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<span>Mesozoic birds</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mesozoic_birds-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Radiation_of_modern_birds" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Radiation_of_modern_birds"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Radiation of modern birds</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Radiation_of_modern_birds-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Classification_of_modern_species" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Classification_of_modern_species"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Classification of modern species</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Classification_of_modern_species-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Current_evolutionary_trends_in_birds" class="vector-toc-list-item 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href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evoluci%C3%B3_dels_ocells" title="Evolució dels ocells – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Evolució dels ocells" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evoluce_pt%C3%A1k%C5%AF" title="Evoluce ptáků – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Evoluce ptáků" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evoluci%C3%B3n_de_las_aves" title="Evolución de las aves – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Evolución de las aves" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D8%B1%DA%AF%D8%B4%D8%AA_%D9%BE%D8%B1%D9%86%D8%AF%DA%AF%D8%A7%D9%86" title="فرگشت پرندگان – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="فرگشت پرندگان" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Histoire_%C3%A9volutive_des_oiseaux" title="Histoire évolutive des oiseaux – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Histoire évolutive des oiseaux" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evoluci%C3%B3n_das_aves" title="Evolución das aves – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Evolución das aves" data-language-autonym="Galego" 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.multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:204px;max-width:204px"><div class="trow"><div class="theader" style="text-align:center"><i><a href="/wiki/Archaeopteryx" title="Archaeopteryx">Archaeopteryx</a></i></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Archaeopteryx_lithographica_(Berlin_specimen).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Archaeopteryx_lithographica_%28Berlin_specimen%29.jpg/200px-Archaeopteryx_lithographica_%28Berlin_specimen%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="270" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Archaeopteryx_lithographica_%28Berlin_specimen%29.jpg/300px-Archaeopteryx_lithographica_%28Berlin_specimen%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Archaeopteryx_lithographica_%28Berlin_specimen%29.jpg/400px-Archaeopteryx_lithographica_%28Berlin_specimen%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1888" data-file-height="2552" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center">Berlin</div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Archaeopteryx_bavarica_Detail.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Archaeopteryx_bavarica_Detail.jpg/200px-Archaeopteryx_bavarica_Detail.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Archaeopteryx_bavarica_Detail.jpg/300px-Archaeopteryx_bavarica_Detail.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Archaeopteryx_bavarica_Detail.jpg/400px-Archaeopteryx_bavarica_Detail.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1062" data-file-height="828" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center"><a href="/wiki/Pal%C3%A4ontologisches_Museum_M%C3%BCnchen" class="mw-redirect" title="Paläontologisches Museum München">München</a></div></div></div></div></div><p>The <b>evolution of birds</b> began in the <a href="/wiki/Jurassic" title="Jurassic">Jurassic</a> Period, with the earliest <a href="/wiki/Bird" title="Bird">birds</a> derived from a <a href="/wiki/Clade" title="Clade">clade</a> of <a href="/wiki/Theropod" class="mw-redirect" title="Theropod">theropod</a> <a href="/wiki/Dinosaur" title="Dinosaur">dinosaurs</a> named <a href="/wiki/Paraves" title="Paraves">Paraves</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-NYT-20160328_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NYT-20160328-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Birds are categorized as a <a href="/wiki/Class_(biology)" title="Class (biology)">biological class</a>, <b>Aves</b>. For more than a century, the small theropod dinosaur <i><a href="/wiki/Archaeopteryx" title="Archaeopteryx">Archaeopteryx lithographica</a></i> from the <a href="/wiki/Late_Jurassic" title="Late Jurassic">Late Jurassic</a> period was considered to have been the earliest bird. Modern phylogenies place birds in the dinosaur clade <a href="/wiki/Theropoda" title="Theropoda">Theropoda</a>. According to the current consensus, Aves and a sister group, the <a href="/wiki/Order_(biology)" title="Order (biology)">order</a> <a href="/wiki/Crocodilia" title="Crocodilia">Crocodilia</a>, together are the sole living members of an unranked <a href="/wiki/Reptile" title="Reptile">reptile</a> clade, the <a href="/wiki/Archosaur" title="Archosaur">Archosauria</a>. Four distinct lineages of bird survived the <a href="/wiki/Cretaceous%E2%80%93Paleogene_extinction_event" title="Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event">Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event</a> 66 million years ago, giving rise to ostriches and relatives (<a href="/wiki/Palaeognathae" title="Palaeognathae">Palaeognathae</a>), waterfowl (<a href="/wiki/Anseriformes" title="Anseriformes">Anseriformes</a>), ground-living fowl (<a href="/wiki/Galliformes" title="Galliformes">Galliformes</a>), and "modern birds" (<a href="/wiki/Neoaves" title="Neoaves">Neoaves</a>). </p><p><a href="/wiki/Phylogenetics" title="Phylogenetics">Phylogenetically</a>, Aves is usually defined as all descendants of the most recent common ancestor of a specific modern bird species (such as the <a href="/wiki/House_sparrow" title="House sparrow">house sparrow</a>, <i>Passer domesticus</i>), and either <i>Archaeopteryx</i>,<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or some prehistoric species closer to <a href="/wiki/Neornithes" class="mw-redirect" title="Neornithes">Neornithes</a> (to avoid the problems caused by the unclear relationships of <i>Archaeopteryx</i> to other theropods).<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> If the latter classification is used then the larger group is termed Avialae. Currently, the relationship between non-avian dinosaurs, <i>Archaeopteryx</i>, and modern birds is still under debate. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Origins">Origins</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Evolution_of_birds&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Origins"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Origin_of_birds" title="Origin of birds">Origin of birds</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Feathered_dinosaur" title="Feathered dinosaur">Feathered dinosaur</a>, <a href="/wiki/Paraves" title="Paraves">Paraves</a>, <a href="/wiki/Avemetatarsalia" title="Avemetatarsalia">Avemetatarsalia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Dromaeosauridae#Alternative_theories_and_flightlessness" title="Dromaeosauridae">Dromaeosauridae § Alternative theories and flightlessness</a></div> <p>There is <a href="/wiki/Origin_of_birds" title="Origin of birds">significant evidence</a> that birds emerged within <a href="/wiki/Theropoda" title="Theropoda">theropod</a> <a href="/wiki/Dinosauria" class="mw-redirect" title="Dinosauria">dinosaurs</a>, specifically, that birds are members of <a href="/wiki/Maniraptora" title="Maniraptora">Maniraptora</a>, a group of theropods which includes <a href="/wiki/Dromaeosaur" class="mw-redirect" title="Dromaeosaur">dromaeosaurs</a> and <a href="/wiki/Oviraptoridae" title="Oviraptoridae">oviraptorids</a>, among others.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As more non-avian theropods that are closely related to birds are discovered, the formerly clear distinction between non-birds and birds becomes less so. This was noted in the 19th century, with <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Huxley" class="mw-redirect" title="Thomas Huxley">Thomas Huxley</a> writing: </p> <blockquote><p>We have had to stretch the definition of the class of birds so as to include birds with teeth and birds with paw-like fore limbs and long tails. There is no evidence that <i>Compsognathus</i> possessed feathers; but, if it did, it would be hard indeed to say whether it should be called a reptilian bird or an avian reptile.<sup id="cite_ref-Huxley_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Huxley-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Velociraptor_28-12-2007_15-06-24.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Velociraptor_28-12-2007_15-06-24.jpg/220px-Velociraptor_28-12-2007_15-06-24.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Velociraptor_28-12-2007_15-06-24.jpg/330px-Velociraptor_28-12-2007_15-06-24.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Velociraptor_28-12-2007_15-06-24.jpg/440px-Velociraptor_28-12-2007_15-06-24.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption>The mounted skeleton of a <i><a href="/wiki/Velociraptor" title="Velociraptor">Velociraptor</a></i>, showing the very bird-like quality of the smaller <a href="/wiki/Theropod" class="mw-redirect" title="Theropod">theropod</a> dinosaurs</figcaption></figure> <p>Discoveries in northeast <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="People's Republic of China">China</a> (<a href="/wiki/Liaoning" title="Liaoning">Liaoning</a> Province) demonstrate that many small theropod dinosaurs <a href="/wiki/Feathered_dinosaurs" class="mw-redirect" title="Feathered dinosaurs">did indeed have feathers</a>, among them the <a href="/wiki/Compsognathid" class="mw-redirect" title="Compsognathid">compsognathid</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Sinosauropteryx" title="Sinosauropteryx">Sinosauropteryx</a></i> and the <a href="/wiki/Microraptoria" title="Microraptoria">microraptorian</a> <a href="/wiki/Dromaeosauridae" title="Dromaeosauridae">dromaeosaurid</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Sinornithosaurus" title="Sinornithosaurus">Sinornithosaurus</a></i>. This has contributed to this ambiguity of where to draw the line between birds and reptiles.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i><a href="/wiki/Cryptovolans" class="mw-redirect" title="Cryptovolans">Cryptovolans</a></i>, a dromaeosaurid found in 2002 (which may be a junior synonym of <i><a href="/wiki/Microraptor" title="Microraptor">Microraptor</a></i>) was capable of powered flight, possessing a sternal <a href="/wiki/Keel_(bird)" class="mw-redirect" title="Keel (bird)">keel</a> and ribs with <a href="/wiki/Uncinate_processes_of_ribs" title="Uncinate processes of ribs">uncinate processes</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Cryptovolans" class="mw-redirect" title="Cryptovolans">Cryptovolans</a></i> seems to make a better "bird" than <i><a href="/wiki/Archaeopteryx" title="Archaeopteryx">Archaeopteryx</a></i> which lacks some of these modern bird features. Because some basal members of <a href="/wiki/Dromaeosauridae" title="Dromaeosauridae">Dromaeosauridae</a>, including <i><a href="/wiki/Microraptor" title="Microraptor">Microraptor</a></i>, were capable of powered flight, some paleontologists have suggested that <a href="/wiki/Dromaeosauridae" title="Dromaeosauridae">dromaeosaurids</a> are actually derived from a flying ancestor, and that the larger members became secondarily flightless, mirroring the loss of flight in modern <a href="/wiki/Palaeognathae" title="Palaeognathae">paleognaths</a> like the <a href="/wiki/Ostrich" title="Ostrich">ostrich</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-paul2002_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-paul2002-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The discoveries of further basal dromaeosaurids potentially capable of powered flight, such as <i><a href="/wiki/Xiaotingia" title="Xiaotingia">Xiaotingia</a></i>, has provided more evidence for the theory that flight was first developed in the bird line by early dromaeosaurids rather than later by <a href="/wiki/Aves" class="mw-redirect" title="Aves">Aves</a> as was previously supposed.<sup id="cite_ref-Yurgovuchia_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Yurgovuchia-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Although <a href="/wiki/Ornithischia" title="Ornithischia">ornithischian</a> (bird-hipped) dinosaurs share the same <a href="/wiki/Hip" title="Hip">hip</a> structure as birds, birds actually originated from the <a href="/wiki/Saurischia" title="Saurischia">saurischian</a> (lizard-hipped) dinosaurs if the dinosaurian origin theory is correct. They thus arrived at their hip structure condition <a href="/wiki/Analogy_(biology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Analogy (biology)">independently</a>. In fact, a bird-like hip structure also developed a third time among a peculiar group of theropods, the <a href="/wiki/Therizinosauridae" title="Therizinosauridae">Therizinosauridae</a>. </p><p>An alternate theory to the dinosaurian origin of birds, espoused by a few scientists, notably <a href="/wiki/Larry_Martin" title="Larry Martin">Larry Martin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alan_Feduccia" title="Alan Feduccia">Alan Feduccia</a>, states that birds (including <a href="/wiki/Maniraptora" title="Maniraptora">maniraptoran</a> "dinosaurs") evolved from early archosaurs like <i><a href="/wiki/Longisquama" title="Longisquama">Longisquama</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This theory is contested by most other paleontologists and experts in feather development and evolution.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Mesozoic_birds">Mesozoic birds</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Evolution_of_birds&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Mesozoic birds"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Avialae" title="Avialae">Avialae</a> and <a href="/wiki/Category:Mesozoic_birds" title="Category:Mesozoic birds">Category:Mesozoic birds</a></div> <p>The basal bird <i><a href="/wiki/Archaeopteryx" title="Archaeopteryx">Archaeopteryx</a></i>, from the <a href="/wiki/Jurassic" title="Jurassic">Jurassic</a>, is well known as one of the first "<a href="/wiki/Transitional_fossil" title="Transitional fossil">missing links</a>" to be found in support of <a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">evolution</a> in the late 19th century. Though it is not considered a direct ancestor of modern birds, it gives a fair representation of how flight evolved and how the very first bird might have looked. It may be predated by <i><a href="/wiki/Protoavis" title="Protoavis">Protoavis texensis</a></i>, though the fragmentary nature of this fossil leaves it open to considerable doubt whether this was a bird ancestor. The skeleton of all early bird candidates is basically that of a small theropod dinosaur with long, clawed hands, though the exquisite preservation of the <a href="/wiki/Solnhofen_Plattenkalk" class="mw-redirect" title="Solnhofen Plattenkalk">Solnhofen Plattenkalk</a> shows <i>Archaeopteryx</i> was covered in feathers and had wings.<sup id="cite_ref-Huxley_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Huxley-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While <i>Archaeopteryx</i> and its relatives may not have been very good fliers, they would at least have been competent gliders, setting the stage for the evolution of life on the wing. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Iberomesornis_romerali_by_durbed.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Iberomesornis_romerali_by_durbed.jpg/170px-Iberomesornis_romerali_by_durbed.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="203" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Iberomesornis_romerali_by_durbed.jpg/255px-Iberomesornis_romerali_by_durbed.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Iberomesornis_romerali_by_durbed.jpg/340px-Iberomesornis_romerali_by_durbed.jpg 2x" data-file-width="620" data-file-height="739" /></a><figcaption>Reconstruction of <i><a href="/wiki/Iberomesornis_romerali" class="mw-redirect" title="Iberomesornis romerali">Iberomesornis romerali</a></i>, a toothed <a href="/wiki/Enantiornithes" title="Enantiornithes">enantiornithine</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The evolutionary trend among birds has been the reduction of anatomical elements to save weight. The first element to disappear was the bony tail, being reduced to a <a href="/wiki/Pygostyle" title="Pygostyle">pygostyle</a> and the tail function taken over by feathers. <i><a href="/wiki/Confuciusornis" title="Confuciusornis">Confuciusornis</a></i> is an example of their trend. While keeping the clawed fingers, perhaps for climbing, it had a pygostyle tail, though longer than in modern birds. A large group of birds, the <a href="/wiki/Enantiornithes" title="Enantiornithes">Enantiornithes</a>, evolved into <a href="/wiki/Ecological_niche" title="Ecological niche">ecological niches</a> similar to those of modern birds and flourished throughout the Mesozoic. Though their wings resembled those of many modern bird groups, they retained the clawed wings and a snout with teeth rather than a beak in most forms. The loss of a long tail was followed by a rapid evolution of their legs which evolved to become highly versatile and adaptable tools that opened up new ecological niches.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Cretaceous" title="Cretaceous">Cretaceous</a> saw the rise of more modern birds with a more rigid ribcage with a <a href="/wiki/Keel_(bird_anatomy)" title="Keel (bird anatomy)">carina</a> and shoulders able to allow for a powerful upstroke, essential to sustained powered flight<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>. Another improvement was the appearance of an <a href="/wiki/Alula" title="Alula">alula</a>, used to achieve better control of landing or flight at low speeds<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>. They also had a more derived pygostyle, with a <a href="/wiki/Ploughshare" class="mw-redirect" title="Ploughshare">ploughshare</a>-shaped end. An early example is <i><a href="/wiki/Yanornis" title="Yanornis">Yanornis</a></i>. Many were coastal birds, strikingly resembling modern <a href="/wiki/Shorebird" class="mw-redirect" title="Shorebird">shorebirds</a>, like <i><a href="/wiki/Ichthyornis" title="Ichthyornis">Ichthyornis</a></i>, or ducks, like<i> <a href="/wiki/Gansus" title="Gansus">Gansus</a></i>. Some evolved as swimming hunters, like the <a href="/wiki/Hesperornithiformes" class="mw-redirect" title="Hesperornithiformes">Hesperornithiformes</a> – a group of flightless divers resembling <a href="/wiki/Grebe" title="Grebe">grebes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Loon" title="Loon">loons</a>. While modern in most respects, most of these birds retained typical reptilian-like teeth and sharp claws on the manus. </p><p>The modern toothless birds evolved from the toothed ancestors in the Cretaceous.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Meanwhile, the earlier primitive birds, particularly the Enantiornithes, continued to thrive and diversify alongside the <a href="/wiki/Pterosaur" title="Pterosaur">pterosaurs</a> through this geologic period until they became extinct due to the <a href="/wiki/Cretaceous%E2%80%93Paleogene_extinction_event" title="Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event">K–T extinction event</a>. All but a few groups of the toothless <a href="/wiki/Neornithes" class="mw-redirect" title="Neornithes">Neornithes</a> were also cut short. The surviving lineages of birds were the comparatively primitive <a href="/wiki/Palaeognathae" title="Palaeognathae">Palaeognathae</a> (<a href="/wiki/Ostrich" title="Ostrich">ostrich</a> and its allies), the aquatic <a href="/wiki/Anseriformes" title="Anseriformes">duck lineage</a>, the terrestrial <a href="/wiki/Galliformes" title="Galliformes">fowl</a>, and the highly volant <a href="/wiki/Neoaves" title="Neoaves">Neoaves</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Radiation_of_modern_birds">Radiation of modern birds</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Evolution_of_birds&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Radiation of modern birds"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Mesozoic%E2%80%93Cenozoic_radiation" title="Mesozoic–Cenozoic radiation">Mesozoic–Cenozoic radiation</a></div> <p>Modern birds originated in the late <a href="/wiki/Cretaceous" title="Cretaceous">Cretaceous</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-ClaramuntCracraft2015_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ClaramuntCracraft2015-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They are split into the <a href="/wiki/Paleognath" class="mw-redirect" title="Paleognath">paleognaths</a> and <a href="/wiki/Neognath" class="mw-redirect" title="Neognath">neognaths</a>. The paleognaths include the <a href="/wiki/Tinamou" title="Tinamou">tinamous</a> (grouse-like birds, found only in Central and South America) and the <a href="/wiki/Ratite" title="Ratite">ratites</a>, which nowadays are found almost exclusively in the Southern Hemisphere. The ratites are large flightless birds, and include <a href="/wiki/Ostrich" title="Ostrich">ostriches</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rhea_(bird)" title="Rhea (bird)">rheas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cassowary" title="Cassowary">cassowaries</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kiwi_(bird)" title="Kiwi (bird)">kiwis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Emu" title="Emu">emus</a>. The ratites are a <a href="/wiki/Paraphyletic" class="mw-redirect" title="Paraphyletic">paraphyletic</a> (artificial) grouping because tinamous are part of their evolutionary <a href="/wiki/Clade" title="Clade">clade</a> and they have likely lost the ability to fly independently, becoming an example of <a href="/wiki/Convergent_evolution" title="Convergent evolution">convergent evolution</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the evidence about their evolution is still ambiguous, partly because there are no uncontroversial <a href="/wiki/Fossil" title="Fossil">fossils</a> from the Mesozoic and partly because their phylogenetic relationships are still uncertain. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Giant_Haasts_eagle_attacking_New_Zealand_moa.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Giant_Haasts_eagle_attacking_New_Zealand_moa.jpg/220px-Giant_Haasts_eagle_attacking_New_Zealand_moa.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Giant_Haasts_eagle_attacking_New_Zealand_moa.jpg/330px-Giant_Haasts_eagle_attacking_New_Zealand_moa.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Giant_Haasts_eagle_attacking_New_Zealand_moa.jpg/440px-Giant_Haasts_eagle_attacking_New_Zealand_moa.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1375" data-file-height="1101" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Haast%27s_eagle" title="Haast's eagle">Haast's eagle</a> and <a href="/wiki/Moa" title="Moa">moa</a> in New Zealand; the eagle is a <a href="/wiki/Neognathae" title="Neognathae">neognath</a>, the moa are <a href="/wiki/Paleognathae" class="mw-redirect" title="Paleognathae">paleognaths</a>.</figcaption></figure><p> The basal divergence within Neognathes is between <a href="/wiki/Galloanserae" class="mw-redirect" title="Galloanserae">Galloanserae</a> and <a href="/wiki/Neoaves" title="Neoaves">Neoaves</a>. </p><p>The timing of divergence of these major groups are a matter of debate. It is agreed that modern birds originated in the Cretaceous and that the split between <a href="/wiki/Galloanserae" class="mw-redirect" title="Galloanserae">Galloanserae</a> and <a href="/wiki/Neoaves" title="Neoaves">Neoaves</a> occurred before the <a href="/wiki/Cretaceous%E2%80%93Paleogene_extinction_event" title="Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event">Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event</a>, but there are different opinions about whether the radiation of the remaining neognaths occurred before or after the extinction event.<sup id="cite_ref-Ericson_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ericson-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This disagreement is in part caused by a divergence in the evidence, with molecular dating suggesting a Cretaceous radiation and the fossil record suggesting a <a href="/wiki/Paleogene" title="Paleogene">Paleogene</a> radiation. The latest attempts to reconcile the molecular and fossil evidence estimated the most recent common ancestor of modern birds at 95 million years ago and the split between Galloanseres and Neoaves at 85 million years ago.<sup id="cite_ref-ClaramuntCracraft2015_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ClaramuntCracraft2015-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Notably, these studies show that the rapid proliferation of lineages in Neoaves seems to coincide with the <a href="/wiki/Cretaceous%E2%80%93Paleogene_extinction_event" title="Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event">Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event</a>, suggesting a role for ecological opportunity stimulating diversification in the aftermath of the mass extinction. </p><p>In contrast, another recent genomic study suggests that the Galloanserae and Neoaves diverged around the Early-Late Cretaceous boundary (100.5 million years ago), with the paleognaths and neognaths diverging even earlier (around 130 million years ago), and that most terrestrial neoavian orders gradually diverged from one another throughout the Late Cretaceous, roughly in sync with the concurrent radiation of <a href="/wiki/Flowering_plant" title="Flowering plant">flowering plants</a>. This would suggest that a majority of all terrestrial avian orders coexisted with the non-avian dinosaurs and are K-Pg extinction survivors. In contrast, most major radiations of seabirds and shorebirds (as well as in paleognaths, despite their ancient origins) were found to have only occurred after the K-Pg extinction event, and primarily after the <a href="/wiki/Paleocene%E2%80%93Eocene_Thermal_Maximum" title="Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum">Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum</a>. This clashes with previous studies that found a very rapid radiation of avian orders only after the K-Pg extinction.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The results of this study have been disputed by other researchers, due to a lack of fossil evidence to support its conclusions.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The birds that survived the end-of-Cretaceous extinction were likely ground-dwelling (not arboreal) and thus persisted despite the worldwide destruction of forests.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>An analysis of the variation of diversification rates through time further revealed a potential effect of climate on the evolution diversification rates in birds in which the generation of new lineages accelerates during periods of global cooling.<sup id="cite_ref-ClaramuntCracraft2015_13-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ClaramuntCracraft2015-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This can be the result of climate cooling fragmenting tropical biomes and producing widespread <a href="/wiki/Allopatric_speciation" title="Allopatric speciation">allopatric speciation</a> plus an effect of some lineages diversifying in the expanding arid and cool <a href="/wiki/Biomes" class="mw-redirect" title="Biomes">biomes</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-ClaramuntCracraft2015_13-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ClaramuntCracraft2015-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Bird skull evolution decelerated compared with the evolution of their <a href="/wiki/Dinosaur" title="Dinosaur">dinosaur</a> predecessors after the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event, rather than <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_radiation" title="Evolutionary radiation">accelerating</a> as often believed to have caused the cranial shape diversity of modern birds.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Classification_of_modern_species">Classification of modern species</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Evolution_of_birds&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Classification of modern species"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bird_Diversity_2013.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Bird_Diversity_2013.png/220px-Bird_Diversity_2013.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="307" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Bird_Diversity_2013.png/330px-Bird_Diversity_2013.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Bird_Diversity_2013.png/440px-Bird_Diversity_2013.png 2x" data-file-width="999" data-file-height="1392" /></a><figcaption>The diversity of modern birds</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Sibley%E2%80%93Ahlquist_taxonomy_of_birds" title="Sibley–Ahlquist taxonomy of birds">Sibley–Ahlquist taxonomy of birds</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dinosaur_classification" title="Dinosaur classification">dinosaur classification</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Phylogenetic" class="mw-redirect" title="Phylogenetic">phylogenetic</a> <a href="/wiki/Scientific_classification" class="mw-redirect" title="Scientific classification">classification</a> of birds is a contentious issue. <a href="/wiki/Charles_Sibley" title="Charles Sibley">Sibley</a> & <a href="/wiki/Jon_E._Ahlquist" title="Jon E. Ahlquist">Ahlquist</a>'s <i>Phylogeny and Classification of Birds</i> (1990) is a landmark work on the classification of birds (although frequently debated and constantly revised). A preponderance of evidence suggests that most modern bird orders constitute good <a href="/wiki/Clades" class="mw-redirect" title="Clades">clades</a>. However, scientists are not in agreement as to the precise relationships between the main clades. Evidence from modern bird anatomy, fossils and DNA have all been brought to bear on the problem but no strong consensus has emerged. </p><p>Structural characteristics and fossil records have historically provided enough data for systematists to form hypotheses regarding the <a href="/wiki/Phylogenetics" title="Phylogenetics">phylogenetic</a> relationships between birds. Imprecisions within these methods is the main factor for why a lack of exact knowledge with regards to the orders and families of birds exists. Expansions in the study of computer-generated <a href="/wiki/DNA_sequencing" title="DNA sequencing">DNA sequencing</a> and computer generated phylogenetics has provided a more accurate method for classifying bird species - although DNA data studying can only go so far, and questions are still unanswered.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Current_evolutionary_trends_in_birds">Current evolutionary trends in birds</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Evolution_of_birds&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Current evolutionary trends in birds"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Bird_conservation" title="Bird conservation">Bird conservation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sexual_selection_in_birds" title="Sexual selection in birds">Sexual selection in birds</a></div> <p>Evolution generally occurs at a scale far too slow to be witnessed by humans. However, bird species are currently going <a href="/wiki/Extinct" class="mw-redirect" title="Extinct">extinct</a> at a far greater rate than any possible speciation or other generation of new species<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>. The disappearance of a population, subspecies, or species represents the permanent loss of a range of genes. </p><p>Another concern with evolutionary implications is a suspected increase in <a href="/wiki/Hybrid_(biology)" title="Hybrid (biology)">hybridization</a>. This may arise from human alteration of habitats enabling related <a href="/wiki/Allopatric" class="mw-redirect" title="Allopatric">allopatric</a> species to overlap. <a href="/wiki/Forest_fragmentation" class="mw-redirect" title="Forest fragmentation">Forest fragmentation</a> can create extensive open areas, connecting previously isolated patches of open habitat. Populations that were isolated for sufficient time to diverge significantly, but not sufficient to be incapable of producing fertile offspring may now be interbreeding so broadly that the integrity of the original species may be compromised. For example, the many hybrid <a href="/wiki/Hummingbird" title="Hummingbird">hummingbirds</a> found in northwest South America may represent a threat to the conservation of the distinct species involved.<sup id="cite_ref-Fjeldså_and_Krabbe,_1990_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fjeldså_and_Krabbe,_1990-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Several species of birds have been bred in captivity to create variations on wild species. In some birds this is limited to color variations, while others are bred for larger egg or meat production, for flightlessness or other characteristics. </p><p>In December 2019 the results of a joint study by Chicago's <a href="/wiki/Field_Museum_of_Natural_History" title="Field Museum of Natural History">Field Museum</a> and the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Michigan" title="University of Michigan">University of Michigan</a> into changes in the morphology of birds were published in <i><a href="/wiki/Ecology_Letters" title="Ecology Letters">Ecology Letters</a></i>. The study uses bodies of birds which died as a result of colliding with buildings in Chicago, Illinois, since 1978. The sample is made up of over 70,000 specimens from 52 species and spans the period from 1978 to 2016. The study shows that the length of birds' lower leg bones (an indicator of body sizes) shortened by an average of 2.4% and their wings lengthened by 1.3%. The findings of the study suggest the morphological changes are the result of climate change, demonstrating an example of evolutionary change following <a href="/wiki/Bergmann%27s_rule" title="Bergmann's rule">Bergmann's rule</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Evolution_of_birds&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 18em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aurornis" title="Aurornis">Aurornis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lack%27s_principle" title="Lack's principle">Lack's principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_avian_flight" title="Origin of avian flight">Origin of avian flight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_birds" title="Origin of birds">Origin of birds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Survival_of_the_fittest" title="Survival of the fittest">Survival of the fittest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genomic_evolution_of_birds" title="Genomic evolution of birds">Genomic evolution of birds</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Evolution_of_birds&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-NYT-20160328-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-NYT-20160328_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFWilford2016" class="citation news cs1">Wilford, John Noble (28 March 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2016/03/29/science/dinosaurs-birds-evolution-american-museum-of-natural-history.html">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>'Dinosaurs Among Us' Retraces an Evolutionary Path"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 March</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=%27Dinosaurs+Among+Us%27+Retraces+an+Evolutionary+Path&rft.date=2016-03-28&rft.aulast=Wilford&rft.aufirst=John+Noble&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2016%2F03%2F29%2Fscience%2Fdinosaurs-birds-evolution-american-museum-of-natural-history.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+birds" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPadian,_KChiappe,_LM1997" class="citation book cs1">Padian, K; Chiappe, LM (1997). "Bird Origins". 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Apollo Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-87-88757-16-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-87-88757-16-3"><bdi>978-87-88757-16-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Birds+of+the+High+Andes%3A+A+Manual+to+the+Birds+of+the+Temperate+Zone+of+the+Andes+and+Patagonia%2C+South+America&rft.pub=Apollo+Books&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-87-88757-16-3&rft.aulast=Fjelds%C3%A5&rft.aufirst=Jon&rft.au=Niels+Krabbe.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+birds" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVlamis2019" class="citation news cs1">Vlamis, Kelsey (4 December 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-50661448">"Birds 'shrinking' as the climate warms"</a>. <i>BBC News</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 December</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BBC+News&rft.atitle=Birds+%27shrinking%27+as+the+climate+warms&rft.date=2019-12-04&rft.aulast=Vlamis&rft.aufirst=Kelsey&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.com%2Fnews%2Fscience-environment-50661448&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+birds" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.audubon.org/news/north-american-birds-are-shrinking-likely-result-warming-climate">"North American Birds Are Shrinking, Likely a Result of the Warming Climate"</a>. <i>Audubon</i>. 4 December 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 December</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Audubon&rft.atitle=North+American+Birds+Are+Shrinking%2C+Likely+a+Result+of+the+Warming+Climate&rft.date=2019-12-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.audubon.org%2Fnews%2Fnorth-american-birds-are-shrinking-likely-result-warming-climate&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+birds" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWeeksWillardZimovaEllis2019" class="citation journal cs1">Weeks, Brian C.; Willard, David E.; Zimova, Marketa; Ellis, Aspen A.; Witynski, Max L.; Hennen, Mary; Winger, Benjamin M. (2019). "Shared morphological consequences of global warming in North American migratory birds". <i>Ecology Letters</i>. <b>23</b> (2): 316–325. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fele.13434">10.1111/ele.13434</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/2027.42%2F153188">2027.42/153188</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1461-0248">1461-0248</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31800170">31800170</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:208620935">208620935</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ecology+Letters&rft.atitle=Shared+morphological+consequences+of+global+warming+in+North+American+migratory+birds&rft.volume=23&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=316-325&rft.date=2019&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F2027.42%2F153188&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A208620935%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fele.13434&rft.issn=1461-0248&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F31800170&rft.aulast=Weeks&rft.aufirst=Brian+C.&rft.au=Willard%2C+David+E.&rft.au=Zimova%2C+Marketa&rft.au=Ellis%2C+Aspen+A.&rft.au=Witynski%2C+Max+L.&rft.au=Hennen%2C+Mary&rft.au=Winger%2C+Benjamin+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+birds" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Evolution_of_birds&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Jarvis, Eric D., et al. "Whole-genome analyses resolve early branches in the tree of life of modern birds." <i>Science</i> <b>346</b>. December 12, 2014, pp. 1320-1331.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFN._Adam_SmithLuis_M._ChiappeJulia_A._ClarkeScott_V._Edwards2015" class="citation journal cs1">N. Adam Smith; Luis M. Chiappe; Julia A. Clarke; Scott V. Edwards; Sterling J. Nesbitt; Mark A. Norell; Thomas A. Stidham; Alan Turner; Marcel van Tuinen; Jakob Vinther; Xing Xu (2015). "Rhetoric vs. reality: A commentary on <i>Bird Origins Anew</i> by A. Feduccia". <i>Auk</i>. <b>132</b> (2): 467–480. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1642%2FAUK-14-203.1">10.1642/AUK-14-203.1</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/2152%2F43319">2152/43319</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:85772056">85772056</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Auk&rft.atitle=Rhetoric+vs.+reality%3A+A+commentary+on+Bird+Origins+Anew+by+A.+Feduccia&rft.volume=132&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=467-480&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F2152%2F43319&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A85772056%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1642%2FAUK-14-203.1&rft.au=N.+Adam+Smith&rft.au=Luis+M.+Chiappe&rft.au=Julia+A.+Clarke&rft.au=Scott+V.+Edwards&rft.au=Sterling+J.+Nesbitt&rft.au=Mark+A.+Norell&rft.au=Thomas+A.+Stidham&rft.au=Alan+Turner&rft.au=Marcel+van+Tuinen&rft.au=Jakob+Vinther&rft.au=Xing+Xu&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+birds" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFXing_XuZhonghe_ZhouRobert_DudleySusan_Mackem2014" class="citation journal cs1">Xing Xu; Zhonghe Zhou; Robert Dudley; Susan Mackem; <a href="/wiki/Cheng-Ming_Chuong" title="Cheng-Ming Chuong">Cheng-Ming Chuong</a>; Gregory M. Erickson; David J. Varricchio (12 December 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholarworks.montana.edu/xmlui/handle/1/9119">"An integrative approach to understanding bird origins"</a>. <i>Science</i>. <b>346</b> (6215): 1253293. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1253293">10.1126/science.1253293</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25504729">25504729</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:24228777">24228777</a>.</cite><span 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0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beak" title="Beak">Beak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avian_brain" title="Avian brain">Brain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crop_(anatomy)#Birds" title="Crop (anatomy)">Crop</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crop_milk" title="Crop milk">milk</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dactyly#bird_digits" title="Dactyly">Dactyly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bird_egg" title="Bird egg">Eggs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feather" title="Feather">Feathers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bird_flight" title="Bird flight">Flight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uropygial_gland" title="Uropygial gland">Preen gland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plumage" title="Plumage">Plumage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bird_vision" title="Bird vision">Vision</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Bird_behaviour" class="mw-redirect" title="Bird behaviour">Behaviour</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bird_vocalization" title="Bird vocalization">Singing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bird_intelligence" title="Bird intelligence">Intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bird_migration" title="Bird migration">Migration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avian_foraging" title="Avian foraging">Foraging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_selection_in_birds" title="Sexual selection in birds">Sexual selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lek_mating" title="Lek mating">Lek mating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seabird_breeding_behavior" title="Seabird breeding behavior">Seabird breeding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egg_incubation#Avian_incubation" title="Egg incubation">Incubation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brood_parasite" class="mw-redirect" title="Brood parasite">Brood parasites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bird_nest" title="Bird nest">Nesting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bird_hybrid" title="Bird hybrid">Hybrids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bird_colony" title="Bird colony">Colony</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">Evolution</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_birds" title="Origin of birds">Origin of birds</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theropoda" title="Theropoda">Theropoda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dinosaur" title="Dinosaur">dinosaurs</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_avian_flight" title="Origin of avian flight">Origin of flight</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Evolution of birds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Darwin%27s_finches" title="Darwin's finches">Darwin's finches</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seabird" title="Seabird">Seabirds</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_fossil_bird_genera" title="List of fossil bird genera">Fossil birds</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Archaeopteryx" title="Archaeopteryx">Archaeopteryx</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omnivoropterygidae" title="Omnivoropterygidae">Omnivoropterygiformes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeholornithidae" title="Jeholornithidae">Jeholornithidae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confuciusornithiformes" class="mw-redirect" title="Confuciusornithiformes">Confuciusornithiformes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enantiornithes" title="Enantiornithes">Enantiornithes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chaoyangiformes" class="mw-redirect" title="Chaoyangiformes">Chaoyangiformes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patagopterygiformes" title="Patagopterygiformes">Patagopterygiformes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ambiortiformes" title="Ambiortiformes">Ambiortiformes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Songlingornithiformes" class="mw-redirect" title="Songlingornithiformes">Songlingornithiformes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hongshanornithidae" title="Hongshanornithidae">Hongshanornithidae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gansus" title="Gansus">Gansuiformes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ichthyornithes" title="Ichthyornithes">Ichthyornithiformes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hesperornithes" title="Hesperornithes">Hesperornithes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithornithidae" title="Lithornithidae">Lithornithiformes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moa" title="Moa">Dinornithiformes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elephant_bird" title="Elephant bird">Aepyornithiformes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gastornithiformes" title="Gastornithiformes">Gastornithiformes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Human_uses_of_birds" title="Human uses of birds">Human <br />interaction</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bird_ringing" title="Bird ringing">Ringing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ornithology" title="Ornithology">Ornithology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ornithomancy" title="Ornithomancy">Ornithomancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bird_collections" title="Bird collections">Bird collections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birdwatching" title="Birdwatching">Birdwatching</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Big_year" title="Big year">big year</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bird_feeding" title="Bird feeding">Bird feeding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bird_conservation" title="Bird conservation">Conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aviculture" title="Aviculture">Aviculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waterfowl_hunting" title="Waterfowl hunting">Waterfowl hunting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cockfight" class="mw-redirect" title="Cockfight">Cockfighting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pigeon_racing" title="Pigeon racing">Pigeon racing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Falconry" title="Falconry">Falconry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pheasantry" title="Pheasantry">Pheasantry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imping" title="Imping">Imping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oology" title="Oology">Egg collecting</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_birds" title="List of birds">Families and orders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_bird_genera" title="List of bird genera">Genera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_bird_terms" title="Glossary of bird terms">Glossary of bird terms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_birds_by_population" title="List of birds by population">List by population</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_birds_by_region" title="Lists of birds by region">Lists by region</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_extinct_bird_species_since_1500" title="List of extinct bird species since 1500">Extinct species since 1500</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Late_Quaternary_prehistoric_bird_species" title="List of Late Quaternary prehistoric bird species">Late Quaternary prehistoric birds</a></li> <li>Notable birds <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_individual_birds" title="List of individual birds">individuals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_fictional_birds" title="List of fictional birds">fictional</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Neornithes" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Neornithes</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Palaeognathae" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Palaeognathae" title="Palaeognathae">Palaeognathae</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Struthionidae" title="Struthionidae">Struthioniformes <span style="font-size:85%;">(ostriches)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rheidae" title="Rheidae">Rheiformes <span style="font-size:85%;">(rheas)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tinamou" title="Tinamou">Tinamiformes <span style="font-size:85%;">(tinamous)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kiwi_(bird)" title="Kiwi (bird)">Apterygiformes <span style="font-size:85%;">(kiwis)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Casuariiformes" title="Casuariiformes">Casuariiformes <span style="font-size:85%;">(emus and cassowaries)</span></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Neognathae" title="Neognathae">N<br />e<br />o<br />g<br />n<br />a<br />t<br />h<br />a<br />e</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Galloanserae_(fowls)" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Galloanserae" class="mw-redirect" title="Galloanserae">G<br />a<br />l<br />l<br />o<br />a<br />n<br />s<br />e<br />r<br />a<br />e</a> <br /> <span style="font-size:85%;">(<a href="/wiki/Fowl" title="Fowl">fowls</a>)</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Anseriformes" title="Anseriformes">Anseriformes</a> <br /> <span style="font-size:85%;">(waterfowls)</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Anatidae" title="Anatidae">Anatidae</a> <br /> <span style="font-size:85%;">(<a href="/wiki/Duck" title="Duck">ducks</a>)</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anatinae" title="Anatinae">Anatinae</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diving_duck" title="Diving duck">Aythyini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mergini" title="Mergini">Mergini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxyurini" title="Oxyurini">Oxyurini</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anserinae" title="Anserinae">Anserinae</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Swan" title="Swan"><span style="font-size:85%;">swans</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goose" title="Goose"><span style="font-size:85%;">true geese</span></a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whistling_duck" title="Whistling duck">Dendrocygninae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freckled_duck" title="Freckled duck">Stictonettinae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tadorninae" title="Tadorninae">Tadorninae</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Anhimidae" class="mw-redirect" title="Anhimidae">Anhimidae</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Horned_screamer" title="Horned screamer">Anhima</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Chauna" title="Chauna">Chauna</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Anseranatidae" title="Anseranatidae">Anseranatidae</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Magpie_goose" title="Magpie goose">Anseranas</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Galliformes" title="Galliformes">Galliformes</a> <br /> <span style="font-size:85%;">(<a href="/wiki/Landfowl" class="mw-redirect" title="Landfowl">landfowls</a>-</span> <br /> <span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Gamebirds" class="mw-redirect" title="Gamebirds">gamebirds</a>)</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cracidae" title="Cracidae">Cracidae</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cracinae" class="mw-redirect" title="Cracinae">Cracinae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oreophasinae" class="mw-redirect" title="Oreophasinae">Oreophasinae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penelopinae" class="mw-redirect" title="Penelopinae">Penelopinae</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Megapodidae" class="mw-redirect" title="Megapodidae">Megapodidae</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Aepypodius" title="Aepypodius">Aepypodius</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Alectura" class="mw-redirect" title="Alectura">Alectura</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Eulipoa" class="mw-redirect" title="Eulipoa">Eulipoa</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Leipoa" class="mw-redirect" title="Leipoa">Leipoa</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Macrocephalon" class="mw-redirect" title="Macrocephalon">Macrocephalon</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Megapodius" class="mw-redirect" title="Megapodius">Megapodius</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Talegalla" title="Talegalla">Talegalla</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Numididae" class="mw-redirect" title="Numididae">Numididae</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Vulturine_guineafowl" title="Vulturine guineafowl">Acryllium</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Agelastes" title="Agelastes">Agelastes</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Guttera" title="Guttera">Guttera</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Numida" class="mw-redirect" title="Numida">Numida</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Odontophoridae" class="mw-redirect" title="Odontophoridae">Odontophoridae</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Callipepla" title="Callipepla">Callipepla</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Colinus" title="Colinus">Colinus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Cyrtonyx" title="Cyrtonyx">Cyrtonyx</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dactylortyx" class="mw-redirect" title="Dactylortyx">Dactylortyx</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dendrortyx" title="Dendrortyx">Dendrortyx</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Odontophorus" class="mw-redirect" title="Odontophorus">Odontophorus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Oreortyx" class="mw-redirect" title="Oreortyx">Oreortyx</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Philortyx" class="mw-redirect" title="Philortyx">Philortyx</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Rhynchortyx" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhynchortyx">Rhynchortyx</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Phasianidae" title="Phasianidae">Phasianidae</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Meleagridinae" class="mw-redirect" title="Meleagridinae">Meleagridinae <span style="font-size:85%;">(turkeys)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perdicinae" title="Perdicinae">Perdicinae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phasianinae" title="Phasianinae">Phasianinae <span style="font-size:85%;">(pheasants and relatives)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grouse" title="Grouse">Tetraoninae</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Neoaves" title="Neoaves">Neoaves</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Columbea" title="Columbea">Columbea</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Columbimorphae" title="Columbimorphae">Columbimorphae</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Columbidae" title="Columbidae">Columbiformes <span style="font-size:85%;">(doves and pigeons)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesite" title="Mesite">Mesitornithiformes <span style="font-size:85%;">(mesites)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sandgrouse" title="Sandgrouse">Pterocliformes <span style="font-size:85%;">(sandgrouse)</span></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Mirandornithes" title="Mirandornithes">Mirandornithes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Flamingo" title="Flamingo">Phoenicopteriformes <span style="font-size:85%;">(flamingos)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grebe" title="Grebe">Podicipediformes <span style="font-size:85%;">(grebes)</span></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Passerea" title="Passerea">Passerea</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Otidimorphae" title="Otidimorphae">Otidimorphae</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cuckoo" title="Cuckoo">Cuculiformes <span style="font-size:85%;">(cuckoos)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turaco" title="Turaco">Musophagiformes <span style="font-size:85%;">(turacos)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bustard" title="Bustard">Otidiformes <span style="font-size:85%;">(bustards)</span></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Strisores" title="Strisores">Strisores</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Caprimulgiformes" class="mw-redirect" title="Caprimulgiformes">Caprimulgiformes <span style="font-size:85%;">(nightjars and relatives)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steatornithiformes" class="mw-redirect" title="Steatornithiformes">Steatornithiformes <span style="font-size:85%;">(oilbirds)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nyctibiiformes" class="mw-redirect" title="Nyctibiiformes">Nyctibiiformes <span style="font-size:85%;">(potoos)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Podargiformes" class="mw-redirect" title="Podargiformes">Podargiformes <span style="font-size:85%;">(frogmouths)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aegotheliformes" class="mw-redirect" title="Aegotheliformes">Aegotheliformes <span style="font-size:85%;">(owlet-nightjars)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apodiformes" title="Apodiformes">Apodiformes <span style="font-size:85%;">(swifts and hummingbirds)</span></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Opisthocomiformes" class="mw-redirect" title="Opisthocomiformes">Opisthocomiformes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Opisthocomidae" title="Opisthocomidae">Opisthocomiformes <span style="font-size:85%;">(hoatzins)</span></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cursorimorphae" class="mw-redirect" title="Cursorimorphae">Cursorimorphae</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charadriiformes" title="Charadriiformes">Charadriiformes <span style="font-size:85%;">(gulls and relatives)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gruiformes" title="Gruiformes">Gruiformes <span style="font-size:85%;">(cranes and relatives)</span></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Phaethontimorphae" class="mw-redirect" title="Phaethontimorphae">Phaethontimorphae</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tropicbird" title="Tropicbird">Phaethontiformes <span style="font-size:85%;">(tropicbirds)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eurypygiformes" title="Eurypygiformes">Eurypygiformes <span style="font-size:85%;">(kagus and sunbitterns)</span></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Aequornithes" title="Aequornithes">Aequornithes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Loon" title="Loon">Gaviiformes <span style="font-size:85%;">(loons or divers)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penguin" title="Penguin">Sphenisciformes <span style="font-size:85%;">(penguins)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Procellariiformes" title="Procellariiformes">Procellariiformes <span style="font-size:85%;">(albatrosses and petrels)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stork" title="Stork">Ciconiiformes <span style="font-size:85%;">(storks)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suliformes" title="Suliformes">Suliformes <span style="font-size:85%;">(cormorants and relatives)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pelecaniformes" title="Pelecaniformes">Pelecaniformes <span style="font-size:85%;">(pelicans and relatives)</span></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Australaves" title="Australaves">Australaves</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cariamiformes" title="Cariamiformes">Cariamiformes <span style="font-size:85%;">(seriemas and relatives)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Falconiformes" title="Falconiformes">Falconiformes <span style="font-size:85%;">(falcons and relatives)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parrot" title="Parrot">Psittaciformes <span style="font-size:85%;">(parrots)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Passerine" title="Passerine">Passeriformes <span style="font-size:85%;">(perching birds)</span></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Afroaves" title="Afroaves">Afroaves</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Accipitriformes" title="Accipitriformes">Accipitriformes <span style="font-size:85%;">(raptors)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Owl" title="Owl">Strigiformes <span style="font-size:85%;">(owls)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mousebird" title="Mousebird">Coliiformes <span style="font-size:85%;">(mousebirds)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trogon" title="Trogon">Trogoniformes <span style="font-size:85%;">(trogons and quetzals)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuckoo-roller" title="Cuckoo-roller">Leptosomiformes <span style="font-size:85%;">(cuckoo-rollers)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bucerotiformes" title="Bucerotiformes">Bucerotiformes <span style="font-size:85%;">(hornbills and hoopoes)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coraciiformes" title="Coraciiformes">Coraciiformes <span style="font-size:85%;">(kingfishers and rollers)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piciformes" title="Piciformes">Piciformes <span style="font-size:85%;">(woodpeckers and relatives)</span></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span><b><a href="/wiki/Category:Birds" title="Category:Birds">Category</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span> <b><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Birds" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Birds">Commons</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Portal:Birds" title="Portal:Birds">Portal</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="WikiProject"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/16px-People_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/24px-People_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/32px-People_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Birds" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Birds">WikiProject</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Evolutionary_biology" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Evolution" title="Template:Evolution"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Evolution" title="Template talk:Evolution"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Evolution" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Evolution"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Evolutionary_biology" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_biology" title="Evolutionary biology">Evolutionary biology</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Introduction_to_evolution" title="Introduction to evolution">Introduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_evolution" title="Outline of evolution">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_evolutionary_history_of_life" title="Timeline of the evolutionary history of life">Timeline of evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_life" title="History of life">History of life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_evolutionary_biology_articles" title="Index of evolutionary biology articles">Index</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">Evolution</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abiogenesis" title="Abiogenesis">Abiogenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adaptation" title="Adaptation">Adaptation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adaptive_radiation" title="Adaptive radiation">Adaptive radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Altruism_(biology)" title="Altruism (biology)">Altruism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cheating_(biology)" title="Cheating (biology)">Cheating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reciprocal_altruism" title="Reciprocal altruism">Reciprocal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baldwin_effect" title="Baldwin effect">Baldwin effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cladistics" title="Cladistics">Cladistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coevolution" title="Coevolution">Coevolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mutualism_(biology)" title="Mutualism (biology)">Mutualism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_descent" title="Common descent">Common descent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convergent_evolution" title="Convergent evolution">Convergence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divergent_evolution" title="Divergent evolution">Divergence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earliest_known_life_forms" title="Earliest known life forms">Earliest known life forms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evidence_of_common_descent" title="Evidence of common descent">Evidence of evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_arms_race" title="Evolutionary arms race">Evolutionary arms race</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_pressure" title="Evolutionary pressure">Evolutionary pressure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exaptation" title="Exaptation">Exaptation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extinction" title="Extinction">Extinction</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Extinction_event" title="Extinction event">Event</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homology_(biology)" title="Homology (biology)">Homology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Last_universal_common_ancestor" title="Last universal common ancestor">Last universal common ancestor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macroevolution" title="Macroevolution">Macroevolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microevolution" title="Microevolution">Microevolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_mismatch" title="Evolutionary mismatch">Mismatch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonadaptive_radiation" title="Nonadaptive radiation">Non-adaptive radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abiogenesis" title="Abiogenesis">Origin of life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panspermia" title="Panspermia">Panspermia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parallel_evolution" title="Parallel evolution">Parallel evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Signalling_theory" title="Signalling theory">Signalling theory</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Handicap_principle" title="Handicap principle">Handicap principle</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speciation" title="Speciation">Speciation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Species" title="Species">Species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species_complex" title="Species complex">Species complex</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_taxonomy" title="Evolutionary taxonomy">Taxonomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unit_of_selection" title="Unit of selection">Unit of selection</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gene-centered_view_of_evolution" title="Gene-centered view of evolution">Gene-centered view of evolution</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Population_genetics" title="Population genetics">Population<br />genetics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Selective_breeding" title="Selective breeding">Artificial selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">Biodiversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionarily_stable_strategy" title="Evolutionarily stable strategy">Evolutionarily stable strategy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fisher%27s_principle" title="Fisher's principle">Fisher's principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fitness_(biology)" title="Fitness (biology)">Fitness</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inclusive_fitness" title="Inclusive fitness">Inclusive</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gene_flow" title="Gene flow">Gene flow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_drift" title="Genetic drift">Genetic drift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kin_selection" title="Kin selection">Kin selection</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Parental_investment" title="Parental investment">Parental investment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parent%E2%80%93offspring_conflict" title="Parent–offspring conflict">Parent–offspring conflict</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutation" title="Mutation">Mutation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population" title="Population">Population</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">Natural selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_dimorphism" title="Sexual dimorphism">Sexual dimorphism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_selection" title="Sexual selection">Sexual selection</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_selection_in_flowering_plants" title="Sexual selection in flowering plants">Flowering plants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_selection_in_fungi" title="Sexual selection in fungi">Fungi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mate_choice" title="Mate choice">Mate choice</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_selection" title="Social selection">Social selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trivers%E2%80%93Willard_hypothesis" title="Trivers–Willard hypothesis">Trivers–Willard hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_variation" title="Genetic variation">Variation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Development</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Canalisation_(genetics)" title="Canalisation (genetics)">Canalisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_developmental_biology" title="Evolutionary developmental biology">Evolutionary developmental biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_assimilation" title="Genetic assimilation">Genetic assimilation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inversion_(evolutionary_biology)" title="Inversion (evolutionary biology)">Inversion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modularity_(biology)" title="Modularity (biology)">Modularity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenotypic_plasticity" title="Phenotypic plasticity">Phenotypic plasticity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Of <a href="/wiki/Taxon" title="Taxon">taxa</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_bacteria" title="Evolution of bacteria">Bacteria</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Birds</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_birds" title="Origin of birds">origin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_brachiopods" title="Evolution of brachiopods">Brachiopods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_molluscs" title="Evolution of molluscs">Molluscs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_cephalopods" title="Evolution of cephalopods">Cephalopods</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dinosaur#Evolutionary_history" title="Dinosaur">Dinosaurs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_fish" title="Evolution of fish">Fish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_fungi" title="Evolution of fungi">Fungi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_insects" title="Evolution of insects">Insects</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_butterflies" title="Evolution of butterflies">butterflies</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_life" title="History of life">Life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_mammals" title="Evolution of mammals">Mammals</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cat_gap" title="Cat gap">cats</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canidae#Evolution" title="Canidae">canids</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_the_wolf" title="Evolution of the wolf">wolves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domestication_of_the_dog" title="Domestication of the dog">dogs</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyena#Evolution" title="Hyena">hyenas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_cetaceans" title="Evolution of cetaceans">dolphins and whales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_the_horse" title="Evolution of the horse">horses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_Macropodidae" title="Evolution of Macropodidae">Kangaroos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_primates" title="Evolution of primates">primates</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_evolution" title="Human evolution">humans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_lemurs" title="Evolution of lemurs">lemurs</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_sirenians" title="Evolution of sirenians">sea cows</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_history_of_plants" title="Evolutionary history of plants">Plants</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pollinator-mediated_selection" title="Pollinator-mediated selection">pollinator-mediated</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_reptiles" title="Evolution of reptiles">Reptiles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_spiders" title="Evolution of spiders">Spiders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_tetrapods" title="Evolution of tetrapods">Tetrapods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viral_evolution" title="Viral evolution">Viruses</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Of <a href="/wiki/Organ_(anatomy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Organ (anatomy)">organs</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_cells" title="Evolution of cells">Cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Models_of_DNA_evolution" title="Models of DNA evolution">DNA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_flagella" title="Evolution of flagella">Flagella</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eukaryote#Origin_of_eukaryotes" title="Eukaryote">Eukaryotes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Symbiogenesis" title="Symbiogenesis">symbiogenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromosome#Eukaryotes" title="Chromosome">chromosome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endomembrane_system#Evolution" title="Endomembrane system">endomembrane system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mitochondrion#Origin_and_evolution" title="Mitochondrion">mitochondria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cell_nucleus#Evolution" title="Cell nucleus">nucleus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plastid#Origin" title="Plastid">plastids</a></li></ul></li> <li>In animals <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_the_eye" title="Evolution of the eye">eye</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hair#Evolution" title="Hair">hair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_mammalian_auditory_ossicles" title="Evolution of mammalian auditory ossicles">auditory ossicle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_nervous_systems" title="Evolution of nervous systems">nervous system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_the_brain" title="Evolution of the brain">brain</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Of <a href="/wiki/Biological_process" title="Biological process">processes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_ageing" title="Evolution of ageing">Aging</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Death#Evolution_of_aging_and_mortality" title="Death">Death</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Programmed_cell_death#Evolutionary_origin_of_mitochondrial_apoptosis" title="Programmed cell death">Programmed cell death</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_avian_flight" title="Origin of avian flight">Avian flight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_biological_complexity" title="Evolution of biological complexity">Biological complexity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cooperation_(evolution)" title="Cooperation (evolution)">Cooperation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_color_vision" title="Evolution of color vision">Color vision</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_color_vision_in_primates" title="Evolution of color vision in primates">in primates</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_emotion" title="Evolution of emotion">Emotion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empathy#Evolution_across_species" title="Empathy">Empathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_ethics" title="Evolutionary ethics">Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_eusociality" title="Evolution of eusociality">Eusociality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immune_system#Evolution_and_other_mechanisms" title="Immune system">Immune system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metabolism#Evolution" title="Metabolism">Metabolism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monogamy_in_animals" title="Monogamy in animals">Monogamy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_morality" title="Evolution of morality">Morality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mosaic_evolution" title="Mosaic evolution">Mosaic evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multicellular_organism#Evolutionary_history" title="Multicellular organism">Multicellularity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_sexual_reproduction" title="Evolution of sexual reproduction">Sexual reproduction</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anisogamy#Evolution" title="Anisogamy">Gamete differentiation/sexes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_life_cycle" title="Biological life cycle">Life cycles/nuclear phases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mating_type" title="Mating type">Mating types</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origin_and_function_of_meiosis" title="Origin and function of meiosis">Meiosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex-determination_system#Evolution" title="Sex-determination system">Sex-determination</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_snake_venom" title="Evolution of snake venom">Snake venom</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Tempo_and_Mode_in_Evolution" title="Tempo and Mode in Evolution">Tempo and modes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Phyletic_gradualism" title="Phyletic gradualism">Gradualism</a>/<a href="/wiki/Punctuated_equilibrium" title="Punctuated equilibrium">Punctuated equilibrium</a>/<a href="/wiki/Saltation_(biology)" title="Saltation (biology)">Saltationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Point_mutation" title="Point mutation">Micromutation</a>/<a href="/wiki/Mutationism#Later_mutationist_theories" title="Mutationism">Macromutation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uniformitarianism" title="Uniformitarianism">Uniformitarianism</a>/<a href="/wiki/Catastrophism" title="Catastrophism">Catastrophism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Speciation" title="Speciation">Speciation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allopatric_speciation" title="Allopatric speciation">Allopatric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anagenesis" title="Anagenesis">Anagenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catagenesis_(biology)" title="Catagenesis (biology)">Catagenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cladogenesis" title="Cladogenesis">Cladogenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cospeciation" title="Cospeciation">Cospeciation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_speciation" title="Ecological speciation">Ecological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hybrid_speciation" title="Hybrid speciation">Hybrid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonecological_speciation" title="Nonecological speciation">Non-ecological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parapatric_speciation" title="Parapatric speciation">Parapatric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peripatric_speciation" title="Peripatric speciation">Peripatric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reinforcement_(speciation)" title="Reinforcement (speciation)">Reinforcement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sympatric_speciation" title="Sympatric speciation">Sympatric</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_evolutionary_thought" title="History of evolutionary thought">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_ideas_of_the_Renaissance_and_Enlightenment" title="Evolutionary ideas of the Renaissance and Enlightenment">Renaissance and Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transmutation_of_species" title="Transmutation of species">Transmutation of species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Dialogues_Concerning_Natural_Religion" title="Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion">Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/On_the_Origin_of_Species" title="On the Origin of Species">On the Origin of Species</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_paleontology" title="History of paleontology">History of paleontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transitional_fossil" title="Transitional fossil">Transitional fossil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blending_inheritance" title="Blending inheritance">Blending inheritance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mendelian_inheritance" title="Mendelian inheritance">Mendelian inheritance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_eclipse_of_Darwinism" title="The eclipse of Darwinism">The eclipse of Darwinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Darwinism" title="Neo-Darwinism">Neo-Darwinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_synthesis_(20th_century)" title="Modern synthesis (20th century)">Modern synthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_molecular_evolution" title="History of molecular evolution">History of molecular evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extended_evolutionary_synthesis" title="Extended evolutionary synthesis">Extended evolutionary synthesis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Philosophy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Darwinism" title="Darwinism">Darwinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alternatives_to_Darwinian_evolution" title="Alternatives to Darwinian evolution">Alternatives</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catastrophism" title="Catastrophism">Catastrophism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lamarckism" title="Lamarckism">Lamarckism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orthogenesis" title="Orthogenesis">Orthogenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutationism" title="Mutationism">Mutationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saltation_(biology)" title="Saltation (biology)">Saltationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism_(biology)" title="Structuralism (biology)">Structuralism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spandrel_(biology)" title="Spandrel (biology)">Spandrel</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theistic_evolution" title="Theistic evolution">Theistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitalism" title="Vitalism">Vitalism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teleology_in_biology" title="Teleology in biology">Teleology in biology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biogeography" title="Biogeography">Biogeography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_genetics" title="Ecological genetics">Ecological genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_medicine" title="Evolutionary medicine">Evolutionary medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Group_selection" title="Group selection">Group selection</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_evolution" title="Cultural evolution">Cultural evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_group_selection" title="Cultural group selection">Cultural group selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dual_inheritance_theory" title="Dual inheritance theory">Dual inheritance theory</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hologenome_theory_of_evolution" title="Hologenome theory of evolution">Hologenome theory of evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Missing_heritability_problem" title="Missing heritability problem">Missing heritability problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_evolution" title="Molecular evolution">Molecular evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astrobiology" title="Astrobiology">Astrobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phylogenetics" title="Phylogenetics">Phylogenetics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Phylogenetic_tree" title="Phylogenetic tree">Tree</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polymorphism_(biology)" title="Polymorphism (biology)">Polymorphism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protocell" title="Protocell">Protocell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systematics" title="Systematics">Systematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transgenerational_epigenetic_inheritance" title="Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance">Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Evolutionary_biology" title="Category:Evolutionary biology">Category</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Evolutionary_biology" title="Portal:Evolutionary biology">Portal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Fins,_limbs_and_wings" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Fins,_limbs_and_wings" title="Template:Fins, limbs and wings"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Fins,_limbs_and_wings" title="Template talk:Fins, limbs and wings"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Fins,_limbs_and_wings" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Fins, limbs and wings"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Fins,_limbs_and_wings" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Fin" title="Fin">Fins</a>, <a href="/wiki/Limb_(anatomy)" title="Limb (anatomy)">limbs</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wing" title="Wing">wings</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Fin" title="Fin">Fins</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aquatic_locomotion" title="Aquatic locomotion">Aquatic locomotion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cephalopod_fin" title="Cephalopod fin">Cephalopod fin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fish_locomotion" title="Fish locomotion">Fish locomotion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fin_and_flipper_locomotion" title="Fin and flipper locomotion">Fin and flipper locomotion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caudal_fin" class="mw-redirect" title="Caudal fin">Caudal fin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dorsal_fin" title="Dorsal fin">Dorsal fin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fish_fin" title="Fish fin">Fish fin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flipper_(anatomy)" title="Flipper (anatomy)">Flipper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarcopterygii" title="Sarcopterygii">Lobe-finned fish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Actinopterygii" title="Actinopterygii">Ray-finned fish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pectoral_fins" class="mw-redirect" title="Pectoral fins">Pectoral fins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pelvic_fin" title="Pelvic fin">Pelvic fin</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="5" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Crossopterygii_fins_tetrapod_legs.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Fin and limb"><img alt="Fin and limb" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Crossopterygii_fins_tetrapod_legs.svg/140px-Crossopterygii_fins_tetrapod_legs.svg.png" decoding="async" width="140" height="123" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Crossopterygii_fins_tetrapod_legs.svg/210px-Crossopterygii_fins_tetrapod_legs.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Crossopterygii_fins_tetrapod_legs.svg/280px-Crossopterygii_fins_tetrapod_legs.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1093" data-file-height="957" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Limb_(anatomy)" title="Limb (anatomy)">Limbs</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Limb_development" title="Limb development">Limb development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_foot_morphology" title="Comparative foot morphology">Limb morphology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Digitigrade" title="Digitigrade">digitigrade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plantigrade" title="Plantigrade">plantigrade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unguligrade" class="mw-redirect" title="Unguligrade">unguligrade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uniped" class="mw-redirect" title="Uniped">uniped</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bipedalism" title="Bipedalism">biped</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Facultative_biped" class="mw-redirect" title="Facultative biped">facultative biped</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tripedal" class="mw-redirect" title="Tripedal">triped</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quadrupedalism" title="Quadrupedalism">quadruped</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthropod_leg" title="Arthropod leg">Arthropod</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cephalopod_limb" title="Cephalopod limb">Cephalopod</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tetrapod#Limbs" title="Tetrapod">Tetrapod</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dactyly" title="Dactyly">dactyly</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digit_(anatomy)" title="Digit (anatomy)">Digit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Webbed_foot" title="Webbed foot">Webbed foot</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Wing" title="Wing">Wings</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Flying_and_gliding_animals" title="Flying and gliding animals">Flying and gliding animals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bat_wing_development" title="Bat wing development">Bat wing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bird_wing" title="Bird wing">Bird wing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Keel_(bird_anatomy)" title="Keel (bird anatomy)">keel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bird_anatomy#Skeletal_system" title="Bird anatomy">skeleton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flight_feather" title="Flight feather">feathers</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insect_wing" title="Insect wing">Insect wing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pterosaur#Wings" title="Pterosaur">Pterosaur wing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wingspan" title="Wingspan">Wingspan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Evolution</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_fish" title="Evolution of fish">Evolution of fish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_tetrapods" title="Evolution of tetrapods">Evolution of tetrapods</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Evolution of birds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_birds" title="Origin of birds">Origin of birds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_avian_flight" title="Origin of avian flight">Origin of avian flight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_cetaceans" title="Evolution of cetaceans">Evolution of cetaceans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_anatomy" title="Comparative anatomy">Comparative anatomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convergent_evolution" title="Convergent evolution">Convergent evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analogy_(biology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Analogy (biology)">Analogous structures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homology_(biology)" title="Homology (biology)">Homologous structures</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animal_locomotion" title="Animal locomotion">Animal locomotion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gait" title="Gait">Gait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robot_locomotion" title="Robot locomotion">Robot locomotion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samara_(fruit)" title="Samara (fruit)">Samara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terrestrial_locomotion" title="Terrestrial locomotion">Terrestrial locomotion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tradeoffs_for_locomotion_in_air_and_water" title="Tradeoffs for locomotion in air and water">Tradeoffs for locomotion in air and water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rotating_locomotion_in_living_systems" title="Rotating locomotion in living systems">Rotating locomotion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Undulatory_locomotion" title="Undulatory locomotion">Undulatory locomotion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1130092004">.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-bordered{padding:0 2em;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;justify-content:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-unbordered{padding:0 1.7em;margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{margin:0 1em 0 0.5em;flex:0 0 auto;min-height:24px}.mw-parser-output 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