define zina as vaginal intercourse between a man and a woman who is neither his wife nor his slave. Though seldom discussed, forced sex with one's wife might (or, depending on the circumstances, might not) be an ethical infraction, and conceivably even a legal one like assault if physical violence is involved. One might speculate that the same is true of forced sex with a slave. This scenario is never, however, illicit in the jurists' conceptual world".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAli2017-63">[58]</a> Responding to a query about whether a man can be forced to have intercourse or if it is obligatory for him to have intercourse with his wife or concubine, Imam <a href="/wiki/Al-Shafi%CA%BDi" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Shafiʽi">Al-Shafiʽi</a> stated "If he has only one wife or an additional concubine with whom he has intercourse, he is commanded to fear Allah Almighty and to not harm her in regards to intercourse, although nothing specific is obligated upon him. He is only obligated to provide what benefits her such as financial maintenance, residence, clothing, and spending the night with her. As for intercourse, its position is one of pleasure and no one can be forced into it."<a href="#cite_note-71">[64]</a><a href="#cite_note-72">[65]</a> The statement is sometimes popularly misunderstood to concern the consent of enslaved women.<a href="#cite_note-73">[66]</a> Another viewpoint is of Rabb Intisar, who argues that according to the Quran, sexual relations with a concubine were subject to both parties' consent.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIntisar152-74">[67]</a> Similarly <a href="/wiki/Tamara_Sonn" title="Tamara Sonn">Tamara Sonn</a> writes that consent of a concubine was necessary for sexual relations.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESonn201518-75">[68]</a> However, according to Kecia Ali, the Qurʾanic passages on slavery differ strikingly in terms of their terminology and main preoccupations compared to the jurisprudential texts, that the text of the Qurʾan does not permit sexual access simply by the virtue of her being a milk al-yamīn or concubine while among jurists notes that such views are not found in any pre-modern classical Islamic legal text between the 8th to 10th centuries, as there is no discussion about the topic of consent.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAli2017148-76">[69]</a> <a href="/wiki/Jonathan_A._C._Brown" title="Jonathan A. C. Brown">Jonathan Brown</a> argues that the modern conception of sexual consent only came about since the 1970s, so it makes little sense to project it backwards onto classical Islamic law. Brown notes that premodern Muslim jurists rather applied the <a href="/wiki/Harm_principle" title="Harm principle">harm principle</a> to judge sexual misconduct, including between a master and concubine.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrown2019282–283-77">[70]</a> He further states that historically, concubines could complain to judges if they were being sexually abused and that scholars like <a href="/wiki/Al-Bah%C5%ABt%C4%AB" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Bahūtī">al-Bahūtī</a> require a master to set his concubine free if he injures her during sex.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrown201996-78">[71]</a> All four law schools also have a consensus that the master can marry off his female slave to someone else without her consent. A master can also practice coitus interruptus during sex with his female slave without her permission.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAli2017149-79">[72]</a> A man having sex with someone else's female slave constitutes <a href="/wiki/Zina" title="Zina">zina</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAli2017150-80">[73]</a> According to <a href="/wiki/Imam_Shafi%27i" class="mw-redirect" title="Imam Shafi'i">Imam Shafi'i</a>, if someone other than the master coerces a slave-girl to have sex, the rapist will be required to pay compensation to her master.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAli201176-81">[74]</a> If a man marries off his own female slave and has sex with her even though he is then no longer allowed to have sexual intercourse with her, that sex is still considered a lesser offence than zina and the jurists say he must not be punished. It is noteworthy that while formulating this ruling, it is the slave woman's marriage and not her consent which is an issue.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAli2017150-80">[73]</a> <dl><dt>Conversion of pagans</dt></dl> Islam prohibited sexual relations between Muslim men and pagan female captives.<a href="#cite_note-Fri107-82">[75]</a> In the early Muslim period, this appeared to delegitimize Muslim captors who wished to form relationships with female captives. To resolve this, coercion into Islam was tacitly permitted. <a href="/wiki/Ahmad_ibn_Hanbal" title="Ahmad ibn Hanbal">Ibn Hanbal</a> noted that if idolatrous women could be coerced into becoming Muslim, sexual relations with them were permissible, while if they did not embrace Islam, they could be used as servants, but not for sexual relations.<a href="#cite_note-Fri107-82">[75]</a> <a href="/wiki/Hasan_al-Basri" title="Hasan al-Basri">Hasan al-Basri</a> recalled that Muslims achieved this objective through various methods, including pointing a pagan slave-girl towards the <a href="/wiki/Kaaba" title="Kaaba">Kaaba</a>, ordering them to recite the <a href="/wiki/Shahada" title="Shahada">shahada</a> and perform an <a href="/wiki/Wudu" title="Wudu">ablution</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Fri107-82">[75]</a> Other scholars specified that slave-girls must be taught to pray and perform ablutions by themselves before being considered eligible for sexual relations.<a href="#cite_note-Fri107-82">[75]</a><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Qayyim" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibn Qayyim">Ibn Qayyim</a> argued that conversion of polytheist women to Islam was not necessary for sexual relations with her.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFriedmann2003176–178-83">[76]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Practice_in_the_Middle_East_&_Europe">Practice in the Middle East & Europe</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_concubinage_in_the_Muslim_world&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Practice in the Middle East & Europe">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:V.M._Doroshevich-East_and_War-Harem_enhaced.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/V.M._Doroshevich-East_and_War-Harem_enhaced.jpg/220px-V.M._Doroshevich-East_and_War-Harem_enhaced.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="129" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/V.M._Doroshevich-East_and_War-Harem_enhaced.jpg/330px-V.M._Doroshevich-East_and_War-Harem_enhaced.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/V.M._Doroshevich-East_and_War-Harem_enhaced.jpg/440px-V.M._Doroshevich-East_and_War-Harem_enhaced.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1711" data-file-height="1003" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Harem" title="Harem">Harem</a>, by <a href="/wiki/Vlas_Doroshevich" title="Vlas Doroshevich">Doroshevich</a>, c. 1905</figcaption></figure> While Muslim cultures acknowledged concubinage, as well as polygamy, as a man's legal right, in reality, these were usually practiced only by the royalty and elite sections of society.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERodriguez2011203-17">[15]</a> The large-scale availability of women for sexual slavery had a strong influence on Muslim thought, even though the "<a href="/wiki/Harem" title="Harem">harem</a>" culture of the elite was not mirrored by most of the Muslim population.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAli2015a41-84">[77]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_Islam">Early Islam</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_concubinage_in_the_Muslim_world&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Early Islam">edit</a>]</div> Concubinage was rare in Arabia in the period immediate preceding the advent of Islam. One analysis of the information found there were only a few cases of children being born from concubines in the time of Muhammad's father and grandfather.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMajied201716–17-85">[78]</a> With the <a href="/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests" title="Early Muslim conquests">early Muslim conquests</a>, concubinage expanded rapidly as a practice due to the wealth and power they brought to the Quraysh tribes.<a href="#cite_note-87">[h]</a> Due to these conquests, a large number of female slaves became available and births from concubines arose.<a href="#cite_note-Maj11-88">[80]</a> A study of the Arab genealogical text Nasab Quraysh records the maternity of 3,000 <a href="/wiki/Quraysh" title="Quraysh">Quraishi</a> tribesmen, most of whom lived in between 500 and 750 CE. The data shows that there was a massive increase in the number of children born to concubines with the emergence of Islam.<a href="#cite_note-Maj11-88">[80]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Women_of_Hawazin">Women of Hawazin</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_concubinage_in_the_Muslim_world&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Women of Hawazin">edit</a>]</div> The Banu <a href="/wiki/Thaqif" class="mw-redirect" title="Thaqif">Thaqif</a> and Banu <a href="/wiki/Hawazin" title="Hawazin">Hawazin</a> tribes decided to go to war against Muhammad under the leadership of <a href="/wiki/Malik_ibn_Awf" title="Malik ibn Awf">Malik ibn Awf</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Mub259-89">[81]</a> Malik had the unfortunate idea of bringing the women, children and livestock with his army.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESaron1986266-90">[82]</a> He believed that by bringing their women and children with the army, all his soldiers would fight more courageously to defend them. The Muslim army defeated the Hawazin and captured their women and children and the pagan soldiers fled. The war booty which the Muslims obtained was 24,000 camels, more than 40,000 goats, 160,000 dirhams worth of silver and 6,000 women and children.<a href="#cite_note-Mub259-89">[81]</a> Muhammad waited for the Hawazin to come to him to reclaim their families and properties. However, none of them came. Finally, Muhammad distributed the war booty among the Muslim soldiers.<a href="#cite_note-Mub259-89">[81]</a> Anecdotes include those of one woman was given to <a href="/wiki/Abd_al-Rahman_ibn_Awf" title="Abd al-Rahman ibn Awf">Abd al-Rahman ibn Awf</a> who resisted having sexual intercourse with her until her menses were over and then he had sex with her by virtue of her being his property. Jubayr bin Mu'tim also received a slave girl, who was not impregnated. <a href="/wiki/Talhah" class="mw-redirect" title="Talhah">Talha ibn Ubaydullah</a> had sexual intercourse with the female captive given to him. <a href="/wiki/Abu_Ubaidah_ibn_al-Jarrah" class="mw-redirect" title="Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah">Abu Ubaydah ibn Jarrah</a> impregnated the slave girl he was given.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFaizer2013462-91">[83]</a> A delegation from the Hawazin tribe came to Muhammad and converted to Islam. Muhammad granted a general pardon against those who fought the Muslims at Hunayn. Muhammad returned their women and children and their properties to them.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIbn_Rashid201568-92">[84]</a> The girl who had been given to Abd al-Rahman ibn Awf was given a choice to stay with him or return to her family. She chose her family. Likewise, the girls given to Talha, Uthman, <a href="/wiki/Abd_Allah_ibn_Umar_ibn_al-Khattab" title="Abd Allah ibn Umar ibn al-Khattab">Ibn Umar</a> and Safwan bin Umayya were also returned to their families.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFaizer2013466-93">[85]</a> Zaynab chose to return to her husband and cousin.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIbn_al-Athir1998-94">[86]</a> However, the girl who had been given to <a href="/wiki/Sa%27d_ibn_Abi_Waqqas" title="Sa'd ibn Abi Waqqas">Saad ibn Abi Waqas</a> chose to stay with him. Uyanya had taken an old woman. Her son approached him to ransom her for 100 camels. The old woman asked her son why would he pay 100 camels when Uyanya would leave her anyway without taking ransom. This angered Uyanya.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFaizer2013466-93">[85]</a> Uyaynah had earlier said at the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Ta%27if" title="Siege of Ta'if">Siege of Ta'if</a> that he only came to fight for Muhammad so he could get a <a href="/wiki/Banu_Thaqif" title="Banu Thaqif">Thaqif girl</a> and impregnate her so that she might bear him a son because Thaqif are clever (or fortunate) people.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAl-Tabari199025-95">[87]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFaizer2013459-96">[88]</a> When Umar told Muhammad about Uyayna's comment, Muhammad smiled and said "[The man exhibits] an acceptable foolishness".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAl-Tabari199026-97">[89]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFaizer2013459-96">[88]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Umayyad_Caliphate">Umayyad Caliphate</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_concubinage_in_the_Muslim_world&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Umayyad Caliphate">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Slavery in the Umayyad Caliphate">Slavery in the Umayyad Caliphate</a></div> The expansion of concubinage <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Slavery in the Umayyad Caliphate">under the Umayyad period</a> was motivated mainly by the <a href="/wiki/Umayyad" class="mw-redirect" title="Umayyad">Umayyad</a> tribal desire for sons rather than sanction for it in the Quran and Prophetic practice.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERobinson2020107-98">[90]</a> Concubinage was allowed among the Sassanian elites and the Mazdeans but the children from such unions were not necessarily regarded as legitimate.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERobinson202096–97-99">[91]</a> The position of Jewish communities is unclear although slave concubinage is mentioned in Biblical texts. Apparently, the practice had declined long before Muhammad. Some Jewish scholars during Islamic rule would forbid Jews from having sex with their female slaves.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERobinson202096–97-99">[91]</a> Leo III in his letter to Umar II accused Muslims of "debauchery" with their concubines who they would sell "like dumb cattle" after having tired of using them.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERobinson202096–97-99">[91]</a> One Umayyad ruler, <a href="/wiki/Abd_al-Rahman_III" title="Abd al-Rahman III">Abd al-Rahman III</a>, was known to have possessed more than 6000 concubines.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClarence-Smith200689-100">[92]</a> The hajin half-Arab sons of Muslim Arab men and their slave concubines were viewed differently depending on the ethnicity of their mothers. Abduh Badawi noted that "there was a consensus that the most unfortunate of the hajins and the lowest in social status were those to whom blackness had passed from their mothers", since a son of African mother more visibly recognizable as non-Arab than the son of a white slave mother, and consequently "son of a black woman" was used as an insult, while "son of a white woman" was used as a praise and as boasting.<a href="#cite_note-101">[93]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Abbasid_Caliphate">Abbasid Caliphate</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_concubinage_in_the_Muslim_world&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Abbasid Caliphate">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Slavery in the Abbasid Caliphate">Slavery in the Abbasid Caliphate</a></div> The royals and nobles during the <a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasid Caliphate</a> kept <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Slavery in the Abbasid Caliphate">large numbers of concubines</a>. The Caliph <a href="/wiki/Harun_al-Rashid" title="Harun al-Rashid">Harun al-Rashid</a> possessed hundreds of concubines <a href="/wiki/Abbasid_harem" title="Abbasid harem">in his harem</a>. The Caliph <a href="/wiki/Al-Mutawakkil" title="Al-Mutawakkil">al-Mutawakkil</a> was reported to have owned four thousand concubines.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClarence-Smith200689-100">[92]</a> Slaves for pleasure were costly and were a luxury for wealthy men. In his sex manual, Ali ibn Nasr promoted experimental sex with female slaves on the basis that free wives were respectable and would feel humiliated by the use of the sex positions described in his book because they show low esteem and a lack of love from the man.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMyrne2019203-20">[18]</a> Women preferred that their husbands keep concubines instead of taking a second wife. This was because a co-wife represented a greater threat to their position. Owning many concubines was perhaps more common than having several wives.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMyrne2019206-102">[94]</a> The child of a slave was born in to slavery unless an enslaver chose to awknowledge the child of a slave as his. A male enslaver could choose to officially awknowledge his son with his concubine if he wished to do so. If he choose to do so, the child would be automatically manumitted. During the preceding Umayyad dynasty, sons born of wives and sons born of female slaves where not treated as equals: while the Umayyad Caliphs could awknowledge their sons with slave concubines, slave sons where not considered suitable as heirs to the throne until during the Abbasid dynasty.<a href="#cite_note-103">[95]</a> During the Abbasid dynasty, a number of Caliphs where the awknowledged sons of slave concubines. During the Abbasid era, appointing the acknowledged sons of slave concubines as heirs became common, and from the 9th-century onward, acquiring male heirs through a slave concubine became a common custom for Abbasid citizens.<a href="#cite_note-104">[96]</a> If a man choose to awknowledge the child of a female slave as his, the slave mother became an <a href="/wiki/Umm_walad" class="mw-redirect" title="Umm walad">umm walad</a>. This meant that they could no longer sold and where to become manumitted upon the death of their enslaver; during the first centuries of Islam, umm walad-slaves where still bought and sold and rented out until the death of their enslaver, but during the Abbasid era this slowly stopped.<a href="#cite_note-105">[97]</a> Female slaves were graded sexually depending on their race by contemporary slave dealers and authors. <a href="/wiki/Jabir_ibn_Hayyan" title="Jabir ibn Hayyan">Jābir ibn Ḥayyān</a> wrote in the 9th-century: <dl><dd>"Byzantines have cleaner vaginas than other female slaves have. Andalusians […] are the most beautiful, sweet-smelling and receptive to learning […] Andalusians and Byzantines have the cleanest vaginas, whereas Alans (Lāniyyāt) and Turks have unclean vaginas and get pregnant easier. They have also the worst dispositions. Sindhis, Indians, and Slavs (Ṣaqāliba) and those similar to them are the most condemned. They have uglier faces, fouler odor, and are more spiteful. Besides, they are unintelligent and difficult to control, and have unclean vaginas. East Africans (Zanj) are the most heedless and coarse. If one finds a beautiful, sound and graceful woman among them, however, no their species can match her. […] Women from Mecca (Makkiyāt) are the most beautiful and pleasurable of all types."<a href="#cite_note-doi.org-106">[98]</a></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Al-Andalus_empires">Al-Andalus empires</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_concubinage_in_the_Muslim_world&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Al-Andalus empires">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Al-Andalus" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in Al-Andalus">Slavery in Al-Andalus</a></div> In <a href="/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus">Al-Andalus</a>, the concubines of the <a href="/wiki/Almoravid" class="mw-redirect" title="Almoravid">Almoravid</a> and <a href="/wiki/Almohad" class="mw-redirect" title="Almohad">Almohad</a> Muslim elite were usually non-Muslim women from the Christian areas of the <a href="/wiki/Iberian_Peninsula" title="Iberian Peninsula">Iberian peninsula</a>. Many of these had been captured in raids or wars and were then gifted to the elite Muslim soldiers as war booty or were <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_al-Andalus" title="Slavery in al-Andalus">sold as slaves</a> in Muslim markets.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennison2016155–156-107">[99]</a> In Muslim society in general, <a href="/wiki/Monogamy" title="Monogamy">monogamy</a> was common because keeping multiple wives and concubines was not affordable for many households. The practice of keeping concubines was common in the Muslim upper class. Muslim rulers preferred having children with concubines because it helped them avoid the social and political complexities arising from marriage and kept their lineages separate from the other lineages in society.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennison2016155–156-107">[99]</a> In the 11th century, Christian forces in Al-Andalus captured Muslim women in turn, and included eight-year-old Muslim virgins as part of their war booty.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGleave2015171-108">[100]</a> and kept them as concubines.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchaus2006593-109">[101]</a> When <a href="/wiki/Granada" title="Granada">Granada</a> passed from Muslim rule to Christian rule, thousands of Moorish women were enslaved and trafficked to Europe.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECapern201922-110">[102]</a> Muslim families tried to ransom their daughters, mothers and wives who had been captured and enslaved.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESalzmann2013397-111">[103]</a> For both Christians and Muslims, the capture of women from the other religion was a show of power, while the capture and sexual use of their own women by men of the other religion was a cause of shame.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennison2016155–156-107">[99]</a> The most famous of the Andalusian harems was perhaps the harem of the <a href="/wiki/Caliph_of_Cordoba" class="mw-redirect" title="Caliph of Cordoba">Caliph of Cordoba</a>. Except for the female relatives of the Caliph, the harem women consisted of his slave concubines. The slaves of the Caliph were often European <a href="/wiki/Saqaliba" title="Saqaliba">saqaliba</a> slaves trafficked from Northern or Eastern Europe. While male saqaliba could be given work in a number offices such as: in the kitchen, falconry, mint, textile workshops, the administration or the royal guard (in the case of harem guards, they were castrated), but female saqaliba were placed in the harem.<a href="#cite_note-112">[104]</a> The harem could contain thousands of slave concubines; the harem of <a href="/wiki/Abd_al-Rahman_I" title="Abd al-Rahman I">Abd al-Rahman I</a> consisted of 6,300 women.<a href="#cite_note-113">[105]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Saqaliba" title="Saqaliba">saqaliba</a> concubines were appreciated for their light skin.<a href="#cite_note-Reference0-114">[106]</a> The concubines (<a href="/wiki/Jawaris" class="mw-redirect" title="Jawaris">jawaris</a>) were educated in accomplishments to make them attractive and useful for their master, and many became known and respected for their knowledge in a variety of subjects from music to medicine.<a href="#cite_note-Reference0-114">[106]</a> A <a href="/wiki/Jawaris" class="mw-redirect" title="Jawaris">jawaris</a> concubine who gave birth to a child attained the status of an <a href="/wiki/Umm_walad" class="mw-redirect" title="Umm walad">umm walad</a>, and a favorite concubine was given great luxury and honorary titles such as in the case of Marjan, who gave birth to <a href="/wiki/Al-Hakam_II" title="Al-Hakam II">al-Hakam II</a>, the heir of <a href="/wiki/Abd_al-Rahman_III" title="Abd al-Rahman III">Abd al-Rahman III</a>; he called her al-sayyida al-kubra (great lady).<a href="#cite_note-115">[107]</a> Several concubines were known to have had great influence through their masters or their sons, notably <a href="/wiki/Subh_of_Cordoba" class="mw-redirect" title="Subh of Cordoba">Subh</a> during the Caliphate of Cordoba, and <a href="/wiki/Isabel_de_Sol%C3%ADs" title="Isabel de Solís">Isabel de Solís</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Emirate_of_Granada" title="Emirate of Granada">Emirate of Granada</a>. However, concubines were always slaves subjected the will of their master. Caliph Abd al-Rahman III is known to have executed two concubines for reciting what he saw as inappropriate verses, and tortured another concubine with a burning candle in her face while she was held by two eunuchs after she refused sexual intercourse.<a href="#cite_note-1GMzy-116">[108]</a> The concubines of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Abu_Marwan_al-Tubni&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Abu Marwan al-Tubni (page does not exist)">Abu Marwan al-Tubni</a> (d. 1065) were reportedly so badly treated that they conspired to murder him; women of the harem were also known to have been subjected to rape when rivaling factions conquered different palaces.<a href="#cite_note-1GMzy-116">[108]</a> The rulers of the <a href="/wiki/Nasrid_dynasty" title="Nasrid dynasty">Nasrid dynasty</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Emirate_of_Granada" title="Emirate of Granada">Emirate of Granada</a> (1232–1492) customarily married their cousins, but also kept <a href="/wiki/Islamic_views_on_concubinage" title="Islamic views on concubinage">slave concubines</a> in accordance with Islamic custom. The identity of these concubines is unknown, but they were originally Christian women (rūmiyyas) bought or captured in expeditions in the Christian states of Northern Spain, and given a new name when they entered the royal harem.<a href="#cite_note-117">[109]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Islamic_Egypt">Islamic Egypt</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_concubinage_in_the_Muslim_world&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Islamic Egypt">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:A_slave_market_in_Cairo-David_Roberts.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/A_slave_market_in_Cairo-David_Roberts.jpg/220px-A_slave_market_in_Cairo-David_Roberts.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/A_slave_market_in_Cairo-David_Roberts.jpg/330px-A_slave_market_in_Cairo-David_Roberts.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/A_slave_market_in_Cairo-David_Roberts.jpg/440px-A_slave_market_in_Cairo-David_Roberts.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1146" data-file-height="860" /></a><figcaption>A slave market in <a href="/wiki/Cairo" title="Cairo">Cairo</a>, issued between 1845 and 1849, by <a href="/wiki/David_Roberts_(painter)" title="David Roberts (painter)">David Roberts (painter)</a>.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Egypt" title="Slavery in Egypt">Slavery in Egypt</a></div> The consorts of the Caliphs of the <a href="/wiki/Fatimid_Caliphate" title="Fatimid Caliphate">Fatimid Caliphate</a> (909-1171) were originally slave-girls whom the Caliph either married or used as <a href="/wiki/Concubinage_in_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Concubinage in Islam">concubines (sex slaves)</a>.<a href="#cite_note-118">[110]</a> The concubines in the <a href="/wiki/Fatimid_harem" title="Fatimid harem">Fatimid harem</a> were in most cases of Christian origin, described as beautiful singers, dancers and musicians; they were often the subject of love poems, but also frequently accused of manipulating the Caliph.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECorteseCalderini200676-119">[111]</a> The consorts of the Sultans of the <a href="/wiki/Bahri_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Bahri dynasty">Bahri dynasty</a> (1250–1382) were originally slave girls. The female slaves were supplied to the <a href="/wiki/Bahri_harem" class="mw-redirect" title="Bahri harem">Bahri harem</a> by the slave trade as children; they could be trained to perform as singers and dancers in the harem, and some were selected to serve as <a href="/wiki/Concubinage_in_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Concubinage in Islam">concubines (sex slaves)</a> of the Sultan, who in some cases chose to marry them.<a href="#cite_note-Fu6kl-120">[112]</a> During the <a href="/wiki/Burji_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Burji dynasty">Burji dynasty</a> (1382–1517) the ruler of the Mamluk Sultanate often married free Muslim women of the Mamluk nobility. However, the Burji harem, as its predecessor, maintained the custom of slave concubinage, with <a href="/wiki/Circassian_slave_trade" class="mw-redirect" title="Circassian slave trade">Circassian slave girls</a> being popular as concubines in the <a href="/wiki/Burji_harem" class="mw-redirect" title="Burji harem">Burji harem</a>.<a href="#cite_note-dyntran.hypotheses.org-121">[113]</a> Sultan <a href="/wiki/Qaitbay" title="Qaitbay">Qaitbay</a> (r. 1468–1496) had a favorite Circassian slave concubine, <a href="/wiki/A%E1%B9%A3alb%C4%81y" title="Aṣalbāy">Aṣalbāy</a>, who became the mother of Sultan <a href="/wiki/Al-Nasir_Muhammad" title="Al-Nasir Muhammad">Al-Nasir Muhammad</a> (r. 1496–1498) and later married Sultan <a href="/wiki/Al-Ashraf_Janbalat" title="Al-Ashraf Janbalat">Al-Ashraf Janbalat</a> (r. 1500–1501).<a href="#cite_note-dyntran.hypotheses.org-121">[113]</a> Her daughter-in-law, Miṣirbāy (d. 1522), a former Circassian slave concubine, married in succession Sultan <a href="/wiki/Al-Nasir_Muhammad" title="Al-Nasir Muhammad">Al-Nasir Muhammad</a> (r. 1496–1498), sultan <a href="/wiki/Abu_Sa%27id_Qansuh" title="Abu Sa'id Qansuh">Abu Sa'id Qansuh</a> (r. 1498–1500), and in 1517 the Ottoman Governor <a href="/wiki/Hay%C4%B1r_Bey" title="Hayır Bey">Khā’ir Bek</a>.<a href="#cite_note-dyntran.hypotheses.org-121">[113]</a> The Mamluk governor of <a href="/wiki/Baghdad" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a>, Umar Pasha, died childless because his wife prevented him from having a concubine.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClarence-Smith200681-55">[50]</a> Writing in the early 18th century, one visitor noted that from among the Ottoman courtiers, only the imperial treasurer kept female slaves for sex and others thought of him as a lustful person.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKia2011199-122">[114]</a> <a href="/wiki/Edward_William_Lane" title="Edward William Lane">Edward Lane</a>, who visited Egypt in the 1830s, noted that very few Egyptian men were polygamous and most of the men with only one wife did not keep concubines, usually for the sake of domestic peace. However, some kept Abyssinian slaves who were less costly than maintaining a wife. While white slave-girls would be in the keep of wealthy Turks, the concubines kept by upper and middle class Egyptians were usually Abyssinians.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELewis199274-123">[115]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Harem_of_the_Muhammad_Ali_dynasty" title="Harem of the Muhammad Ali dynasty">harem of the Muhammad Ali dynasty</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Khedivate_of_Egypt" title="Khedivate of Egypt">Khedivate of Egypt</a> (1805–1914) was modelled after Ottoman example, the khedives being the Egyptian <a href="/wiki/Viceroy" title="Viceroy">viceroys</a> of the Ottoman sultans. <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Ali_of_Egypt" title="Muhammad Ali of Egypt">Muhammad Ali</a> was appointed vice roy of Egypt in 1805, and by Imperial Ottoman example assembled a harem of slave concubines in the Palace Citadel of Cairo.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECuno201531–32-124">[116]</a> Similar to the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Imperial_Harem" title="Ottoman Imperial Harem">Ottoman Imperial harem</a>, the harem of the khedive was modelled on a system of <a href="/wiki/Polygyny" title="Polygyny">polygyny</a> based on slave concubinage, in which each wife or concubine was limited to having one son.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECuno201520,_31-125">[117]</a> The women harem slaves mostly came from <a href="/wiki/Caucasus" title="Caucasus">Caucasus</a> via the <a href="/wiki/Circassian_slave_trade" class="mw-redirect" title="Circassian slave trade">Circassian slave trade</a> and were referred to as "white".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECuno201520,_25-126">[118]</a> A minority of the slave women were selected to become the personal servants (concubines) of the khedive, often selected by his mother:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECuno201534-127">[119]</a> they could become his wives, and would become free as an <a href="/wiki/Umm_walad" class="mw-redirect" title="Umm walad">umm walad</a> (or mustawlada) if they had children with their enslaver.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECuno201524-128">[120]</a> However, the majority of the slave women served as domestics to his mother and wives.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECuno201520,_42-129">[121]</a> The enslaved female servants of the khedivate harem were manumitted and married off with a trosseau in strategic marriages to the male freedmen or slaves (kul or mamluk) who were trained to become officers and civil servants as freedmen, in order to ensure the fidelity of their husband's to the khedive when they began their military or state official career.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECuno201520,_26–27-130">[122]</a> The Egyptian elite of bureaucrat families, who emulated the khedive, had similar harem customs, and it was noted that it was common for Egyptian upper-class families to have slave women in their harem, which they manumitted to marry off to male protegees.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECuno201520,_26–27-130">[122]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ottoman_Empire">Ottoman Empire</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_concubinage_in_the_Muslim_world&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Ottoman Empire">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:William_Allan_(1782-1850)_-_The_Slave_Market,_Constantinople_-_NG_2400_-_National_Galleries_of_Scotland.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/William_Allan_%281782-1850%29_-_The_Slave_Market%2C_Constantinople_-_NG_2400_-_National_Galleries_of_Scotland.jpg/220px-William_Allan_%281782-1850%29_-_The_Slave_Market%2C_Constantinople_-_NG_2400_-_National_Galleries_of_Scotland.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="142" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/William_Allan_%281782-1850%29_-_The_Slave_Market%2C_Constantinople_-_NG_2400_-_National_Galleries_of_Scotland.jpg/330px-William_Allan_%281782-1850%29_-_The_Slave_Market%2C_Constantinople_-_NG_2400_-_National_Galleries_of_Scotland.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/William_Allan_%281782-1850%29_-_The_Slave_Market%2C_Constantinople_-_NG_2400_-_National_Galleries_of_Scotland.jpg/440px-William_Allan_%281782-1850%29_-_The_Slave_Market%2C_Constantinople_-_NG_2400_-_National_Galleries_of_Scotland.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="518" /></a><figcaption>William Allan (1782–1850) - The Slave Market, Constantinople - NG 2400 - National Galleries of Scotland</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tizian_123.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Tizian_123.jpg/170px-Tizian_123.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="217" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Tizian_123.jpg/255px-Tizian_123.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Tizian_123.jpg/340px-Tizian_123.jpg 2x" data-file-width="684" data-file-height="875" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Hurrem_Sultan" class="mw-redirect" title="Hurrem Sultan">Hurrem Sultan</a> (Roxalena) was the "favorite concubine" of <a href="/wiki/Suleiman_the_Magnificent" title="Suleiman the Magnificent">Suleiman the Magnificent</a> and later his wife.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2008-131">[123]</a> Suleiman became monogamous with her, breaking Ottoman custom.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeirce199359-132">[124]</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jules_Laurens_14.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Painting of seated women, with man standing" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Jules_Laurens_14.jpg/220px-Jules_Laurens_14.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="142" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Jules_Laurens_14.jpg/330px-Jules_Laurens_14.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Jules_Laurens_14.jpg/440px-Jules_Laurens_14.jpg 2x" data-file-width="548" data-file-height="354" /></a><figcaption>Women of the Harem by <a href="/wiki/Jules_Laurens" title="Jules Laurens">Jules Laurens</a>, circa 1847</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rosati_harem-dance.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Rosati_harem-dance.jpg/220px-Rosati_harem-dance.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="135" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Rosati_harem-dance.jpg/330px-Rosati_harem-dance.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Rosati_harem-dance.jpg/440px-Rosati_harem-dance.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="1845" /></a><figcaption>The Harem Dance</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Ottoman_Empire#Ottoman_sexual_slavery" title="Slavery in the Ottoman Empire">Sexual slavery in the Ottoman Empire</a>, <a href="/wiki/Black_Sea_slave_trade" title="Black Sea slave trade">Black Sea slave trade</a>, <a href="/wiki/Circassian_slave_trade" class="mw-redirect" title="Circassian slave trade">Circassian slave trade</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Cariye" title="Cariye">Cariye</a></div> The <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Sultans" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottoman Sultans">Ottoman rulers</a> would keep hundreds, even thousands, of concubines in the <a href="/wiki/Imperial_harem" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperial harem">Imperial harem</a>. Most slaves in the Ottoman harem comprised women who had been kidnapped from Christian lands via the <a href="/wiki/Barbary_slave_trade" title="Barbary slave trade">Barbary slave trade</a> or the <a href="/wiki/Crimean_slave_trade" class="mw-redirect" title="Crimean slave trade">Crimean slave trade</a>. Some had been abducted during raids by the <a href="/wiki/Tatars" title="Tatars">Tatars</a> while others had been captured by maritime pirates.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArd_Boone201858-133">[125]</a> Female war captives were often turned into concubines for the Ottoman rulers. Ambitious slave families associated with the palace would also frequently offer their daughters up as concubines.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERodriguez2011203–204-134">[126]</a> The most highly desired slave-concubines in the Muslim world were not African women, but white girls, typically of Circassian or Georgian origin. However, they were very expensive.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiers197556-135">[127]</a> Both Circassian and <a href="/wiki/Georgians" title="Georgians">Georgian</a> women were systematically trafficked to eastern harems. This practice lasted into the 1890s.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERodriguez2011203–204-134">[126]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYelbasi201914-136">[128]</a> <a href="/wiki/Fynes_Moryson" title="Fynes Moryson">Fynes Moryson</a> noted that some Muslim men would keep their wives in various cities while others would keep them in a single house and would keep adding as many women as their lusts permitted. He wrote that "They buy free women to be their wives, or they buy 'conquered women' at a lesser price to be their concubines."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWitte2015283-137">[129]</a> Ottoman society had provided avenues for men who wished to have extramarital sex. They could either marry more wives while wealthy men could possess slaves and use them for sex.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKia2011206-138">[130]</a> Since the late 1300s Ottoman sultans would only permit heirs born from concubines to inherit their throne. Each concubine was only permitted to have one son. Once a concubine would bear a son she would spend the rest of her life plotting in favour of her son. If her son was to successfully become the next Sultan, she would become an unquestionable ruler. After the 1450s the Sultans stopped marrying altogether. Because of this there was great surprise when Sultan Sulayman fell in love with his concubine and married her. An Ottoman Sultan would have sexual relationships with only some women from his large collection of slave girls. This meant that a lot of the concubines were not given a family life if they were not desired by the Sultan. This effectively meant these women would have to spend the rest of their lives in virtual imprisonment. Some of these women would break the sharia by having <a href="/wiki/Lesbian" title="Lesbian">homosexual</a> relations.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClarence-Smith200689-100">[92]</a> Research into Ottoman records show that polygamy was absent or rare in the 16th and 17th centuries.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIrwin2010531-139">[131]</a> Concubinage and polygamy were quite uncommon outside the elite. <a href="/wiki/Goitein" class="mw-redirect" title="Goitein">Goitein</a> says that monogamy was a feature of the "progressive middle class" Muslims.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAhmed1992107–-140">[132]</a> In Sudan "By the Turco-Egyptian period, slave-owners represented a broad range of the socio-economic spectrum, and slave-owning was no longer a confine of the rich. A man of average wealth may have enjoyed the comfort that a few slaves brought, but would not have had a harem of the type mentioned above. Instead, in this context, the slave woman who baked the bread or looked after the children also may have received the master's sexual advances. Thus the average slave woman probably played a double role as labourer and concubine."<a href="#cite_note-141">[133]</a> Elite men were required to leave their wives and concubines if they wished to marry an Ottoman princess.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKia2011199-122">[114]</a> Enslaved European men also narrated accounts of women who "apostasised". The life stories of these women were similar to <a href="/wiki/Hurrem_Sultan" class="mw-redirect" title="Hurrem Sultan">Roxelana</a>, who rose from being a Christian slave-girl into the chief advisor of her husband, <a href="/wiki/Suleiman_the_Magnificent" title="Suleiman the Magnificent">Sultan Suleyman</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a>. There are several accounts of such women of humble birth who associated with powerful Muslim men. While the associations were initially forced, the captivity gave women a taste for access to power. Diplomats wrote with disappointment about apostate women who wielded political influence over their masters-turned-husbands. Christian male slaves also recorded the presence of authoritative convert women in Muslim families. <a href="/wiki/Christians" title="Christians">Christian</a> women who converted to Islam and then became politically assertive and tyrannical were regarded by Europeans as traitors to the faith.<a href="#cite_note-Fos57-142">[134]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Enslavement_as_a_tool_of_the_state">Enslavement as a tool of the state</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_concubinage_in_the_Muslim_world&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Enslavement as a tool of the state">edit</a>]</div> In the Ottoman Empire, repudiating the contract of dhimmah could always result in enslavement or other consequences. Rebellion was seen as the ultimate form of repudiating the contract. If non-Muslim subjects broke their contract with the Islamic state they were punished by enslavement but only with the approval of the state and in turn from the sharia.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEErdem199625–26-143">[135]</a> This practice occurred frequently in the Balkans where local Christian groups from the late 17th century onwards sided with the Austrians and Russians. This resulted in slave-taking on an ongoing basis that further alienated Christian populations.<a href="#cite_note-144">[136]</a> During the <a href="/wiki/Greek_Revolt" class="mw-redirect" title="Greek Revolt">Greek Revolt</a>, the Ottoman Empire enslaved former dhimmis. Local communities were dealt on a case-by-case basis, only those sections who had broken the contract were enslaved. The rest would not be affected as long as they retained their status as dhimmis. Rebels who had been pardoned by the state could also not be legally enslaved.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEErdem199625–26-143">[135]</a> The kadi of Ruscuk acknowledged receiving a general order in May 1821 that the enslavement of the wives and children of Greek rebels was legal because their crime had been treason. A hukum issued to the authorities in Izmir and Kusadasi endorsed the enslavement of the former dhimmis of <a href="/wiki/Samos" title="Samos">Samos</a> because they had rebelled and killed Muslims on the island.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEErdem199625–26-143">[135]</a> A Maliki scholar in late-19th-century Cairo ruled that it was legitimate to enslave or kill the Jews and Christians who broke their pacts with Muslims,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClarence-Smith200639-145">[137]</a> but <a href="/wiki/Ebussuud_Efendi" title="Ebussuud Efendi">Ebussuud Efendi</a> disagreed with the enslavement of certain dhimmis such as those who committed robbery or defaulted on their taxes.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEErdem199625–26-143">[135]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Ottoman_Empire#Sexual_slavery_in_the_Armenian_genocide" title="Slavery in the Ottoman Empire">Sexual Slavery in the Armenian genocide</a></div> During the <a href="/wiki/Armenian_genocide" title="Armenian genocide">Armenian genocide</a>, which climaxed around 1915–16, numerous Armenian women were raped and subjected to sexual slavery, with women forced into prostitution or forcibly married to non-Armenians,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDemirdjian2016126-146">[138]</a> or sold as sex slaves to military officials.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECrawford201713-147">[139]</a> International reports at the time testified to the imprisonment of Armenian women as sex slaves and the complicity of the authorities in the setting up of slave markets and sale of Armenians.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConnellanFröhlich2017141-142-148">[140]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Barbary_Coast">Barbary Coast</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_concubinage_in_the_Muslim_world&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Barbary Coast">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Barbary_slave_trade" title="Barbary slave trade">Barbary slave trade</a>, <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Morocco" title="Slavery in Morocco">Slavery in Morocco</a>, <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Algeria" title="Slavery in Algeria">Slavery in Algeria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Tunisia" title="Slavery in Tunisia">Slavery in Tunisia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Libya" title="Slavery in Libya">Slavery in Libya</a></div> During <a href="/wiki/Barbary_pirate" class="mw-redirect" title="Barbary pirate">Barbary pirate</a> raids, Muslims enslaved an estimated 50–75,000 Christian women from Europe. Muslims took the slaves of non-Muslims when they won in battle.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECapern201922-110">[102]</a><a href="#cite_note-Fos57-142">[134]</a> Many such women were consigned to household service, with some European concubines achieved significant political power through their masters. For example, one 17th-century British diplomat reported that a European concubine had become the de facto ruler of the city state of Algiers.<a href="#cite_note-Fos57-142">[134]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Vagueness" title="Wikipedia:Vagueness">vague</a>] This refer to <a href="/wiki/Mohammed_Trik" title="Mohammed Trik">Mohammed Trik</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Dey" title="Dey">Dey</a> of <a href="/wiki/Regency_of_Algiers" title="Regency of Algiers">Algiers</a>, who in an English report from 1676 is noted to have been married to his former slave concubine, described as a "cunning covetous English woman, who would sell her soule for a Bribe", with whom the English viewed it as "chargeable to bee kept in her favour... for Countrysake".<a href="#cite_note-149">[141]</a> European accounts typically condemned European concubines who converted to Islam as apostates, while praising women who bravely resisted the "depravity" of their Muslim masters.<a href="#cite_note-Fos57-142">[134]</a> This kind of writing would later give rise to the "harem fantasy" in 19th-century <a href="/wiki/Orientalism" title="Orientalism">orientalism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Fos57-142">[134]</a> French general <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Robert_Bugeaud" title="Thomas Robert Bugeaud">Thomas Robert Bugeaud</a> wrote that children of concubines in Algeria were treated the same as other children and slaves enjoyed the same lifestyle as their owners.<a href="#cite_note-150">[142]</a> In Morocco, most slaves were black,[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] and the 19th-century American journalist <a href="/wiki/Stephen_Bonsal" title="Stephen Bonsal">Stephen Bonsal</a> remarked that high ranking Moroccan officials were sons of black concubines.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Most Moroccan men remained monogamous as it was too expensive to have a concubine (or second wife),<a href="#cite_note-151">[143]</a> while wealthy Moroccan men took concubines, and the sultans had large harems.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Zanzibar">Zanzibar</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_concubinage_in_the_Muslim_world&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Zanzibar">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Zanzibar" title="Slavery in Zanzibar">Slavery in Zanzibar</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Richard_Francis_Burton" title="Richard Francis Burton">Richard Francis Burton</a> wrote "Public prostitutes are here few, and the profession ranks low where the classes upon which it depends can always afford to gratify their propensities in the slave-market."<a href="#cite_note-152">[144]</a> Abdul Sheriff writes that the foregoing suggests "the easy availability of slave secondary wives affected even the oldest profession."<a href="#cite_note-153">[145]</a> The Islamic Law formally prohibited prostitution. However, since Islamic Law allowed a man to have sexual intercourse with his female slave, prostitution was practiced by a pimp selling his female slave on the slave market to a client, who returned his ownership of her after 1–2 days on the pretext of discontent after having had intercourse with her, which was a legal and accepted method for prostitution in the Islamic world.<a href="#cite_note-154">[146]</a> In 1844 the British Consul noted that there were 400 free Arab women and 800 men in Zanzibar, and the British noted that while prostitutes were almost nonexistent, men bought "secondary wives" (slave concubines) on the slave market for sexual satisfaction; "public prostitutes are few, and the profession ranks low where the classes upon which it depends can easily afford to gratify their propensities in the slave market",<a href="#cite_note-155">[147]</a> and the US Consul Richard Waters commented in 1837 that the Arab men in Zanzibar "commit adultery and fornication by keep three or four and sometimes six and eight concubines".<a href="#cite_note-156">[148]</a> Sultan <a href="/wiki/Seyyid_Said" class="mw-redirect" title="Seyyid Said">Seyyid Said</a> replied to the British Consul that the custom was necessary, because "Arabs won't work; they must have slaves and concubines".<a href="#cite_note-157">[149]</a> The concubines of the Royal harem of Zanzibar were referred to as sarari or suria, and could be of several different ethnicities, often Ethiopian or Circassian.<a href="#cite_note-158">[150]</a> Ethiopian, Indian or Circassian (white) women were much more expensive than the majority of African women sold in the slave market in Zanzibar, and white women in particular were so expensive that they were in practice almost reserved for the royal harem.<a href="#cite_note-159">[151]</a> White slave women were called jariyeh bayza and imported to Oman and Zanzibar via Persia (Iran) and it was said that a white slave girl "soon renders the house of a moderately rich man unendurable".<a href="#cite_note-160">[152]</a> The white slave women were generally referred to as "Circassian", but this was a general term and did not specifically refer to Circassian ethnicity as such but could refer to any white women, such as Georgian or Bulgarian.<a href="#cite_note-161">[153]</a> Emily Ruete referred to all white women in the royal harem as "Circassian" as a general term, one of whom was her own mother Jilfidan, who had arrived via the <a href="/wiki/Circassian_slave_trade" class="mw-redirect" title="Circassian slave trade">Circassian slave trade</a> to become a concubine at the royal harem as a child.<a href="#cite_note-162">[154]</a> When the sultan <a href="/wiki/Said_bin_Sultan" title="Said bin Sultan">Said bin Sultan</a> died in 1856, he had 75 enslaved sararai-concubines in his harem.<a href="#cite_note-163">[155]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Practice_in_Asia">Practice in Asia</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_concubinage_in_the_Muslim_world&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Practice in Asia">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Delhi_Sultanate">Delhi Sultanate</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_concubinage_in_the_Muslim_world&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Delhi Sultanate">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Delhi_Sultanate" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in the Delhi Sultanate">Slavery in the Delhi Sultanate</a></div> The <a href="/wiki/Delhi_Sultanate" title="Delhi Sultanate">Muslim Sultanates</a> in India before the Mughal Empire captured large numbers of non-Muslims from the <a href="/wiki/Deccan_Plateau" title="Deccan Plateau">Deccan</a>. The children of Muslim masters and non-Muslim concubines would be raised as Muslims.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHardy19729-164">[156]</a> When Muslims would surround <a href="/wiki/Rajput" title="Rajput">Rajput</a> citadels, the Rajput women would commit <a href="/wiki/Jauhar" title="Jauhar">jauhar</a> (collective suicide) to save themselves from being dishonoured by their enemies. In 1296 approximately 16,000 women committed jauhar to save themselves from <a href="/wiki/Alauddin_Khalji" title="Alauddin Khalji">Alauddin Khalji</a>'s army.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoy2012182-165">[157]</a> Rajput women would commit it when they saw that defeat and enslavement was imminent for their people. In 1533 in <a href="/wiki/Chittorgarh" title="Chittorgarh">Chittorgarh</a> nearly 13,000 women and children killed themselves instead of being taken captive by <a href="/wiki/Bahadur_Shah_of_Gujarat" title="Bahadur Shah of Gujarat">Bahadur Shah</a>'s army.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKitts2018143–144-166">[158]</a> For them rape was the worst form of humiliation. Rajputs practised jauhar mainly when their opponents were Muslims.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENaravane199945-167">[159]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Timurids">Timurids</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_concubinage_in_the_Muslim_world&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Timurids">edit</a>]</div> Historical records show that numerous royal <a href="/wiki/Timurid_dynasty" title="Timurid dynasty">Timurid</a> concubines were not slaves, but free women from prestigious Muslim families.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHamid2017190-168">[160]</a> The reason for that is men were only allowed a maximum of four wives,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHamid2017192-169">[161]</a> so instead they would secure additional marital alliances through concubinage instead. Likewise 15th-century texts from the region advise princes to seek marital alliances through unions with noble women as opposed to with a female slave.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHamid2017192-169">[161]</a> Taking free women as concubines was condemned by some contemporaries.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHamid2017193-170">[162]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mughal_Empire">Mughal Empire</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_concubinage_in_the_Muslim_world&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Mughal Empire">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Mughal_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in the Mughal Empire">Slavery in the Mughal Empire</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Akbar_und_die_T%C3%A4nzerinnen_von_Baz_Bahadur.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Akbar_und_die_T%C3%A4nzerinnen_von_Baz_Bahadur.jpg/220px-Akbar_und_die_T%C3%A4nzerinnen_von_Baz_Bahadur.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="335" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Akbar_und_die_T%C3%A4nzerinnen_von_Baz_Bahadur.jpg/330px-Akbar_und_die_T%C3%A4nzerinnen_von_Baz_Bahadur.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Akbar_und_die_T%C3%A4nzerinnen_von_Baz_Bahadur.jpg/440px-Akbar_und_die_T%C3%A4nzerinnen_von_Baz_Bahadur.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1642" data-file-height="2500" /></a><figcaption>Women perform for the Mughal Emperor <a href="/wiki/Akbar" title="Akbar">Akbar</a></figcaption></figure> Under the <a href="/wiki/Mughal_Empire" title="Mughal Empire">Mughal Empire</a>, the royalty and nobility kept concubines in addition to wives.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESharma201657–59-171">[163]</a> While concubines are often a feature of royal households, Mughal harems stood out for their elaborateness, size and pomp.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBano1999354-172">[164]</a> <a href="/wiki/Francisco_Pelsaert" title="Francisco Pelsaert">Francisco Pelseart</a> describes that noblemen kept both wives and concubines, who lived in extravagant quarters.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELal200540-173">[165]</a> Early <a href="/wiki/Mughal_Harem" title="Mughal Harem">Mughal harems</a> were small, but <a href="/wiki/Akbar" title="Akbar">Akbar</a> had a harem of more than 5000 women and <a href="/wiki/Aurangzeb" title="Aurangzeb">Aurangzeb</a>'s harem was even larger.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBano1999354-172">[164]</a> Mughals attempted to suppress slavery, with emperor <a href="/wiki/Akbar" title="Akbar">Akbar</a> forbidding enslavement of women and children in 1562, prohibiting slave trade, and freeing thousands of his own slaves.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClarence-Smith200690-174">[166]</a> However, Akbar wasn't always consistent and may have kept his own concubines.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClarence-Smith200690-174">[166]</a> After Akbar's death there was a return to older patterns, such as <a href="/wiki/Jahangir" title="Jahangir">Jahangir</a> taking the wives and daughters of a rebel into his harem and soldiers enslaving women from rebellious villages,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBano1999354-172">[164]</a> but the sale of slaves remained banned.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClarence-Smith200691-175">[167]</a> <a href="/wiki/Ahmad_Shah_Durrani" title="Ahmad Shah Durrani">Ahmad Shah Abdali's</a> army captured Maratha women to fill Afghan harems.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESingh200668-176">[168]</a> The Sikhs attacked Abdali and rescued 2,2000 Maratha girls.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESingh201578-177">[169]</a> Ovington, a voyager who wrote about his journey to <a href="/wiki/Surat" title="Surat">Surat</a>, stated that Muslim men had an "extraordinary liberty for women" and kept as many concubines as they could afford.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESharma201657–59-171">[163]</a> The nobles in India could possess as many concubines as they wanted.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBano1999357-178">[170]</a> Ismail Quli Khan, a Mughal noble, possessed 1200 girls. Another nobleman, Said, had many wives and concubines from whom he fathered 60 sons in just four years.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBano1999361-179">[171]</a> Lower class Muslims were generally monogamous. Since they hardly had any rivals, women of the lower and middle class sections of society fared better than upper-class women who had to contend with their husbands' other wives, slave-girls and concubines.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESharma201661-180">[172]</a> A wife could enforce that her husband remain monogamous, by stipulating in the <a href="/wiki/Islamic_marriage_contract" title="Islamic marriage contract">Islamic marriage contract</a> that the husband was not allowed to take another wife or concubine. Such conditions were "commonplace" among middle-class Muslims in <a href="/wiki/Surat" title="Surat">Surat</a> in the 1650s.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFaroqhi2019244-181">[173]</a> There is no evidence that concubinage was practiced in <a href="/wiki/Kashmir" title="Kashmir">Kashmir</a> where, unlike the rest of the medieval Muslim world, slavery was abhorred and not widespread. Except for the Sultans, there is no evidence that the <a href="/wiki/Kashmiris" title="Kashmiris">Kashmiri</a> nobility or merchants kept slaves.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHasan2005244-182">[174]</a> In medieval <a href="/wiki/Punjab" title="Punjab">Punjab</a> the Muslim peasants, artisans, small tradesmen, shopkeepers, clerks and minor officials could not afford concubines or slaves,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGandhi200719-183">[175]</a> but the Muslim nobility of medieval Punjab, such as the <a href="/wiki/Khan_(title)" title="Khan (title)">Khans</a> and Maliks, kept concubines and slaves. Female slaves were used for concubinage in many wealthy Muslim households of Punjab.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrewal199811–12-184">[176]</a> Colonial court cases from 19th-century Punjab show that the courts recognised the legitimate status of children born to Muslim <a href="/wiki/Zamindar" title="Zamindar">zamindars</a> (landlords) from their concubines.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETremlett1869244–-185">[177]</a> The Muslim rulers of Indian <a href="/wiki/Princely_state" title="Princely state">princely states</a>, such as the <a href="/wiki/Nawab_of_Junagadh" class="mw-redirect" title="Nawab of Junagadh">Nawab of Junagadh</a>, also kept slave girls.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChattopadhyay1959126-186">[178]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Sadeq_Mohammad_Khan_V" title="Sadeq Mohammad Khan V">Nawab of Bahawalpur</a>, according to a Pakistani journalist, kept 390 concubines. He only had sex with most of them once.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeiss2004190-187">[179]</a> <a href="/wiki/Maratha_(caste)" title="Maratha (caste)">Marathas</a> captured during their wars with the Mughals had been given to the soldiers of the Mughal Army from the Baloch <a href="/wiki/Bugti" title="Bugti">Bugti</a> tribe. The descendants of these captives became known as "Mrattas" and their women were traditionally used as concubines by the Bugtis. They became equal citizens of <a href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a> in 1947.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELieven2012362-188">[180]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Abolition_in_the_Muslim_World">Abolition in the Muslim World</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_concubinage_in_the_Muslim_world&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Abolition in the Muslim World">edit</a>]</div> While classical <a href="/wiki/Sharia" title="Sharia">Islamic law</a> permitted slavery, the abolition movement starting in the late 18th century in England and later in other Western countries influenced slavery in Muslim lands both in doctrine and in practice.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrunschvig196026-189">[181]</a> According to Smith "the majority of the faithful eventually accepted abolition as religiously legitimate and an Islamic consensus against slavery became dominant", though this continued to be disputed by some literalists.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClarence-Smith2006219–221-190">[182]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrockopp200660-191">[183]</a> During the 20th century, the issue of chattel slavery was addressed and investigated globally by international bodies created by the <a href="/wiki/League_of_Nations" title="League of Nations">League of Nations</a> and the United Nations, such as the <a href="/wiki/Temporary_Slavery_Commission" title="Temporary Slavery Commission">Temporary Slavery Commission</a> in 1924–1926, the <a href="/wiki/Committee_of_Experts_on_Slavery" title="Committee of Experts on Slavery">Committee of Experts on Slavery</a> in 1932, and the <a href="/wiki/Advisory_Committee_of_Experts_on_Slavery" title="Advisory Committee of Experts on Slavery">Advisory Committee of Experts on Slavery</a> in 1934–1939.<a href="#cite_note-Miers,_S._2003-192">[184]</a> By the time of the UN <a href="/wiki/Ad_Hoc_Committee_on_Slavery" title="Ad Hoc Committee on Slavery">Ad Hoc Committee on Slavery</a> in 1950–1951, legal chattel slavery still existed only in the Arabian Peninsula: <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Oman" title="Slavery in Oman">in Oman</a>, <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Qatar" title="Slavery in Qatar">in Qatar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Saudi_Arabia" title="Slavery in Saudi Arabia">in Saudi Arabia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Trucial_States" title="Slavery in the Trucial States">in the Trucial States</a> and <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Yemen" title="Slavery in Yemen">in Yemen</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Miers,_S._2003-192">[184]</a> Legal chattel slavery was finally abolished in the Arabian Peninsula in the 1960s: Saudi Arabia and Yemen in 1962, in Dubai in 1963, and Oman as the last in 1970.<a href="#cite_note-Miers,_S._2003-192">[184]</a> The big royal harems in the Muslim world begun to dissolve in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, often due to either abolition or modernization of the Muslim monarchies, where the royal women where given a public role and no longer lived in seclusion. The <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Imperial_Harem" title="Ottoman Imperial Harem">Ottoman Imperial harem</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Harem_of_the_Muhammad_Ali_dynasty" title="Harem of the Muhammad Ali dynasty">harem of the Muhammad Ali dynasty</a> of Egypt, as well as the <a href="/wiki/Qajar_harem" title="Qajar harem">Qajar harem</a> of Persia where all dissolved in the early 20th century. In other cases, the custom lasted longer. Chattel slavery, and thus the existence of secluded harem concubines, lasted longer in some Islamic states. The report of the <a href="/wiki/Advisory_Committee_of_Experts_on_Slavery" title="Advisory Committee of Experts on Slavery">Advisory Committee of Experts on Slavery</a> (ACE) about <a href="/wiki/Hadhramaut" title="Hadhramaut">Hadhramaut</a> in Yemen in the 1930s described the existence of Chinese girls (<a href="/wiki/Mui_tsai" title="Mui tsai">Mui tsai</a>) trafficked from Singapore for enslavement as concubines,<a href="#cite_note-193">[185]</a> and the King and Imam of Yemen, <a href="/wiki/Ahmad_bin_Yahya" title="Ahmad bin Yahya">Ahmad bin Yahya</a> (r. 1948–1962), were reported to have had a harem of 100 slave women.<a href="#cite_note-194">[186]</a> Sultan <a href="/wiki/Said_bin_Taimur" title="Said bin Taimur">Said bin Taimur</a> of Oman (r. 1932–1970) reportedly owned around 500 slaves, an estimated 150 of whom were women, who were kept at his palace at Salalah.<a href="#cite_note-195">[187]</a> In the 20th century, women and girls for the harem market in the Arabian Peninsula were kidnapped not only from Africa and Baluchistan, but also from the Trucial States, the Nusayriyah Mountains in Syria, and the Aden Protectorate.<a href="#cite_note-196">[188]</a> In 1943, it was reported that girls lower in the Baluchi hierarchical nature were shipped via Oman to Mecca, where they were popular as concubines since Caucasian girls were no longer available, and were sold for $350–450.<a href="#cite_note-197">[189]</a>They belonged to the lower social and economic classes. The dealers were mostly wealthy <a href="/wiki/Baloch_people" title="Baloch people">Baluchs</a> from <a href="/wiki/Makran" title="Makran">Makran</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jask" title="Jask">Jask</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bahu_Kalat" title="Bahu Kalat">Bahu</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dashtiari_County" title="Dashtiari County">Dashtiyari</a>.<a href="#cite_note-198">[190]</a><a href="#cite_note-199">[191]</a> Harem concubines existed in Saudi Arabia until the very end of the abolition of <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Saudi_Arabia" title="Slavery in Saudi Arabia">slavery in Saudi Arabia</a> in 1962. <a href="/wiki/King_Abdulaziz_of_Saudi_Arabia" class="mw-redirect" title="King Abdulaziz of Saudi Arabia">King Abdulaziz of Saudi Arabia</a> (r. 1932-1953) are known to have had a harem of twenty-two women, many of them concubines.<a href="#cite_note-200">[192]</a> <a href="/wiki/Baraka_Al_Yamaniyah" title="Baraka Al Yamaniyah">Baraka Al Yamaniyah</a> (died 22 August 2018), for example, was the <a href="/wiki/Concubinage_in_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Concubinage in Islam">concubine</a> of <a href="/wiki/King_Abdulaziz_of_Saudi_Arabia" class="mw-redirect" title="King Abdulaziz of Saudi Arabia">King Abdulaziz of Saudi Arabia</a> (r. 1932-1953) and the mother of <a href="/wiki/Muqrin_bin_Abdulaziz" title="Muqrin bin Abdulaziz">Muqrin bin Abdulaziz</a> (born 1945), who was <a href="/wiki/Crown_prince_of_Saudi_Arabia" class="mw-redirect" title="Crown prince of Saudi Arabia">crown prince of Saudi Arabia</a> in 2015.<a href="#cite_note-201">[193]</a><a href="#cite_note-202">[194]</a> <a href="#cite_note-203">[195]</a> In August 1962, the king's son Prince Talal stated that he had decided to free his 32 slaves and fifty slave concubines.<a href="#cite_note-204">[196]</a> After the abolition of slavery in Saudi Arabia in 1962, the <a href="/wiki/Anti-Slavery_International" title="Anti-Slavery International">Anti-Slavery International</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Friends_World_Committee_for_Consultation" title="Friends World Committee for Consultation">Friends World Committee</a> expressed their appreciation over the emancipation edict of 1962, but did ask if any countries would be helped to find their own nationals in Saudi harems who might want to return home; this was a very sensitive issue, since there was an awareness that women were enslaved as <a href="/wiki/Concubinage_in_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Concubinage in Islam">concubines (sex slaves)</a> in the seclusion of the harems, and that there were no information as to whether the abolition of slavery had affected them.<a href="#cite_note-205">[197]</a> Colonial governments and independent <a href="/wiki/Islamic_state" title="Islamic state">Muslim states</a> restricted slave raids and the slave trade in response to pressure from Western liberals and nascent Muslim abolitionist movements. Eliminating slavery was an even more difficult task. Many <a href="/wiki/Muslims" title="Muslims">Muslim</a> governments had refused to sign the international treaties against slavery which the <a href="/wiki/League_of_Nations" title="League of Nations">League of Nations</a> was co-ordinating since 1926. This refusal was also an issue at the <a href="/wiki/Universal_Declaration_of_Human_Rights" title="Universal Declaration of Human Rights">1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights</a> and at the <a href="/wiki/Supplementary_Convention_on_the_Abolition_of_Slavery" title="Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery">1956 Anti-Slavery Convention</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClarence-Smith200611-206">[198]</a> It was mostly because of the pressure from <a href="/wiki/European_colonial_powers" class="mw-redirect" title="European colonial powers">European colonial powers</a> and economic changes that slavery was abolished. While the institution was eventually abolished, there was no internally well-developed Islamic narrative against slave-ownership.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAli2015a53–54-30">[27]</a> In the 1830s, a group of ulama led by Waji al-Din Saharanpuri issued a <a href="/wiki/Fatwa" title="Fatwa">fatwa</a> that it was lawful to enslave even those men and women "who sought refuge" after battle. <a href="/wiki/Sayyid" title="Sayyid">Sayyed</a> Imdad Ali Akbarabadi led ulama in publishing a lot of material in defence of traditional kinds of slavery. Sayyid Muhammad Askari condemned the idea of abolishing slavery.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClarence-Smith2006135-207">[199]</a> In the 19th century, some ulama in <a href="/wiki/Cairo" title="Cairo">Cairo</a> refused to allow slave girls, who had been freed under secular law, to marry unless they had obtained permission from their owner. After 1882 the Egyptian ulama refused to prohibit slavery on the grounds that the <a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Prophet</a> had never forbidden it. In 1899 a scholar from <a href="/wiki/Al-Azhar_University" title="Al-Azhar University">Al-Azhar</a>, Shaykh Muhammad Ahmad al-Bulayqi implicitly defended concubinage and refuted modernist arguments.<a href="#cite_note-Cla138-208">[200]</a> Most ulama in <a href="/wiki/West_Africa" title="West Africa">West Africa</a> opposed abolition. They ruled that concubinage was still allowed with women of slave descent.<a href="#cite_note-Cla144-209">[201]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1224211176">.mw-parser-output .quotebox{background-color:#F9F9F9;border:1px solid #aaa;box-sizing:border-box;padding:10px;font-size:88%;max-width:100%}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft{margin:.5em 1.4em .8em 0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright{margin:.5em 0 .8em 1.4em}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.centered{overflow:hidden;position:relative;margin:.5em auto .8em auto}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft span,.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright span{font-style:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox>blockquote{margin:0;padding:0;border-left:0;font-family:inherit;font-size:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-title{text-align:center;font-size:110%;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote>:first-child{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote:last-child>:last-child{margin-bottom:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:before{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" “ ";vertical-align:-45%;line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:after{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" ” ";line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .left-aligned{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .right-aligned{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .center-aligned{text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quote-title,.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quotebox-quote{display:block}.mw-parser-output .quotebox cite{display:block;font-style:normal}@media screen and (max-width:640px){.mw-parser-output .quotebox{width:100%!important;margin:0 0 .8em!important;float:none!important}}</style><div class="quotebox pullquote floatright" style="width:34%; ; min-width:15em"> <blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style=""> Female slavery, being a condition necessary to the legality of this coveted indulgence [concubinage], will never be put down, with a willing or hearty co-operation by any Mussalman community. </blockquote> <cite class="left-aligned" style="">William Muir, Life of Mahomet.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPowell2006277–278-210">[202]</a></cite> </div> <a href="/wiki/Ehud_R._Toledano" title="Ehud R. Toledano">Ehud R. Toledano</a> states that abolitionist views were very rare in Muslim societies and that there was no indigenous abolitionist narrative in the Muslim world. According to Toledano, the first anti-slavery views came from <a href="/wiki/Syed_Ahmad_Khan" title="Syed Ahmad Khan">Syed Ahmad Khan</a> in the subcontinent. The next anti-slavery texts are to be found, from the 1920s onwards, in the works of non-ulema who were writing outside the realm of Islamic tradition and <a href="/wiki/Sharia" title="Sharia">Shariah</a>. According to Amal Ghazal, the abolitionist stances of modernist <a href="/wiki/Ulama" title="Ulama">ulema</a> in <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Abduh" title="Muhammad Abduh">Muhammad 'Abduh</a> and his disciples were strongly opposed by the majority of Islamic jurists. While 'Abduh took a stand in favour of abolition, he noted that only a gradualist approach, which encouraged manumission, would work because slavery itself was sanctioned in Islamic law.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEToledano2013121–123-211">[203]</a> While in the late 19th century some <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">Indian</a> <a href="/wiki/Islamic_modernism" title="Islamic modernism">Muslim modernists</a> had rejected the legitimacy of <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in Islam">slavery in Islam</a>, a reformist take on slavery was a part of regenerated Indian Muslim thinking in the 1860s and 1870s.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPowell2006262–264-212">[204]</a> Syed Ahmad Khan and <a href="/wiki/Syed_Ameer_Ali" title="Syed Ameer Ali">Syed Ameer Ali</a> were primarily concerned with refuting Western criticism of Islamic slavery. However, they did not directly refute the European criticism about female slavery and concubinage.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPowell2006269-213">[205]</a> According to Dilawar Husain Ahmad, <a href="/wiki/Polygyny_in_Islam" title="Polygyny in Islam">polygamy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Concubinage_in_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Concubinage in Islam">concubinage</a> were responsible for "Muslim decline".<a href="#cite_note-Pow275-214">[206]</a> <a href="/wiki/Chiragh_Ali" title="Chiragh Ali">Chiragh Ali</a> denied the <a href="/wiki/Qur%27anic" class="mw-redirect" title="Qur'anic">Qur'anic</a> permission for concubinage. However, he accepted <a href="/wiki/William_Muir" title="William Muir">William Muir</a>'s view that Muslims would not abandon female slavery willingly, but he asserted that Islamic jurists did not allow concubinage with the female slaves being imported from Africa, <a href="/wiki/Central_Asia" title="Central Asia">Central Asia</a> and Georgia in that time. However, he did not specify who these Islamic jurists were.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPowell2006277–278-210">[202]</a> Syed Ahmad Khan was opposed by the <a href="/wiki/Ulama" title="Ulama">ulama</a> on a number of issues, including his views on slavery.<a href="#cite_note-Pow275-214">[206]</a> In 1911 one <a href="/wiki/Qadi" title="Qadi">Qadi</a> in <a href="/wiki/Mombasa" title="Mombasa">Mombasa</a> ruled that no government can free a slave without the owner's permission. <a href="/wiki/J._Spencer_Trimingham" title="J. Spencer Trimingham">Spencer Trimingham</a> observed that in coastal Arab areas masters continued to take concubines from slave families because the descendants of slaves are still considered to be enslaved under religious law even if they had been freed according to secular law.<a href="#cite_note-Cla144-209">[201]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman</a> ulama maintained the permissibility of slavery due to its Islamic legal sanction. They rejected demands by <a href="/wiki/Young_Ottomans" title="Young Ottomans">Young Ottomans</a> for fatwas to ban slavery.<a href="#cite_note-Cla138-208">[200]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a>, where the <a href="/wiki/Deobandi" class="mw-redirect" title="Deobandi">Deobandi</a> Islamic revivalist movement is prevalent, the ulama called for the revival of slavery in 1947. The wish to enslave enemies and take concubines was noted in the <a href="/wiki/Punjab_Disturbances_Court_of_Inquiry" title="Punjab Disturbances Court of Inquiry">Munir Commission Report</a>. When <a href="/wiki/Zia_ul_Haq" class="mw-redirect" title="Zia ul Haq">Zia ul Haq</a> came to power in 1977 and started applying <a href="/wiki/Sharia" title="Sharia">sharia</a>, some argued that the reward for freeing slaves meant that slavery should not be abolished "since to do so would be to deny future generations the opportunity to commit the virtuous deed of freeing slaves."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClarence-Smith2006189-215">[207]</a> Similarly, many ulama in <a href="/wiki/Mauritania" title="Mauritania">Mauritania</a> did not recognise the legitimacy of abolishing slavery. In 1981 a group of ulama argued that only owners could free their slaves and that the Mauritanian government was breaking a fundamental religious rule. In 1997 one <a href="/wiki/Mauritania" title="Mauritania">Mauritanian</a> scholar stated that abolition<a href="#cite_note-Cla144-209">[201]</a> <blockquote>... is contrary to the teachings of the fundamental text of Islamic law, the Koran... [and] amounts to the expropriation from Muslims of their goods, goods that were acquired legally. The state, if it is Islamic, does not have the right to seize my house, my wife or my slave.</blockquote> The translator of <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Kathir" title="Ibn Kathir">Ibn Kathir</a>'s treatise on slaves, Umar ibn Sulayman Hafyan, felt obliged to explain why he published a slave treatise when <a href="/wiki/Slavery" title="Slavery">slavery</a> no longer exists. He states that just because slavery no longer exists does not mean that the laws about slavery have been abrogated. Moreover, slavery was only abolished half a century ago and could return in the future. His comments were a reflection of the predicament modern Muslims find themselves in.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMajied2017304-216">[208]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Modern_Muslim_perspectives">Modern Muslim perspectives</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_concubinage_in_the_Muslim_world&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Modern Muslim perspectives">edit</a>]</div> Today, most ordinary Muslims ignore the existence of slavery and concubinage in Islamic history and texts. Most also ignore the millennia-old consensus permitting it and a few writers even claim that those Islamic jurists who allowed sexual relations outside marriage with female slaves were mistaken.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHazelton2010106–108-217">[209]</a> Ahmed Hassan, a 20th-century translator of Sahih Muslim, who prefaced the translated chapter on marriage by claiming that Islam only allows sex within marriage. This was despite the fact that the same chapter included many references to Muslim men having sex with slave-girls.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHazelton2010106–108-217">[209]</a> <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Asad" title="Muhammad Asad">Muhammad Asad</a> also rejected the notion of any sexual relationship outside of marriage.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAsad1980107-218">[210]</a> Ali notes that one reason for this defensive attitude may lie with the desire to argue against the common Western media portrayal of "Islam as uniquely oppressive toward women" and "Muslim men as lascivious and wanton toward sexually controlled females".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHazelton2010106–108-217">[209]</a> <a href="/wiki/Asifa_Quraishi" title="Asifa Quraishi">Asifa Quraishi-Landes</a> observes that most Muslims believe that sex is only permissible within marriage and they ignore the permission for keeping concubines in Islamic jurisprudence.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEQuraishi-Landes2016182-219">[211]</a> Furthermore, the majority of modern Muslims are not aware that Islamic jurists had made an analogy between the marriage contract and sale of concubines and many modern Muslims would be offended by the idea that a husband owns his wife's private parts under Islamic law. She notes that "Muslims around the world nevertheless speak of marriage in terms of reciprocal and complementary rights and duties, mutual consent, and with respect for women's agency" and "many point to Muslim scripture and classical literature to support these ideals of mutuality — and there is significant material to work with. But formalizing these attitudes in enforceable rules is much more difficult."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEQuraishi-Landes2016182-219">[211]</a> She personally concludes that she is "not convinced that sex with one's slave is approved by the Quran in the first place", claiming that reading the respective Quranic section has led her to "different conclusions than that held by the majority of classical Muslim jurists."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEQuraishi-Landes2016178-69">[62]</a> She agrees "with Kecia Ali that the slavery framework and its resulting doctrine are not dictated by scripture".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEQuraishi-Landes2016174-220">[212]</a> Cognitive scientist <a href="/wiki/Steven_Pinker" title="Steven Pinker">Steven Pinker</a> noted in <a href="/wiki/The_Better_Angels_of_Our_Nature" title="The Better Angels of Our Nature">The Better Angels of Our Nature</a> that despite the <a href="/wiki/De_jure" title="De jure">de jure</a> <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_abolition_of_slavery_and_serfdom" title="Timeline of abolition of slavery and serfdom">abolitions of slavery</a> by <a href="/wiki/Muslim_world" title="Muslim world">Islamic countries</a> in the 20th century,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPinker2011153-221">[213]</a> the majority of the countries where <a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking" title="Human trafficking">human trafficking</a> still occurs are Muslim-majority,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPinker2011363-222">[214]</a> while political scientists <a href="/wiki/Valerie_M._Hudson" title="Valerie M. Hudson">Valerie M. Hudson</a> and Bradley Thayer have noted that <a href="/wiki/Polygyny_in_Islam" title="Polygyny in Islam">Islam is the only major religious tradition that still allows polygyny</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHudsonThayer201048–53-223">[215]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Modern_parallels">Modern parallels</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_concubinage_in_the_Muslim_world&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Modern parallels">edit</a>]</div> Since slavery existed in some states of the Muslim world until the mid-20th century, concubinage existed in some Muslim countries as late as the 1960s. For instance, a large number of women lower in the <a href="/wiki/Baloch_people" title="Baloch people">Baluch</a> hierarchical nature (<a href="/wiki/Baloch_people" title="Baloch people">Afro-Baluchs</a><a href="#cite_note-224">[216]</a><a href="#cite_note-225">[217]</a> and low class <a href="/wiki/Baloch_people" title="Baloch people">Baluchs</a>)<a href="#cite_note-226">[218]</a> were kidnapped in the first half of the 20th century by slave traders and sold for sex across the <a href="/wiki/Persian_Gulf" title="Persian Gulf">Persian Gulf</a> in settlements such as <a href="/wiki/Sharjah" title="Sharjah">Sharjah</a>, <a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESuzuki2013214–219-227">[219]</a> where <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Trucial_States" title="Slavery in the Trucial States">slavery in the Trucial States</a> was legal until 1963.<a href="#cite_note-228">[220]</a> After the abolition of slavery in Muslim countries in the 19th and 20th centuries, however, there have been a number of examples of the revival of concubinage or slavery-like practices in the Muslim world. During the partition of India, some of the <a href="/wiki/Violence_against_women_during_the_partition_of_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Violence against women during the partition of India">violence against women</a> resembled concubinage with religious undertones,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECollinsLapierre1975336-229">[221]</a> with some women being kept captives as forced wives and concubines.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKhan2007135-230">[222]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKhan200739-231">[223]</a> According to some accounts, non-Muslim women captured by the <a href="/wiki/Pakistan_Army" title="Pakistan Army">Pakistan Army</a> would be forcibly converted to Islam to be "worthy" of their captors' harems.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECollinsLapierre1975336-229">[221]</a> In Kashmir, <a href="/wiki/Pashtuns" title="Pashtuns">Pashtun</a> tribesmen allegedly captured a large number of non-Muslim girls from Kashmir and sold them as slave-girls in <a href="/wiki/West_Punjab" title="West Punjab">West Punjab</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMajor199562-232">[224]</a> The violence was paralleled on both sides of the conflict, with Muslim girls in <a href="/wiki/East_Punjab" title="East Punjab">East Punjab</a> also being taken by and distributed among the Sikh <a href="/wiki/Jatha" title="Jatha">jathas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Indian_Armed_Forces" title="Indian Armed Forces">Indian military</a> and police for sex and sold on multiple times.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMajor199563-233">[225]</a> The governments of India and Pakistan later agreed to restore Hindu and Sikh women to <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a> and Muslim women to Pakistan.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMetcalfMetcalf2012226-234">[226]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Afghanistan" title="Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a>, reportedly one of the atrocities committed by the <a href="/wiki/Taliban" title="Taliban">Taliban</a> was the enslavement of women for use as concubines.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAli2015a53–54-30">[27]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClausDiamondMills20037-235">[227]</a> In 1998, eyewitnesses in Afghanistan reported that hundreds of girls in Kabul and elsewhere had been abducted by Taliban fighters.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENojumi2016168-236">[228]</a> One source suggests that up to 400 women were involved in the abductions across Afghanistan. However the Taliban vehemently denied all these claims as propaganda against them by their enemies in Afghanistan.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERashid201075–-237">[229]</a> During the 1983-2005 <a href="/wiki/Sudanese_Civil_War_(1983-2005)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sudanese Civil War (1983-2005)">Second Sudanese Civil War</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Sudanese_army" class="mw-redirect" title="Sudanese army">Sudanese army</a> also revived the use of enslavement as a weapon against the South,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJok201032-238">[230]</a> particularly against black Christian prisoners of war,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIslam's_Black_Slaves2001138-239">[231]</a> on the purported basis that Islamic law allowed it.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAli2015a53–54-30">[27]</a> In raids by <a href="/wiki/Janjaweed" title="Janjaweed">Janjaweed</a> militias on black Christian villages, thousands of women and children were taken captive,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJok201026-240">[232]</a> with some (<a href="/wiki/Dinka" class="mw-redirect" title="Dinka">Dinka</a> girls) kept in Northern Sudanese households for use as sex slaves,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJok201035-241">[233]</a> while others sold in slave markets as far afield as Libya.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIslam's_Black_Slaves2001138-239">[231]</a> In the 21st century, when <a href="/wiki/ISIL" class="mw-redirect" title="ISIL">ISIL</a> fighters attacked the city of <a href="/wiki/Sinjar" title="Sinjar">Sinjar</a> in 2014, they kidnapped and raped local women.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWinterton2014-242">[234]</a> ISIL's extremist agenda extended to women's bodies and that women living under their control, with fighters being told that they were theologically sanctioned to have sex with non-Muslim captive women.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESusskind2014-243">[235]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Muslim_community_response">Muslim community response</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_concubinage_in_the_Muslim_world&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Muslim community response">edit</a>]</div> The justifications for modern reiterations of slavery and violence against women, most notably in the context of ISIL, have been vocally condemned by Islamic scholars from around the world at the time.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECallimachi2015-244">[236]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETharoor2015-245">[237]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEl-Masri20181047–1066-246">[238]</a> In response to the Nigerian extremist group <a href="/wiki/Boko_Haram" title="Boko Haram">Boko Haram</a>'s Quranic justification for kidnapping and enslaving people,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELister2014-247">[239]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerran2014-248">[240]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Islamic_State_of_Iraq_and_the_Levant" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant">ISIL</a>'s religious justification for enslaving <a href="/wiki/Yazidi" class="mw-redirect" title="Yazidi">Yazidi</a> women as <a href="/wiki/Wartime_sexual_violence" title="Wartime sexual violence">spoils of war</a> as claimed in their digital magazine <a href="/wiki/Dabiq_(magazine)" title="Dabiq (magazine)">Dabiq</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcDuffee2014-249">[241]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbdelaziz2014-250">[242]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpencer2014-251">[243]</a> 126 Islamic scholars from around the Muslim world signed an <a href="/wiki/Open_letter" title="Open letter">open letter</a> in September 2014 to the Islamic State's leader <a href="/wiki/Abu_Bakr_al-Baghdadi" title="Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi">Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi</a> decrying his group's interpretations of the <a href="/wiki/Quran" title="Quran">Qur'an</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hadith" title="Hadith">hadith</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarkoe2013-252">[244]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2014-253">[245]</a> The letter also accused the group of committing sedition by re-instituting slavery under its rule in contravention of the <a href="/wiki/Islamic_views_on_slavery#Modern_interpretations" title="Islamic views on slavery">anti-slavery consensus</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Ulama" title="Ulama">Islamic scholarly community</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOpen_Letter_to_Al-Baghdadi2014-254">[246]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_popular_culture">In popular culture</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_concubinage_in_the_Muslim_world&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: In popular culture">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Magnificent_Century" class="mw-redirect" title="Magnificent Century">Magnificent Century</a>, Turkish TV series about the Ottoman Harem and <a href="/wiki/H%C3%BCrrem_Sultan" class="mw-redirect" title="Hürrem Sultan">Hürrem Sultan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhte%C5%9Fem_Y%C3%BCzy%C4%B1l:_K%C3%B6sem" title="Muhteşem Yüzyıl: Kösem">Muhteşem Yüzyıl: Kösem</a>, Turkish TV series about the Ottoman Harem and <a href="/wiki/K%C3%B6sem_Sultan" title="Kösem Sultan">Kösem Sultan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hayriye_Melek_Hun%C3%A7" class="mw-redirect" title="Hayriye Melek Hunç">Hayriye Melek Hunç</a> was the first female author of <a href="/wiki/Circassians" title="Circassians">Circassian</a> descent. Melek wrote an essay "Dertlerimizden: Beylik-Kölelik" (One of our troubles: Seigniory-Slavery) to encourage Ottoman palace to do away with slavery. Through her story "Altun Zincir" (Golden Chain) Melek narrates the story of sorrow of Caucasian concubines of the harem for missing their Caucasus homeland and pointed out that in spite of elite life opportunities for some of these concubines, at the end of the day they remain slaves and their existence as a woman gets ruined.<a href="#cite_note-255">[247]</a><a href="#cite_note-256">[248]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leyla_Achba" title="Leyla Achba">Leyla Achba</a> was the first Ottoman court lady who wrote memoirs. Book name: "Bir Çerkes Prensesinin Harem Hatıratı. " (Harem Memoirs of a Circassian Princess).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rumeysa_Aredba" title="Rumeysa Aredba">Rumeysa Aredba</a> was a lady-in-waiting to Nazikeda Kadın, wife of Mehmed VI, the last Sultan of the Ottoman Empire. She is known for writing memoirs, which give details of the exile, and personality of Sultan Mehmed at San Remo. Book name: "Sultan Vahdeddin'in San Remo Günleri." (San Remo Days of Sultan Vahdeddin).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leyla_Saz" title="Leyla Saz">Leyla Saz</a> was a poet in the Ottoman Harem. She wrote her memories in the book "Haremde Yaşam - Saray ve Harem Hatıraları." (Life in the Harem - Memories of the Palace and Harem).</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Melek_Han%C4%B1m&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Melek Hanım (page does not exist)">Melek Hanım</a>, as the wife of Mehmed Pasha of Cyprus, Melek Hanım is perhaps the first Ottoman woman to write her memoirs. Book name: Haremden Mahrem Hatıralar-Melek Hanım (Private Memories from the Harem-Melek Hanım).</li> <li>DOMENİCO'S İSTANBUL, memories of Domenico Herosolimitano, Ottoman court physician to Sultan Murad III.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_concubinage_in_the_Muslim_world&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_sexual_jurisprudence" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic sexual jurisprudence">Islamic sexual jurisprudence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rape_in_Islamic_law" title="Rape in Islamic law">Rape in Islamic law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_conversion#Islam" title="Forced conversion">Forced Conversions in Islam</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_concubinage_in_the_Muslim_world&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Notes">Notes</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_concubinage_in_the_Muslim_world&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-8"><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a> 'The study of the ancient Near East, the modern Middle East from Iran to Turkey to Egypt, has been pursued in the last two centuries in societies of Europe and the Americas that have themselves been mired in industrial slavery. Scholars of the ancient region have consequently been quick to point out that nowhere do we see the kind of mass exploitation that we find since the sixteenth century of our era..' (<a href="#CITEREFSnell2011">Snell 2011</a>, p. 4) </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a> 'Nowhere in the New Testament epistles does Paul or any other letter writer state explicitly that the sexual use of slaves constitutes sexual immorality or sexual impurity..the practice of using slaves as a benign and safe sexual outlet persisted throughout antiquity.' (<a href="#CITEREFGlancy2002">Glancy 2002</a>, pp. 49–51, 144) </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a> Many societies in addition to those advocating Islam automatically freed the concubine, especially after she had had a child. About a third of all non-Islamic societies fall into this category.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a> 'Encouragement to manumit slaves, enshrined in the Qur'an and law, likely contributed to social mobility., Manumitting slaves earned their owner eternal rewards. The Qur'an advocated manumission of slaves as an act of a righteous person or as a religious boon...Key hadith also support manumission: "He who has a slave-girl and teaches her good manners and improves her education then manumits and marries her, will get a double reward." Concubines, however, sometimes had a surer route to manumission than their owners' desire for spiritual coinage; under certain conditions their wombs could provide escape from slavery. A slave who bore a child to a free man, known as an <a href="/wiki/Umm_al-walad" title="Umm al-walad">umm al-walad</a>, could not be sold, in most circumstances, and at her owner's death, she was to be freed (<a href="#CITEREFHain2017">Hain 2017</a>, p. 328). </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a> 'Other issues differentiating the classical doctrine and modernist approaches include the treatment of prisoners of war, with some of the early jurists allowing Muslim commanders a choice only between killing or enslaving them, and others – on the principle of serving the public interest (maṣlaḥa) –giving commanders more discretion to ransom prisoners (for example, in exchange for Muslim prisoners or for money) or even to release them unconditionally. Seizing on this principle of public interest, and pointing to the obsolescence of practices such as slavery, virtually all modernists by contrast narrow the options to those sanctioned by contemporary international norms: releasing prisoners upon the cessation of hostilities either unconditionally or as part of reciprocal exchanges.' (<a href="#CITEREFMufti2019">Mufti 2019</a>, p. 5) </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a> 'Female slaves around the Mediterranean were subject to sexual and reproductive demands as well as demands on their physical labour. Focusing on the sexual and reproductive aspects of the shared culture of Mediterranean slavery reveals three things. First, though historians have paid more attention to the sexual exploitation of slave women in Islamic contexts, sexual exploitation was also common and well documented in Christian contexts. Second, the most important difference between Islamic and Christian practices of slavery had to do with the status of children. Under Christian and Roman law, children inherited the status of their mothers, so the child of a free man and a slave woman would be a slave. In contrast, under Islamic law, if a free man acknowledged paternity of a child by his slave woman, that child was born free and legitimate.' (<a href="#CITEREFBarker2019">Barker 2019</a>, p. 61) </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a> 'With the transition from the <a href="/wiki/Umayyad" class="mw-redirect" title="Umayyad">Umayyads</a> to the Abbasids, the upward swell of subaltern demographics thrust individual concubines unambiguously into the realm of elite politics. Whereas only the last three Umayyad caliphs were born to concubines, the great majority of the early Abbasid caliphs were sons of this heretofore nameless class of women.' (<a href="#CITEREFHain2017">Hain 2017</a>, p. 328,4,246) </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a> The conquests, however, had consequences that ultimately upset the pre-Islamic system. As the Umayyad dynasty matured, certain families within the Quraysh became significantly wealthier and more powerful than tribes that had once been equal to them...In this new order, the Muslim elites turned to the cheapest, safest, and most loyal women available to them: cousins and concubines.<a href="#cite_note-Maj20-86">[79]</a> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_concubinage_in_the_Muslim_world&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Citations">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 20em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.brooklynmuseum.org/opencollection/objects/161357">"Harem Scene with Mothers and Daughters in Varying Costumes (1997.3.26)"</a>. Brooklyn Museum.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Brooklyn+Museum&rft.atitle=Harem+Scene+with+Mothers+and+Daughters+in+Varying+Costumes+%281997.3.26%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.brooklynmuseum.org%2Fopencollection%2Fobjects%2F161357&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+concubinage+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPeter_N._Stearns" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Peter N. Stearns (ed.). "Concubinage". Encyclopedia of Social History. p. 317. <q>The system in Muslim societies was an arrangement in which a slave woman lived with a man as his wife without being married to him in a civil or normal way.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Concubinage&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Social+History&rft.pages=317&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+concubinage+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHain2017">Hain 2017</a>, p. 326: "Concubines in Islamic society, with few exceptions, were slaves. Sex with your own property was not considered to be adultery (<a href="/wiki/Zina" title="Zina">zina</a>). Owners purchased the sexuality of the enslaved along with their bodies." </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHamid2017">Hamid 2017</a>, p. 190: "Timurid sources from the later period list numerous women as royal concubines who were not slaves." </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDalton_Brock" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Dalton Brock. "Concubines - Islamic Caliphate". In Colleen Boyett; H. Micheal Tarver; Mildred Diane Gleason (eds.). Daily Life of Women: An Encyclopedia from Ancient Times to the Present. <a href="/wiki/ABC-CLIO" class="mw-redirect" title="ABC-CLIO">ABC-CLIO</a>. p. 70. <q>However, that did not deter wealthy households from also seeking and acquiring freewomen as concubines, although such a practice was argued to be in violation of sharia law.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Concubines+-+Islamic+Caliphate&rft.btitle=Daily+Life+of+Women%3A+An+Encyclopedia+from+Ancient+Times+to+the+Present&rft.pages=70&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.au=Dalton+Brock&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+concubinage+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHamid2017">Hamid 2017</a>, p. 193: "The disregard for Muslim legal codes regulating marriage and concubinage did not go uncommented on by contemporaries. 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The Great Caliphs: The Golden Age of the 'Abbasid Empire. <a href="/wiki/Yale_University_Press" title="Yale University Press">Yale University Press</a>. pp. 146–147.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Great+Caliphs%3A+The+Golden+Age+of+the+%27Abbasid+Empire&rft.pages=146-147&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.au=Amira+Bennison&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+concubinage+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAfary200981–82-54"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAfary200981–82_54-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAfary2009">Afary 2009</a>, p. 81–82. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEClarence-Smith200681-55">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClarence-Smith200681_55-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClarence-Smith200681_55-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFClarence-Smith2006">Clarence-Smith 2006</a>, p. 81. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBouachrine20148-56"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBouachrine20148_56-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBouachrine2014">Bouachrine 2014</a>, p. 8. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELayish331-57"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELayish331_57-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLayish">Layish</a>, p. 331. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrown201970-58">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrown201970_58-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrown201970_58-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFBrown2019">Brown 2019</a>, p. 70. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERobinson90-59"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERobinson90_59-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRobinson">Robinson</a>, p. 90. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERedaAmin228-60"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERedaAmin228_60-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRedaAmin">Reda & Amin</a>, p. 228. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMyrne2019196–197-61">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMyrne2019196–197_61-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMyrne2019196–197_61-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMyrne2019">Myrne 2019</a>, pp. 196–197. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAli2015a50–51-62"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAli2015a50–51_62-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAli2015a">Ali 2015a</a>, p. 50–51. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAli2017-63">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAli2017_63-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAli2017_63-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAli2017_63-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFAli2017">Ali 2017</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowen192813-64"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBowen192813_64-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBowen1928">Bowen 1928</a>, p. 13. </li> <li id="cite_note-Oxford-65">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Oxford_65-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Oxford_65-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150924063148/http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t125/e2424">"Umm al-Walad"</a>. Oxford Islamic Studies. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t125/e2424">the original</a> on September 24, 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Oxford+Islamic+Studies&rft.atitle=Umm+al-Walad&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.oxfordislamicstudies.com%2Farticle%2Fopr%2Ft125%2Fe2424&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+concubinage+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrockopp2000195–196-66"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrockopp2000195–196_66-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBrockopp2000">Brockopp 2000</a>, pp. 195–196. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEQuraishi-Landes2016178-69">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEQuraishi-Landes2016178_69-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEQuraishi-Landes2016178_69-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFQuraishi-Landes2016">Quraishi-Landes 2016</a>, p. 178. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAzam201569-70"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAzam201569_70-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAzam2015">Azam 2015</a>, p. 69. </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAsy-Syafi'i_R._A.1989" class="citation book cs1">Asy-Syafi'i R. A., Al-Imam (1989). Al-Umm = Kitab induk. Vol. 5. Kuala Lumpur: Victory Agencie. p. 203. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789839581522" title="Special:BookSources/9789839581522"><bdi>9789839581522</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Al-Umm+%3D+Kitab+induk&rft.place=Kuala+Lumpur&rft.pages=203&rft.pub=Victory+Agencie&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=9789839581522&rft.aulast=Asy-Syafi%27i+R.+A.&rft.aufirst=Al-Imam&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+concubinage+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAli2010">Ali 2010</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/KeciaAliMarriageAndSlaveryInEarlyIslam/page/n129/mode/1up">119</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKecia_Ali" class="citation web cs1">Kecia Ali. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://islamiclaw.blog/2019/12/06/muwa%E1%B9%AD%E1%B9%ADa%CA%BE-roundtable-the-handmaidens-tale/">"Muwatta Roundtable: The Handmaiden's Tale"</a>. Islamiclaw.blog. <q>Some offer whole theories about the need for enslaved women's and girls' consent to sex with their owners based on a decontextualized legal maxim or quotation—a purportedly pro-consent snippet from Shafiʿī has been making the rounds lately. (footnote 2) The phrase from the Umm is "فَأَمَّا الْجِمَاعُ فَمَوْضِعُ تَلَذُّذٍ وَلَا يُجْبَرُ أَحَدٌ عَلَيْهِ" ("However, intercourse is a matter of pleasure and no one is compelled to it"). ... 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Journal of Global Slavery, 4(2), 196-225. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://doi.org/10.1163/2405836X-00402004">https://doi.org/10.1163/2405836X-00402004</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennison2016155–156-107">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBennison2016155–156_107-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBennison2016155–156_107-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBennison2016155–156_107-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFBennison2016">Bennison 2016</a>, p. 155–156. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGleave2015171-108"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGleave2015171_108-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGleave2015">Gleave 2015</a>, p. 171. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchaus2006593-109"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchaus2006593_109-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSchaus2006">Schaus 2006</a>, p. 593. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECapern201922-110">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECapern201922_110-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECapern201922_110-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFCapern2019">Capern 2019</a>, p. 22. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESalzmann2013397-111"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESalzmann2013397_111-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSalzmann2013">Salzmann 2013</a>, p. 397. </li> <li id="cite_note-112"><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFScales1993" class="citation book cs1">Scales, Peter C. 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Kafkasya Çalışmaları (in Turkish). 6 (12): 183–208. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.21488%2Fjocas.931034">10.21488/jocas.931034</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2149-9527">2149-9527</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:236422355">236422355</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Kafkasya+%C3%87al%C4%B1%C5%9Fmalar%C4%B1&rft.atitle=Hayriye+Melek+Hun%C3%A7%27un+Yaz%C4%B1lar%C4%B1nda+%C3%87erkes+Milliyet%C3%A7ili%C4%9Fi%2C+Feminizm+ve+K%C3%B6lelik+%5BCircassian+Nationalism%2C+Feminism+and+Slavery+in+the+Writings+of+Hayriye+Melek+Hun%C3%A7%5D&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=12&rft.pages=183-208&rft.date=2021-05-31&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A236422355%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=2149-9527&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.21488%2Fjocas.931034&rft.aulast=Atli&rft.aufirst=Cemile&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdergipark.org.tr%2Fen%2Fpub%2Fjocas%2Fissue%2F62636%2F931034&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+concubinage+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources">Sources</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_concubinage_in_the_Muslim_world&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Sources">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAbdelaziz2014" class="citation news cs1">Abdelaziz, Salma (October 13, 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170621204748/http://www.cnn.com/2014/10/12/world/meast/isis-justification-slavery">"ISIS states its justification for the enslavement of women"</a>. <a href="/wiki/CNN" title="CNN">CNN</a>. 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Rowman & Littlefield. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7425-5093-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7425-5093-3"><bdi>978-0-7425-5093-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Search+for+Beauty+in+Islam%3A+A+Conference+of+the+Books&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-7425-5093-3&rft.aulast=Abou+El+Fadl&rft.aufirst=Khaled&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DTX13FqPQmVcC%26pg%3DPA198&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+concubinage+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAbou_El_Fadl2014" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Khaled_Abou_El_Fadl" title="Khaled Abou El Fadl">Abou El Fadl, Khaled</a> (1 October 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=FU4QBwAAQBAJ&pg=PT198">Speaking in God's Name: Islamic Law, Authority and Women</a>. 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ABC-CLIO. p. 123. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-144084715-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-144084715-8"><bdi>978-144084715-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+New+Counterterrorism+Strategy%3A+Why+the+World+Failed+to+Stop+Al+Qaeda+and+ISIS%2FISIL%2C+and+How+to+Defeat+Terrorists&rft.pages=123&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2017-09-21&rft.isbn=978-144084715-8&rft.aulast=Al-Bayati&rft.aufirst=T.+Hamid&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D1YI2DwAAQBAJ%26q%3DPA123&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+concubinage+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAl-jaziri2009" class="citation book cs1">Al-jaziri, abd Al-rahman (2009). Islamic Jurisprudence According To The Four Sunni Schools Al Fiqh 'ala Al Madhahib Al Arba'ah. Translated by Roberts, Nancy. Fons Vitae. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-188775297-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-188775297-8"><bdi>978-188775297-8</bdi></a>. <q>The followers of Imam Abu Hanifah said: 'The right of the sexual pleasure belongs to the man, not the woman, by that it is meant that the man has the right to force the woman to gratify himself sexually.'</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Islamic+Jurisprudence+According+To+The+Four+Sunni+Schools+Al+Fiqh+%27ala+Al+Madhahib+Al+Arba%27ah&rft.pub=Fons+Vitae&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-188775297-8&rft.aulast=Al-jaziri&rft.aufirst=abd+Al-rahman&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+concubinage+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAl-Tabari1990" class="citation book cs1">Al-Tabari, Abu Ja'far Muhammad Bin Jarir (11 September 1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SWPQfmdf5J4C&pg=PA25">The History of al-Tabari Vol. 9: The Last Years of the Prophet: The Formation of the State A.D. 630-632/A.H. 8-11</a>. Translated by Ismail K. Poonawala. SUNY Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-88706-692-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-88706-692-4"><bdi>978-0-88706-692-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+History+of+al-Tabari+Vol.+9%3A+The+Last+Years+of+the+Prophet%3A+The+Formation+of+the+State+A.D.+630-632%2FA.H.+8-11&rft.pub=SUNY+Press&rft.date=1990-09-11&rft.isbn=978-0-88706-692-4&rft.aulast=Al-Tabari&rft.aufirst=Abu+Ja%27far+Muhammad+Bin+Jarir&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSWPQfmdf5J4C%26pg%3DPA25&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+concubinage+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAli2004" class="citation web cs1">Ali, Kecia (2 February 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.brandeis.edu/projects/fse/muslim/slavery.html">"Islam and Slavery"</a>. The Feminist Sexual Ethics Project, Brandeis University. Retrieved 24 September 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Islam+and+Slavery&rft.pub=The+Feminist+Sexual+Ethics+Project%2C+Brandeis+University&rft.date=2004-02-02&rft.aulast=Ali&rft.aufirst=Kecia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.brandeis.edu%2Fprojects%2Ffse%2Fmuslim%2Fslavery.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+concubinage+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAli2010" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Kecia_Ali" title="Kecia Ali">Ali, Kecia</a> (30 October 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=PeOeXlqzZ-cC&pg=PA83">Marriage and Slavery in Early Islam</a>. Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-05059-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-05059-4"><bdi>978-0-674-05059-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Marriage+and+Slavery+in+Early+Islam&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2010-10-30&rft.isbn=978-0-674-05059-4&rft.aulast=Ali&rft.aufirst=Kecia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DPeOeXlqzZ-cC%26pg%3DPA83&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+concubinage+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAli2011" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Kecia_Ali" title="Kecia Ali">Ali, Kecia</a> (1 November 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uNvUehSxcesC&pg=PT76">Imam Shafi'i: Scholar and Saint</a>. Oneworld Publications. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-78074-004-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-78074-004-1"><bdi>978-1-78074-004-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Imam+Shafi%27i%3A+Scholar+and+Saint&rft.pub=Oneworld+Publications&rft.date=2011-11-01&rft.isbn=978-1-78074-004-1&rft.aulast=Ali&rft.aufirst=Kecia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DuNvUehSxcesC%26pg%3DPT76&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+concubinage+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAli2015a" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Kecia_Ali" title="Kecia Ali">Ali, Kecia</a> (21 December 2015a). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=my4XCwAAQBAJ">Sexual Ethics and Islam: Feminist Reflections on Qur'an, Hadith and Jurisprudence</a>. Oneworld Publications. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-78074-853-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-78074-853-5"><bdi>978-1-78074-853-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sexual+Ethics+and+Islam%3A+Feminist+Reflections+on+Qur%27an%2C+Hadith+and+Jurisprudence&rft.pub=Oneworld+Publications&rft.date=2015-12-21&rft.isbn=978-1-78074-853-5&rft.aulast=Ali&rft.aufirst=Kecia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dmy4XCwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+concubinage+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAli2016" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Kecia_Ali" title="Kecia Ali">Ali, Kecia</a> (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://mizanproject.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/09/02-Mizan-Journal-Vol-1_Issue-1_Ali_Redeeming-Slavery.pdf">"Redeeming Slavery: The 'Islamic State' and the Quest for Islamic Morality"</a> (PDF). Mizan: Journal for the Study of Muslim Societies and Civilizations. 1 (1).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Mizan%3A+Journal+for+the+Study+of+Muslim+Societies+and+Civilizations&rft.atitle=Redeeming+Slavery%3A+The+%27Islamic+State%27+and+the+Quest+for+Islamic+Morality&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=1&rft.date=2016&rft.aulast=Ali&rft.aufirst=Kecia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmizanproject.org%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2016%2F09%2F02-Mizan-Journal-Vol-1_Issue-1_Ali_Redeeming-Slavery.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+concubinage+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAli2017" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Kecia_Ali" title="Kecia Ali">Ali, Kecia</a> (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0020743816001203">"Concubinage and Consent"</a>. International Journal of Media Studies. 49 (1): 148–152. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0020743816001203">10.1017/S0020743816001203</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0020-7438">0020-7438</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Media+Studies&rft.atitle=Concubinage+and+Consent&rft.volume=49&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=148-152&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0020743816001203&rft.issn=0020-7438&rft.aulast=Ali&rft.aufirst=Kecia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1017%252FS0020743816001203&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+concubinage+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrandeis_University" class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.brandeis.edu/projects/fse/muslim/slavery.html">"Islam and Slavery"</a>. Brandeis University. Retrieved 2023-08-30.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Brandeis+University&rft.atitle=Islam+and+Slavery&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.brandeis.edu%2Fprojects%2Ffse%2Fmuslim%2Fslavery.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+concubinage+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAntunesTrivellatoHalevi2014" class="citation book cs1">Antunes, Catia; Trivellato, Francesca; Halevi, Leor, eds. (2014). Religion and Trade Cross-Cultural Exchanges in World History, 1000-1900. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. p. 57.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Religion+and+Trade+Cross-Cultural+Exchanges+in+World+History%2C+1000-1900&rft.pages=57&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+concubinage+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFArd_Boone2018" class="citation book cs1">Ard Boone, Rebecca (19 April 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=WUxWDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT58">Real Lives in the Sixteenth Century: A Global Perspective</a>. Taylor & Francis. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-351-13533-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-351-13533-7"><bdi>978-1-351-13533-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Real+Lives+in+the+Sixteenth+Century%3A+A+Global+Perspective&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2018-04-19&rft.isbn=978-1-351-13533-7&rft.aulast=Ard+Boone&rft.aufirst=Rebecca&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DWUxWDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT58&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+concubinage+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAsad1980" class="citation book cs1">Asad, Muhammad (1980). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://quran-archive.org/explorer/muhammad-asad">The Message of the Qur'ān</a>. Dar Al-Andalus Limited. Commentary on Chapter 4. Verse 25. Note 32. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/061421062-3" title="Special:BookSources/061421062-3"><bdi>061421062-3</bdi></a>. <q>This passage lays down in an unequivocal manner that sexual relations with female slaves are permitted only on the basis of marriage, and that in this respect there is no difference between them and free women; consequently, concubinage is ruled out.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Message+of+the+Qur%27%C4%81n&rft.pages=Commentary+on+Chapter+4.+Verse+25.+Note+32&rft.pub=Dar+Al-Andalus+Limited&rft.date=1980&rft.isbn=061421062-3&rft.aulast=Asad&rft.aufirst=Muhammad&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fquran-archive.org%2Fexplorer%2Fmuhammad-asad&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+concubinage+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAzam2015" class="citation book cs1">Azam, Hina (26 June 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fhy_CQAAQBAJ&pg=PA69">Sexual Violation in Islamic Law: Substance, Evidence, and Procedure</a>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-107-09424-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-107-09424-6"><bdi>978-1-107-09424-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sexual+Violation+in+Islamic+Law%3A+Substance%2C+Evidence%2C+and+Procedure&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2015-06-26&rft.isbn=978-1-107-09424-6&rft.aulast=Azam&rft.aufirst=Hina&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dfhy_CQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA69&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+concubinage+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBadawi2019" class="citation book cs1">Badawi, Nesrine (1 October 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6MC0DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA17">Islamic Jurisprudence on the Regulation of Armed Conflict: Text and Context</a>. BRILL. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-41062-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-41062-6"><bdi>978-90-04-41062-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Islamic+Jurisprudence+on+the+Regulation+of+Armed+Conflict%3A+Text+and+Context&rft.pub=BRILL&rft.date=2019-10-01&rft.isbn=978-90-04-41062-6&rft.aulast=Badawi&rft.aufirst=Nesrine&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D6MC0DwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA17&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+concubinage+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBano1999" class="citation journal cs1">Bano, Shadab (1999). "Marriage and Concubinage in the Mughal Imperial Family". Proceedings of the Indian History Congress. 60.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+Indian+History+Congress&rft.atitle=Marriage+and+Concubinage+in+the+Mughal+Imperial+Family&rft.volume=60&rft.date=1999&rft.aulast=Bano&rft.aufirst=Shadab&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+concubinage+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarker2019" class="citation book cs1">Barker, Hannah (2019). <a href="/wiki/That_Most_Precious_Merchandise:_The_Mediterranean_Trade_in_Black_Sea_Slaves,_1260-1500" class="mw-redirect" title="That Most Precious Merchandise: The Mediterranean Trade in Black Sea Slaves, 1260-1500">That Most Precious Merchandise: The Mediterranean Trade in Black Sea Slaves, 1260-1500</a>. <a href="/wiki/University_of_Pennsylvania_Press" title="University of Pennsylvania Press">University of Pennsylvania Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-812-25154-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-812-25154-8"><bdi>978-0-812-25154-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=That+Most+Precious+Merchandise%3A+The+Mediterranean+Trade+in+Black+Sea+Slaves%2C+1260-1500&rft.pub=University+of+Pennsylvania+Press&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-0-812-25154-8&rft.aulast=Barker&rft.aufirst=Hannah&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+concubinage+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBartropLeonard2014" class="citation book cs1">Bartrop, Paul R.; Leonard, Steven (17 December 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=JB4UBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1866">Modern Genocide: The Definitive Resource and Document Collection [4 volumes]: The Definitive Resource and Document Collection</a>. 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Taylor & Francis. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-93919-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-93919-5"><bdi>978-0-415-93919-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=South+Asian+Folklore%3A+An+Encyclopedia%3A+Afghanistan%2C+Bangladesh%2C+India%2C+Nepal%2C+Pakistan%2C+Sri+Lanka&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-415-93919-5&rft.aulast=Claus&rft.aufirst=Peter+J.&rft.au=Diamond%2C+Sarah&rft.au=Mills%2C+Margaret+Ann&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DienxrTPHzzwC%26pg%3DPA7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+concubinage+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCollinsLapierre1975" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Larry_Collins_(writer)" title="Larry Collins (writer)">Collins, Larry</a>; <a href="/wiki/Dominique_Lapierre" title="Dominique Lapierre">Lapierre, Dominique</a> (1975). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.103056/page/n359/mode/2up">Freedom at Midnight</a>. Collins. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-00-216055-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-00-216055-1"><bdi>978-0-00-216055-1</bdi></a> – via <a href="/wiki/Internet_Archive" title="Internet Archive">Internet Archive</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Freedom+at+Midnight&rft.pub=Collins&rft.date=1975&rft.isbn=978-0-00-216055-1&rft.aulast=Collins&rft.aufirst=Larry&rft.au=Lapierre%2C+Dominique&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fin.ernet.dli.2015.103056%2Fpage%2Fn359%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+concubinage+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFConnellanFröhlich2017" class="citation book cs1">Connellan, Mary Michele; Fröhlich, Christiane (15 August 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=WB4xDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA142">A Gendered Lens for Genocide Prevention</a>. Palgrave Macmillan UK. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-137-60117-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-137-60117-9"><bdi>978-1-137-60117-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Gendered+Lens+for+Genocide+Prevention&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan+UK&rft.date=2017-08-15&rft.isbn=978-1-137-60117-9&rft.aulast=Connellan&rft.aufirst=Mary+Michele&rft.au=Fr%C3%B6hlich%2C+Christiane&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DWB4xDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA142&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+concubinage+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCorteseCalderini2006" class="citation book cs1">Cortese, D.; Calderini, S. (2006). Women and the Fatimids in the World of slam. Edinburgh University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780748626298" title="Special:BookSources/9780748626298"><bdi>9780748626298</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Women+and+the+Fatimids+in+the+World+of+slam&rft.pub=Edinburgh+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=9780748626298&rft.aulast=Cortese&rft.aufirst=D.&rft.au=Calderini%2C+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+concubinage+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCortese2013" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Cortese, Delia (2013). "Concubinage". In Natana J. DeLong-Bas (ed.). The Oxford Encyclopedia of Islam and Women. Oxford University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Concubinage&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Encyclopedia+of+Islam+and+Women&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.aulast=Cortese&rft.aufirst=Delia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+concubinage+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrawford2017" class="citation book cs1">Crawford, Kerry F. (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rUowDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA13">Wartime Sexual Violence: From Silence to Condemnation of a Weapon of War</a>. Georgetown University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-62616-466-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-62616-466-6"><bdi>978-1-62616-466-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Wartime+Sexual+Violence%3A+From+Silence+to+Condemnation+of+a+Weapon+of+War&rft.pub=Georgetown+University+Press&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-1-62616-466-6&rft.aulast=Crawford&rft.aufirst=Kerry+F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DrUowDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA13&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+concubinage+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCuno2015" class="citation book cs1">Cuno, Kenneth M. (2015). Modernizing marriage: family, ideology, and law in nineteenth and early twentieth century Egypt. Syracuse (N. Y.): Syracuse University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780815633921" title="Special:BookSources/9780815633921"><bdi>9780815633921</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Modernizing+marriage%3A+family%2C+ideology%2C+and+law+in+nineteenth+and+early+twentieth+century+Egypt&rft.place=Syracuse+%28N.+Y.%29&rft.pub=Syracuse+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=9780815633921&rft.aulast=Cuno&rft.aufirst=Kenneth+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+concubinage+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFD'Costa2010" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Bina_D%27Costa" title="Bina D'Costa">D'Costa, Bina</a> (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ivzKjY5LncIC&pg=PA102">Nationbuilding, Gender and War Crimes in South Asia</a>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-041556566-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-041556566-0"><bdi>978-041556566-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nationbuilding%2C+Gender+and+War+Crimes+in+South+Asia&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-041556566-0&rft.aulast=D%27Costa&rft.aufirst=Bina&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DivzKjY5LncIC%26pg%3DPA102&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+concubinage+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDemirdjian2016" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Alexis_Demirdjian" title="Alexis Demirdjian">Demirdjian, Alexis</a> (4 April 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1L3tCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA125">The Armenian Genocide Legacy</a>. Springer. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-137-56163-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-137-56163-3"><bdi>978-1-137-56163-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Armenian+Genocide+Legacy&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2016-04-04&rft.isbn=978-1-137-56163-3&rft.aulast=Demirdjian&rft.aufirst=Alexis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D1L3tCwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA125&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+concubinage+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEl-Masri2018" class="citation journal cs1">El-Masri, Samar (2018). "Prosecuting ISIS for the sexual slavery of the Yazidi women and girls". The International Journal of Human Rights. 22 (8): 1047–1066. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F13642987.2018.1495195">10.1080/13642987.2018.1495195</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:149935720">149935720</a>. <q>Regardless of ISIS's interpretation of certain Quranic verses to justify their explicit practice of sexual slavery – which was publicly refuted by dozens of Islamic scholars – and regardless of the social, cultural and religious reasons that may clarify ISIS's disregard of girls' and women's rights, the victims deserve justice.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+International+Journal+of+Human+Rights&rft.atitle=Prosecuting+ISIS+for+the+sexual+slavery+of+the+Yazidi+women+and+girls&rft.volume=22&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=1047-1066&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F13642987.2018.1495195&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A149935720%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=El-Masri&rft.aufirst=Samar&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+concubinage+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFErdem1996" class="citation book cs1">Erdem, Y. (20 November 1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=dyZ-DAAAQBAJ&pg=PA52">Slavery in the Ottoman Empire and its Demise 1800-1909</a>. Palgrave Macmillan UK. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-230-37297-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-230-37297-9"><bdi>978-0-230-37297-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Slavery+in+the+Ottoman+Empire+and+its+Demise+1800-1909&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan+UK&rft.date=1996-11-20&rft.isbn=978-0-230-37297-9&rft.aulast=Erdem&rft.aufirst=Y.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DdyZ-DAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA52&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+concubinage+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFaizer2013" class="citation book cs1">Faizer, Rizwi (5 September 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gZknAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA462">The Life of Muhammad: Al-Waqidi's Kitab Al-Maghazi</a>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-136-92114-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-136-92114-8"><bdi>978-1-136-92114-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Life+of+Muhammad%3A+Al-Waqidi%27s+Kitab+Al-Maghazi&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2013-09-05&rft.isbn=978-1-136-92114-8&rft.aulast=Faizer&rft.aufirst=Rizwi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DgZknAAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA462&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+concubinage+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFaroqhi2019" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Suraiya_Faroqhi" title="Suraiya Faroqhi">Faroqhi, Suraiya</a> (8 August 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DvalDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA244">The Ottoman and Mughal Empires: Social History in the Early Modern World</a>. Bloomsbury Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-78831-873-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-78831-873-0"><bdi>978-1-78831-873-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Ottoman+and+Mughal+Empires%3A+Social+History+in+the+Early+Modern+World&rft.pub=Bloomsbury+Publishing&rft.date=2019-08-08&rft.isbn=978-1-78831-873-0&rft.aulast=Faroqhi&rft.aufirst=Suraiya&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DDvalDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA244&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+concubinage+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFerran2014" class="citation news cs1">Ferran, Lee (5 May 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://abcnews.go.com/Blotter/boko-haram-kidnappers-slave-owners-terrorists-killers/story?id=23598347">"Boko Haram: Kidnappers, Slave-Owners, Terrorists, Killers"</a>. ABC News. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181104104804/https://abcnews.go.com/Blotter/boko-haram-kidnappers-slave-owners-terrorists-killers/story?id=23598347">Archived</a> from the original on 4 November 2018. Retrieved 28 June 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Boko+Haram%3A+Kidnappers%2C+Slave-Owners%2C+Terrorists%2C+Killers&rft.date=2014-05-05&rft.aulast=Ferran&rft.aufirst=Lee&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fabcnews.go.com%2FBlotter%2Fboko-haram-kidnappers-slave-owners-terrorists-killers%2Fstory%3Fid%3D23598347&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+concubinage+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFoster2009" class="citation book cs1">Foster, William Henry (18 December 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=aaAcBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA57">Gender, Mastery and Slavery: From European to Atlantic World Frontiers</a>. Macmillan International Higher Education. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-230-31358-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-230-31358-3"><bdi>978-0-230-31358-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Gender%2C+Mastery+and+Slavery%3A+From+European+to+Atlantic+World+Frontiers&rft.pub=Macmillan+International+Higher+Education&rft.date=2009-12-18&rft.isbn=978-0-230-31358-3&rft.aulast=Foster&rft.aufirst=William+Henry&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DaaAcBQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA57&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+concubinage+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988">[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot">permanent dead link</a>‍]</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFriedmann2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Yohanan_Friedmann" title="Yohanan Friedmann">Friedmann, Yohanan</a> (2003). 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Atlantic Publishers & Dist. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-269-0857-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-269-0857-8"><bdi>978-81-269-0857-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+Sikh+Gurus+Retold%3A+1469-1606+C.E&rft.pub=Atlantic+Publishers+%26+Dist&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-81-269-0857-8&rft.aulast=Gandhi&rft.aufirst=Surjit+Singh&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dqw7-kUkHA_0C%26pg%3DPA19&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+concubinage+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGerlach2010" class="citation book cs1">Gerlach, Christian (14 October 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=48N-XbOltMEC&pg=PA155">Extremely Violent Societies: Mass Violence in the Twentieth-Century World</a>. 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ABC-CLIO. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4408-5462-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4408-5462-0"><bdi>978-1-4408-5462-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+World+of+the+Crusades%3A+A+Daily+Life+Encyclopedia+%26%2391%3B2+volumes%26%2393%3B&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2019-06-05&rft.isbn=978-1-4408-5462-0&rft.aulast=Holt&rft.aufirst=Andrew&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DO8ubDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA755&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+concubinage+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHudsonThayer2010" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Valerie_M._Hudson" title="Valerie M. Hudson">Hudson, Valerie M.</a>; Thayer, Bradley (2010). "Sex and the Shaheed: Insights from the Life Sciences on Islamic Suicide Terrorism". <a href="/wiki/International_Security_(journal)" title="International Security (journal)">International Security</a>. 34 (4): 48–53. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/40784561">40784561</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Security&rft.atitle=Sex+and+the+Shaheed%3A+Insights+from+the+Life+Sciences+on+Islamic+Suicide+Terrorism&rft.volume=34&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=48-53&rft.date=2010&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F40784561%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Hudson&rft.aufirst=Valerie+M.&rft.au=Thayer%2C+Bradley&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+concubinage+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIbn_al-Athir1998" class="citation book cs1">Ibn al-Athir, Ali (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://al-maktaba.org/book/23700/3194">Usd al-Ghaba</a>. Beirut: Dar al-Fikr.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Usd+al-Ghaba&rft.place=Beirut&rft.pub=Dar+al-Fikr&rft.date=1998&rft.aulast=Ibn+al-Athir&rft.aufirst=Ali&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fal-maktaba.org%2Fbook%2F23700%2F3194&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+concubinage+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIbn_Rashid2015" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ma%27mar_ibn_Rashid" title="Ma'mar ibn Rashid">Ibn Rashid, Ma'mar</a> (15 October 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=N8mlCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA68">The Expeditions: An Early Biography of Muhammad</a>. NYU Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4798-0047-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4798-0047-6"><bdi>978-1-4798-0047-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Expeditions%3A+An+Early+Biography+of+Muhammad&rft.pub=NYU+Press&rft.date=2015-10-15&rft.isbn=978-1-4798-0047-6&rft.aulast=Ibn+Rashid&rft.aufirst=Ma%27mar&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DN8mlCgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA68&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+concubinage+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIntisar" class="citation book cs1">Intisar, Rabb. Doubt in Islamic Law. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. p. 152. <q>Put together these verses indicate that the master-slave relationship creates a status through which sexual relations may become licit, provided both parties consent.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Doubt+in+Islamic+Law&rft.pages=152&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.aulast=Intisar&rft.aufirst=Rabb&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+concubinage+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIrwin2010" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Robert_Irwin_(writer)" title="Robert Irwin (writer)">Irwin, Robert</a> (4 November 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=bNeaBAAAQBAJ&pg=PT531">The New Cambridge History of Islam: Volume 4, Islamic Cultures and Societies to the End of the Eighteenth Century</a>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-316-18431-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-316-18431-8"><bdi>978-1-316-18431-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+New+Cambridge+History+of+Islam%3A+Volume+4%2C+Islamic+Cultures+and+Societies+to+the+End+of+the+Eighteenth+Century&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2010-11-04&rft.isbn=978-1-316-18431-8&rft.aulast=Irwin&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DbNeaBAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT531&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+concubinage+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIslam2019" class="citation book cs1">Islam, M. Rafiqul (19 March 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=V8KODwAAQBAJ&pg=PA177">National Trials of International Crimes in Bangladesh: Transitional Justice as Reflected in Judgments</a>. Leiden; Boston: Brill / Nijhof. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-38938-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-38938-0"><bdi>978-90-04-38938-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=National+Trials+of+International+Crimes+in+Bangladesh%3A+Transitional+Justice+as+Reflected+in+Judgments&rft.place=Leiden%3B+Boston&rft.pub=Brill+%2F+Nijhof&rft.date=2019-03-19&rft.isbn=978-90-04-38938-0&rft.aulast=Islam&rft.aufirst=M.+Rafiqul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DV8KODwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA177&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+concubinage+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIslam's_Black_Slaves2001" class="citation journal cs1">"Islam's Black Slaves: The Other Black Diaspora by Ronald Segal- Book Review". 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Yale University Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/greatpartitionma00khan/page/n180">135</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-12078-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-300-12078-3"><bdi>978-0-300-12078-3</bdi></a> – via <a href="/wiki/Internet_Archive" title="Internet Archive">Internet Archive</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Great+Partition%3A+The+Making+of+India+and+Pakistan&rft.pages=135&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-300-12078-3&rft.aulast=Khan&rft.aufirst=Yasmin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fgreatpartitionma00khan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+concubinage+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKia2011" class="citation book cs1">Kia, Mehrdad (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=byETWDb0ekEC&pg=PA199">Daily Life in the Ottoman Empire</a>. 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Historical Dictionary of Slavery and Abolition. Rowman & Littlefield. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780810875289" title="Special:BookSources/9780810875289"><bdi>9780810875289</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Historical+Dictionary+of+Slavery+and+Abolition&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=9780810875289&rft.aulast=Klein&rft.aufirst=Martin+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+concubinage+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLal2005" class="citation book cs1">Lal, Ruby (22 September 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=B8NJ41GiXvsC&pg=PA40">Domesticity and Power in the Early Mughal World</a>. 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Harvard University Press. p. 82. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-49596-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-49596-8"><bdi>978-0-674-49596-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Women%2C+Islam%2C+and+Abbasid+Identity&rft.pages=82&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2015-10-06&rft.isbn=978-0-674-49596-8&rft.aulast=Maria&rft.aufirst=Nadia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQimoCgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT82&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+concubinage+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarkoe2013" class="citation news cs1">Markoe, Lauren (24 September 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2014/09/24/muslim-scholars-islamic-state_n_5878038.html">"Muslim Scholars Release Open Letter to Islamic State Meticulously Blasting Its Ideology"</a>. <a href="/wiki/HuffPost" title="HuffPost">HuffPost</a>. 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2014/10/isis-confirms-and-justifies-enslaving-yazidis-in-new-magazine-article/381394/">the original</a> on 30 August 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Atlantic&rft.atitle=ISIS+Is+Now+Bragging+About+Enslaving+Women+and+Children&rft.date=2014-10-13&rft.aulast=McDuffee&rft.aufirst=Allen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theatlantic.com%2Finternational%2Farchive%2F2014%2F10%2Fisis-confirms-and-justifies-enslaving-yazidis-in-new-magazine-article%2F381394%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+concubinage+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcMahon2013" class="citation book cs1">McMahon, Elisabeth (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-cwhAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA18">Slavery and Emancipation in Islamic East Africa: From Honor to Respectability</a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 18. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-110732851-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-110732851-8"><bdi>978-110732851-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Slavery+and+Emancipation+in+Islamic+East+Africa%3A+From+Honor+to+Respectability&rft.pages=18&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-110732851-8&rft.aulast=McMahon&rft.aufirst=Elisabeth&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-cwhAwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA18&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+concubinage+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMenonBhasin1998" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ritu_Menon" title="Ritu Menon">Menon, Ritu</a>; Bhasin, Kamla (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=yNN4SE7cL60C&pg=PA70">Borders & Boundaries: Women in India's Partition</a>. Rutgers University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8135-2552-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8135-2552-5"><bdi>978-0-8135-2552-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Borders+%26+Boundaries%3A+Women+in+India%27s+Partition&rft.pub=Rutgers+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-8135-2552-5&rft.aulast=Menon&rft.aufirst=Ritu&rft.au=Bhasin%2C+Kamla&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DyNN4SE7cL60C%26pg%3DPA70&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+concubinage+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMetcalfMetcalf2012" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Barbara_D._Metcalf" title="Barbara D. 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Duke University Press. pp. 158–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8223-7522-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8223-7522-7"><bdi>978-0-8223-7522-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Spectral+Wound%3A+Sexual+Violence%2C+Public+Memories%2C+and+the+Bangladesh+War+of+1971&rft.pages=158-&rft.pub=Duke+University+Press&rft.date=2015-10-23&rft.isbn=978-0-8223-7522-7&rft.aulast=Mookherjee&rft.aufirst=Nayanika&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DOtrDCgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT158&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+concubinage+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMookherjee2015b" class="citation book cs1">Mookherjee, Nayanika (23 October 2015b). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=OtrDCgAAQBAJ&pg=PT159">The Spectral Wound: Sexual Violence, Public Memories, and the Bangladesh War of 1971</a>. 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John Wiley & Sons. p. 224. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781118972304" title="Special:BookSources/9781118972304"><bdi>9781118972304</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Islam%3A+History%2C+Religion%2C+and+Politics&rft.pages=224&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=9781118972304&rft.aulast=Sonn&rft.aufirst=Tamara&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+concubinage+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSpencer2014" class="citation news cs1">Spencer, Richard (13 October 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180409195532/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/islamic-state/11158797/Thousands-of-Yazidi-women-sold-as-sex-slaves-for-theological-reasons-says-Isil.html">"Thousands of Yazidi women sold as sex slaves 'for theological reasons', says Isil"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Daily_Telegraph" title="The Daily Telegraph">The Daily Telegraph</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/islamic-state/11158797/Thousands-of-Yazidi-women-sold-as-sex-slaves-for-theological-reasons-says-Isil.html">the original</a> on 9 April 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Daily+Telegraph&rft.atitle=Thousands+of+Yazidi+women+sold+as+sex+slaves+%27for+theological+reasons%27%2C+says+Isil&rft.date=2014-10-13&rft.aulast=Spencer&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.telegraph.co.uk%2Fnews%2Fworldnews%2Fislamic-state%2F11158797%2FThousands-of-Yazidi-women-sold-as-sex-slaves-for-theological-reasons-says-Isil.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+concubinage+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUN_in_Iraq" class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.uniraq.org/index.php?option=com_k2&view=item&id=2373:srsg-bangura-and-srsg-mladenov-gravely-concerned-by-reports-of-sexual-violence-against-internally-displaced-persons&Itemid=605&lang=en">"SRSG Bangura and SRSG Mladenov gravely concerned by reports of sexual violence against internally displaced persons"</a>. United Nations in Iraq. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140924045204/http://www.uniraq.org/index.php?option=com_k2&view=item&id=2373:srsg-bangura-and-srsg-mladenov-gravely-concerned-by-reports-of-sexual-violence-against-internally-displaced-persons&Itemid=605&lang=en">Archived</a> from the original on 2014-09-24. Retrieved 23 October 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=SRSG+Bangura+and+SRSG+Mladenov+gravely+concerned+by+reports+of+sexual+violence+against+internally+displaced+persons&rft.pub=United+Nations+in+Iraq&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.uniraq.org%2Findex.php%3Foption%3Dcom_k2%26view%3Ditem%26id%3D2373%3Asrsg-bangura-and-srsg-mladenov-gravely-concerned-by-reports-of-sexual-violence-against-internally-displaced-persons%26Itemid%3D605%26lang%3Den&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+concubinage+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSusskind2014" class="citation news cs1">Susskind, Yifat (3 July 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/poverty-matters/2014/jul/03/isis-iraqi-women-rape-violence-repression">"Under Isis, Iraqi women again face an old nightmare: violence and repression"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Guardian" title="The Guardian">The Guardian</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140717111729/http://www.theguardian.com/global-development/poverty-matters/2014/jul/03/isis-iraqi-women-rape-violence-repression">Archived</a> from the original on 2014-07-17. Retrieved 17 July 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Under+Isis%2C+Iraqi+women+again+face+an+old+nightmare%3A+violence+and+repression&rft.date=2014-07-03&rft.aulast=Susskind&rft.aufirst=Yifat&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fglobal-development%2Fpoverty-matters%2F2014%2Fjul%2F03%2Fisis-iraqi-women-rape-violence-repression&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+concubinage+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSuzuki2013" class="citation journal cs1">Suzuki, Hideaki (2013). "Baluchi Experiences Under Slavery and the Slave Trade of the Gulf of Oman and the Persian Gulf, 1921–1950". The Journal of the Middle East and Africa. 4 (2): 214. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F21520844.2013.830995">10.1080/21520844.2013.830995</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:128496240">128496240</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+the+Middle+East+and+Africa&rft.atitle=Baluchi+Experiences+Under+Slavery+and+the+Slave+Trade+of+the+Gulf+of+Oman+and+the+Persian+Gulf%2C+1921%E2%80%931950&rft.volume=4&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=214&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F21520844.2013.830995&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A128496240%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Suzuki&rft.aufirst=Hideaki&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+concubinage+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTharoor2015" class="citation news cs1">Tharoor, Ishaan (20 August 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/worldviews/wp/2015/08/20/the-islamic-states-horrifying-practice-of-sex-slavery-explained/">"The Islamic State's horrifying practice of sex slavery, explained"</a>. The Washington Post. Retrieved 15 September 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Washington+Post&rft.atitle=The+Islamic+State%27s+horrifying+practice+of+sex+slavery%2C+explained&rft.date=2015-08-20&rft.aulast=Tharoor&rft.aufirst=Ishaan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Fnews%2Fworldviews%2Fwp%2F2015%2F08%2F20%2Fthe-islamic-states-horrifying-practice-of-sex-slavery-explained%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+concubinage+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFToledano2013" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ehud_R._Toledano" title="Ehud R. Toledano">Toledano, Ehud R.</a> (23 May 2013). "Abolition and Anti-slavery in the Ottoman Empire: A Case to Answer?". In Mulligan, W.; Bric, M. (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=JsqRuGZNcOoC">A Global History of Anti-Slavery Politics in the Nineteenth Century</a>. Springer. p. 122. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-137-03260-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-137-03260-7"><bdi>978-1-137-03260-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Abolition+and+Anti-slavery+in+the+Ottoman+Empire%3A+A+Case+to+Answer%3F&rft.btitle=A+Global+History+of+Anti-Slavery+Politics+in+the+Nineteenth+Century&rft.pages=122&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2013-05-23&rft.isbn=978-1-137-03260-7&rft.aulast=Toledano&rft.aufirst=Ehud+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJsqRuGZNcOoC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+concubinage+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThe_International_Encyclopedia_of_Anthropology1999" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Tran, Lisa (2018). "Concubinage". In Callan, Hillary (ed.). The International Encyclopedia of Anthropology. 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(1 January 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/translatingorien0000weis">Translating Orients: Between Ideology and Utopia</a>. University of Toronto Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/translatingorien0000weis/page/n203">190</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8020-8958-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8020-8958-8"><bdi>978-0-8020-8958-8</bdi></a> – via <a href="/wiki/Internet_Archive" title="Internet Archive">Internet Archive</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Translating+Orients%3A+Between+Ideology+and+Utopia&rft.pages=190&rft.pub=University+of+Toronto+Press&rft.date=2004-01-01&rft.isbn=978-0-8020-8958-8&rft.aulast=Weiss&rft.aufirst=Timothy+F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ftranslatingorien0000weis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+concubinage+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWhite-Spunner2017" class="citation book cs1">White-Spunner, Barney (10 August 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2Wx9DQAAQBAJ&pg=PR134">Partition: The story of Indian independence and the creation of Pakistan in 1947</a>. Simon & Schuster UK. pp. 134–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4711-4802-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4711-4802-6"><bdi>978-1-4711-4802-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Partition%3A+The+story+of+Indian+independence+and+the+creation+of+Pakistan+in+1947&rft.pages=134-&rft.pub=Simon+%26+Schuster+UK&rft.date=2017-08-10&rft.isbn=978-1-4711-4802-6&rft.aulast=White-Spunner&rft.aufirst=Barney&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D2Wx9DQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPR134&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+concubinage+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWillis2014" class="citation book cs1">Willis, John Ralph (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=V5y3AwAAQBAJ&pg=PT43">Slaves and Slavery in Africa: Volume One: Islam and the Ideology of Enslavement</a>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-131779213-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-131779213-0"><bdi>978-131779213-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Slaves+and+Slavery+in+Africa%3A+Volume+One%3A+Islam+and+the+Ideology+of+Enslavement&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-131779213-0&rft.aulast=Willis&rft.aufirst=John+Ralph&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DV5y3AwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT43&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+concubinage+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWinterton2014" class="citation news cs1">Winterton, Clare (25 June 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.huffingtonpost.com/clare-winterton/why-we-must-act_b_5528162.html">"Why We Must Act When Women in Iraq Document Rape"</a>. <a href="/wiki/HuffPost" title="HuffPost">HuffPost</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140714144008/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/clare-winterton/why-we-must-act_b_5528162.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2014-07-14. 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Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-107-10159-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-107-10159-3"><bdi>978-1-107-10159-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Western+Case+for+Monogamy+Over+Polygamy&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2015-05-05&rft.isbn=978-1-107-10159-3&rft.aulast=Witte&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DX1EQCAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA283&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+concubinage+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYagur2020" class="citation book cs1">Yagur, Moshe (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QRfUDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA101">"Captives, Converts, and Concubines: Gendered Aspects of Conversion to Judaism in the Medieval Near East"</a>. In Stampfer, Zvi; Ashur, Amir (eds.). Language, Gender and Law in the Judaeo-Islamic Milieu. <a href="/wiki/Brill_Publishers" title="Brill Publishers">Brill</a>. pp. 88–108. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9-004-42217-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-9-004-42217-9"><bdi>978-9-004-42217-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Captives%2C+Converts%2C+and+Concubines%3A+Gendered+Aspects+of+Conversion+to+Judaism+in+the+Medieval+Near+East&rft.btitle=Language%2C+Gender+and+Law+in+the+Judaeo-Islamic+Milieu&rft.pages=88-108&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-9-004-42217-9&rft.aulast=Yagur&rft.aufirst=Moshe&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQRfUDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA101&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+concubinage+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYelbasi2019" class="citation book cs1">Yelbasi, Caner (22 August 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=FvalDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA14">The Circassians of Turkey: War, Violence and Nationalism from the Ottomans to Atatürk</a>. Bloomsbury Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-83860-017-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-83860-017-4"><bdi>978-1-83860-017-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Circassians+of+Turkey%3A+War%2C+Violence+and+Nationalism+from+the+Ottomans+to+Atat%C3%BCrk&rft.pub=Bloomsbury+Publishing&rft.date=2019-08-22&rft.isbn=978-1-83860-017-4&rft.aulast=Yelbasi&rft.aufirst=Caner&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DFvalDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA14&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+concubinage+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved 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