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<li id="toc-The_Memex" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Memex"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>The Memex</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Memex-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_invention_of_hypertext" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_invention_of_hypertext"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>The invention of hypertext</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_invention_of_hypertext-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Early_hypertext_applications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_hypertext_applications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Early hypertext applications</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_hypertext_applications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hypertext_and_the_World_Wide_Web" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hypertext_and_the_World_Wide_Web"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Hypertext and the World Wide Web</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hypertext_and_the_World_Wide_Web-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>References</span> </div> 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.mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Lead_too_short plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-lead_too_short" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/6c/Wiki_letter_w.svg/40px-Wiki_letter_w.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/6c/Wiki_letter_w.svg/60px-Wiki_letter_w.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/6c/Wiki_letter_w.svg/80px-Wiki_letter_w.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="44" data-file-height="44" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article's <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Lead_section#Length" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Lead section">lead section</a> <b>may be too short to adequately <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Summary_style" title="Wikipedia:Summary style">summarize</a> the key points</b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please consider expanding the lead to <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Lead_section#Provide_an_accessible_overview" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Lead section">provide an accessible overview</a> of all important aspects of the article.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">February 2017</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Vannevar_Bush_portrait.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Vannevar_Bush_portrait.jpg/220px-Vannevar_Bush_portrait.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Vannevar_Bush_portrait.jpg/330px-Vannevar_Bush_portrait.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Vannevar_Bush_portrait.jpg/440px-Vannevar_Bush_portrait.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3333" data-file-height="2667" /></a><figcaption>Engineer <a href="/wiki/Vannevar_Bush" title="Vannevar Bush">Vannevar Bush</a> wrote <i><a href="/wiki/As_We_May_Think" title="As We May Think">As We May Think</a></i> in 1945 describing his conception of the <a href="/wiki/Memex" title="Memex">Memex</a>, a machine that could implement what we now call hypertext. His aim was to help humanity achieve a <a href="/wiki/Collective_memory" title="Collective memory">collective memory</a> with such a machine and avoid the use of scientific discoveries for destruction and war</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Douglas_Engelbart_in_2008.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Douglas_Engelbart_in_2008.jpg/220px-Douglas_Engelbart_in_2008.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="272" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Douglas_Engelbart_in_2008.jpg/330px-Douglas_Engelbart_in_2008.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Douglas_Engelbart_in_2008.jpg/440px-Douglas_Engelbart_in_2008.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1212" data-file-height="1496" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Douglas_Engelbart" title="Douglas Engelbart">Douglas Engelbart</a> in 2008, at the 40th anniversary celebrations of "<a href="/wiki/The_Mother_of_All_Demos" title="The Mother of All Demos">The Mother of All Demos</a>" in San Francisco, a 90-minute 1968 presentation of the <a href="/wiki/NLS_(computer_system)" title="NLS (computer system)">NLS computer system</a> which was a combination of hardware and software that demonstrated many hypertext ideas</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Hypertext" title="Hypertext">Hypertext</a> is text displayed on a <a href="/wiki/Computer" title="Computer">computer</a> or other electronic device with references (<a href="/wiki/Hyperlinks" class="mw-redirect" title="Hyperlinks">hyperlinks</a>) to other text that the reader can immediately access, usually by a mouse click or keypress sequence. Early conceptions of hypertext defined it as text that could be connected by a linking system to a range of other documents that were stored outside that text. In 1934 Belgian bibliographer, Paul Otlet, developed a blueprint for links that telescoped out from hypertext electrically to allow readers to access documents, books, photographs, and so on, stored anywhere in the world.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_hypertext&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Recorders of information have long looked for ways to categorize and compile it. There are various methods of arranging layers of references/annotations within a document. Other reference works (for example dictionaries, encyclopaedias) also developed a precursor to hypertext: the setting of certain words in small capital letters, indicating that an entry existed for that term within the same reference work. Sometimes the term would be preceded by an <a href="/wiki/Index_(typography)" class="mw-redirect" title="Index (typography)">index</a>, <span style="font-variant: small-caps;">☞like this</span>, or an <a href="/wiki/Arrow_(symbol)" title="Arrow (symbol)">arrow</a>, <span style="font-variant: small-caps;">➧like this</span>. <a href="/wiki/Janet_Murray" title="Janet Murray">Janet Murray</a> has referenced <a href="/wiki/Jorge_Luis_Borges" title="Jorge Luis Borges">Jorge Luis Borges</a>' "<a href="/wiki/The_Garden_of_Forking_Paths" title="The Garden of Forking Paths">The Garden of Forking Paths</a>" as a precursor to the hypertext novel and aesthetic:<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <blockquote><p>"The concept Borges described in 'The Garden of Forking Paths'—in several layers of the story, but most directly in the combination book and maze of Ts'ui Pen—is that of a novel that can be read in multiple ways, a hypertext novel. Borges described this in 1941, prior to the invention (or at least the public disclosure) of the electromagnetic digital computer. Borges also mentions how hypertext has three similarities of frued to a labyrinth in which each link brings the navigator to a set of new links, in an ever expanding maze. Not only did he invent the hypertext novel—Borges went on to describe a theory of the universe based upon the structure of such a novel." —<a href="/wiki/Noah_Wardrip-Fruin" title="Noah Wardrip-Fruin">Wardrip-Fruin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nick_Montfort" title="Nick Montfort">Montfort</a><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p><a href="/wiki/Umberto_Eco" title="Umberto Eco">Umberto Eco</a> has also referenced <i><a href="/wiki/Finnegans_Wake" title="Finnegans Wake">Finnegans Wake</a></i> in the same way.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2011)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Later, several scholars entered the scene who believed that humanity was drowning in information, causing foolish decisions and duplicating efforts among scientists. These scholars proposed or developed proto-hypertext systems predating electronic computer technology. For example, in the early 20th century, two visionaries attacked the cross-referencing problem through proposals based on labor-intensive, <a href="/wiki/Brute-force_search" title="Brute-force search">brute force</a> methods. <a href="/wiki/Paul_Otlet" title="Paul Otlet">Paul Otlet</a> proposed a proto-hypertext concept based on his monographic principle, in which all documents would be decomposed down to unique phrases stored on <a href="/wiki/Index_card" title="Index card">index cards</a>. In the 1930s, <a href="/wiki/H.G._Wells" class="mw-redirect" title="H.G. Wells">H.G. Wells</a> proposed the creation of a <a href="/wiki/World_Brain" title="World Brain">World Brain</a>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Michael_Buckland" title="Michael Buckland">Michael Buckland</a> summarized the very advanced pre-World War II development of microfilm based on rapid retrieval devices, specifically the microfilm based workstation proposed by Leonard Townsend in 1938 and the microfilm and photoelectronic based selector, patented by <a href="/wiki/Emanuel_Goldberg" title="Emanuel Goldberg">Emanuel Goldberg</a> in 1931.<sup id="cite_ref-Buckland_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Buckland-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Buckland concluded: "The pre-war information retrieval specialists of continental Europe, the 'documentalists,' largely disregarded by post-war information retrieval specialists, had ideas that were considerably more advanced than is now generally realized." But, like the manual index card model, these microfilm devices provided rapid retrieval based on pre-coded indices and classification schemes published as part of the microfilm record without including the link model which distinguishes the modern concept of hypertext from content or category based <a href="/wiki/Information_retrieval" title="Information retrieval">information retrieval</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Memex">The Memex</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_hypertext&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: The Memex"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Memex" title="Memex">Memex</a></div> <p>All major histories of what we now call hypertext start in 1945, when <a href="/wiki/Vannevar_Bush" title="Vannevar Bush">Vannevar Bush</a> wrote an article in <i><a href="/wiki/The_Atlantic_Monthly" class="mw-redirect" title="The Atlantic Monthly">The Atlantic Monthly</a></i> called <i><a href="/wiki/As_We_May_Think" title="As We May Think">As We May Think</a></i>, about a futuristic device he called a <a href="/wiki/Memex" title="Memex">Memex</a>. He described the device as an electromechanical desk linked to an extensive archive of <a href="/wiki/Microfilm" class="mw-redirect" title="Microfilm">microfilms</a>, able to display books, writings, or any document from a library. The Memex would also be able to create 'trails' of linked and branching sets of pages, combining pages from the published microfilm library with personal annotations or additions captured on a microfilm recorder. Bush's vision was based on extensions of 1945 technology—microfilm recording and retrieval in this case. However, the modern story of hypertext starts with the Memex because <i>As We May Think</i> directly influenced and inspired the two American men generally credited with the invention of hypertext, <a href="/wiki/Ted_Nelson" title="Ted Nelson">Ted Nelson</a> and <a href="/wiki/Douglas_Engelbart" title="Douglas Engelbart">Douglas Engelbart</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_invention_of_hypertext">The invention of hypertext</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_hypertext&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: The invention of hypertext"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ted_Nelson_cropped.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Ted_Nelson_cropped.jpg/220px-Ted_Nelson_cropped.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="264" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Ted_Nelson_cropped.jpg/330px-Ted_Nelson_cropped.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Ted_Nelson_cropped.jpg/440px-Ted_Nelson_cropped.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2108" data-file-height="2526" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Ted_Nelson" title="Ted Nelson">Ted Nelson</a> gives a presentation on <a href="/wiki/Project_Xanadu" title="Project Xanadu">Project Xanadu</a>, a theoretical hypertext model conceived in the 1960s, whose first and incomplete implementation was first published in 1998<sup id="cite_ref-wiredwired_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wiredwired-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Starting in 1963, <a href="/wiki/Ted_Nelson" title="Ted Nelson">Ted Nelson</a> developed a model for creating and using linked content he called "hypertext" and "hypermedia" (first published reference 1965).<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ted Nelson said in the 1960s that he began implementation of a hypertext system he theorized which was named <a href="/wiki/Project_Xanadu" title="Project Xanadu">Project Xanadu</a>, but his first and incomplete public release was finished much later, in 1998.<sup id="cite_ref-wiredwired_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wiredwired-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He later worked with <a href="/wiki/Andries_van_Dam" title="Andries van Dam">Andries van Dam</a> to develop the <a href="/wiki/Hypertext_Editing_System" title="Hypertext Editing System">Hypertext Editing System</a> (HES) in 1967 at <a href="/wiki/Brown_University" title="Brown University">Brown University</a>. HES was the first hypertext system available on commercial equipment that novices could use, and it didn't have arbitrary limits on text lengths.<sup id="cite_ref-barnet_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-barnet-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Douglas_Engelbart" title="Douglas Engelbart">Douglas Engelbart</a> independently began working on his <a href="/wiki/NLS_(computer_system)" title="NLS (computer system)">NLS</a> system in 1962 at Stanford Research Institute, although delays in obtaining funding, personnel, and equipment meant that its key features were not completed until 1968. In December of that year, Engelbart demonstrated a hypertext interface to the public for the first time, in what has come to be known as "<a href="/wiki/The_Mother_of_All_Demos" title="The Mother of All Demos">The Mother of All Demos</a>". Funding for NLS slowed after 1974. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Andy_Van_Dam_2008.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Andy_Van_Dam_2008.jpg/220px-Andy_Van_Dam_2008.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="268" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Andy_Van_Dam_2008.jpg/330px-Andy_Van_Dam_2008.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Andy_Van_Dam_2008.jpg/440px-Andy_Van_Dam_2008.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1208" data-file-height="1473" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Andries_van_Dam" title="Andries van Dam">Andries van Dam</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Later in 1968, van Dam's team incorporated ideas from NLS into a successor to HES: the <a href="/wiki/File_Retrieval_and_Editing_System" title="File Retrieval and Editing System">File Retrieval and Editing System</a> (FRESS), which was the first hypertext system to run on readily-available commercial hardware and OS.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The user interface was simpler than NLS. By 1976 <a href="/wiki/FRESS" class="mw-redirect" title="FRESS">FRESS</a> received <a href="/wiki/NEH" class="mw-redirect" title="NEH">NEH</a> funding and was used in a poetry class in which students could browse and annotate a hyperlinked set of poems and discussion by experts, faculty and other students, in what was arguably the first online scholarly community,<sup id="cite_ref-barnet_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-barnet-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which van Dam says "foreshadowed wikis, blogs and communal documents of all kinds".<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Influential work in the following decade included <a href="/wiki/NoteCards" title="NoteCards">NoteCards</a> at <a href="/wiki/Xerox_PARC" class="mw-redirect" title="Xerox PARC">Xerox PARC</a> and <a href="/wiki/ZOG_(hypertext)" title="ZOG (hypertext)">ZOG</a> at <a href="/wiki/Carnegie_Mellon" class="mw-redirect" title="Carnegie Mellon">Carnegie Mellon</a>. ZOG started in 1972 as an <a href="/wiki/Artificial_intelligence" title="Artificial intelligence">artificial intelligence</a> research project under the supervision of <a href="/wiki/Allen_Newell" title="Allen Newell">Allen Newell</a>, and pioneered the "frame" or "card" model of hypertext. ZOG was deployed in 1982 on the <a href="/wiki/USS_Carl_Vinson_(CVN-70)" class="mw-redirect" title="USS Carl Vinson (CVN-70)">U.S.S. Carl Vinson</a> and later commercialized as <a href="/wiki/Knowledge_Management_System" class="mw-redirect" title="Knowledge Management System">Knowledge Management System</a>. Two other influential hypertext projects from the early 1980s were <a href="/wiki/Ben_Shneiderman" title="Ben Shneiderman">Ben Shneiderman</a>'s <a href="/wiki/The_Interactive_Encyclopedia_System" title="The Interactive Encyclopedia System">The Interactive Encyclopedia System</a> (TIES) at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Maryland,_College_Park" title="University of Maryland, College Park">University of Maryland</a> (1983) and <a href="/wiki/Intermedia_(hypertext)" title="Intermedia (hypertext)">Intermedia</a> at <a href="/wiki/Brown_University" title="Brown University">Brown University</a> (1984). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_hypertext_applications">Early hypertext applications</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_hypertext&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Early hypertext applications"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The first hypermedia application was the <a href="/wiki/Aspen_Movie_Map" title="Aspen Movie Map">Aspen Movie Map</a> in 1978. In 1980, <a href="/wiki/Tim_Berners-Lee" title="Tim Berners-Lee">Tim Berners-Lee</a> created <a href="/wiki/ENQUIRE" title="ENQUIRE">ENQUIRE</a>, an early hypertext database system somewhat like a <a href="/wiki/Wiki" title="Wiki">wiki</a>. The early 1980s also saw a number of experimental hypertext and <a href="/wiki/Hypermedia" title="Hypermedia">hypermedia</a> programs, many of whose features and terminology were later integrated into the Web. <a href="/wiki/Guide_(hypertext)" title="Guide (hypertext)">Guide</a> was the first significant hypertext system for <a href="/wiki/Personal_computer" title="Personal computer">personal computers</a>. In 1983, a hypermedia authoring tool, Tutor-Tech, designed for the <a href="/wiki/Apple_II" title="Apple II">Apple II</a>, was produced for educators. </p><p>In August 1987, <a href="/wiki/Apple_Computer" class="mw-redirect" title="Apple Computer">Apple Computer</a> released <a href="/wiki/HyperCard" title="HyperCard">HyperCard</a> for the <a href="/wiki/Apple_Macintosh" class="mw-redirect" title="Apple Macintosh">Macintosh</a> line at the <a href="/wiki/Macworld_Conference_%26_Expo" class="mw-redirect" title="Macworld Conference & Expo">MacWorld convention</a>. Its impact, combined with interest in Peter J. Brown's GUIDE (marketed by OWL and released earlier that year) and Brown University's <a href="/wiki/Intermedia_(hypertext)" title="Intermedia (hypertext)">Intermedia</a>, led to broad interest in and enthusiasm for hypertext and new media.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first ACM Hypertext <a href="/wiki/Academic_conference" title="Academic conference">academic conference</a> took place in November 1987, in Chapel Hill NC, where many other applications, including the hypertext literature writing software <a href="/wiki/Storyspace" title="Storyspace">Storyspace</a> were also demoed<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Meanwhile, Nelson, who had been working on and advocating his <a href="/wiki/Project_Xanadu" title="Project Xanadu">Xanadu</a> system for over two decades, along with the commercial success of HyperCard, stirred <a href="/wiki/Autodesk" title="Autodesk">Autodesk</a> to invest in his revolutionary ideas. The project continued at Autodesk for four years, but no product was released. </p><p>van Dam's research groups at Brown University continued working as well. For example, in the late '70s Steve Feiner and others developed an ebook system for Navy repair manuals, and in the early '80s Norm Meyrowitz and a large team at Brown's <a href="/wiki/Institute_for_Research_in_Information_and_Scholarship" title="Institute for Research in Information and Scholarship">Institute for Research in Information and Scholarship</a> built <a href="/wiki/Intermedia" title="Intermedia">Intermedia</a> (mentioned above), which was heavily used in humanities and literary computing. In '89 van Dam's helped Lou Reynolds and van Dam's former students <a href="/wiki/Steven_DeRose" title="Steven DeRose">Steven DeRose</a> and Jeff Vogel spun off Electronic Book Technologies, whose SGML-based hypertext system <a href="/wiki/DynaText" class="mw-redirect" title="DynaText">DynaText</a> was widely used for large online publishing and e-book projects, such as online documentation for Sun, SGI, HP, Novell, and DEC, as well as aerospace, transport, publishing, and other applications. Brown's Center For Digital Scholarship <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://library.brown.edu/create/cds/">[1]</a> (née Scholarly Technology Group) was heavily involved in related standards efforts such as the <a href="/wiki/Text_Encoding_Initiative" title="Text Encoding Initiative">Text Encoding Initiative</a>, <a href="/wiki/Open_eBook" title="Open eBook">Open eBook</a> and <a href="/wiki/XML" title="XML">XML</a>, as well as enabling a wide variety of humanities hypertext projects. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hypertext_and_the_World_Wide_Web">Hypertext and the World Wide Web</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_hypertext&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Hypertext and the World Wide Web"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the late 1980s, Berners-Lee, then a scientist at <a href="/wiki/CERN" title="CERN">CERN</a>, invented the <a href="/wiki/World_Wide_Web" title="World Wide Web">World Wide Web</a> to meet the demand for simple and immediate information-sharing among physicists working at CERN and different universities or institutes all over the world. </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>"HyperText is a way to link and access information of various kinds as a web of nodes in which the user can browse at will. It provides a single user-interface to large classes of information (reports, notes, data-bases, computer documentation and on-line help). We propose a simple scheme incorporating servers already available at CERN... A program which provides access to the hypertext world we call a browser... " Tim Berners-Lee, R. Cailliau. 12 November 1990, CERN<sup id="cite_ref-Web_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Web-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p></blockquote> <p>In 1992, <a href="/wiki/Lynx_(web_browser)" title="Lynx (web browser)">Lynx</a> was born as an early Internet web browser. Its ability to provide hypertext links within documents that could reach into documents anywhere on the Internet began the creation of the Web on the Internet. </p><p>Early in 1993, the <a href="/wiki/National_Center_for_Supercomputing_Applications" title="National Center for Supercomputing Applications">National Center for Supercomputing Applications</a> (NCSA) at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Illinois_at_Urbana%E2%80%93Champaign" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign">University of Illinois</a> released the first version of their <a href="/wiki/Mosaic_web_browser" class="mw-redirect" title="Mosaic web browser">Mosaic web browser</a> to supplement the two existing <a href="/wiki/Web_browser" title="Web browser">web browsers</a>: one that ran only on <a href="/wiki/NeXTSTEP" title="NeXTSTEP">NeXTSTEP</a> and one that was only minimally <a href="/wiki/Usability" title="Usability">user-friendly</a>. Because it could display and link graphics as well as text, Mosaic quickly became the replacement for Lynx. Mosaic ran in the <a href="/wiki/X_Window_System" title="X Window System">X Window System</a> environment, which was then popular in the research community, and offered usable window-based interactions. It allowed images<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as well as text to anchor hypertext links. It also incorporated other protocols intended to coordinate information across the Internet, such as <a href="/wiki/Gopher_(protocol)" title="Gopher (protocol)">Gopher</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After the release of web browsers for both the <a href="/wiki/IBM_PC_compatible" title="IBM PC compatible">PC</a> and <a href="/wiki/Macintosh" class="mw-redirect" title="Macintosh">Macintosh</a> environments, traffic on the World Wide Web quickly exploded from only 500 known web servers in 1993 to over 10,000 in 1994. Thus, all earlier hypertext systems were overshadowed by the success of the Web, even though it originally lacked many features of those earlier systems, such as an easy way to edit what you were reading, <a href="/wiki/Typed_link" class="mw-redirect" title="Typed link">typed links</a>, backlinks, <a href="/wiki/Transclusion" title="Transclusion">transclusion</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Source_tracking" title="Source tracking">source tracking</a>. </p><p>In 1995, <a href="/wiki/Ward_Cunningham" title="Ward Cunningham">Ward Cunningham</a> made the first <a href="/wiki/Wiki" title="Wiki">wiki</a> available, making the Web more hypertextual by adding easy editing, and (within a single wiki) backlinks and limited source tracking. It also added the innovation of making it possible to link to pages that did not yet exist. Wiki developers continue to implement novel features as well as those developed or imagined in the early explorations of hypertext but not included in the original web. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_hypertext&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_hypertext_technology" title="Timeline of hypertext technology">Timeline of hypertext technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Internet" title="History of the Internet">History of the Internet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_World_Wide_Web" title="History of the World Wide Web">History of the World Wide Web</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HTML" title="HTML">HTML</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_hypertext&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-columns-2"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFWright2014" class="citation web cs1">Wright, Alex (2014-05-22). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2014/05/in-search-of-the-proto-memex/371385/">"The Secret History of Hypertext"</a>. <i>The Atlantic</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-06-10</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Atlantic&rft.atitle=The+Secret+History+of+Hypertext&rft.date=2014-05-22&rft.aulast=Wright&rft.aufirst=Alex&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theatlantic.com%2Ftechnology%2Farchive%2F2014%2F05%2Fin-search-of-the-proto-memex%2F371385%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+hypertext" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Inventing the Medium", Janet H. Murray</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"># ^ Wardrip-Fruin, Noah and Nick Montfort, ed (2003). The New Media Reader. (29). The MIT Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-262-23227-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-262-23227-8">0-262-23227-8</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Buckland-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Buckland_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Michael_Buckland" title="Michael Buckland">Buckland, Michael K.</a> "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://people.ischool.berkeley.edu/~buckland/goldbush.html">Emanuel Goldberg, Electronic Document Retrieval, And Vannevar Bush's Memex</a>", 1992</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-wiredwired-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-wiredwired_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-wiredwired_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGary_Wolf1995" class="citation magazine cs1">Gary Wolf (June 1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wired.com/wired/archive/3.06/xanadu.html">"The Curse of Xanadu"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/WIRED" class="mw-redirect" title="WIRED">WIRED</a></i>. Vol. 3, no. 6.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=WIRED&rft.atitle=The+Curse+of+Xanadu&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=6&rft.date=1995-06&rft.au=Gary+Wolf&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wired.com%2Fwired%2Farchive%2F3.06%2Fxanadu.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+hypertext" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130324010943/http://faculty.vassar.edu/mijoyce/Ted_sed.html">"<i>Did Ted Nelson first use the word "hypertext" at Vassar College?"</i>"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://faculty.vassar.edu/mijoyce/Ted_sed.html">the original</a> on 2013-03-24<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2011-01-03</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Did+Ted+Nelson+first+use+the+word+%22hypertext%22+at+Vassar+College%3F%22&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ffaculty.vassar.edu%2Fmijoyce%2FTed_sed.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+hypertext" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-barnet-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-barnet_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-barnet_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarnet2010" class="citation journal cs1">Barnet, Belinda (2010-01-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.digitalhumanities.org/dhq/vol/4/1/000081/000081.html">"Crafting the User-Centered Document Interface: The Hypertext Editing System (HES) and the File Retrieval and Editing System (FRESS)"</a>. <i>Digital Humanities Quarterly</i>. <b>4</b> (1).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Digital+Humanities+Quarterly&rft.atitle=Crafting+the+User-Centered+Document+Interface%3A+The+Hypertext+Editing+System+%28HES%29+and+the+File+Retrieval+and+Editing+System+%28FRESS%29&rft.volume=4&rft.issue=1&rft.date=2010-01-01&rft.aulast=Barnet&rft.aufirst=Belinda&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.digitalhumanities.org%2Fdhq%2Fvol%2F4%2F1%2F000081%2F000081.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+hypertext" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Steven DeRose and Andries van Dam. "Document structure and markup in the FRESS hypertext system" (sometimes cited as "The Lost Books of Hypertext"). In *Markup Technology* Vol. 1, Issue 1 - Winter 1999. Cambridge: <a href="/wiki/MIT_Press" title="MIT Press">MIT Press</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=313600">https://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=313600</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://news.brown.edu/articles/2016/05/hypertext">"Where meter meets mainframe: An early experiment teaching poetry with computers | News from Brown"</a>. <i>news.brown.edu</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2016-05-24</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=news.brown.edu&rft.atitle=Where+meter+meets+mainframe%3A+An+early+experiment+teaching+poetry+with+computers+%7C+News+from+Brown&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnews.brown.edu%2Farticles%2F2016%2F05%2Fhypertext&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+hypertext" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.atarimagazines.com/compute/issue95/049_1_MICROSCOPE_THE_HAZARDS_OF_HYPERCARD.php">"Microscope: The Hazards of HyperCard, COMPUTE! April 1988"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Microscope%3A+The+Hazards+of+HyperCard%2C+COMPUTE%21+April+1988&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.atarimagazines.com%2Fcompute%2Fissue95%2F049_1_MICROSCOPE_THE_HAZARDS_OF_HYPERCARD.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+hypertext" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hawisher, Gail E., Paul LeBlanc, Charles Moran, and Cynthia L. Selfe (1996). <i>Computers and the Teaching of Writing in American Higher Education, 1979-1994: A History</i> Ablex Publishing Corporation, Norwood NJ, p. 213</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Web-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Web_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.netvalley.com/cgi-bin/intval/net_history.pl?chapter=4">Roads and Crossroads of Internet History</a> Chapter 4: Birth of the Web</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://1997.webhistory.org/www.lists/www-talk.1993q1/0260.html">WWW-Talk Jan-Mar 1993: Re: proposed new tag: IMG</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://1997.webhistory.org/www.lists/www-talk.1993q1/0261.html">WWW-Talk Jan-Mar 1993: Support for CSO and gopher type 2</a></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_hypertext&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=hypertext&year_start=1800&year_end=2008&corpus=0&smoothing=3">History of the word "Hypertext"</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mprove.de/diplom/text/2_hypertext.html">Historical Overview of Hypertext</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://xanadu.com/XUarchive/ccnwwt65.tif">The first use of <i>hypertext</i> (?) - TIFF image</a></li> 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href="/wiki/Hypermedia" title="Hypermedia">Hypermedia</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Basics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hypertext" title="Hypertext">Hypertext</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyperlink" title="Hyperlink">Hyperlink</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypertext_fiction" title="Hypertext fiction">Hypertext fiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypervideo" title="Hypervideo">Hypervideo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adaptive_hypermedia" title="Adaptive hypermedia">Adaptive hypermedia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adaptive_educational_hypermedia" class="mw-redirect" title="Adaptive educational hypermedia">educational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Authoring_of_adaptive_hypermedia" class="mw-redirect" title="Authoring of adaptive hypermedia">authoring</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyperlinks_in_virtual_worlds" title="Hyperlinks in virtual worlds">Hyperlinks in virtual worlds</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Resource identifiers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Uniform_resource_identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="Uniform resource identifier">Uniform resource identifier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internationalized_resource_identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="Internationalized resource identifier">Internationalized resource identifier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uniform_resource_name" class="mw-redirect" title="Uniform resource name">Uniform resource name</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/URL" title="URL">Uniform resource locator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extensible_resource_identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="Extensible resource identifier">Extensible resource identifier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persistent_uniform_resource_locator" title="Persistent uniform resource locator">Persistent uniform resource locator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semantic_URL" class="mw-redirect" title="Semantic URL">Semantic URL</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anchor_text" title="Anchor text">anchor text</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Click_path" title="Click path">click path</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domain_name" title="Domain name">Domain name</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mystery_meat_navigation#Related:_"Click_here"" title="Mystery meat navigation">click here</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_aspects_of_hyperlinking_and_framing" title="Copyright aspects of hyperlinking and framing">Copyright aspects of hyperlinking and framing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep_linking" title="Deep linking">deep linking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fat_link" class="mw-redirect" title="Fat link">Fat link</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/URI_fragment" title="URI fragment">URI fragment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hostname" title="Hostname">Hostname</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypertext" title="Hypertext">Hypertext</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inline_linking" title="Inline linking">Inline linking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Backlink" title="Backlink">inbound link</a>/<a href="/wiki/Backlink" title="Backlink">backlink</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HTTP_referer" title="HTTP referer">HTTP referer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Image_map" title="Image map">image map</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internal_link" class="mw-redirect" title="Internal link">Internal link</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bookmark_(World_Wide_Web)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bookmark (World Wide Web)">Internet bookmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linkback" title="Linkback">linkback</a></li> <li><a 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