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.mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vcard"><caption class="infobox-title" style="font-size:125%; font-style:italic; padding-bottom:0.2em;">Introduction to Automata Theory, Languages, and Computation <span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+Automata+Theory%2C+Languages%2C+and+Computation&rft.author=%5B%5BJohn+Hopcroft%5D%5D+and+%5B%5BJeffrey+Ullman%5D%5D&rft.date=1979&rft.pub=%5B%5BAddison-Wesley%5D%5D&rft.place=USA&rft_id=info:oclcnum/4549363"></span></caption><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Introduction_to_Automata_Theory,_Languages,_and_Computation.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img 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science">Computer science</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Publisher</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Addison-Wesley" title="Addison-Wesley">Addison-Wesley</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Publication date</div></th><td class="infobox-data">1979</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Publication place</th><td class="infobox-data">USA</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Media type</th><td class="infobox-data">Print</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-201-02988-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-201-02988-X">0-201-02988-X</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)"><abbr title="Online Computer Library Center number">OCLC</abbr></a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/4549363">4549363</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Dewey_Decimal_Classification" title="Dewey Decimal Classification">Dewey Decimal</a></div></th><td class="infobox-data">629.8/312</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/LCC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCC (identifier)"><abbr title="Library of Congress Classification">LC Class</abbr></a></th><td class="infobox-data">QA267 .H56</td></tr></tbody></table> <p><i><b>Introduction to Automata Theory, Languages, and Computation</b></i> is an influential <a href="/wiki/Computer_science" title="Computer science">computer science</a> textbook by <a href="/wiki/John_Hopcroft" title="John Hopcroft">John Hopcroft</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jeffrey_Ullman" title="Jeffrey Ullman">Jeffrey Ullman</a> on <a href="/wiki/Formal_language" title="Formal language">formal languages</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_computation" title="Theory of computation">theory of computation</a>. <a href="/wiki/Rajeev_Motwani" title="Rajeev Motwani">Rajeev Motwani</a> contributed to later editions beginning in 2000. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Nickname">Nickname</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Introduction_to_Automata_Theory,_Languages,_and_Computation&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Nickname"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Jargon_File" title="Jargon File">Jargon File</a> records the book's nickname, <i><b>Cinderella Book</b></i>, thusly: "So called because the cover depicts a girl (putatively Cinderella) sitting in front of a <a href="/wiki/Rube_Goldberg" title="Rube Goldberg">Rube Goldberg</a> device and holding a rope coming out of it. On the back cover, the device is in shambles after she has (inevitably) pulled on the rope."<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Edition_history_and_reception">Edition history and reception</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Introduction_to_Automata_Theory,_Languages,_and_Computation&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Edition history and reception"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The forerunner of this book appeared under the title <i><b>Formal Languages and Their Relation to Automata</b></i> in 1968. Forming a basis both for the creation of courses on the topic, as well as for further research, that book shaped the field of <a href="/wiki/Automata_theory" title="Automata theory">automata theory</a> for over a decade, cf. (Hopcroft 1989). </p> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHopcroftUllman1968" class="citation book cs1">Hopcroft, John E.; Ullman, Jeffrey D. (1968). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/formallanguagest00hopc"><i>Formal Languages and Their Relation to Automata</i></a></span>. Addison-Wesley. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780201029833" title="Special:BookSources/9780201029833"><bdi>9780201029833</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Formal+Languages+and+Their+Relation+to+Automata&rft.pub=Addison-Wesley&rft.date=1968&rft.isbn=9780201029833&rft.aulast=Hopcroft&rft.aufirst=John+E.&rft.au=Ullman%2C+Jeffrey+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fformallanguagest00hopc&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntroduction+to+Automata+Theory%2C+Languages%2C+and+Computation" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHopcroftUllman1979" class="citation book cs1">Hopcroft, John E.; Ullman, Jeffrey D. (1979). <i><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Introduction to Automata Theory, Languages, and Computation</a></i> (1st ed.). Addison-Wesley. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-201-02988-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-201-02988-X"><bdi>0-201-02988-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+Automata+Theory%2C+Languages%2C+and+Computation&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Addison-Wesley&rft.date=1979&rft.isbn=0-201-02988-X&rft.aulast=Hopcroft&rft.aufirst=John+E.&rft.au=Ullman%2C+Jeffrey+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntroduction+to+Automata+Theory%2C+Languages%2C+and+Computation" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHopcroftMotwaniUllman2000" class="citation book cs1">Hopcroft, John E.; Motwani, Rajeev; Ullman, Jeffrey D. (2000). <i>Introduction to Automata Theory, Languages, and Computation</i> (2nd ed.). Addison-Wesley. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/81-7808-347-7" title="Special:BookSources/81-7808-347-7"><bdi>81-7808-347-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+Automata+Theory%2C+Languages%2C+and+Computation&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Addison-Wesley&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=81-7808-347-7&rft.aulast=Hopcroft&rft.aufirst=John+E.&rft.au=Motwani%2C+Rajeev&rft.au=Ullman%2C+Jeffrey+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntroduction+to+Automata+Theory%2C+Languages%2C+and+Computation" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHopcroftMotwaniUllman2006" class="citation book cs1">Hopcroft, John E.; Motwani, Rajeev; Ullman, Jeffrey D. (2006) [1979]. <i><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Introduction to Automata Theory, Languages, and Computation</a></i> (3rd ed.). Addison-Wesley. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-321-45536-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-321-45536-3"><bdi>0-321-45536-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+Automata+Theory%2C+Languages%2C+and+Computation&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Addison-Wesley&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=0-321-45536-3&rft.aulast=Hopcroft&rft.aufirst=John+E.&rft.au=Motwani%2C+Rajeev&rft.au=Ullman%2C+Jeffrey+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntroduction+to+Automata+Theory%2C+Languages%2C+and+Computation" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHopcroftMotwaniUllman2013" class="citation book cs1">Hopcroft, John E.; Motwani, Rajeev; Ullman, Jeffrey D. (2013). <i>Introduction to Automata Theory, Languages, and Computation</i> (New International ed.). Pearson. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1292039053" title="Special:BookSources/978-1292039053"><bdi>978-1292039053</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+Automata+Theory%2C+Languages%2C+and+Computation&rft.edition=New+International&rft.pub=Pearson&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1292039053&rft.aulast=Hopcroft&rft.aufirst=John+E.&rft.au=Motwani%2C+Rajeev&rft.au=Ullman%2C+Jeffrey+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntroduction+to+Automata+Theory%2C+Languages%2C+and+Computation" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hopcroft-ullman-old.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Hopcroft-ullman-old.jpg/220px-Hopcroft-ullman-old.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Hopcroft-ullman-old.jpg/330px-Hopcroft-ullman-old.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Hopcroft-ullman-old.jpg/440px-Hopcroft-ullman-old.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1944" data-file-height="2592" /></a><figcaption><i>Formal Languages and Their Relation to Automata</i> appeared in 1968, with an inornate cover.</figcaption></figure> <p>The first edition of <i>Introduction to Automata Theory, Languages, and Computation</i> was published in 1979, the second edition in November 2000, and the third edition appeared in February 2006. Since the second edition, <a href="/wiki/Rajeev_Motwani" title="Rajeev Motwani">Rajeev Motwani</a> has joined Hopcroft and Ullman as the third author. Starting with the second edition, the book features extended coverage of examples where <a href="/wiki/Automata_theory" title="Automata theory">automata theory</a> is applied, whereas large parts of more advanced theory were taken out. While this makes the second and third editions more accessible to beginners, it makes it less suited for more advanced courses. The new bias away from theory is not seen positively by all: As <a href="/wiki/Jeffrey_Shallit" title="Jeffrey Shallit">Shallit</a> quotes one professor, "they have removed all good parts." (Shallit 2008). </p><p>The first edition in turn constituted a major revision of a previous textbook also written by Hopcroft and Ullman, entitled <i>Formal Languages and Their Relation to Automata</i>. It was published in 1968 and is referred to in the introduction of the 1979 edition. In a personal historical note regarding the 1968 book, Hopcroft states: "Perhaps the success of the book came from our efforts to present the essence of each proof before actually giving the proof" (Hopcroft 1989). Compared with the forerunner book, the 1979 edition was expanded, and the material was reworked to make it more accessible to students, cf. (Hopcroft 1989). This gearing towards understandability at the price of succinctness was not seen positively by all. As Hopcroft reports on feedback to the overhauled 1979 edition: "It seems that our attempts to lower the level of our presentation for the benefit of students by including more detail and explanations had an adverse effect on the faculty, who then had to sift through the added material to outline and prepare their lectures" (Hopcroft 1989). </p><p>Still, the most cited edition of the book is apparently the 1979 edition: According to the website <a href="/wiki/CiteSeerX" title="CiteSeerX">CiteSeerX</a>, over 3000 scientific papers freely available online cite this edition of the book.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Introduction_to_Automata_Theory,_Languages,_and_Computation&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Introduction_to_the_Theory_of_Computation" title="Introduction to the Theory of Computation">Introduction to the Theory of Computation</a></i> by <a href="/wiki/Michael_Sipser" title="Michael Sipser">Michael Sipser</a>, another standard textbook in the field</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://infolab.stanford.edu/~ullman/ialcsols/sols.html">Solutions to Selected Exercises</a>, Stanford University</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Introduction_to_Automata_Theory,_Languages,_and_Computation&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.catb.org/~esr/jargon/html/C/Cinderella-Book.html">"Cinderella Book"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 22,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Cinderella+Book&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.catb.org%2F~esr%2Fjargon%2Fhtml%2FC%2FCinderella-Book.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntroduction+to+Automata+Theory%2C+Languages%2C+and+Computation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220921215315/https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/stats/citations">"CiteSeerX Most Cited Computer Science Citations"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/stats/citations">the original</a> on Sep 21, 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 20,</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=CiteSeerX+Most+Cited+Computer+Science+Citations&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fstats%2Fcitations&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntroduction+to+Automata+Theory%2C+Languages%2C+and+Computation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Introduction_to_Automata_Theory,_Languages,_and_Computation&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Entry <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://catb.org/~esr/jargon/html/C/Cinderella-Book.html">"Cinderella book".</a> In: <a href="/wiki/The_Jargon_file" class="mw-redirect" title="The Jargon file">The Jargon file</a> (version 4.4.7, December 29, 2003).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHopcroft1989" class="citation journal cs1">Hopcroft, John E. (1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://garfield.library.upenn.edu/classics1989/classics1989.html">"The emergence of computer science - A citation classic commentary on 'Formal Languages and Their Relation to Automata'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Current_Contents" title="Current Contents">Current Contents Engineering, Technology, and Applied Sciences</a></i>. <b>31</b>: 12.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Current+Contents+Engineering%2C+Technology%2C+and+Applied+Sciences&rft.atitle=The+emergence+of+computer+science+-+A+citation+classic+commentary+on+%27Formal+Languages+and+Their+Relation+to+Automata%27&rft.volume=31&rft.pages=12&rft.date=1989&rft.aulast=Hopcroft&rft.aufirst=John+E.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fgarfield.library.upenn.edu%2Fclassics1989%2Fclassics1989.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntroduction+to+Automata+Theory%2C+Languages%2C+and+Computation" class="Z3988"></span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://garfield.library.upenn.edu/classics1989/A1989AF70300001.pdf">available online (pdf)</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShallit2008" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jeffrey_Shallit" title="Jeffrey Shallit">Shallit, Jeffrey O.</a> (2008). <i>A Second Course in Formal Languages and Automata Theory</i>. Cambridge University Press. p. ix. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-86572-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-86572-2"><bdi>978-0-521-86572-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Second+Course+in+Formal+Languages+and+Automata+Theory&rft.pages=ix&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-521-86572-2&rft.aulast=Shallit&rft.aufirst=Jeffrey+O.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntroduction+to+Automata+Theory%2C+Languages%2C+and+Computation" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://infolab.stanford.edu/~ullman/ialc.html">"Introduction to Automata Theory, Languages, and Computation - Home page"</a>. <i>Stanford University</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230607132150/http://infolab.stanford.edu/~ullman/ialc.html">Archived</a> from the original on 7 June 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Stanford+University&rft.atitle=Introduction+to+Automata+Theory%2C+Languages%2C+and+Computation+-+Home+page&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Finfolab.stanford.edu%2F~ullman%2Fialc.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntroduction+to+Automata+Theory%2C+Languages%2C+and+Computation" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/trent_0116301269779">"Introduction to Automata Theory, Languages, and Computation; 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