CINXE.COM

<!DOCTYPE html> <html class="client-nojs vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-sticky-header-enabled vector-toc-available" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <head> <meta charset="UTF-8"> <title>Byzantine Iconoclasm - Wikipedia</title> <script>(function(){var className="client-js vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-sticky-header-enabled vector-toc-available";var cookie=document.cookie.match(/(?:^|; )enwikimwclientpreferences=([^;]+)/);if(cookie){cookie[1].split('%2C').forEach(function(pref){className=className.replace(new RegExp('(^| )'+pref.replace(/-clientpref-\w+$|[^\w-]+/g,'')+'-clientpref-\\w+( |$)'),'$1'+pref+'$2');});}document.documentElement.className=className;}());RLCONF={"wgBreakFrames":false,"wgSeparatorTransformTable":["",""],"wgDigitTransformTable":["",""],"wgDefaultDateFormat":"dmy","wgMonthNames":["","January","February","March","April","May","June","July","August","September","October","November","December"],"wgRequestId":"db144eba-606b-4cf6-945d-dc5c709a3039","wgCanonicalNamespace":"","wgCanonicalSpecialPageName":false,"wgNamespaceNumber":0,"wgPageName":"Byzantine_Iconoclasm","wgTitle":"Byzantine Iconoclasm","wgCurRevisionId":1281576026,"wgRevisionId":1281576026,"wgArticleId":9790552,"wgIsArticle":true,"wgIsRedirect":false,"wgAction":"view","wgUserName":null,"wgUserGroups":["*"],"wgCategories":["Articles with short description","Short description is different from Wikidata","Articles needing additional references from December 2017","All articles needing additional references","Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text","Wikipedia articles needing clarification from July 2024","All articles with unsourced statements","Articles with unsourced statements from July 2024","Articles with unsourced statements from April 2017","Commons category link from Wikidata","Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference","Byzantine Iconoclasm","Byzantine Anatolia","8th century in the Byzantine Empire","9th century in the Byzantine Empire","Leo III the Isaurian","Theological controversies"],"wgPageViewLanguage":"en","wgPageContentLanguage":"en","wgPageContentModel":"wikitext","wgRelevantPageName":"Byzantine_Iconoclasm","wgRelevantArticleId":9790552,"wgIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRelevantPageIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRestrictionEdit":[],"wgRestrictionMove":[],"wgNoticeProject":"wikipedia","wgCiteReferencePreviewsActive":false,"wgFlaggedRevsParams":{"tags":{"status":{"levels":1}}},"wgMediaViewerOnClick":true,"wgMediaViewerEnabledByDefault":true,"wgPopupsFlags":0,"wgVisualEditor":{"pageLanguageCode":"en","pageLanguageDir":"ltr","pageVariantFallbacks":"en"},"wgMFDisplayWikibaseDescriptions":{"search":true,"watchlist":true,"tagline":false,"nearby":true},"wgWMESchemaEditAttemptStepOversample":false,"wgWMEPageLength":60000,"wgEditSubmitButtonLabelPublish":true,"wgULSPosition":"interlanguage","wgULSisCompactLinksEnabled":false,"wgVector2022LanguageInHeader":true,"wgULSisLanguageSelectorEmpty":false,"wgWikibaseItemId":"Q1018769","wgCheckUserClientHintsHeadersJsApi":["brands","architecture","bitness","fullVersionList","mobile","model","platform","platformVersion"],"GEHomepageSuggestedEditsEnableTopics":true,"wgGETopicsMatchModeEnabled":false,"wgGELevelingUpEnabledForUser":false}; RLSTATE={"ext.globalCssJs.user.styles":"ready","site.styles":"ready","user.styles":"ready","ext.globalCssJs.user":"ready","user":"ready","user.options":"loading","ext.cite.styles":"ready","skins.vector.search.codex.styles":"ready","skins.vector.styles":"ready","skins.vector.icons":"ready","jquery.makeCollapsible.styles":"ready","ext.wikimediamessages.styles":"ready","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript":"ready","ext.uls.interlanguage":"ready","wikibase.client.init":"ready","ext.wikimediaBadges":"ready"};RLPAGEMODULES=["ext.cite.ux-enhancements","mediawiki.page.media","ext.scribunto.logs","site","mediawiki.page.ready","jquery.makeCollapsible","mediawiki.toc","skins.vector.js","ext.centralNotice.geoIP","ext.centralNotice.startUp","ext.gadget.ReferenceTooltips","ext.gadget.switcher","ext.urlShortener.toolbar","ext.centralauth.centralautologin","mmv.bootstrap","ext.popups","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.init","ext.visualEditor.targetLoader","ext.echo.centralauth","ext.eventLogging","ext.wikimediaEvents","ext.navigationTiming","ext.uls.interface","ext.cx.eventlogging.campaigns","ext.cx.uls.quick.actions","wikibase.client.vector-2022","ext.checkUser.clientHints","ext.quicksurveys.init","ext.growthExperiments.SuggestedEditSession"];</script> <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.loader.impl(function(){return["user.options@12s5i",function($,jQuery,require,module){mw.user.tokens.set({"patrolToken":"+\\","watchToken":"+\\","csrfToken":"+\\"}); }];});});</script> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=ext.cite.styles%7Cext.uls.interlanguage%7Cext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript%7Cext.wikimediaBadges%7Cext.wikimediamessages.styles%7Cjquery.makeCollapsible.styles%7Cskins.vector.icons%2Cstyles%7Cskins.vector.search.codex.styles%7Cwikibase.client.init&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <script async="" src="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=startup&only=scripts&raw=1&skin=vector-2022"></script> <meta name="ResourceLoaderDynamicStyles" content=""> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=site.styles&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <meta name="generator" content="MediaWiki 1.44.0-wmf.22"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin-when-cross-origin"> <meta name="robots" content="max-image-preview:standard"> <meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Irenekirken.jpg/1200px-Irenekirken.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="1200"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="1620"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Irenekirken.jpg/960px-Irenekirken.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="800"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="1080"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="640"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="864"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=1120"> <meta property="og:title" content="Byzantine Iconoclasm - Wikipedia"> <meta property="og:type" content="website"> <link rel="preconnect" href="//upload.wikimedia.org"> <link rel="alternate" media="only screen and (max-width: 640px)" href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantine_Iconoclasm"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/x-wiki" title="Edit this page" href="/w/index.php?title=Byzantine_Iconoclasm&action=edit"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png"> <link rel="icon" href="/static/favicon/wikipedia.ico"> <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml" href="/w/rest.php/v1/search" title="Wikipedia (en)"> <link rel="EditURI" type="application/rsd+xml" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?action=rsd"> <link rel="canonical" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantine_Iconoclasm"> <link rel="license" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/atom+xml" title="Wikipedia Atom feed" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&feed=atom"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//meta.wikimedia.org" /> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="login.wikimedia.org"> </head> <body class="skin--responsive skin-vector skin-vector-search-vue mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject mw-editable page-Byzantine_Iconoclasm rootpage-Byzantine_Iconoclasm skin-vector-2022 action-view"><a class="mw-jump-link" href="#bodyContent">Jump to content</a> <div class="vector-header-container"> <header class="vector-header mw-header"> <div class="vector-header-start"> <nav class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-main-menu-dropdown vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" title="Main menu" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Main menu" > <label id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-label" for="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-menu mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-menu"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Main menu</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-main-menu" class="vector-main-menu vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-main-menu-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="main-menu-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-main-menu" data-pinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Main menu</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-navigation" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-navigation" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Navigation </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-mainpage-description" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Main_Page" title="Visit the main page [z]" accesskey="z"><span>Main page</span></a></li><li id="n-contents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents" title="Guides to browsing Wikipedia"><span>Contents</span></a></li><li id="n-currentevents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Current_events" title="Articles related to current events"><span>Current events</span></a></li><li id="n-randompage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:Random" title="Visit a randomly selected article [x]" accesskey="x"><span>Random article</span></a></li><li id="n-aboutsite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About" title="Learn about Wikipedia and how it works"><span>About Wikipedia</span></a></li><li id="n-contactpage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us" title="How to contact Wikipedia"><span>Contact us</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-interaction" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-interaction" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Contribute </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-help" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Contents" title="Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia"><span>Help</span></a></li><li id="n-introduction" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" title="Learn how to edit Wikipedia"><span>Learn to edit</span></a></li><li id="n-portal" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Community_portal" title="The hub for editors"><span>Community portal</span></a></li><li id="n-recentchanges" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChanges" title="A list of recent changes to Wikipedia [r]" accesskey="r"><span>Recent changes</span></a></li><li id="n-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_upload_wizard" title="Add images or other media for use on Wikipedia"><span>Upload file</span></a></li><li id="n-specialpages" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:SpecialPages"><span>Special pages</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <a href="/wiki/Main_Page" class="mw-logo"> <img class="mw-logo-icon" src="/static/images/icons/wikipedia.png" alt="" aria-hidden="true" height="50" width="50"> <span class="mw-logo-container skin-invert"> <img class="mw-logo-wordmark" alt="Wikipedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"> <img class="mw-logo-tagline" alt="The Free Encyclopedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-tagline-en.svg" width="117" height="13" style="width: 7.3125em; height: 0.8125em;"> </span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-header-end"> <div id="p-search" role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-collapses vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box-auto-expand-width vector-search-box"> <a href="/wiki/Special:Search" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only search-toggle" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-search mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-search"></span> <span>Search</span> </a> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail cdx-typeahead-search--auto-expand-width"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="searchform" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div id="simpleSearch" class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia" aria-label="Search Wikipedia" autocapitalize="sentences" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f" id="searchInput" > <span class="cdx-text-input__icon cdx-text-input__start-icon"></span> </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Search</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-user-links vector-user-links-wide" aria-label="Personal tools"> <div class="vector-user-links-main"> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-preferences" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-userpage" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown " title="Change the appearance of the page's font size, width, and color" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Appearance" > <label id="vector-appearance-dropdown-label" for="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-appearance mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-appearance"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Appearance</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-notifications" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-overflow" class="vector-menu mw-portlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/?wmf_source=donate&wmf_medium=sidebar&wmf_campaign=en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en" class=""><span>Donate</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-createaccount-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Byzantine+Iconoclasm" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory" class=""><span>Create account</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-login-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Byzantine+Iconoclasm" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o" class=""><span>Log in</span></a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <div id="vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-user-menu vector-button-flush-right vector-user-menu-logged-out" title="Log in and more options" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Personal tools" > <label id="vector-user-links-dropdown-label" for="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-ellipsis mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-ellipsis"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Personal tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-personal" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-personal user-links-collapsible-item" title="User menu" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/?wmf_source=donate&wmf_medium=sidebar&wmf_campaign=en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en"><span>Donate</span></a></li><li id="pt-createaccount" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Byzantine+Iconoclasm" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-userAdd mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-userAdd"></span> <span>Create account</span></a></li><li id="pt-login" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Byzantine+Iconoclasm" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-logIn mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-logIn"></span> <span>Log in</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-user-menu-anon-editor" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-user-menu-anon-editor" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Pages for logged out editors <a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" aria-label="Learn more about editing"><span>learn more</span></a> </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-anoncontribs" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyContributions" title="A list of edits made from this IP address [y]" accesskey="y"><span>Contributions</span></a></li><li id="pt-anontalk" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyTalk" title="Discussion about edits from this IP address [n]" accesskey="n"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </header> </div> <div class="mw-page-container"> <div class="mw-page-container-inner"> <div class="vector-sitenotice-container"> <div id="siteNotice"></div> </div> <div class="vector-column-start"> <div class="vector-main-menu-container"> <div id="mw-navigation"> <nav id="mw-panel" class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav id="mw-panel-toc" aria-label="Contents" data-event-name="ui.sidebar-toc" class="mw-table-of-contents-container vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-toc-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-toc" class="vector-toc vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-toc-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="toc-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-toc" > <h2 class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Contents</h2> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Background" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Background"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>Background</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Background-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Geographical_distribution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Geographical_distribution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Geographical distribution</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Geographical_distribution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_first_iconoclast_period:_730–787" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_first_iconoclast_period:_730–787"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>The first iconoclast period: 730–787</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-The_first_iconoclast_period:_730–787-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle The first iconoclast period: 730–787 subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-The_first_iconoclast_period:_730–787-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Ecumenical_councils" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ecumenical_councils"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Ecumenical councils</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ecumenical_councils-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Decree_of_the_Second_council_of_Nicaea" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Decree_of_the_Second_council_of_Nicaea"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1.1</span> <span>Decree of the Second council of Nicaea</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Decree_of_the_Second_council_of_Nicaea-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_second_iconoclast_period:_814–843" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_second_iconoclast_period:_814–843"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>The second iconoclast period: 814–843</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_second_iconoclast_period:_814–843-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Arguments_in_the_struggle_over_icons" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Arguments_in_the_struggle_over_icons"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Arguments in the struggle over icons</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Arguments_in_the_struggle_over_icons-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Arguments in the struggle over icons subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Arguments_in_the_struggle_over_icons-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Iconoclast_arguments" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Iconoclast_arguments"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Iconoclast arguments</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Iconoclast_arguments-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Iconophile_arguments" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Iconophile_arguments"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Iconophile arguments</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Iconophile_arguments-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_art" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_art"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>In art</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_art-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reaction_in_the_West" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reaction_in_the_West"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Reaction in the West</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reaction_in_the_West-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.1</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Byzantine Iconoclasm</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 39 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-39" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">39 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantinischer_Bilderstreit" title="Byzantinischer Bilderstreit – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Byzantinischer Bilderstreit" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AD%D8%B1%D8%A8_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D9%8A%D9%82%D9%88%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%B2%D9%86%D8%B7%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="حرب الأيقونات البيزنطية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="حرب الأيقونات البيزنطية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iconoclasia_bizantina" title="Iconoclasia bizantina – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Iconoclasia bizantina" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bizansda_ikonobor%C3%A7uluq" title="Bizansda ikonoborçuluq – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Bizansda ikonoborçuluq" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%86%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B0_%D1%9E_%D0%92%D1%96%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82%D1%8B%D1%96" title="Іканаборства ў Візантыі – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Іканаборства ў Візантыі" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE_(%D0%92%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%8F)" title="Иконоборство (Византия) – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Иконоборство (Византия)" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bizantijski_ikonoklazam" title="Bizantijski ikonoklazam – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Bizantijski ikonoklazam" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Den_byzantinske_billedstrid" title="Den byzantinske billedstrid – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Den byzantinske billedstrid" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantinischer_Bilderstreit" title="Byzantinischer Bilderstreit – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Byzantinischer Bilderstreit" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ikonoklasm_B%C3%BCtsantsis" title="Ikonoklasm Bütsantsis – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Ikonoklasm Bütsantsis" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%95%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%BF%CE%BD%CE%BF%CE%BC%CE%B1%CF%87%CE%AF%CE%B1" title="Εικονομαχία – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Εικονομαχία" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iconoclasia_bizantina" title="Iconoclasia bizantina – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Iconoclasia bizantina" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bizanca_ikonoklasteco" title="Bizanca ikonoklasteco – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Bizanca ikonoklasteco" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bizantzioko_eztabaida_ikonoklasta" title="Bizantzioko eztabaida ikonoklasta – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Bizantzioko eztabaida ikonoklasta" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C3%A9riode_iconoclaste_de_l%27Empire_byzantin" title="Période iconoclaste de l'Empire byzantin – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Période iconoclaste de l'Empire byzantin" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%B9%84%EC%9E%94%ED%8B%B4_%EC%84%B1%EC%83%81%ED%8C%8C%EA%B4%B4%EC%9A%B4%EB%8F%99" title="비잔틴 성상파괴운동 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="비잔틴 성상파괴운동" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ikonoklasti" title="Ikonoklasti – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Ikonoklasti" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ikonoklasme_Bizantium" title="Ikonoklasme Bizantium – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Ikonoklasme Bizantium" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it badge-Q70893996 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iconoclastia_bizantina" title="Iconoclastia bizantina – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Iconoclastia bizantina" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%99%D7%A7%D7%95%D7%A0%D7%95%D7%A7%D7%9C%D7%90%D7%96%D7%9D_%D7%91%D7%90%D7%99%D7%9E%D7%A4%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%94_%D7%94%D7%91%D7%99%D7%96%D7%A0%D7%98%D7%99%D7%AA" title="איקונוקלאזם באימפריה הביזנטית – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="איקונוקלאזם באימפריה הביזנטית" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%AE%E1%83%90%E1%83%A2%E1%83%9B%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%A0%E1%83%AB%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9A%E1%83%94%E1%83%9D%E1%83%91%E1%83%90" title="ხატმებრძოლეობა – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ხატმებრძოლეობა" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iconoclasmus_Byzantinus" title="Iconoclasmus Byzantinus – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Iconoclasmus Byzantinus" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bizantijos_ikonoklazmas" title="Bizantijos ikonoklazmas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Bizantijos ikonoklazmas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE_%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE" title="Византиско иконоборство – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Византиско иконоборство" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ikonoklasme_Byzantium" title="Ikonoklasme Byzantium – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Ikonoklasme Byzantium" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantijnse_beeldenstrijd" title="Byzantijnse beeldenstrijd – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Byzantijnse beeldenstrijd" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B2%D9%86%D8%B7%DB%8C%D9%86%DB%8C_%D8%AA%D9%85%D8%AB%D8%A7%D9%84_%D8%B4%DA%A9%D9%86%DB%8C" title="بازنطینی تمثال شکنی – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="بازنطینی تمثال شکنی" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ikonoklazm_w_Bizancjum" title="Ikonoklazm w Bizancjum – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Ikonoklazm w Bizancjum" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iconoclasmul_bizantin" title="Iconoclasmul bizantin – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Iconoclasmul bizantin" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE_%D0%B2_%D0%92%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B8" title="Иконоборчество в Византии – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Иконоборчество в Византии" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bizantinski_ikonoklazem" title="Bizantinski ikonoklazem – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Bizantinski ikonoklazem" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE_%D1%83_%D0%92%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B8" title="Иконоборство у Византији – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Иконоборство у Византији" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vizantijsko_ikonoborstvo" title="Vizantijsko ikonoborstvo – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Vizantijsko ikonoborstvo" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ikonoklasmi_Bysantin_keisarikunnassa" title="Ikonoklasmi Bysantin keisarikunnassa – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Ikonoklasmi Bysantin keisarikunnassa" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ikonoklasmong_Bisantino" title="Ikonoklasmong Bisantino – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Ikonoklasmong Bisantino" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%B3%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B9%E0%B8%9B%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%9E%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%A2%E0%B9%84%E0%B8%9A%E0%B9%81%E0%B8%8B%E0%B8%99%E0%B9%84%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%99%E0%B9%8C" title="การทำลายรูปเคารพสมัยไบแซนไทน์ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="การทำลายรูปเคารพสมัยไบแซนไทน์" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bizans_ikonoklazm%C4%B1" title="Bizans ikonoklazmı – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Bizans ikonoklazmı" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B2%D9%86%D8%B7%DB%8C%D9%86%DB%8C_%D8%B4%D8%A8%DB%8C%DB%81_%D8%B4%DA%A9%D9%86%DB%8C" title="بازنطینی شبیہ شکنی – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="بازنطینی شبیہ شکنی" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%81%96%E5%83%8F%E7%A0%B4%E5%A3%9E%E9%81%8B%E5%8B%95_(%E6%9D%B1%E7%BE%85%E9%A6%AC%E5%B8%9D%E5%9C%8B)" title="聖像破壞運動 (東羅馬帝國) – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="聖像破壞運動 (東羅馬帝國)" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q1018769#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Iconoclasm" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c"><span>Article</span></a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Talk:Byzantine_Iconoclasm" rel="discussion" title="Discuss improvements to the content page [t]" accesskey="t"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown emptyPortlet" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Change language variant" > <label id="vector-variants-dropdown-label" for="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">English</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-variants" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-variants emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> <div id="right-navigation" class="vector-collapsible"> <nav aria-label="Views"> <div id="p-views" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-views" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-view" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Iconoclasm"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-edit" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Byzantine_Iconoclasm&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Edit</span></a></li><li id="ca-history" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Byzantine_Iconoclasm&action=history" title="Past revisions of this page [h]" accesskey="h"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-tools-dropdown" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Tools" > <label id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-label" for="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-page-tools" class="vector-page-tools vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-page-tools-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="page-tools-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-page-tools" data-pinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Tools</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-cactions" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-cactions emptyPortlet vector-has-collapsible-items" title="More options" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Actions </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-more-view" class="selected vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Iconoclasm"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-edit" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Byzantine_Iconoclasm&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Edit</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-history" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Byzantine_Iconoclasm&action=history"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-tb" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-tb" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> General </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-whatlinkshere" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:WhatLinksHere/Byzantine_Iconoclasm" title="List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [j]" accesskey="j"><span>What links here</span></a></li><li id="t-recentchangeslinked" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChangesLinked/Byzantine_Iconoclasm" rel="nofollow" title="Recent changes in pages linked from this page [k]" accesskey="k"><span>Related changes</span></a></li><li id="t-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard" title="Upload files [u]" accesskey="u"><span>Upload file</span></a></li><li id="t-permalink" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Byzantine_Iconoclasm&oldid=1281576026" title="Permanent link to this revision of this page"><span>Permanent link</span></a></li><li id="t-info" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Byzantine_Iconoclasm&action=info" title="More information about this page"><span>Page information</span></a></li><li id="t-cite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CiteThisPage&page=Byzantine_Iconoclasm&id=1281576026&wpFormIdentifier=titleform" title="Information on how to cite this page"><span>Cite this page</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UrlShortener&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FByzantine_Iconoclasm"><span>Get shortened URL</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener-qrcode" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:QrCode&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FByzantine_Iconoclasm"><span>Download QR code</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-coll-print_export" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-coll-print_export" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Print/export </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="coll-download-as-rl" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:DownloadAsPdf&page=Byzantine_Iconoclasm&action=show-download-screen" title="Download this page as a PDF file"><span>Download as PDF</span></a></li><li id="t-print" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Byzantine_Iconoclasm&printable=yes" title="Printable version of this page [p]" accesskey="p"><span>Printable version</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-wikibase-otherprojects" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-wikibase-otherprojects" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> In other projects </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-commons mw-list-item"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Byzantine_Iconoclasm" hreflang="en"><span>Wikimedia Commons</span></a></li><li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikiquote mw-list-item"><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Byzantine_Iconoclasm" hreflang="en"><span>Wikiquote</span></a></li><li id="t-wikibase" class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikibase-dataitem mw-list-item"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q1018769" title="Structured data on this page hosted by Wikidata [g]" accesskey="g"><span>Wikidata item</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Periods in Byzantine history during which religious images were banned</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Iconoclasm" title="Iconoclasm">Iconoclasm</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Byzantine_Iconoclasm" title="Special:EditPage/Byzantine Iconoclasm">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Byzantine+Iconoclasm%22">"Byzantine Iconoclasm"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Byzantine+Iconoclasm%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Byzantine+Iconoclasm%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Byzantine+Iconoclasm%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Byzantine+Iconoclasm%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Byzantine+Iconoclasm%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">December 2017</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Irenekirken.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Irenekirken.jpg/330px-Irenekirken.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="405" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Irenekirken.jpg/500px-Irenekirken.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Irenekirken.jpg/960px-Irenekirken.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1332" data-file-height="1798" /></a><figcaption>A simple cross: example of iconoclastic art in the <a href="/wiki/Hagia_Irene" title="Hagia Irene">Hagia Irene</a> church in <a href="/wiki/Istanbul" title="Istanbul">Istanbul</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The <b>Byzantine Iconoclasm</b> (<a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Greek language">Ancient Greek</a>: <span lang="grc">Εἰκονομαχία</span>, <small><a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Ancient_Greek" class="mw-redirect" title="Romanization of Ancient Greek">romanized</a>: </small><span title="Ancient Greek-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">Eikonomachía</i></span>, <small><a href="/wiki/Literal_translation" title="Literal translation">lit.</a> </small>'image struggle', 'war on icons') were two periods in the history of the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a> when the use of <a href="/wiki/Religious_image" title="Religious image">religious images</a> or <a href="/wiki/Icons" class="mw-redirect" title="Icons">icons</a> was opposed by religious and imperial authorities within the <a href="/wiki/Ecumenical_Patriarchate" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecumenical Patriarchate">Ecumenical Patriarchate</a> (at the time still comprising the Roman-Latin and the Eastern-Orthodox traditions) and the temporal imperial hierarchy. The <b>First Iconoclasm</b>,<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as it is sometimes called, occurred between about 726 and 787, while the <b>Second Iconoclasm</b> occurred between 814 and 842.<sup id="cite_ref-Humphreys_2021_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Humphreys_2021-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to the traditional view, Byzantine Iconoclasm was started by a ban on religious images promulgated by the Byzantine Emperor <a href="/wiki/Leo_III_the_Isaurian" title="Leo III the Isaurian">Leo III the Isaurian</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and continued under his successors.<sup id="cite_ref-Iconoclastic_Council_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Iconoclastic_Council-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was accompanied by widespread destruction of religious images and persecution of supporters of the veneration of images. The <a href="/wiki/Papacy" class="mw-redirect" title="Papacy">Papacy</a> remained firmly in support of the use of religious images throughout the period, and the whole episode widened the <a href="/wiki/East%E2%80%93West_Schism" title="East–West Schism">growing divergence</a> between the Byzantine and <a href="/wiki/Carolingian_Empire" title="Carolingian Empire">Carolingian</a> traditions in what was still a unified European Church, as well as facilitating the reduction or removal of Byzantine political control over <a href="/wiki/Italy_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Italy in the Middle Ages">parts of the Italian Peninsula</a>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Iconoclasm" title="Iconoclasm">Iconoclasm</a> is the deliberate destruction within a culture of the culture's own religious images and other symbols or monuments, usually for religious or political motives. People who engage in or support iconoclasm are called <i>iconoclasts</i>, Greek for 'breakers of icons' (<span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">εἰκονοκλάσται</span></span>), a term that has come to be applied figuratively to any person who breaks or disdains established <a href="/wiki/Dogmata" class="mw-redirect" title="Dogmata">dogmata</a> or conventions. Conversely, people who revere or venerate religious images are derisively called "iconolaters" (<span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">εἰκονολάτρες</span></span>). They are normally known as "<a href="/wiki/Iconodule" class="mw-redirect" title="Iconodule">iconodules</a>" (<span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">εἰκονόδουλοι</span></span>), or "iconophiles" (<span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">εἰκονόφιλοι</span></span>). These terms were, however, not a part of the Byzantine debate over images. They have been brought into common usage by modern historians (from the seventeenth century) and their application to Byzantium increased considerably in the late twentieth century. The Byzantine term for the debate over religious imagery, <i>iconomachy</i>, means "struggle over images" or "image struggle". Some sources also say that the Iconoclasts were against intercession to the saints and denied the usage of relics; however, it is disputed.<sup id="cite_ref-Humphreys_2021_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Humphreys_2021-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Iconoclasm has generally been motivated theologically by the <a href="/wiki/Thou_shalt_not_make_unto_thee_any_graven_image" title="Thou shalt not make unto thee any graven image">Biblical commandment</a>, which forbade the making, veneration and worshipping of "<a href="/wiki/Thou_shalt_not_make_unto_thee_any_graven_image" title="Thou shalt not make unto thee any graven image">graven images</a>, or any likeness of any thing that is in heaven above, or that is in the earth beneath, or that is in the water under the earth:" (<a href="/wiki/Book_of_Exodus" title="Book of Exodus">Exodus</a> 20:4-5, <a href="/wiki/Deuteronomy" class="mw-redirect" title="Deuteronomy">Deuteronomy</a> 5:8-9, see also <a href="/wiki/Biblical_law_in_Christianity" class="mw-redirect" title="Biblical law in Christianity">biblical law in Christianity</a>). The two periods of iconoclasm in the Byzantine Empire during the 8th and 9th centuries made use of this theological theme in discussions over the propriety of images of holy figures, including Christ, the <a href="/wiki/Mary_(mother_of_Jesus)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mary (mother of Jesus)">Virgin Mary</a> (or <a href="/wiki/Theotokos" title="Theotokos">Theotokos</a>) and saints. It was a debate triggered by changes in Orthodox worship, which were themselves generated by the major social and political upheavals of the seventh century for the Byzantine Empire. </p><p>Traditional explanations for Byzantine iconoclasm have sometimes focused on the importance of <a href="/wiki/Aniconism_in_Islam" title="Aniconism in Islam">Islamic prohibitions against images</a> influencing Byzantine thought. According to <a href="/wiki/Arnold_J._Toynbee" title="Arnold J. Toynbee">Arnold J. Toynbee</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Toynbee_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Toynbee-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> for example, it was the prestige of <a href="/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests" title="Early Muslim conquests">Islamic military successes</a> in the 7th and 8th centuries that motivated Byzantine Christians to adopt the Islamic position of rejecting and destroying devotional and liturgical images. The role of women and <a href="/wiki/Christian_monasticism" title="Christian monasticism">monks</a> in supporting the veneration of images has also been asserted. Social and class-based arguments have been put forward, such as that iconoclasm created political and economic divisions in Byzantine society; that it was generally supported by the Eastern, poorer, non-Greek peoples of the Empire<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMango2002_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMango2002-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> who had to constantly deal with Arab raids. On the other hand, the wealthier Greeks of Constantinople and also the peoples of the Balkan and Italian provinces strongly opposed Iconoclasm.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMango2002_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMango2002-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The claim of such a geographical distribution has, however, been disputed.<sup id="cite_ref-juan_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-juan-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Re-evaluation of the written and material evidence relating to the period of Byzantine Iconoclasm has challenged many of the basic assumptions and factual assertions of the traditional account.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="Please clarify the preceding statement or statements with a good explanation from a reliable source. (July 2024)">how?</span></a></i>]</sup> Byzantine iconoclasm influenced the later <a href="/wiki/Reformation" title="Reformation">Protestant reformation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Background">Background</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Byzantine_Iconoclasm&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Background"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Clasm_Chludov_detail_9th_century.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Clasm_Chludov_detail_9th_century.jpg/250px-Clasm_Chludov_detail_9th_century.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="183" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Clasm_Chludov_detail_9th_century.jpg/330px-Clasm_Chludov_detail_9th_century.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Clasm_Chludov_detail_9th_century.jpg/500px-Clasm_Chludov_detail_9th_century.jpg 2x" data-file-width="765" data-file-height="636" /></a><figcaption>Byzantine Iconoclasm, <a href="/wiki/Chludov_Psalter" title="Chludov Psalter">Chludov Psalter</a>, 9th century.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Christian worship by the sixth century had developed a clear belief in the <a href="/wiki/Intercession" title="Intercession">intercession</a> of saints. This belief was also influenced by a concept of hierarchy of sanctity, with the <a href="/wiki/Trinity" title="Trinity">Trinity</a> at its pinnacle, followed by the <a href="/wiki/Virgin_Mary" class="mw-redirect" title="Virgin Mary">Virgin Mary</a>, referred to in Greek as the <a href="/wiki/Theotokos" title="Theotokos">Theotokos</a> ("birth-giver of God") or <i>Meter Theou</i> ("Mother of God"), the saints, living holy men, women, and spiritual elders, followed by the rest of humanity. Thus, in order to obtain blessings or divine favour, early Christians, like Christians today, would often pray or ask an intermediary, such as the saints or the Theotokos, or living fellow Christians believed to be holy, to intercede on their behalf with Christ. A strong sacramentality and belief in the importance of physical presence also joined the belief in intercession of saints with the use of relics and holy images (or icons) in early Christian practices.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrubakerHaldon2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidsaTPtrgLTQoCpgPR5_32]_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrubakerHaldon2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidsaTPtrgLTQoCpgPR5_32]-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Believers would, therefore, make pilgrimages to places sanctified by the physical presence of Christ or prominent saints and martyrs, such as the site of the <a href="/wiki/Holy_Sepulchre" class="mw-redirect" title="Holy Sepulchre">Holy Sepulchre</a> in <a href="/wiki/Jerusalem" title="Jerusalem">Jerusalem</a>. <a href="/wiki/Relics" class="mw-redirect" title="Relics">Relics</a>, or holy objects (rather than places), which were a part of the claimed remains of, or had supposedly come into contact with, Christ, the Virgin or a saint, were also widely utilized in Christian practices at this time. Relics, a firmly embedded part of veneration by this period, provided physical presence of the divine but were not infinitely reproducible (an original relic was required), and still usually required believers to undertake <a href="/wiki/Pilgrimage" title="Pilgrimage">pilgrimage</a> or have contact with somebody who had. </p><p>The use of images had greatly increased during this period, and had generated <a href="/wiki/Aniconism_in_Christianity" title="Aniconism in Christianity">a growing opposition</a> among many in the church, although the progress and extent of these views is now unclear. Images in the form of mosaics and paintings were widely used in churches, homes and other places such as over city gates, and had since the reign of <a href="/wiki/Justinian_I" title="Justinian I">Justinian I</a> been <a href="/wiki/Aniconism_in_Christianity#Justinian_to_the_Iconoclastic_period" title="Aniconism in Christianity">increasingly taking on a spiritual significance</a> of their own, and regarded at least in the popular mind as capable of possessing capacities in their own right, so that "the image acts or behaves as the subject itself is expected to act or behave. It makes known its wishes ... It enacts evangelical teachings, ... When attacked it bleeds, ... [and] In some cases it defends itself against infidels with physical force ...".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKitzinger1977101_quoted,_85–87,_95–115_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKitzinger1977101_quoted,_85–87,_95–115-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Key artefacts to blur this boundary emerged in c. 570 in the form of <i><a href="/wiki/Acheiropoieta" title="Acheiropoieta">acheiropoieta</a></i>, images claimed to have been created miraculously or "not by human hands". These sacred images were a form of contact relic, which additionally were taken to prove divine approval of the use of icons. The two most famous were the <a href="/wiki/Mandylion_of_Edessa" class="mw-redirect" title="Mandylion of Edessa">Mandylion of Edessa</a> (where it still remained) and the <a href="/wiki/Image_of_Camuliana" class="mw-redirect" title="Image of Camuliana">Image of Camuliana</a> from <a href="/wiki/Cappadocia" title="Cappadocia">Cappadocia</a>, by then in Constantinople. The latter was already regarded as a <a href="/wiki/Palladium_(protective_image)" title="Palladium (protective image)">palladium</a> that had won battles and saved Constantinople from the <a href="/wiki/Sassanid_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Sassanid Empire">Persian</a>-<a href="/wiki/Avar_Khaganate" class="mw-redirect" title="Avar Khaganate">Avar</a> <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Constantinople_(626)" title="Siege of Constantinople (626)">siege of 626</a>, when the Patriarch paraded it around the walls of the city. Both were images of Christ, and at least in some versions of their stories supposedly made when Christ pressed a cloth to his face (compare with the later, western <a href="/wiki/Veil_of_Veronica" title="Veil of Veronica">Veil of Veronica</a> and <a href="/wiki/Turin_shroud" class="mw-redirect" title="Turin shroud">Turin shroud</a>). In other versions of the Mandylion's story it joined a number of other images that were believed to have been painted from the life in the New Testament period by <a href="/wiki/Saint_Luke" class="mw-redirect" title="Saint Luke">Saint Luke</a> or other human painters, and these stories were used to support the notion that Christ and the Virgin supported the icons and that they had been used continuously in Christianity since its start. G. E. von Grunebaum has said "The iconoclasm of the eighth and ninth centuries must be viewed as the climax of a movement that had its roots in the spirituality of the Christian concept of the divinity."<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The events of the seventh century, which was a period of major crisis for the Byzantine Empire, formed a catalyst for the expansion of the use of images of the holy and caused a dramatic shift in responses to them. Whether the <i>acheiropoieta</i> were a symptom or cause, the late sixth to eighth centuries witnessed the increasing thinning of the boundary between images not made by human hands, and images made by human hands. Images of Christ, the Theotokos and saints increasingly came to be regarded, as relics, <a href="/wiki/Contact_relic" class="mw-redirect" title="Contact relic">contact relics</a> and <i>acheiropoieta</i> already were, as points of access to the divine. By praying before an image of a holy figure, the believer's prayers were magnified by proximity to the holy. This change in practice seems to have been a major and organic development in Christian worship, which responded to the needs of believers to have access to divine support during the insecurities of the seventh century. It was not a change orchestrated or controlled by the Church. Although the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/basis/trullo.asp">Quinisext council</a> in 692 did not explicitly state that images should be prayed to, it stated that images of Christ had to render him in human form (instead of for example symbolically as a lamb) to testify to his human incarnation.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Because Jesus manifested himself as human it was acceptable to make images of him just like it was acceptable to make images of the saints and other humans.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The events which have traditionally been labelled 'Byzantine Iconoclasm' may be seen as the efforts of the organised Church and the imperial authorities to respond to these changes and to try to reassert some institutional control over popular practice.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The rise of Islam in the seventh century had also caused some consideration of the use of holy images. Early Islamic belief stressed the impropriety of iconic representation. Earlier scholarship tried to link Byzantine Iconoclasm directly to Islam by arguing that Byzantine emperors saw the success of the early Caliphate and decided that Byzantine use of images (as opposed to Islamic aniconism) had angered God. This does not seem entirely plausible however. The use of images had probably been increasing in the years leading up to the outbreak of iconoclasm.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKitzinger1977105_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKitzinger1977105-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One notable change came in 695, when <a href="/wiki/Justinian_II" title="Justinian II">Justinian II</a> put a full-faced image of Christ on the <a href="/wiki/Obverse" class="mw-redirect" title="Obverse">obverse</a> of his gold coins. The effect on iconoclast opinion is unknown, but the change certainly caused <a href="/wiki/Caliph" class="mw-redirect" title="Caliph">Caliph</a> <a href="/wiki/Abd_al-Malik_ibn_Marwan" title="Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan">Abd al-Malik</a> to break permanently with his previous adoption of Byzantine coin types to start a purely Islamic coinage with lettering only.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECormack198598–106_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECormack198598–106-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This appears more like two opposed camps asserting their positions (pro and anti images) than one empire seeking to imitate the other. More striking is the fact that Islamic iconoclasm rejected any depictions of living people or animals, not only religious images. By contrast, Byzantine iconomachy concerned itself only with the question of the holy presence (or lack thereof) of images. Thus, although the rise of Islam may have created an environment in which images were at the forefront of intellectual question and debate, <a href="/wiki/Islamic_iconoclasm" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic iconoclasm">Islamic iconoclasm</a> does not seem to have had a direct causal role in the development of the Byzantine image debate; in fact Muslim territories became havens for iconophile refugees.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, it has been argued that Leo III, because of his Syrian background, could have been influenced by Islamic beliefs and practices, which could have inspired his first removal of images.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The goal of the iconoclasts was<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to restore the church to the strict opposition to images in worship that they believed characterized at the least some parts of the early church. Theologically, one aspect of the debate, as with most in Christian theology at the time, revolved around the <a href="/wiki/Hypostatic_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Hypostatic Union">two natures of Jesus</a>. Iconoclasts believed<sup id="cite_ref-:0_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> that icons could not represent both the divine and the human natures of the Messiah at the same time, but only separately. Because an icon which depicted Jesus as purely physical would be <a href="/wiki/Nestorianism" title="Nestorianism">Nestorianism</a>, and one which showed Him as both human and divine would not be able to do so without confusing the two natures into one mixed nature, which was <a href="/wiki/Monophysitism" title="Monophysitism">Monophysitism</a>, all icons were thus <a href="/wiki/Heresy" title="Heresy">heretical</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Leo III did preach a series of sermons in which he drew attention to the excessive behaviour of the <a href="/wiki/Iconodules" class="mw-redirect" title="Iconodules">iconodules</a>, which Leo III stated was in direct opposition to <a href="/wiki/Mosaic_Law" class="mw-redirect" title="Mosaic Law">Mosaic Law</a> as shown in the <a href="/wiki/Thou_shalt_not_make_unto_thee_any_graven_image" title="Thou shalt not make unto thee any graven image">Second Commandment</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, no detailed writings setting out iconoclast arguments have survived; we have only brief quotations and references in the writings of the iconodules and the nature of <a href="/wiki/Biblical_law_in_Christianity" class="mw-redirect" title="Biblical law in Christianity">Biblical law in Christianity</a> has always been in dispute. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Geographical_distribution">Geographical distribution</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Byzantine_Iconoclasm&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Geographical distribution"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Newer studies have discredited the former theory that Iconoclasm was primarily concentrated in the eastern regions of the Empire; the prevalence of Iconoclasm had nothing to do with distance from the eastern (Arab) border, suggesting that the spread of iconoclasm was independent of direct Islamic influence.<sup id="cite_ref-juan_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-juan-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For instance, western regions such as the Cyclades contain evidence of iconoclastic loyalties from church decoration, while eastern areas such as Cyprus (then jointly-ruled by the Byzantines and the Arabs) maintained a continuous tradition of icons. Instead, iconodules escaped Iconoclasm by fleeing to peripheral regions away from the iconoclastic imperial authority in both west (Italy and Dalmatia) and east, such as Cyprus, the southern coast of Anatolia, and eastern Pontus.<sup id="cite_ref-juan_7-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-juan-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is also possible that the concentration of Iconoclasm in the eastern Anatolian areas of Isauria, Chaldia and Cappadocia was the result of the military victories of the Isaurian emperors in this border area against the Arabs, as well as the strong imperial authority established in this area.<sup id="cite_ref-juan_7-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-juan-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Byzantine_Iconoclasm&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A thorough understanding of the Iconoclast period in Byzantium is complicated by the fact that most of the surviving sources were written by the ultimate victors in the controversy, the <a href="/wiki/Iconodules" class="mw-redirect" title="Iconodules">iconodules</a>. It is thus difficult to obtain a complete, objective, balanced, and reliably accurate account of events and various aspects of the controversy.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrubakerHaldon2001_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrubakerHaldon2001-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The period was marked by intensely polarized debate amongst at least the clergy, and both sides came to regard the position of the other as <a href="/wiki/Heresy" title="Heresy">heresy</a>, and accordingly made efforts to destroy the writings of the other side when they had the chance. Leo III is said to have ordered the destruction of iconodule texts at the start of the controversy, and the records of the final Second Council of Nicaea record that books with missing pages were reported and produced to the council.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENoble2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksido_IADUZ-4yQCpgPA69_69]_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENoble2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksido_IADUZ-4yQCpgPA69_69]-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many texts, including works of <a href="/wiki/Hagiography" title="Hagiography">hagiography</a> and historical writing as well as sermons and theological writings, were undoubtedly "improved", fabricated or backdated by partisans, and the difficult and highly technical scholarly process of attempting to assess the real authors and dates of many surviving texts remains ongoing. Most iconoclastic texts are simply missing, including a proper record of the council of 754, and the detail of iconoclastic arguments have mostly to be reconstructed with difficulty from their vehement rebuttals by iconodules. </p><p>Major historical sources for the period include the <a href="/wiki/Chronicle" title="Chronicle">chronicles</a> of <a href="/wiki/Theophanes_the_Confessor" title="Theophanes the Confessor">Theophanes the Confessor</a><sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the <a href="/wiki/Patriarch_Nikephoros_I_of_Constantinople" class="mw-redirect" title="Patriarch Nikephoros I of Constantinople">Patriarch Nikephoros</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> both of whom were ardent iconodules. Many historians have also drawn on <a href="/wiki/Hagiography" title="Hagiography">hagiography</a>, most notably the <i>Life of St. Stephen the Younger</i>,<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which includes a detailed, but highly biased, account of persecutions during the reign of <a href="/wiki/Constantine_V" title="Constantine V">Constantine V</a>. No account of the period in question written by an iconoclast has been preserved, although certain saints' lives do seem to preserve elements of the iconoclast worldview.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Major theological sources include the writings of <a href="/wiki/John_of_Damascus" title="John of Damascus">John of Damascus</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Theodore_the_Studite" title="Theodore the Studite">Theodore the Studite</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the Patriarch Nikephoros, all of them iconodules. The theological arguments of the iconoclasts survive only in the form of selective quotations embedded in iconodule documents, most notably the Acts of the <a href="/wiki/Second_Council_of_Nicaea" title="Second Council of Nicaea">Second Council of Nicaea</a> and the <i>Antirrhetics</i> of Nikephoros.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="The_first_iconoclast_period:_730–787"><span id="The_first_iconoclast_period:_730.E2.80.93787"></span>The first iconoclast period: 730–787</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Byzantine_Iconoclasm&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: The first iconoclast period: 730–787"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Argument_about_icons_(Skylitzis_Chronicle).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Argument_about_icons_%28Skylitzis_Chronicle%29.jpg/280px-Argument_about_icons_%28Skylitzis_Chronicle%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="280" height="153" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Argument_about_icons_%28Skylitzis_Chronicle%29.jpg/420px-Argument_about_icons_%28Skylitzis_Chronicle%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Argument_about_icons_%28Skylitzis_Chronicle%29.jpg/560px-Argument_about_icons_%28Skylitzis_Chronicle%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1029" data-file-height="561" /></a><figcaption>Argument about icons before the emperor, in the <a href="/wiki/Skylitzis_Chronicle" class="mw-redirect" title="Skylitzis Chronicle">Skylitzis Chronicle</a></figcaption></figure> <p>An immediate precursor of the controversy seems to have been a large submarine volcanic eruption in the summer of 726 in the <a href="/wiki/Aegean_Sea" title="Aegean Sea">Aegean Sea</a> between the island of <a href="/wiki/Thera" class="mw-redirect" title="Thera">Thera</a> (modern Santorini) and <a href="/wiki/Therasia" title="Therasia">Therasia</a>, probably causing <a href="/wiki/Tsunami" title="Tsunami">tsunamis</a> and great loss of life. Many, probably including Leo III,<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> interpreted this as a judgment on the Empire by God, and decided that use of images had been the offense.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMango19771_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMango19771-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeckwith1979169_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeckwith1979169-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The classic account of the beginning of Byzantine Iconoclasm relates that sometime between 726 and 730 the Byzantine Emperor <a href="/wiki/Leo_III_the_Isaurian" title="Leo III the Isaurian">Leo III the Isaurian</a> ordered the removal of an image of Christ, prominently placed over the <a href="/wiki/Chalke_Gate" class="mw-redirect" title="Chalke Gate">Chalke Gate</a>, the ceremonial entrance to the <a href="/wiki/Great_Palace_of_Constantinople" title="Great Palace of Constantinople">Great Palace of Constantinople</a>, and its replacement with a cross. Fearing that they intended sacrilege, some of those who were assigned to the task were murdered by a band of <a href="/wiki/Iconodules" class="mw-redirect" title="Iconodules">iconodules</a>. Accounts of this event (written significantly later) suggest that at least part of the reason for the removal may have been military reversals against the <a href="/wiki/Muslims" title="Muslims">Muslims</a> and the eruption of the volcanic island of <a href="/wiki/Santorini" title="Santorini">Thera</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-thera_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-thera-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which Leo possibly viewed as evidence of the <a href="/wiki/Divine_retribution" title="Divine retribution">Wrath of God</a> brought on by image veneration in the Church.<sup id="cite_ref-wrathOfGod_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wrathOfGod-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Leo is said to have described mere image veneration as "a craft of idolatry." He apparently forbade the veneration of religious images in a 730 edict, which did not apply to other forms of art, including the image of the emperor, or religious symbols such as the cross. "He saw no need to consult the Church, and he appears to have been surprised by the depth of the popular opposition he encountered".<sup id="cite_ref-treadgold1_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-treadgold1-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Germanos_I_of_Constantinople" class="mw-redirect" title="Germanos I of Constantinople">Germanos I of Constantinople</a>, the iconophile <a href="/wiki/Ecumenical_Patriarch_of_Constantinople" title="Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople">Patriarch of Constantinople</a>, either resigned or was deposed following the ban. Surviving letters Germanos wrote at the time say little of theology. According to Patricia Karlin-Hayter, what worried Germanos was that the ban of icons would prove that the Church had been in error for a long time and therefore play into the hands of Jews and Muslims.<sup id="cite_ref-Oxford1_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Oxford1-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Liddskaja.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a5/Liddskaja.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="198" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="250" data-file-height="198" /></a><figcaption>Patriarch <a href="/wiki/Germanos_I_of_Constantinople" class="mw-redirect" title="Germanos I of Constantinople">Germanos I of Constantinople</a> with icons supported by angels</figcaption></figure> <p>This interpretation is now in doubt, and the debate and struggle may have initially begun in the provinces rather than in the imperial court. Letters survive written by the Patriarch Germanos in the 720s and 730s concerning Constantine, the bishop of Nakoleia, and Thomas of Klaudioupolis. In both sets of letters (the earlier ones concerning Constantine, the later ones Thomas), Germanos reiterates a pro-image position while lamenting the behavior of his subordinates in the church, who apparently had both expressed reservations about image worship. Germanos complains "now whole towns and multitudes of people are in considerable agitation over this matter".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMango19772–3_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMango19772–3-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In both cases, efforts to persuade these men of the propriety of image veneration had failed and some steps had been taken to remove images from their churches. Significantly, in these letters, Germanos does not threaten his subordinates if they fail to change their behavior. He does not seem to refer to a factional split in the church, but rather to an ongoing issue of concern, and Germanos refers to Emperor Leo III, often presented as the original Iconoclast, as a friend of images. Germanos' concerns are mainly that the actions of Constantine and Thomas should not confuse the laity. </p><p>At this stage in the debate, there is no clear evidence for an imperial involvement in the debate, except that Germanos says he believes that Leo III supports images, leaving a question as to why Leo III has been presented as the arch-iconoclast of Byzantine history. Almost all of the evidence for the reign of Leo III is derived from textual sources, the majority of which post-date his reign considerably, most notably the Life by <a href="/wiki/Stephen_the_Younger" title="Stephen the Younger">Stephen the Younger</a> and the Chronicle of <a href="/wiki/Theophanes_the_Confessor" title="Theophanes the Confessor">Theophanes the Confessor</a>. These important sources are fiercely iconophile and are hostile to the Emperor <a href="/wiki/Constantine_V" title="Constantine V">Constantine V</a> (741–775). As Constantine's father, Leo also became a target. Leo's actual views on icon veneration remain obscure, but in any case, may not have influenced the initial phase of the debate. </p><p>During this initial period, concern on both sides seems to have had little to do with theology and more with practical evidence and effects. There was initially no church council, and no prominent patriarchs or bishops called for the removal or destruction of icons. In the process of destroying or obscuring images, Leo is said to have "<i>confiscated valuable church plate, altar cloths, and reliquaries decorated with religious figures</i>",<sup id="cite_ref-treadgold1_37-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-treadgold1-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but he took no severe action against the former patriarch or iconophile bishops. </p><p>In the West, <a href="/wiki/Pope_Gregory_III" title="Pope Gregory III">Pope Gregory III</a> held two synods at <a href="/wiki/Rome" title="Rome">Rome</a> and condemned Leo's actions, and in response, Leo confiscated papal estates in <a href="/wiki/Calabria" title="Calabria">Calabria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sicily" title="Sicily">Sicily</a>, detaching them as well as <a href="/wiki/Diocese_of_Illyricum" class="mw-redirect" title="Diocese of Illyricum">Illyricum</a> from Papal governance and placing them under the governance of the <a href="/wiki/Ecumenical_Patriarch_of_Constantinople" title="Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople">Patriarch of Constantinople</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ecumenical_councils">Ecumenical councils</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Byzantine_Iconoclasm&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Ecumenical councils"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:48-manasses-chronicle.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/48-manasses-chronicle.jpg/330px-48-manasses-chronicle.jpg" decoding="async" width="280" height="185" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/48-manasses-chronicle.jpg/500px-48-manasses-chronicle.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/48-manasses-chronicle.jpg/960px-48-manasses-chronicle.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1940" data-file-height="1280" /></a><figcaption>14th-century miniature of the destruction of a church under the orders of the iconoclast emperor <a href="/wiki/Constantine_V" title="Constantine V">Constantine V</a> Copronymus</figcaption></figure> <p>Leo died in 741, and his son and heir, <a href="/wiki/Constantine_V" title="Constantine V">Constantine V</a> (741–775), was personally committed to an anti-image position. Despite his successes as an emperor, both militarily and culturally, this has caused Constantine to be remembered unfavorably by a body of source material that is preoccupied with his opposition to image veneration. For example, Constantine is accused of being obsessive in his hostility to images and monks; because of this he burned monasteries and images and turned churches into stables, according to the surviving iconophile sources.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 754 Constantine summoned the <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Hieria" title="Council of Hieria">Council of Hieria</a> in which some 330 to 340 bishops participated and which was the first church council to concern itself primarily with religious imagery. Constantine seems to have been closely involved with the council, and it endorsed an iconoclast position, with 338 assembled bishops declaring, "the unlawful art of painting living creatures blasphemed the fundamental doctrine of our salvation--namely, the Incarnation of Christ, and contradicted the six holy synods. ... If anyone shall endeavor to represent the forms of the Saints in lifeless pictures with material colors which are of no value (for this notion is vain and introduced by the devil), and does not rather represent their virtues as living images in himself, etc. ... let him be anathema." This Council claimed to be the legitimate "Seventh Ecumenical Council",<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but its legitimacy is disregarded by both Orthodox and Catholic traditions as no patriarchs or representatives of the <a href="/wiki/Pentarchy" title="Pentarchy">five patriarchs</a> were present: Constantinople was vacant while Antioch, Jerusalem, and Alexandria were controlled by Muslims, and Rome did not send a representative. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Seventh_ecumenical_council_(Icon).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Seventh_ecumenical_council_%28Icon%29.jpg/220px-Seventh_ecumenical_council_%28Icon%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="295" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Seventh_ecumenical_council_%28Icon%29.jpg/330px-Seventh_ecumenical_council_%28Icon%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Seventh_ecumenical_council_%28Icon%29.jpg/440px-Seventh_ecumenical_council_%28Icon%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="450" data-file-height="604" /></a><figcaption>An <a href="/wiki/Icon" title="Icon">icon</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Seventh_Ecumenical_Council" class="mw-redirect" title="Seventh Ecumenical Council">Seventh Ecumenical Council</a> (17th century, <a href="/wiki/Novodevichy_Convent" title="Novodevichy Convent">Novodevichy Convent</a>, <a href="/wiki/Moscow" title="Moscow">Moscow</a>)</figcaption></figure> <p>The iconoclast Council of Hieria was not the end of the matter, however. In this period complex theological arguments appeared, both for and against the use of icons. Constantine himself wrote opposing the veneration of images, while <a href="/wiki/John_of_Damascus" title="John of Damascus">John of Damascus</a>, a Syrian <a href="/wiki/Monk" title="Monk">monk</a> living outside of Byzantine territory, became a major opponent of iconoclasm through his theological writings.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECormack1985_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECormack1985-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>It has been suggested that monasteries became secret bastions of icon support, but this view is controversial. A possible reason for this interpretation is the desire in some historiography on Byzantine Iconoclasm to see it as a preface to the later <a href="/wiki/Protestant_Reformation" class="mw-redirect" title="Protestant Reformation">Protestant Reformation</a> in western Europe, which was opposed to monastic establishments.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2017)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> In opposition to this view, others have suggested that while some monks continued to support image veneration, many others followed church and imperial policy.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2017)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The surviving sources accuse Constantine V of moving against monasteries, having relics thrown into the sea, and stopping the invocation of saints. Monks were forced to parade in the Hippodrome, each hand-in-hand with a woman, in violation of their vows. In 765 <a href="/wiki/St_Stephen_the_Younger" class="mw-redirect" title="St Stephen the Younger">St Stephen the Younger</a> was killed, and was later considered a martyr to the Iconophile cause. A number of large monasteries in Constantinople were secularised, and many monks fled to areas beyond effective imperial control on the fringes of the Empire.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECormack1985_43-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECormack1985-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Constantine's son, <a href="/wiki/Leo_IV_the_Khazar" title="Leo IV the Khazar">Leo IV</a> (775–80), was less rigorous, and for a time tried to mediate between the factions. When he died, his wife <a href="/wiki/Irene_of_Athens" title="Irene of Athens">Irene</a> took power as regent for her son, <a href="/wiki/Constantine_VI" title="Constantine VI">Constantine VI</a> (780–97). Though icon veneration does not seem to have been a major priority for the regency government, Irene called an ecumenical council a year after Leo's death, which restored image veneration. This may have been an effort to secure closer and more cordial relations between Constantinople and Rome. </p><p>Irene initiated a new ecumenical council, ultimately called the <a href="/wiki/Second_Council_of_Nicaea" title="Second Council of Nicaea">Second Council of Nicaea</a>, which first met in Constantinople in 786 but was disrupted by military units faithful to the iconoclast legacy. The council convened again at <a href="/wiki/Nicaea" title="Nicaea">Nicaea</a> in 787 and reversed the decrees of the previous iconoclast council held at Constantinople and Hieria, and appropriated its title as <a href="/wiki/Seventh_Ecumenical_Council" class="mw-redirect" title="Seventh Ecumenical Council">Seventh Ecumenical Council</a>. Thus there were two councils called the "Seventh Ecumenical Council," the first supporting iconoclasm, the second supporting icon veneration. </p><p>Unlike the iconoclast council, the iconophile council included papal representatives, and its decrees were approved by the papacy. The <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_Church" title="Eastern Orthodox Church">Orthodox Church</a> considers it to be the last genuine ecumenical council. Icon veneration lasted through the reign of <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empress_Irene" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine Empress Irene">Empress Irene</a>'s successor, <a href="/wiki/Nikephoros_I" title="Nikephoros I">Nikephoros I</a> (reigned 802–811), and the two brief reigns after his. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Decree_of_the_Second_council_of_Nicaea">Decree of the Second council of Nicaea</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Byzantine_Iconoclasm&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Decree of the Second council of Nicaea"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>On October 13, 787 the Second Council of Nicaea decreed that 'venerable and holy images are to be dedicated in the holy churches of God, namely the image of our Lord and God and Saviour Jesus Christ, of our immaculate Lady the Holy Theotokos, and of the angels and all the saints. They are to be accorded the veneration of honor, not indeed the true worship paid to the divine nature alone, but in the same way, as this is accorded to the life-giving cross, the holy gospels, and other sacred offerings' (trans. Price, The Acts of the Second Council of Nicaea [Liverpool 2018], 564-5, abbreviated). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="The_second_iconoclast_period:_814–843"><span id="The_second_iconoclast_period:_814.E2.80.93843"></span>The second iconoclast period: 814–843</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Byzantine_Iconoclasm&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: The second iconoclast period: 814–843"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Constantinople_(843)" title="Council of Constantinople (843)">Council of Constantinople (843)</a></div> <p>Emperor <a href="/wiki/Leo_V_the_Armenian" title="Leo V the Armenian">Leo V the Armenian</a> instituted a second period of Iconoclasm in 815, again possibly motivated by military failures seen as indicators of divine displeasure, and a desire to replicate the military success of Constantine V. The Byzantines had suffered a series of humiliating defeats at the hands of the Bulgarian Khan <a href="/wiki/Krum_of_Bulgaria" class="mw-redirect" title="Krum of Bulgaria">Krum</a>, in the course of which emperor <a href="/wiki/Nikephoros_I" title="Nikephoros I">Nikephoros I</a> had been killed in battle and emperor <a href="/wiki/Michael_I_Rangabe" title="Michael I Rangabe">Michael I Rangabe</a> had been forced to abdicate.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPratsch1997204–5_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPratsch1997204–5-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In June 813, a month before the coronation of Leo V, a group of soldiers broke into the imperial mausoleum in the <a href="/wiki/Church_of_the_Holy_Apostles" title="Church of the Holy Apostles">Church of the Holy Apostles</a>, opened the sarcophagus of Constantine V, and implored him to return and save the empire.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPratsch1997210_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPratsch1997210-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Triumph_orthodoxy.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Triumph_orthodoxy.jpg/220px-Triumph_orthodoxy.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="280" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Triumph_orthodoxy.jpg/330px-Triumph_orthodoxy.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Triumph_orthodoxy.jpg/440px-Triumph_orthodoxy.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1482" data-file-height="1886" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Icon_of_the_Triumph_of_Orthodoxy" title="Icon of the Triumph of Orthodoxy">Late 14th-early 15th century icon</a> illustrating the <a href="/wiki/Feast_of_Orthodoxy" title="Feast of Orthodoxy">"Triumph of Orthodoxy"</a> under the Byzantine empress Theodora over iconoclasm in 843. (National Icon Collection 18, <a href="/wiki/British_Museum" title="British Museum">British Museum</a>).</figcaption></figure> <p>Soon after his accession, Leo V began to discuss the possibility of reviving iconoclasm with a variety of people, including priests, monks, and members of the senate. He is reported to have remarked to a group of advisors that: </p> <blockquote><p>all the emperors, who took up images and venerated them, met their death either in revolt or in war; but those who did not venerate images all died a natural death, remained in power until they died, and were then laid to rest with all honors in the imperial mausoleum in the Church of the Holy Apostles.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Martyrdom_of_Euthymius_of_Sardeis.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Martyrdom_of_Euthymius_of_Sardeis.jpg/330px-Martyrdom_of_Euthymius_of_Sardeis.jpg" decoding="async" width="280" height="123" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Martyrdom_of_Euthymius_of_Sardeis.jpg/500px-Martyrdom_of_Euthymius_of_Sardeis.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Martyrdom_of_Euthymius_of_Sardeis.jpg/960px-Martyrdom_of_Euthymius_of_Sardeis.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1177" data-file-height="515" /></a><figcaption>The torture and martyrdom of the iconophile Bishop <a href="/wiki/Euthymius_of_Sardeis" class="mw-redirect" title="Euthymius of Sardeis">Euthymius of Sardeis</a> by the iconoclast Byzantine Emperor Michael II in 824, in <a href="/wiki/Madrid_Skylitzes" title="Madrid Skylitzes">a 13th-century manuscript</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Leo next appointed a "commission" of monks "to look into the old books" and reach a decision on the veneration of images. They soon discovered the acts of the Iconoclastic Synod of 754.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPratsch1997211–12_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPratsch1997211–12-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A first debate followed between Leo's supporters and the clerics who continued to advocate the veneration of icons, the latter group being led by the <a href="/wiki/Ecumenical_Patriarch_Nikephoros_I_of_Constantinople" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecumenical Patriarch Nikephoros I of Constantinople">Patriarch Nikephoros</a>, which led to no resolution. However, Leo had apparently become convinced by this point of the correctness of the iconoclast position, and had the icon of the Chalke gate, which Leo III is fictitiously claimed to have removed once before, replaced with a cross.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPratsch1997216–17_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPratsch1997216–17-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 815 the revival of iconoclasm was rendered official by a <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Constantinople_(815)" title="Council of Constantinople (815)">Synod</a> held in the Hagia Sophia. </p><p>Leo was succeeded by <a href="/wiki/Michael_II" title="Michael II">Michael II</a>, who in an 824 letter to the <a href="/wiki/Carolingian" class="mw-redirect" title="Carolingian">Carolingian</a> emperor <a href="/wiki/Louis_the_Pious" title="Louis the Pious">Louis the Pious</a> lamented the appearance of image veneration in the church and such practices as making icons baptismal <a href="/wiki/Godparent" title="Godparent">godfathers</a> to infants. He confirmed the decrees of the Iconoclast Council of 754. </p><p>Michael was succeeded by his son, <a href="/wiki/Theophilus_(emperor)" class="mw-redirect" title="Theophilus (emperor)">Theophilus</a>. Theophilus died leaving his wife <a href="/wiki/Theodora,_wife_of_Theophilus" class="mw-redirect" title="Theodora, wife of Theophilus">Theodora</a> regent for his minor heir, <a href="/wiki/Michael_III" title="Michael III">Michael III</a>. Like Irene 50 years before her, Theodora presided over the restoration of icon veneration in 843 at the <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Constantinople_(843)" title="Council of Constantinople (843)">Council of Constantinople</a>, on the condition that Theophilus not be condemned. Since that time the first Sunday of <a href="/wiki/Great_Lent" title="Great Lent">Great Lent</a> has been celebrated in the Orthodox Church and in Byzantine Rite Catholicism as the <a href="/wiki/Feast_day" class="mw-redirect" title="Feast day">feast</a> of the "<a href="/wiki/Triumph_of_Orthodoxy" class="mw-redirect" title="Triumph of Orthodoxy">Triumph of Orthodoxy</a>". </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Arguments_in_the_struggle_over_icons">Arguments in the struggle over icons</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Byzantine_Iconoclasm&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Arguments in the struggle over icons"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Iconoclast_arguments">Iconoclast arguments</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Byzantine_Iconoclasm&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Iconoclast arguments"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Clasm_Chludov.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Clasm_Chludov.jpg/250px-Clasm_Chludov.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="294" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Clasm_Chludov.jpg/330px-Clasm_Chludov.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Clasm_Chludov.jpg/500px-Clasm_Chludov.jpg 2x" data-file-width="588" data-file-height="786" /></a><figcaption>This page of the Iconodule <a href="/wiki/Chludov_Psalter" title="Chludov Psalter">Chludov Psalter</a>, illustrates the line "They gave me gall to eat; and when I was thirsty they gave me vinegar to drink" with a picture of a soldier offering Christ vinegar on a sponge attached to a pole. Below is a picture of the last Iconoclast <a href="/wiki/Ecumenical_Patriarch_of_Constantinople" title="Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople">Patriarch of Constantinople</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_VII_of_Constantinople" title="John VII of Constantinople">John VII</a> rubbing out a painting of Christ with a similar sponge attached to a pole. John is caricatured, here as on other pages, with untidy straight hair sticking out in all directions, which was meant to portray him as wild and barbaric.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chludov_Nikephoros_I_of_Constantinople.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Chludov_Nikephoros_I_of_Constantinople.jpg/250px-Chludov_Nikephoros_I_of_Constantinople.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="267" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Chludov_Nikephoros_I_of_Constantinople.jpg/330px-Chludov_Nikephoros_I_of_Constantinople.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Chludov_Nikephoros_I_of_Constantinople.jpg/500px-Chludov_Nikephoros_I_of_Constantinople.jpg 2x" data-file-width="834" data-file-height="1012" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Nikephoros_I_of_Constantinople" title="Nikephoros I of Constantinople">Nikephoros I of Constantinople</a> upholding an icon and trampling <a href="/wiki/John_VII_of_Constantinople" title="John VII of Constantinople">John VII</a> of Constantinople. <a href="/wiki/Chludov_Psalter" title="Chludov Psalter">Chludov Psalter</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>What accounts of iconoclast arguments remain are largely found in quotations or summaries in iconodule writings. It is thus difficult to reconstruct a balanced view of the popularity or prevalence of iconoclast writings.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> The major theological arguments, however, remain in evidence because of the need in iconophile writings to record the positions being refuted.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Debate seems to have centred on the validity of the <a href="/wiki/Depiction_of_Jesus" title="Depiction of Jesus">depiction of Jesus</a>, and the validity of images of other figures followed on from this for both sides. The main points of the iconoclast argument were: </p> <ol><li>Iconoclasm condemned the making of any lifeless image (e.g. painting or statue) that was intended to represent Jesus or one of the saints. The Epitome of the Definition of the Iconoclastic Conciliabulum held in 754 declared: <blockquote><p>"Supported by the Holy Scriptures and the Fathers, we declare unanimously, in the name of the Holy Trinity, that there shall be rejected and removed and cursed one of the Christian Church every likeness which is made out of any material and colour whatever by the evil art of painters.... If anyone ventures to represent the divine image (χαρακτήρ, <i>kharaktír</i> - character) of the Word after the Incarnation with material colours, he is an adversary of God. .... If anyone shall endeavour to represent the forms of the Saints in lifeless pictures with material colours which are of no value (for this notion is vain and introduced by the devil), and does not rather represent their virtues as living images in himself, he is an adversary of God"<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote></li> <li>For iconoclasts, the only real religious image must be an exact likeness of the prototype -of the same substance- which they considered impossible, seeing wood and paint as empty of spirit and life. Thus for iconoclasts the only true (and permitted) "icon" of Jesus was the <a href="/wiki/Eucharist" title="Eucharist">Eucharist</a>, the Body and Blood of Christ, according to Orthodox and Catholic doctrine.</li> <li>Any true image of Jesus must be able to represent both his divine nature (which is impossible because it cannot be seen nor encompassed) and his human nature (which is possible). But by making an icon of Jesus, one is separating his human and divine natures, since only the human can be depicted (separating the natures was considered <a href="/wiki/Nestorianism" title="Nestorianism">nestorianism</a>), or else confusing the human and divine natures, considering them one (union of the human and divine natures was considered <a href="/wiki/Monophysitism" title="Monophysitism">monophysitism</a>).</li> <li>Icon use for religious purposes was viewed as an inappropriate innovation in the Church, and a return to pagan practice. <blockquote><p>"Satan misled men, so that they worshipped the creature instead of the Creator. The Law of Moses and the Prophets cooperated to remove this ruin...But the previously mentioned demiurge of evil...gradually brought back idolatry under the appearance of Christianity."<sup id="cite_ref-hieria1_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hieria1-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> It was also seen as a departure from ancient church tradition, of which there was a written record opposing religious images. The Spanish <a href="/wiki/Synod_of_Elvira" title="Synod of Elvira">Synod of Elvira</a> Canon 36 states, "It has seemed good that images should not be in churches so that what is venerated and worshiped not be painted on the walls."<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Eusebius_of_Caesaria" class="mw-redirect" title="Eusebius of Caesaria">Eusebius of Caesaria</a> may have written a letter to <a href="/wiki/Flavia_Julia_Constantia" title="Flavia Julia Constantia">Constantia</a> (Emperor Constantine's sister) saying "To depict purely the human form of Christ before its transformation, on the other hand, is to break the commandment of God and to fall into pagan error";<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Bishop <a href="/wiki/Epiphanius_of_Salamis" title="Epiphanius of Salamis">Epiphanius of Salamis</a> wrote his letter 51 to John, Bishop of Jerusalem (c. 394) in which he recounted how he tore down an image in a church and admonished the other bishop that such images are "opposed … to our religion",<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> although the authenticity of this letter has also long been disputed, and remains uncertain.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGwynn2007237_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGwynn2007237-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, as Christianity increasingly spread among gentiles with traditions of religious images, and especially after the conversion of Constantine (c. 312), the legalization of Christianity, and, later that century, the establishment of Christianity as the state religion of the Roman Empire, many new people came into the new large public churches, which began to be decorated with images that certainly drew in part on imperial and pagan imagery: "The representations of Christ as the Almighty Lord on his judgment throne owed something to pictures of Zeus. Portraits of the Mother of God were not wholly independent of a pagan past of venerated mother-goddesses. In the popular mind the saints had come to fill a role that had been played by heroes and deities."<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Iconophile_arguments">Iconophile arguments</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Byzantine_Iconoclasm&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Iconophile arguments"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The chief theological opponents of iconoclasm were the monks Mansur (<a href="/wiki/John_of_Damascus" title="John of Damascus">John of Damascus</a>), who, living in Muslim territory as advisor to the Caliph of Damascus, was far enough away from the Byzantine emperor to evade retribution, and <a href="/wiki/Theodore_the_Studite" title="Theodore the Studite">Theodore the Studite</a>, abbot of the <a href="/wiki/Stoudios" class="mw-redirect" title="Stoudios">Stoudios</a> monastery in Constantinople. </p><p>John declared that he did not worship matter, "but rather the creator of matter." He also declared, "But I also venerate the matter through which salvation came to me, as if filled with divine energy and grace." He includes in this latter category the ink in which the gospels were written as well as the paint of images, the wood of the Cross, and the body and blood of Jesus. This distinction between worship and veneration is key in the arguments of the iconophiles. </p><p>The iconophile response to iconoclasm included: </p> <ol><li>Assertion that the biblical commandment forbidding images of God had been superseded by the incarnation of Jesus, who, being the second person of the Trinity, is God incarnate in visible matter. Therefore, they were not depicting the invisible God, but God as He appeared in the flesh. They were able to adduce the issue of the incarnation in their favour, whereas the iconoclasts had used the issue of the incarnation against them. They also pointed to other Old Testament evidence: God instructed Moses to make two golden statues of <a href="/wiki/Cherubim" class="mw-redirect" title="Cherubim">cherubim</a> on the lid of the <a href="/wiki/Ark_of_the_Covenant" title="Ark of the Covenant">Ark of the Covenant</a> according to <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Exodus+25:18–22&version=nkjv">Exodus 25:18–22</a>, and God also told Moses to embroider the curtain which separated the <a href="/wiki/Holy_of_Holies" title="Holy of Holies">Holy of Holies</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Tabernacle" title="Tabernacle">Tabernacle</a> tent with cherubim <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Exodus+26:31&version=nkjv">Exodus 26:31</a>. Moses was also instructed by God to embroider the walls and roofs of the Tabernacle tent with figures of cherubim angels according to <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Exodus+26:1&version=nkjv">Exodus 26:1</a>.</li> <li>Further, in their view idols depicted persons without substance or reality while icons depicted real persons. Essentially the argument was that idols were idols because they represented false gods, not because they were images. Images of Christ, or of other real people who had lived in the past, could not be idols. This was considered comparable to the Old Testament practice of only offering burnt sacrifices to God, and not to any other gods.</li> <li>Regarding the written tradition opposing the making and veneration of images, they asserted that icons were part of unrecorded oral tradition (<i>parádosis</i>, sanctioned in Catholicism and Orthodoxy as authoritative in doctrine by reference to <a href="/wiki/Basil_the_Great" class="mw-redirect" title="Basil the Great">Basil the Great</a>, etc.), and pointed to patristic writings approving of icons, such as those of <a href="/wiki/Asterius_of_Amasia" class="mw-redirect" title="Asterius of Amasia">Asterius of Amasia</a>, who was quoted twice in the record of the Second Council of Nicaea. What would have been useful evidence from modern <a href="/wiki/Art_history" title="Art history">art history</a> as to the use of images in <a href="/wiki/Early_Christian_art" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Christian art">Early Christian art</a> was unavailable to iconodules at the time.</li> <li>Much was made of <a href="/wiki/Acheiropoieta" title="Acheiropoieta">acheiropoieta</a>, icons believed to be of divine origin, and <a href="/wiki/Miracle" title="Miracle">miracles</a> associated with icons. Both Christ and the Theotokos were believed in strong traditions to have sat on different occasions for their portraits to be painted.</li> <li>Iconophiles further argued that decisions such as whether icons ought to be venerated were properly made by the church assembled in council, not imposed on the church by an emperor. Thus the argument also involved the issue of the proper relationship between church and state. Related to this was the observation that it was foolish to deny to God the same honor that was freely given to the human emperor, since portraits of the emperor were common and the iconoclasts did not oppose them.</li></ol> <p>Emperors had always intervened in ecclesiastical matters since the time of Constantine I. As Cyril Mango writes, "The legacy of Nicaea, the first universal council of the Church, was to bind the emperor to something that was not his concern, namely the definition and imposition of orthodoxy, if need be by force." That practice continued from beginning to end of the Iconoclast controversy and beyond, with some emperors enforcing iconoclasm, and two empresses regent enforcing the re-establishment of icon veneration. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_art">In art</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Byzantine_Iconoclasm&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: In art"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Domenico_Morelli_002.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Domenico_Morelli_002.JPG/250px-Domenico_Morelli_002.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="271" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Domenico_Morelli_002.JPG/330px-Domenico_Morelli_002.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7e/Domenico_Morelli_002.JPG 2x" data-file-width="394" data-file-height="486" /></a><figcaption>19th-century Italian painting, <i>The Iconoclasts</i>, by <a href="/wiki/Domenico_Morelli" title="Domenico Morelli">Domenico Morelli</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The iconoclastic period has drastically reduced the number of survivals of Byzantine art from before the period, both in large religious mosaics, which are now almost exclusively found in Italy and <a href="/wiki/Saint_Catherine%27s_Monastery" title="Saint Catherine's Monastery">Saint Catherine's Monastery</a> in Egypt as well as portable icons. Important works in <a href="/wiki/Thessaloniki" title="Thessaloniki">Thessaloniki</a> were lost in the <a href="/wiki/Great_Thessaloniki_Fire_of_1917" title="Great Thessaloniki Fire of 1917">Great Thessaloniki Fire of 1917</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Greco-Turkish_War_(1919%E2%80%931922)" title="Greco-Turkish War (1919–1922)">Greco-Turkish War (1919–1922)</a>. A large mosaic of a church council in the Imperial Palace was replaced by lively secular scenes, and there was no issue with imagery per se. </p><p>The plain Iconoclastic cross that replaced a figurative mosaic by Emperor Constantine V in the apse of <a href="/wiki/Hagia_Irene" title="Hagia Irene">Hagia Irene</a> in <a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinople</a> is itself an almost unique survival,<sup id="cite_ref-:1_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but careful inspection of some other buildings reveals similar changes. In <a href="/wiki/Nicaea" title="Nicaea">Nicaea</a>, photographs of the Church of the Dormition, taken before it was destroyed in 1922, show that a pre-iconoclasm standing <a href="/wiki/Theotokos" title="Theotokos">Theotokos</a> was replaced by a large cross, which was itself replaced by the new Theotokos seen in the photographs.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKitzinger1977104–105_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKitzinger1977104–105-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Image_of_Camuliana" class="mw-redirect" title="Image of Camuliana">Image of Camuliana</a> in Constantinople appears to have been destroyed, as mentions of it cease.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeckwith197988_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeckwith197988-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Reaction_in_the_West">Reaction in the West</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Byzantine_Iconoclasm&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Reaction in the West"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The period of Iconoclasm decisively ended the so-called <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Papacy" title="Byzantine Papacy">Byzantine Papacy</a> under which, since the reign of <a href="/wiki/Justinian_I" title="Justinian I">Justinian I</a> two centuries before, the popes in Rome had been initially nominated by, and later merely confirmed by, the emperor in Constantinople, and many of them had been Greek-speaking. By the end of the controversy the pope had approved the creation of a new emperor in the West, and the old deference of the Western church to Constantinople had gone. Opposition to icons seems to have had little support in the West and Rome took a consistently iconodule position. </p><p>When the struggles flared up, <a href="/wiki/Pope_Gregory_II" title="Pope Gregory II">Pope Gregory II</a> had been pope since 715, not long after accompanying his Syrian predecessor <a href="/wiki/Pope_Constantine" title="Pope Constantine">Pope Constantine</a> to Constantinople, where they successfully resolved with <a href="/wiki/Justinian_II" title="Justinian II">Justinian II</a> the issues arising from the decisions of the <a href="/wiki/Quinisext_Council" title="Quinisext Council">Quinisext Council</a> of 692, which no Western prelates had attended. Of the delegation of 13 Gregory was one of only two non-Eastern; it was to be the last visit of a pope to the city until 1969. There had already been conflicts with Leo III over his very heavy taxation of areas under Papal jurisdiction.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeckwith1979169_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeckwith1979169-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Iconoclast Controversy caused Papal-Imperial relations to plummet. Pope Gregory III declared an excommunication for all iconoclasts, and the Emperor sent an expedition to Rome which failed. In 754 the Emperor then seized the Papal properties in Sicily, Calabria and Illyria, and in the same year Pope Stephen II formed an alliance with the Frankish Kingdom, signalling the beginning of the end for Papal support of the Byzantine empire.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Byzantine_Iconoclasm&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/40px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/60px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Byzantine_Iconoclasm" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Byzantine Iconoclasm">Byzantine Iconoclasm</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wikiquote-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/13px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="13" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/20px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/27px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></a></span> Quotations related to <a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Byzantine_Iconoclasm" class="extiw" title="wikiquote:Special:Search/Byzantine Iconoclasm">Byzantine Iconoclasm</a> at Wikiquote</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aniconism_in_Christianity" title="Aniconism in Christianity">Aniconism in Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feast_of_Orthodoxy" title="Feast of Orthodoxy">Feast of Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Libri_Carolini" title="Libri Carolini">Libri Carolini</a></i></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Byzantine_Iconoclasm&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="HEMED,_Thematic_Network:_Euro-Mediterranean_history_Le_Mans_Université" class="citation web cs1">El Riachy, Zeina (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hemed.univ-lemans.fr/cours2014/en/co/module_entier_5.html">"The Iconoclastic Crisis in the Byzantine Empire"</a>. <i>hemed.univ-lemans.fr</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 July</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=hemed.univ-lemans.fr&rft.atitle=The+Iconoclastic+Crisis+in+the+Byzantine+Empire&rft.date=2014&rft.aulast=El+Riachy&rft.aufirst=Zeina&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhemed.univ-lemans.fr%2Fcours2014%2Fen%2Fco%2Fmodule_entier_5.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AByzantine+Iconoclasm" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Humphreys_2021-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Humphreys_2021_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Humphreys_2021_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHumphreys2021" class="citation book cs1">Humphreys, Mike (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KrJFEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1">"Introduction: Contexts, Controversies, and Developing Perspectives"</a>. In Humphreys, Mike (ed.). <i>A Companion to Byzantine Iconoclasm</i>. Brill's Companions to the Christian Tradition. Vol. 99. <a href="/wiki/Leiden" title="Leiden">Leiden</a> and <a href="/wiki/Boston" title="Boston">Boston</a>: <a href="/wiki/Brill_Publishers" title="Brill Publishers">Brill Publishers</a>. pp. <span class="nowrap">1–</span>106. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F9789004462007_002">10.1163/9789004462007_002</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-46200-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-46200-7"><bdi>978-90-04-46200-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1871-6377">1871-6377</a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2021033871">2021033871</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Introduction%3A+Contexts%2C+Controversies%2C+and+Developing+Perspectives&rft.btitle=A+Companion+to+Byzantine+Iconoclasm&rft.place=Leiden+and+Boston&rft.series=Brill%27s+Companions+to+the+Christian+Tradition&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1-%3C%2Fspan%3E106&rft.pub=Brill+Publishers&rft.date=2021&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F9789004462007_002&rft.issn=1871-6377&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2021033871&rft.isbn=978-90-04-46200-7&rft.aulast=Humphreys&rft.aufirst=Mike&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DKrJFEAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AByzantine+Iconoclasm" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="HEMED,_Thematic_Network:_Euro-Mediterranean_history_Le_Mans_Université" class="citation web cs1">El Riachy, Zeina (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hemed.univ-lemans.fr/cours2014/en/co/module_entier_5.html">"The Iconoclastic Crisis in the Byzantine Empire"</a>. <i>hemed.univ-lemans.fr</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 July</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=hemed.univ-lemans.fr&rft.atitle=The+Iconoclastic+Crisis+in+the+Byzantine+Empire&rft.date=2014&rft.aulast=El+Riachy&rft.aufirst=Zeina&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhemed.univ-lemans.fr%2Fcours2014%2Fen%2Fco%2Fmodule_entier_5.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AByzantine+Iconoclasm" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Iconoclastic_Council-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Iconoclastic_Council_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHalsall2021" class="citation web cs1">Halsall, Paul (2021) [1996]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/source/icono-cncl754.asp">"Medieval Sourcebook: Iconoclastic Council, 754 – EPITOME OF THE DEFINITION OF THE ICONOCLASTIC CONCILIABULUM, HELD IN CONSTANTINOPLE, A.D. 754"</a>. Internet History Sourcebooks Project. <a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York</a>: Fordham University Center for Medieval Studies at the <a href="/wiki/Fordham_University" title="Fordham University">Fordham University</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220321165741/https://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/source/icono-cncl754.asp">Archived</a> from the original on 21 March 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 April</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Medieval+Sourcebook%3A+Iconoclastic+Council%2C+754+%E2%80%93+EPITOME+OF+THE+DEFINITION+OF+THE+ICONOCLASTIC+CONCILIABULUM%2C+HELD+IN+CONSTANTINOPLE%2C+A.D.+754&rft.place=New+York&rft.series=Internet+History+Sourcebooks+Project&rft.pub=Fordham+University+Center+for+Medieval+Studies+at+the+Fordham+University&rft.date=2021&rft.aulast=Halsall&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsourcebooks.fordham.edu%2Fsource%2Ficono-cncl754.asp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AByzantine+Iconoclasm" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Toynbee-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Toynbee_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFToynbee1987" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Arnold_J._Toynbee" title="Arnold J. Toynbee">Toynbee, Arnold Joseph</a> (1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=oaPRQiPOfDoC&pg=PA259"><i>A Study of History: Abridgement of volumes VII-X</i></a>. Oxford University Press. p. 259. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780195050813" title="Special:BookSources/9780195050813"><bdi>9780195050813</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Study+of+History%3A+Abridgement+of+volumes+VII-X&rft.pages=259&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=9780195050813&rft.aulast=Toynbee&rft.aufirst=Arnold+Joseph&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DoaPRQiPOfDoC%26pg%3DPA259&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AByzantine+Iconoclasm" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMango2002-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMango2002_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMango2002_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMango2002">Mango (2002)</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-juan-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-juan_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-juan_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-juan_7-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-juan_7-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFJuan_Signes_Codoñer2016" class="citation book cs1">Juan Signes Codoñer (2016). <i>The Emperor Theophilos and the East, 829–842 Court and Frontier in Byzantium During the Last Phase of Iconoclasm</i>. Taylor and Francis. pp. <span class="nowrap">20–</span>21. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781317034278" title="Special:BookSources/9781317034278"><bdi>9781317034278</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Emperor+Theophilos+and+the+East%2C+829%E2%80%93842+Court+and+Frontier+in+Byzantium+During+the+Last+Phase+of+Iconoclasm&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E20-%3C%2Fspan%3E21&rft.pub=Taylor+and+Francis&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=9781317034278&rft.au=Juan+Signes+Codo%C3%B1er&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AByzantine+Iconoclasm" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFDeen_Schildgen_Schildgen2008" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Brenda_Deen_Schildgen" title="Brenda Deen Schildgen">Deen Schildgen Schildgen, Brenda</a> (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/51197136">"Destruction: Iconoclasm and the Reformation in Northern Europe"</a>. <i>Heritage or Heresy</i>: <span class="nowrap">39–</span>56. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1057%2F9780230613157_3">10.1057/9780230613157_3</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-349-37162-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-349-37162-4"><bdi>978-1-349-37162-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Heritage+or+Heresy&rft.atitle=Destruction%3A+Iconoclasm+and+the+Reformation+in+Northern+Europe&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E39-%3C%2Fspan%3E56&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1057%2F9780230613157_3&rft.isbn=978-1-349-37162-4&rft.aulast=Deen+Schildgen+Schildgen&rft.aufirst=Brenda&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F51197136&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AByzantine+Iconoclasm" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHerrin2009" class="citation book cs1">Herrin, Judith (2009-09-28). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=n2aYDwAAQBAJ&dq=Byzantine+iconoclasm+protestant&pg=PR20"><i>Byzantium: The Surprising Life of a Medieval Empire</i></a>. Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-14369-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-14369-9"><bdi>978-0-691-14369-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Byzantium%3A+The+Surprising+Life+of+a+Medieval+Empire&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2009-09-28&rft.isbn=978-0-691-14369-9&rft.aulast=Herrin&rft.aufirst=Judith&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dn2aYDwAAQBAJ%26dq%3DByzantine%2Biconoclasm%2Bprotestant%26pg%3DPR20&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AByzantine+Iconoclasm" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.usu.edu/markdamen/1320Hist&Civ/slides/14islam/iconoclasm.JPG">"Byzantine iconoclasm"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">Jun 17,</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Byzantine+iconoclasm&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.usu.edu%2Fmarkdamen%2F1320Hist%26Civ%2Fslides%2F14islam%2Ficonoclasm.JPG&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AByzantine+Iconoclasm" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrubakerHaldon2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidsaTPtrgLTQoCpgPR5_32]-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrubakerHaldon2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidsaTPtrgLTQoCpgPR5_32]_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBrubakerHaldon2011">Brubaker & Haldon (2011)</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=saTPtrgLTQoC&pg=PR5">32</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKitzinger1977101_quoted,_85–87,_95–115-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKitzinger1977101_quoted,_85–87,_95–115_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKitzinger1977">Kitzinger (1977)</a>, pp. 101 quoted, 85–87, 95–115.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFvon_Grunebaum1962" class="citation journal cs1">von Grunebaum, G. E. (Summer 1962). "Byzantine Iconoclasm and the Influence of the Islamic Environment". <i>History of Religions</i>. <b>2</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">1–</span>10. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F462453">10.1086/462453</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1062034">1062034</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:224805830">224805830</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=History+of+Religions&rft.atitle=Byzantine+Iconoclasm+and+the+Influence+of+the+Islamic+Environment&rft.ssn=summer&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1-%3C%2Fspan%3E10&rft.date=1962&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A224805830%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1062034%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F462453&rft.aulast=von+Grunebaum&rft.aufirst=G.+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AByzantine+Iconoclasm" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_14-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_14-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFFreeman2021" class="citation book cs1">Freeman, Evan (2021). "The Iconoclastic Controversy and Mosaics". In Freeman, Evan (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pressbooks.pub/smarthistoryguidetobyzantineart/chapter/iconoclastic-controversy-and-mosaics/"><i>Smarthistory Guide to Byzantine Art</i></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Iconoclastic+Controversy+and+Mosaics&rft.btitle=Smarthistory+Guide+to+Byzantine+Art&rft.date=2021&rft.aulast=Freeman&rft.aufirst=Evan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpressbooks.pub%2Fsmarthistoryguidetobyzantineart%2Fchapter%2Ficonoclastic-controversy-and-mosaics%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AByzantine+Iconoclasm" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWickham2010" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Wickham" class="mw-redirect" title="Christopher Wickham">Wickham, Chris</a> (2010). <i>The Inheritance of Rome</i>. England: Penguin. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0140290141" title="Special:BookSources/978-0140290141"><bdi>978-0140290141</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Inheritance+of+Rome&rft.place=England&rft.pub=Penguin&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0140290141&rft.aulast=Wickham&rft.aufirst=Chris&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AByzantine+Iconoclasm" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKitzinger1977105-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKitzinger1977105_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKitzinger1977">Kitzinger (1977)</a>, p. 105.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECormack198598–106-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECormack198598–106_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCormack1985">Cormack (1985)</a>, pp. 98–106.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_18-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_18-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGero1974" class="citation journal cs1">Gero, Stephen (1974). "Notes On Byzantine Iconoclasm In The Eighth Century". <i>Byzantion</i>. <b>44</b> (1): 36. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/44170426">44170426</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Byzantion&rft.atitle=Notes+On+Byzantine+Iconoclasm+In+The+Eighth+Century&rft.volume=44&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=36&rft.date=1974&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F44170426%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Gero&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AByzantine+Iconoclasm" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFNorwich1990" class="citation book cs1">Norwich, John Julius (1990). <i>Byzantium The Early Centuries</i>. London: Penguin. p. 354. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-14-011447-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-14-011447-5"><bdi>0-14-011447-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Byzantium+The+Early+Centuries&rft.place=London&rft.pages=354&rft.pub=Penguin&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=0-14-011447-5&rft.aulast=Norwich&rft.aufirst=John+Julius&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AByzantine+Iconoclasm" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldhistory.org/article/1161/byzantine-icons/">"Byzantine Icons"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/World_History_Encyclopedia" title="World History Encyclopedia">World History Encyclopedia</a></i>. 30 October 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=World+History+Encyclopedia&rft.atitle=Byzantine+Icons&rft.date=2019-10-30&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldhistory.org%2Farticle%2F1161%2Fbyzantine-icons%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AByzantine+Iconoclasm" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMango1986" class="citation book cs1">Mango, Cyril A. (1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/artofbyzantine00mang/page/166"><i>The Art of the Byzantine Empire 312-1453: Sources and Documents</i></a>. University of Toronto Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/artofbyzantine00mang/page/166">166</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0802066275" title="Special:BookSources/0802066275"><bdi>0802066275</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Art+of+the+Byzantine+Empire+312-1453%3A+Sources+and+Documents&rft.pages=166&rft.pub=University+of+Toronto+Press&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=0802066275&rft.aulast=Mango&rft.aufirst=Cyril+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fartofbyzantine00mang%2Fpage%2F166&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AByzantine+Iconoclasm" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFNorwich1990" class="citation book cs1">Norwich, John Julius (1990). <i>Byzantium The Early Centuries</i>. London: Penguin. p. 355. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-14-011447-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-14-011447-5"><bdi>0-14-011447-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Byzantium+The+Early+Centuries&rft.place=London&rft.pages=355&rft.pub=Penguin&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=0-14-011447-5&rft.aulast=Norwich&rft.aufirst=John+Julius&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AByzantine+Iconoclasm" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrubakerHaldon2001-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrubakerHaldon2001_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBrubakerHaldon2001">Brubaker & Haldon (2001)</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENoble2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksido_IADUZ-4yQCpgPA69_69]-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENoble2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksido_IADUZ-4yQCpgPA69_69]_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNoble2011">Noble (2011)</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=o_IADUZ-4yQC&pg=PA69">69</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">C. Mango and R. Scott, trs., <i>The Chronicle of Theophanes Confessor</i> (Oxford, 1997).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">C. Mango, ed. and tr., <i>The short history of Nikephoros</i> (Washington, 1990).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">M.-F. Auzépy, tr., <i>La vie d'Étienne le jeune par Étienne le Diacre</i> (Aldershot, 1997).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">I. Ševčenko, "Hagiography in the iconoclast period," in A. Bryer and J. Herrin, eds., <i>Iconoclasm</i> (Birmingham, 1977), 113–31.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">A. Louth, tr., <i>Three treatises on the divine images</i> (Crestwood, 2003).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">C.P. Roth, tr., <i>On the holy icons</i> (Crestwood, 1981).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">M.-J. Mondzain, tr., <i>Discours contre les iconoclastes</i> (Paris, 1989), Exodus 20:1-17.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBrown2012" class="citation journal cs1">Brown, Chad Scott (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://epubs.utah.edu/index.php/historia/article/view/609">"Icons and the Beginning of the Isaurian Iconoclasm under Leo III"</a>. <i>Historia: The Alpha Rho Papers</i>. <b>2</b>: <span class="nowrap">1–</span>9<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 Oct</span> 2019</span> – via epubs.utah.edu.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Historia%3A+The+Alpha+Rho+Papers&rft.atitle=Icons+and+the+Beginning+of+the+Isaurian+Iconoclasm+under+Leo+III&rft.volume=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1-%3C%2Fspan%3E9&rft.date=2012&rft.aulast=Brown&rft.aufirst=Chad+Scott&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fepubs.utah.edu%2Findex.php%2Fhistoria%2Farticle%2Fview%2F609&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AByzantine+Iconoclasm" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMango19771-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMango19771_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMango1977">Mango (1977)</a>, p. 1.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeckwith1979169-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeckwith1979169_34-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeckwith1979169_34-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeckwith1979">Beckwith (1979)</a>, p. 169.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-thera-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-thera_35-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.decadevolcano.net/santorini/santorini_volcanism.htm">Volcanism on Santorini / eruptive history</a> at decadevolcano.net</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-wrathOfGod-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-wrathOfGod_36-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">According to accounts by Patriarch Nikephoros and the chronicler Theophanes</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-treadgold1-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-treadgold1_37-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-treadgold1_37-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Warren Treadgold, <i>A History of the Byzantine State and Society</i>, Stanford University Press, 1997</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Oxford1-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Oxford1_38-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The Oxford History of Byzantium: Iconoclasm, Patricia Karlin-Hayter, Oxford University Press, 2002.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMango19772–3-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMango19772–3_39-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMango1977">Mango (1977)</a>, pp. 2–3.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">David Knowles – Dimitri Obolensky, "The Christian Centuries: Volume 2, The Middle Ages", Darton, Longman & Todd, 1969, p. 108-109.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHaldon2005" class="citation book cs1">Haldon, John (2005). <i>Byzantium A History</i>. Gloucestershire: Tempus. p. 43. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7524-3472-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-7524-3472-1"><bdi>0-7524-3472-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Byzantium+A+History&rft.place=Gloucestershire&rft.pages=43&rft.pub=Tempus&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=0-7524-3472-1&rft.aulast=Haldon&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AByzantine+Iconoclasm" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/source/icono-cncl754.asp">"Internet History Sourcebooks: Medieval Sourcebook"</a>. <i>sourcebooks.fordham.edu</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">Jun 17,</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=sourcebooks.fordham.edu&rft.atitle=Internet+History+Sourcebooks%3A+Medieval+Sourcebook&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsourcebooks.fordham.edu%2Fsource%2Ficono-cncl754.asp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AByzantine+Iconoclasm" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECormack1985-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECormack1985_43-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECormack1985_43-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCormack1985">Cormack (1985)</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPratsch1997204–5-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPratsch1997204–5_44-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPratsch1997">Pratsch (1997)</a>, pp. 204–5.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPratsch1997210-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPratsch1997210_45-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPratsch1997">Pratsch (1997)</a>, p. 210.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/Scriptor_Incertus" title="Scriptor Incertus">Scriptor Incertus</a></i> 349,1–18, cited by <a href="#CITEREFPratsch1997">Pratsch (1997</a>, p. 208).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPratsch1997211–12-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPratsch1997211–12_47-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPratsch1997">Pratsch (1997)</a>, pp. 211–12.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPratsch1997216–17-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPratsch1997216–17_48-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPratsch1997">Pratsch (1997)</a>, pp. 216–17.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHefele2007" class="citation book cs1">Hefele, Charles Joseph (February 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6_VJAwAAQBAJ&pg=RA4-PA313"><i>A History of the Councils of the Church: From the Original Documents, to the close of the Second Council of Nicaea A.D. 787</i></a>. Wipf and Stock Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781556352478" title="Special:BookSources/9781556352478"><bdi>9781556352478</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+the+Councils+of+the+Church%3A+From+the+Original+Documents%2C+to+the+close+of+the+Second+Council+of+Nicaea+A.D.+787&rft.pub=Wipf+and+Stock+Publishers&rft.date=2007-02&rft.isbn=9781556352478&rft.aulast=Hefele&rft.aufirst=Charles+Joseph&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D6_VJAwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DRA4-PA313&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AByzantine+Iconoclasm" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-hieria1-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-hieria1_50-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Epitome</i>, Iconoclast Council at Hieria, 754</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120716202800/http://faculty.cua.edu/pennington/Canon%20Law/ElviraCanons.htm"><i>Elvira canons</i></a>, Cua, archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://faculty.cua.edu/pennington/canon%20Law/ElviraCanons.htm">the original</a> on 2012-07-16, <q>Placuit picturas in ecclesia esse non debere, ne quod colitur et adoratur in parietibus depingatur</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Elvira+canons&rft.pub=Cua&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ffaculty.cua.edu%2Fpennington%2Fcanon%2520Law%2FElviraCanons.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AByzantine+Iconoclasm" class="Z3988"></span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGwynn2007227–245-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGwynn2007227–245_52-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGwynn2007">Gwynn (2007)</a>, pp. 227–245.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The letter's text is incomplete, and its authenticity and authorship uncertain.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGwynn2007227–245_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGwynn2007227–245-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/3001051.htm">"Letter 51: Paragraph 9"</a>. <i>New Advent</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=New+Advent&rft.atitle=Letter+51%3A+Paragraph+9&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.newadvent.org%2Ffathers%2F3001051.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AByzantine+Iconoclasm" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGwynn2007237-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGwynn2007237_55-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGwynn2007">Gwynn (2007)</a>, p. 237.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Henry Chadwick, The Early Church (The Penguin History of the Church, 1993), 283.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKitzinger1977104–105-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKitzinger1977104–105_57-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKitzinger1977">Kitzinger (1977)</a>, pp. 104–105.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeckwith197988-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeckwith197988_58-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeckwith1979">Beckwith (1979)</a>, p. 88.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSavvas_Neocleous2009" class="citation book cs1">Savvas Neocleous (2009). <i>Papers from the First and Second Postgraduate Forums in Byzantine Studies Sailing to Byzantium</i>. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. p. 205. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781443815123" title="Special:BookSources/9781443815123"><bdi>9781443815123</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Papers+from+the+First+and+Second+Postgraduate+Forums+in+Byzantine+Studies+Sailing+to+Byzantium&rft.pages=205&rft.pub=Cambridge+Scholars+Publishing&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=9781443815123&rft.au=Savvas+Neocleous&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AByzantine+Iconoclasm" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Byzantine_Iconoclasm&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-hanging-indents refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBeckwith1979" class="citation book cs1">Beckwith, John (1979). <i>Early Christian and Byzantine Art</i> (2nd ed.). Penguin History of Art (now Yale). <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0140560335" title="Special:BookSources/0140560335"><bdi>0140560335</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Early+Christian+and+Byzantine+Art&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Penguin+History+of+Art+%28now+Yale%29&rft.date=1979&rft.isbn=0140560335&rft.aulast=Beckwith&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AByzantine+Iconoclasm" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBrubakerHaldon2001" class="citation book cs1">Brubaker, L.; Haldon, J. (2001). <i>Byzantium in the Iconoclast Era, c. 680-850: the sources: an annotated survey</i>. Birmingham Byzantine and Ottoman Studies. Vol. 7. Aldershot: Ashgate. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-754-60418-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-754-60418-1"><bdi>978-0-754-60418-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Byzantium+in+the+Iconoclast+Era%2C+c.+680-850%3A+the+sources%3A+an+annotated+survey&rft.place=Aldershot&rft.series=Birmingham+Byzantine+and+Ottoman+Studies&rft.pub=Ashgate&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-754-60418-1&rft.aulast=Brubaker&rft.aufirst=L.&rft.au=Haldon%2C+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AByzantine+Iconoclasm" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBrubakerHaldon2011" class="citation book cs1">Brubaker, L.; Haldon, J. (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=saTPtrgLTQoC&pg=PP1"><i>Byzantium in the Iconoclast Era, c. 680-850: A History</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-43093-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-43093-7"><bdi>978-0-521-43093-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Byzantium+in+the+Iconoclast+Era%2C+c.+680-850%3A+A+History&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-521-43093-7&rft.aulast=Brubaker&rft.aufirst=L.&rft.au=Haldon%2C+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DsaTPtrgLTQoC%26pg%3DPP1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AByzantine+Iconoclasm" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCormack1985" class="citation book cs1">Cormack, Robin (1985). <i>Writing in Gold, Byzantine Society and its Icons</i>. London: George Philip. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/054001085-5" title="Special:BookSources/054001085-5"><bdi>054001085-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Writing+in+Gold%2C+Byzantine+Society+and+its+Icons&rft.place=London&rft.pub=George+Philip&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=054001085-5&rft.aulast=Cormack&rft.aufirst=Robin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AByzantine+Iconoclasm" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGwynn2007" class="citation journal cs1">Gwynn, David (2007). "From Iconoclasm to Arianism: The Construction of Christian Tradition in the Iconoclast Controversy". <i>Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies</i>. <b>47</b>: <span class="nowrap">226–</span>251.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Greek%2C+Roman%2C+and+Byzantine+Studies&rft.atitle=From+Iconoclasm+to+Arianism%3A+The+Construction+of+Christian+Tradition+in+the+Iconoclast+Controversy&rft.volume=47&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E226-%3C%2Fspan%3E251&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Gwynn&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AByzantine+Iconoclasm" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKitzinger1977" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Kitzinger" title="Ernst Kitzinger">Kitzinger, Ernst</a> (1977). <i>Byzantine art in the making: main lines of stylistic development in Mediterranean art, 3rd-7th century</i>. Faber & Faber. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0571111548" title="Special:BookSources/0571111548"><bdi>0571111548</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Byzantine+art+in+the+making%3A+main+lines+of+stylistic+development+in+Mediterranean+art%2C+3rd-7th+century&rft.pub=Faber+%26+Faber&rft.date=1977&rft.isbn=0571111548&rft.aulast=Kitzinger&rft.aufirst=Ernst&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AByzantine+Iconoclasm" class="Z3988"></span> (US: Cambridge University Press)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMango1977" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Cyril_Mango" title="Cyril Mango">Mango, Cyril</a> (1977). "Historical Introduction". In Bryer & Herrin (eds.). <i>Iconoclasm</i>. Centre for Byzantine Studies, University of Birmingham. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0704402262" title="Special:BookSources/0704402262"><bdi>0704402262</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Historical+Introduction&rft.btitle=Iconoclasm&rft.pub=Centre+for+Byzantine+Studies%2C+University+of+Birmingham&rft.date=1977&rft.isbn=0704402262&rft.aulast=Mango&rft.aufirst=Cyril&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AByzantine+Iconoclasm" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMango2002" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Cyril_Mango" title="Cyril Mango">Mango, Cyril</a> (2002). <i>The Oxford History of Byzantium</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+History+of+Byzantium&rft.date=2002&rft.aulast=Mango&rft.aufirst=Cyril&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AByzantine+Iconoclasm" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFNoble2011" class="citation book cs1">Noble, Thomas F. X. (2011). <i>Images, Iconoclasm, and the Carolingians</i>. University of Pennsylvania Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Images%2C+Iconoclasm%2C+and+the+Carolingians&rft.pub=University+of+Pennsylvania+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.aulast=Noble&rft.aufirst=Thomas+F.+X.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AByzantine+Iconoclasm" class="Z3988"></span> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0812202961" title="Special:BookSources/0812202961">0812202961</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780812202960" title="Special:BookSources/9780812202960">9780812202960</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPratsch1997" class="citation book cs1">Pratsch, T. (1997). <i>Theodoros Studites (759–826): zwischen Dogma und Pragma</i>. Frankfurt am Main.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Theodoros+Studites+%28759%E2%80%93826%29%3A+zwischen+Dogma+und+Pragma&rft.pub=Frankfurt+am+Main&rft.date=1997&rft.aulast=Pratsch&rft.aufirst=T.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AByzantine+Iconoclasm" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Byzantine_Iconoclasm&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Leslie Brubaker, <i>Inventing Byzantine Iconoclasm</i>, Bristol Classical Press, London 2012.</li> <li>A. Cameron, "The Language of Images: the Rise of Icons and Christian Representation" in D. Wood (ed) <i>The Church and the Arts</i> (Studies in Church History, 28) Oxford: Blackwell, 1992, pp. 1–42.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFConybeare1911" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Cornwallis_Conybeare" title="Frederick Cornwallis Conybeare">Conybeare, Frederick Cornwallis</a> (1911). <span class="cs1-ws-icon" title="s:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Iconoclasts"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Iconoclasts">"Iconoclasts" </a></span>. In <a href="/wiki/Hugh_Chisholm" title="Hugh Chisholm">Chisholm, Hugh</a> (ed.). <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i>. Vol. 14 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">272–</span>275.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Iconoclasts&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E272-%3C%2Fspan%3E275&rft.edition=11th&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1911&rft.aulast=Conybeare&rft.aufirst=Frederick+Cornwallis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AByzantine+Iconoclasm" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFH.C._Evans_&_W.D._Wixom1997" class="citation book cs1">H.C. Evans & W.D. Wixom (1997). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/gloryofbyzantium00evan"><i>The glory of Byzantium: art and culture of the Middle Byzantine era, A.D. 843-1261</i></a></span>. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780810965072" title="Special:BookSources/9780810965072"><bdi>9780810965072</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+glory+of+Byzantium%3A+art+and+culture+of+the+Middle+Byzantine+era%2C+A.D.+843-1261&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=The+Metropolitan+Museum+of+Art&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=9780810965072&rft.au=H.C.+Evans+%26+W.D.+Wixom&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fgloryofbyzantium00evan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AByzantine+Iconoclasm" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/source/johndam-icons.asp">Fordham University, Medieval Sourcebook: John of Damascus: In Defense of Icons.</a></li> <li>A. Karahan, "Byzantine Iconoclasm: Ideology and Quest for Power". In: Eds. K. Kolrud and M. Prusac, <i>Iconoclasm from Antiquity to Modernity</i>, Ashgate Publishing Ltd: Farnham Surrey, 2014, 75–94. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4094-7033-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4094-7033-5">978-1-4094-7033-5</a>.</li> <li>R. Schick, <i>The Christian Communities of Palestine from Byzantine to Islamic Rule: A Historical and Archaeological Study</i> (Studies in Late Antiquity and Early Islam 2) Princeton, NJ: Darwin Press, 1995, pp. 180–219.</li> <li>P. Brown, "A Dark-Age Crisis: Aspects of the Iconoclastic Controversy," <i>English Historical Review</i> 88/346 (1973): 1–33.</li> <li>F. Ivanovic, <i>Symbol and Icon: Dionysius the Areopagite and the Iconoclastic Crisis</i>, Eugene: Pickwick, 2010.</li> <li>E. Kitzinger, "The Cult of Images in the Age of Iconoclasm," <i>Dumbarton Oaks Papers</i> 8 (1954): 83–150.</li> <li>Yuliyan Velikov, <i>Image of the Invisible. Image Veneration and Iconoclasm in the Eighth Century.</i> Veliko Turnovo University Press, Veliko Turnovo 2011. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-954-524-779-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-954-524-779-8">978-954-524-779-8</a> (in Bulgarian).</li> <li>Thomas Bremer, "Verehrt wird Er in seinem Bilde..." Quellenbuch zur Geschichte der Ikonentheologie. SOPHIA – Quellen östlicher Theologie 37. Paulinus: Trier 2015, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-7902-1461-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-7902-1461-1">978-3-7902-1461-1</a> (in German).</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="History_of_Christianity734" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_Christianity" title="Template:History of Christianity"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_Christianity" title="Template talk:History of Christianity"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_Christianity" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of Christianity"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="History_of_Christianity734" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Christianity" title="History of Christianity">History of Christianity</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_Christianity" title="Early Christianity">Early Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spread_of_Christianity" title="Spread of Christianity">Spread</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Christian_theology" title="History of Christian theology">History of theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Christian_martyrs" title="List of Christian martyrs">List of martyrs</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Christianity" title="Timeline of Christianity">Timeline</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Centuries9" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Centuries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_1st_century" title="Christianity in the 1st century">1st</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_ante-Nicene_period" title="Christianity in the ante-Nicene period">2nd and 3rd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_4th_century" title="Christianity in the 4th century">4th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_5th_century" title="Christianity in the 5th century">5th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_6th_century" title="Christianity in the 6th century">6th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_7th_century" title="Christianity in the 7th century">7th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_8th_century" title="Christianity in the 8th century">8th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_9th_century" title="Christianity in the 9th century">9th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_10th_century" title="Christianity in the 10th century">10th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_11th_century" title="Christianity in the 11th century">11th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_12th_century" title="Christianity in the 12th century">12th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_13th_century" title="Christianity in the 13th century">13th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_14th_century" title="Christianity in the 14th century">14th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_15th_century" title="Christianity in the 15th century">15th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_16th_century" title="Christianity in the 16th century">16th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_17th_century" title="Christianity in the 17th century">17th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_18th_century" title="Christianity in the 18th century">18th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_19th_century" title="Christianity in the 19th century">19th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_20th_century" title="Christianity in the 20th century">20th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_21st_century" title="Christianity in the 21st century">21st</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Origins and<br />Apostolic Age</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historical_background_of_the_New_Testament" title="Historical background of the New Testament">Background</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Life_of_Jesus" title="Life of Jesus">Life of Jesus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baptism_of_Jesus" title="Baptism of Jesus">Baptism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Jesus" title="Ministry of Jesus">Ministry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crucifixion_of_Jesus" title="Crucifixion of Jesus">Crucifixion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resurrection_of_Jesus" title="Resurrection of Jesus">Resurrection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Commission" title="Great Commission">Great Commission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_Jesus" title="Historical Jesus">Historicity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Spirit_in_Christianity" title="Holy Spirit in Christianity">Holy Spirit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apostles_in_the_New_Testament" title="Apostles in the New Testament">Apostles in the New Testament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Christianity" title="Jewish Christianity">Jewish Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Split_of_Christianity_and_Judaism" title="Split of Christianity and Judaism">Split</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_the_Apostle" title="Paul the Apostle">Paul the Apostle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Jerusalem" title="Council of Jerusalem">Council of Jerusalem</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gospel" title="Gospel">Gospels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acts_of_the_Apostles" title="Acts of the Apostles">Acts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pauline_epistles" title="Pauline epistles">Pauline epistles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_epistles" title="Catholic epistles">General epistles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Revelation" title="Book of Revelation">Revelation</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_ante-Nicene_period" title="Christianity in the ante-Nicene period">Ante-Nicene<br />period</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diversity_in_early_Christian_theology" title="Diversity in early Christian theology">Diversity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adoptionism" title="Adoptionism">Adoptionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arianism" title="Arianism">Arianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Docetism" title="Docetism">Docetism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donatism" title="Donatism">Donatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gnosticism" title="Gnosticism">Gnosticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcionism" title="Marcionism">Marcionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montanism" title="Montanism">Montanism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Development_of_the_New_Testament_canon" title="Development of the New Testament canon">Canon development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians_in_the_Roman_Empire" title="Persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire">Persecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apostolic_Fathers" title="Apostolic Fathers">Apostolic</a> / <a href="/wiki/Church_Fathers" title="Church Fathers">Church Fathers</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Clement_of_Rome" title="Clement of Rome">Clement of Rome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polycarp" title="Polycarp">Polycarp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ignatius_of_Antioch" title="Ignatius of Antioch">Ignatius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irenaeus" title="Irenaeus">Irenaeus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justin_Martyr" title="Justin Martyr">Justin Martyr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tertullian" title="Tertullian">Tertullian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origen" title="Origen">Origen</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Church" title="Great Church">Great Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_Roman_Africa_province" title="Christianity in the Roman Africa province">Early African</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_late_antiquity" title="Christianity in late antiquity">Late antiquity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constantine_the_Great_and_Christianity" title="Constantine the Great and Christianity">Constantine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constantinian_shift" title="Constantinian shift">Constantinian shift</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_as_the_Roman_state_religion" title="Christianity as the Roman state religion">Roman state religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_monasticism" title="Christian monasticism">Monasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_seven_ecumenical_councils" title="First seven ecumenical councils">Councils</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Council_of_Nicaea" title="First Council of Nicaea">Nicaea I</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nicene_Creed" title="Nicene Creed">Creed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicene_Christianity" title="Nicene Christianity">Christianity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Athanasius_of_Alexandria" title="Athanasius of Alexandria">Athanasius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jerome" title="Jerome">Jerome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Council_of_Constantinople" title="First Council of Constantinople">Constantinople I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Ephesus" title="Council of Ephesus">Ephesus I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Chalcedon" title="Council of Chalcedon">Chalcedon</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chalcedonian_Christianity" title="Chalcedonian Christianity">Chalcedonian</a> / <a href="/wiki/Non-Chalcedonian_Christianity" title="Non-Chalcedonian Christianity">Non-Chalcedonian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_canon" title="Biblical canon">Biblical canon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Catholic_Church" title="History of the Catholic Church">Catholicism</a><br />(<a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Catholic_Church" title="Timeline of the Catholic Church">Timeline</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_papacy" title="History of the papacy">Papacy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_papal_primacy" title="History of papal primacy">Development of primacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_opposition_to_papal_supremacy" title="Eastern Orthodox opposition to papal supremacy">Eastern Orthodox opposition</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace_and_Truce_of_God" title="Peace and Truce of God">Peace and Truce of God</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusading_movement" title="Crusading movement">Crusading movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Council_of_the_Lateran" title="Fourth Council of the Lateran">Lateran IV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_patronage_of_Julius_II" title="Art patronage of Julius II">Art patronage of Julius II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Leo_X" title="Pope Leo X">Leo X</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter-Reformation" title="Counter-Reformation">Counter-Reformation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Trent" title="Council of Trent">Trent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_in_the_Protestant_Reformation_and_Counter-Reformation" title="Art in the Protestant Reformation and Counter-Reformation">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Reformation" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholic Reformation">Catholic Reformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Society_of_Jesus" class="mw-redirect" title="Society of Jesus">Jesuits</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Xavier" title="Francis Xavier">Xavier</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_More" title="Thomas More">Thomas More</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_monasteries" title="Dissolution of the monasteries">Monastery dissolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_wars_of_religion" title="European wars of religion">Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_rock" title="Mass rock">Mass rocks</a> and <a href="/wiki/Priest_hole" title="Priest hole">priest holes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Our_Lady_of_Guadalupe" title="Our Lady of Guadalupe">Guadalupe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jansenism" title="Jansenism">Jansenists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molinism" title="Molinism">Molinists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism#Neo-Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Neo-Scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teresa_of_%C3%81vila" title="Teresa of Ávila">Teresa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernism_in_the_Catholic_Church" title="Modernism in the Catholic Church">Modernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independent_Catholicism" title="Independent Catholicism">Independent Catholics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Vatican_Council" title="First Vatican Council">Vatican I</a> and <a href="/wiki/Second_Vatican_Council" title="Second Vatican Council">Vatican II</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecclesial_community" title="Ecclesial community">Ecclesial community</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Eastern_Christianity" title="History of Eastern Christianity">Eastern<br />Christianity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Eastern_Orthodox_Church" title="History of the Eastern Orthodox Church">Eastern Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Oriental_Orthodoxy" title="History of Oriental Orthodoxy">Oriental Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_of_the_East" title="Church of the East">Church of the East</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Chrysostom" title="John Chrysostom">Chrysostom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nestorianism" title="Nestorianism">Nestorianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Icon#History" title="Icon">Icons</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iconodulism" title="Iconodulism">Iconodulism</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Iconoclasm</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East%E2%80%93West_Schism" title="East–West Schism">Great Schism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">Fall of Constantinople</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Armenia" title="Christianization of Armenia">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Iberia" title="Christianization of Iberia">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodoxy_in_Greece" title="Eastern Orthodoxy in Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coptic_history" title="Coptic history">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syriac_Christianity" title="Syriac Christianity">Syriac</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serbian_Orthodox_Church" title="Serbian Orthodox Church">Serbian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Orthodox_Tewahedo_Church" title="Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church">Ethiopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Eastern_Orthodox_Church_under_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="History of the Eastern Orthodox Church under the Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Russian_Orthodox_Church" title="History of the Russian Orthodox Church">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Eastern_Orthodoxy_in_North_America" title="Timeline of Eastern Orthodoxy in North America">North America</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Christianity in the Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pelagianism" title="Pelagianism">Pelagianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Gregory_I" title="Pope Gregory I">Gregory I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_Christianity" title="Celtic Christianity">Celtic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianisation_of_the_Germanic_peoples" title="Christianisation of the Germanic peoples">Germanic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianisation_of_Anglo-Saxon_England" title="Christianisation of Anglo-Saxon England">Anglo-Saxon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_the_Franks" title="Christianization of the Franks">Franks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gothic_Christianity" title="Gothic Christianity">Gothic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Scandinavia" title="Christianization of Scandinavia">Scandinavian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Iceland" title="Christianization of Iceland">Iceland</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_the_Slavs" title="Christianization of the Slavs">Slavs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Bohemia" title="Christianization of Bohemia">Bohemia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Bulgaria" title="Christianization of Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Kievan_Rus%27" title="Christianization of Kievan Rus'">Kievan Rus'</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Moravia" title="Christianization of Moravia">Moravia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Poland" title="Christianization of Poland">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Pomerania" title="Christianization of Pomerania">Pomerania</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Investiture_Controversy" title="Investiture Controversy">Investiture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anselm_of_Canterbury" title="Anselm of Canterbury">Anselm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Abelard" title="Peter Abelard">Abelard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_of_Clairvaux" title="Bernard of Clairvaux">Bernard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bogomilism" title="Bogomilism">Bogomils</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bosnian_Church" title="Bosnian Church">Bosnian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catharism" title="Catharism">Cathars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apostolic_Brethren" title="Apostolic Brethren">Apostolic Brethren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dulcinian" class="mw-redirect" title="Dulcinian">Dulcinian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusades" title="Crusades">Crusades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waldensians" title="Waldensians">Waldensians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inquisition" title="Inquisition">Inquisition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism#Early_Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Early Scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_mysticism" title="Christian mysticism">Christian mysticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint_Dominic" title="Saint Dominic">Dominic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_of_Assisi" title="Francis of Assisi">Francis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bonaventure" title="Bonaventure">Bonaventure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Aquinas</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Five_Ways_(Aquinas)" title="Five Ways (Aquinas)">Five Ways</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Wycliffe" title="John Wycliffe">Wycliffe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avignon_Papacy" title="Avignon Papacy">Avignon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Schism" title="Western Schism">Papal Schism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bohemian_Reformation" title="Bohemian Reformation">Bohemian Reformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jan_Hus" title="Jan Hus">Hus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conciliarism" title="Conciliarism">Conciliarism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Synod" title="Synod">Synods</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Reformation" title="Reformation">Reformation</a><br />and<br /><a href="/wiki/History_of_Protestantism" title="History of Protestantism">Protestantism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Erasmus" title="Erasmus">Erasmus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eucharistic_theology" title="Eucharistic theology">Eucharist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Calvinist%E2%80%93Arminian_debate" title="History of the Calvinist–Arminian debate">Calvinist–Arminian debate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arminianism" title="Arminianism">Arminianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter-Reformation#Politics" title="Counter-Reformation">Wars</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Resistance_theory_in_the_Early_Modern_period#Christian_resistance_theories_of_the_early_modern_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Resistance theory in the Early Modern period">Resistance theories</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_church_and_state#Reformation" title="Separation of church and state">Separation of church and state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicodemite" title="Nicodemite">Nicodemites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hymnody_of_continental_Europe" title="Hymnody of continental Europe">Hymnody of continental Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formal_and_material_principles_of_theology" title="Formal and material principles of theology">Formal and material principles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_and_Gospel" title="Law and Gospel">Law and Gospel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Reformation_literature" title="Template:Reformation literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protestant_work_ethic" title="Protestant work ethic">Protestant work ethic</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Lutheranism" title="History of Lutheranism">Lutheranism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Luther</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Ninety-five_Theses" title="Ninety-five Theses">Ninety-five Theses</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diet_of_Worms" title="Diet of Worms">Diet of Worms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theology_of_Martin_Luther" title="Theology of Martin Luther">Theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luther_Bible" title="Luther Bible">Bible</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philip_Melanchthon" title="Philip Melanchthon">Melanchthon</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Concord" title="Book of Concord">Book of Concord</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lutheran_orthodoxy" title="Lutheran orthodoxy">Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacramental_union" title="Sacramental union">Eucharist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lutheran_art" title="Lutheran art">Art</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Reformed_Christianity" title="History of Reformed Christianity">Calvinism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Huldrych_Zwingli" title="Huldrych Zwingli">Zwingli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Calvin" title="John Calvin">Calvin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huguenots" title="Huguenots">Huguenots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presbyterianism" title="Presbyterianism">Presbyterianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_Reformation" title="Scottish Reformation">Scotland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Knox" title="John Knox">Knox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five_points_of_Calvinism" class="mw-redirect" title="Five points of Calvinism">TULIP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformed_baptismal_theology" title="Reformed baptismal theology">Baptism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synod_of_Dort" title="Synod of Dort">Dort</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_Forms_of_Unity" title="Three Forms of Unity">Three Forms of Unity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Westminster_Assembly" title="Westminster Assembly">Westminster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformed_orthodoxy" title="Reformed orthodoxy">Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metrical_psalter" title="Metrical psalter">Metrical psalters</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/English_Reformation" title="English Reformation">Anglicanism</a><br />(<a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_English_Reformation" title="Timeline of the English Reformation">Timeline</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Henry_VIII" title="Henry VIII">Henry VIII</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Cranmer" title="Thomas Cranmer">Cranmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elizabethan_Religious_Settlement" title="Elizabethan Religious Settlement">Elizabethan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirty-nine_Articles" title="Thirty-nine Articles">39 Articles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Puritans" title="Puritans">Puritans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_Civil_War" title="English Civil War">Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglican_church_music" title="Anglican church music">Church music</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Common_Prayer" title="Book of Common Prayer">Book of Common Prayer</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/King_James_Version" title="King James Version">King James Version</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Anabaptism" title="Anabaptism">Anabaptism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anabaptist_theology" title="Anabaptist theology">Theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radical_Reformation" title="Radical Reformation">Radical Reformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conrad_Grebel" title="Conrad Grebel">Grebel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swiss_Brethren" title="Swiss Brethren">Swiss Brethren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_M%C3%BCntzer" title="Thomas Müntzer">Müntzer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martyrs%27_Synod" title="Martyrs' Synod">Martyrs' Synod</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menno_Simons" title="Menno Simons">Menno Simons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Smyth_(English_theologian)" title="John Smyth (English theologian)">Smyth</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Martyrs_Mirror" title="Martyrs Mirror">Martyrs Mirror</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ausbund" title="Ausbund">Ausbund</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_modern_era" title="Christianity in the modern era">1640–1789</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_revival" title="Christian revival">Revivalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_mission" title="Christian mission">Missionaries</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Christian_missions" title="Timeline of Christian missions">timeline</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baptists" title="Baptists">Baptists</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baptists_in_the_history_of_separation_of_church_and_state" title="Baptists in the history of separation of church and state">Separation of church and state</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edict_of_toleration#Early_modern_period" title="Edict of toleration">Edicts of toleration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congregational_church" class="mw-redirect" title="Congregational church">Congregationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Great_Awakening" title="First Great Awakening">First Great Awakening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methodism" title="Methodism">Methodism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Millerism" title="Millerism">Millerism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pietism" title="Pietism">Pietism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Merton_thesis" title="Merton thesis">Fostering of early experimental science</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Lutheranism" title="Neo-Lutheranism">Neo-</a> and <a href="/wiki/Old_Lutherans" title="Old Lutherans">Old Lutherans</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_modern_era" title="Christianity in the modern era">1789–present</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Camp_meeting" title="Camp meeting">Camp meeting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holiness_movement" title="Holiness movement">Holiness movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Great_Awakening" title="Second Great Awakening">Second Great Awakening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restoration_Movement" title="Restoration Movement">Restorationists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Jehovah%27s_Witnesses" title="History of Jehovah's Witnesses">Jehovah's Witnesses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Latter_Day_Saint_movement" title="History of the Latter Day Saint movement">Mormonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Seventh-day_Adventist_Church" title="History of the Seventh-day Adventist Church">Seventh-day Adventist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adventism" title="Adventism">Adventism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxford_Movement" title="Oxford Movement">Oxford Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laestadianism" title="Laestadianism">Laestadianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Awakening_(Finnish_religious_movement)" title="Awakening (Finnish religious movement)">Finnish Awakening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_existentialism" title="Christian existentialism">Christian existentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Great_Awakening" title="Third Great Awakening">Third Great Awakening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Azusa_Street_Revival" title="Azusa Street Revival">Azusa Revival</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gospel_music" title="Gospel music">Gospel music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fundamentalist%E2%80%93Modernist_controversy" class="mw-redirect" title="Fundamentalist–Modernist controversy">Fundamentalist – Modernist controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_pacifism" title="Christian pacifism">Pacifism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecumenism" title="Ecumenism">Ecumenism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five_solae" title="Five solae">Five <i>solae</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jesus_movement" title="Jesus movement">Jesus movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pentecostalism" title="Pentecostalism">Pentecostalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charismatic_Movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Charismatic Movement">Charismatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberation_theology" title="Liberation theology">Liberation theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformed_epistemology" title="Reformed epistemology">Reformed epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Great_Awakening" title="Fourth Great Awakening">Fourth Great Awakening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evangelicalism" title="Evangelicalism">Evangelical</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mainline_Protestant" title="Mainline Protestant">Mainline</a> Protestants</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_right" title="Christian right">Christian right</a> and <a href="/wiki/Christian_left" title="Christian left">left</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_influence_of_Evangelicalism_in_Latin_America" title="Political influence of Evangelicalism in Latin America">Political influence of Evangelicalism in Latin America</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Byzantine_Empire_topics337" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks plainlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Byzantine_Empire_topics" title="Template:Byzantine Empire topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Byzantine_Empire_topics" title="Template talk:Byzantine Empire topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Byzantine_Empire_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Byzantine Empire topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Byzantine_Empire_topics337" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a> topics</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="History337" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="History of the Byzantine Empire">History</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.75em;text-align:left; font-weight:normal"><div style="float: right;"><b>Preceding</b></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Later_Roman_Empire" title="Later Roman Empire">Later Roman Empire</a></i></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.75em;text-align:left; font-weight:normal"><div style="float: right;"><b>Early</b> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(330–717)</span></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire_under_the_Constantinian_and_Valentinianic_dynasties" title="Byzantine Empire under the Constantinian and Valentinianic dynasties">Constantinian–Valentinianic era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constantinian_dynasty" title="Constantinian dynasty">Constantinian dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valentinianic_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Valentinianic dynasty">Valentinianic dynasty</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire_under_the_Theodosian_dynasty" title="Byzantine Empire under the Theodosian dynasty">Theodosian era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire_under_the_Leonid_dynasty" title="Byzantine Empire under the Leonid dynasty">Leonid era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire_under_the_Justinian_dynasty" title="Byzantine Empire under the Justinian dynasty">Justinian era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire_under_the_Heraclian_dynasty" title="Byzantine Empire under the Heraclian dynasty">Heraclian era</a> <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Dark_Ages" title="Byzantine Dark Ages">Byzantine Dark Ages</a>"</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty_Years%27_Anarchy" title="Twenty Years' Anarchy">Twenty Years' Anarchy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.75em;text-align:left; font-weight:normal"><div style="float: right;"><b>Middle</b> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(717–1204)</span></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire_under_the_Isaurian_dynasty" title="Byzantine Empire under the Isaurian dynasty">Isaurian era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire_under_the_Nikephorian_dynasty" title="Byzantine Empire under the Nikephorian dynasty">Nikephorian era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire_under_the_Amorian_dynasty" title="Byzantine Empire under the Amorian dynasty">Amorian era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire_under_the_Macedonian_dynasty" title="Byzantine Empire under the Macedonian dynasty">Macedonian era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire_under_the_Doukas_dynasty" title="Byzantine Empire under the Doukas dynasty">Doukid era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire_under_the_Komnenos_dynasty" title="Byzantine Empire under the Komnenos dynasty">Komnenian era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire_under_the_Angelos_dynasty" title="Byzantine Empire under the Angelos dynasty">Angelid era</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.75em;text-align:left; font-weight:normal"><div style="float: right;"><b>Late</b> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1204–1453)</span></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sack_of_Constantinople" title="Sack of Constantinople">Sack of Constantinople</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Crusade" title="Fourth Crusade">Fourth Crusade</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frankokratia" title="Frankokratia">Frankokratia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Latin_Empire" title="Latin Empire">Latin Empire</a></li></ul></li> <li>Byzantine successor states (<a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Nicaea" title="Empire of Nicaea">Nicaea</a> / <a href="/wiki/Despotate_of_Epirus" title="Despotate of Epirus">Epirus</a>–<a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Thessalonica" title="Empire of Thessalonica">Thessalonica</a> / <a href="/wiki/Despotate_of_the_Morea" title="Despotate of the Morea">Morea</a> / <a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Trebizond" title="Empire of Trebizond">Trebizond</a>–<a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Theodoro" title="Principality of Theodoro">Theodoro</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire_under_the_Palaiologos_dynasty" title="Byzantine Empire under the Palaiologos dynasty">Palaiologan era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decline_of_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="Decline of the Byzantine Empire">Decline of the Byzantine Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">Fall of Constantinople</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.75em;text-align:left; font-weight:normal"><div style="float: right;">By modern region<br />or territory</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Albania" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine Albania">Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Anatolia" title="Byzantine Anatolia">Anatolia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Armenia" title="Byzantine Armenia">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Bulgaria" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Corsica" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine Corsica">Corsica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Crete" title="Byzantine Crete">Crete</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Cyprus" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine Cyprus">Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Dalmatia" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine Dalmatia">Dalmatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Greece" title="Byzantine Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Italy" title="Byzantine Italy">Italy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Sardinia" title="Byzantine Sardinia">Sardinia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Sicily" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine Sicily">Sicily</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Maghreb" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine Maghreb">Maghreb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Malta" title="Byzantine Malta">Malta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Mesopotamia" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Serbia" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine Serbia">Serbia</a></li> <li><div style="display:inline-block; padding:0.2em 0.4em; line-height:1.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Spain" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine Spain">Spain (Iberian Peninsula and Balearic Islands)</a></div></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine Syria">Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Thrace" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine Thrace">Thrace</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Governance337" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Governance</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.75em">Central</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Byzantine_emperors" title="List of Byzantine emperors">Emperors</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coronation_of_the_Byzantine_emperor" title="Coronation of the Byzantine emperor">Coronation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_tree_of_Byzantine_emperors" title="Family tree of Byzantine emperors">Family tree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_and_Byzantine_empresses" title="List of Roman and Byzantine empresses">Empresses</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_bureaucracy_and_aristocracy" title="Byzantine bureaucracy and aristocracy">Imperial bureaucracy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_Greek" title="Medieval Greek">Medieval Greek</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Senate" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine Senate">Senate</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal">Early</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Praetorian_prefecture" title="Praetorian prefecture">Praetorian prefects</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magister_officiorum" title="Magister officiorum">Magister officiorum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comes_sacrarum_largitionum" title="Comes sacrarum largitionum">Comes sacrarum largitionum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comes_rerum_privatarum" title="Comes rerum privatarum">Comes rerum privatarum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quaestor_sacri_palatii" title="Quaestor sacri palatii">Quaestor sacri palatii</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal">Middle</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Logothetes_tou_dromou" title="Logothetes tou dromou">Logothetes tou dromou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sakellarios" title="Sakellarios">Sakellarios</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logothetes_tou_genikou" title="Logothetes tou genikou">Logothetes tou genikou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logothetes_tou_stratiotikou" title="Logothetes tou stratiotikou">Logothetes tou stratiotikou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sakellarios" title="Sakellarios">Chartoularios tou sakelliou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vestiarion" title="Vestiarion">Chartoularios tou vestiariou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epi_tou_eidikou" title="Epi tou eidikou">Epi tou eidikou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protasekretis" title="Protasekretis">Protasekretis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epi_ton_deeseon" title="Epi ton deeseon">Epi ton deeseon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal">Late</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Megas_logothetes" title="Megas logothetes">Megas logothetes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesazon" title="Mesazon">Mesazon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.75em"><a href="/wiki/Subdivisions_of_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="Subdivisions of the Byzantine Empire">Provincial</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal">Early</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Praetorian_prefecture" title="Praetorian prefecture">Praetorian prefectures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_diocese" title="Roman diocese">Dioceses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_province#List_of_Late_Roman_provinces" title="Roman province">Provinces</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quaestura_exercitus" title="Quaestura exercitus">Quaestura exercitus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exarchate_of_Ravenna" title="Exarchate of Ravenna">Exarchate of Ravenna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exarchate_of_Africa" title="Exarchate of Africa">Exarchate of Africa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal">Middle</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theme_(Byzantine_district)" title="Theme (Byzantine district)">Themata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kleisoura_(Byzantine_district)" title="Kleisoura (Byzantine district)">Kleisourai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bandon_(Byzantine_Empire)" title="Bandon (Byzantine Empire)">Bandon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Katepano" title="Katepano">Catepanates</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal">Late</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kephale_(Byzantine_Empire)" title="Kephale (Byzantine Empire)">Kephale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Despot_(court_title)" title="Despot (court title)">Despotates</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.75em"><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_the_Byzantine_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Foreign relations of the Byzantine Empire">Foreign relations</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Treaties_of_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="Category:Treaties of the Byzantine Empire">Treaties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Byzantine_diplomats" title="Category:Byzantine diplomats">Diplomats</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_diplomacy" title="Byzantine diplomacy">Diplomacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Byzantine_wars" title="List of Byzantine wars">Wars</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Military337" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Military</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Army55" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.75em"><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_army" title="Byzantine army">Army</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_battle_tactics" title="Byzantine battle tactics">Battle tactics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Byzantine_battles" title="List of Byzantine battles">Battles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_beacon_system" title="Byzantine beacon system">Beacon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Byzantine_generals" title="Category:Byzantine generals">Generals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Byzantine_mercenaries" title="Category:Byzantine mercenaries">Mercenaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_military_manuals" title="Byzantine military manuals">Military manuals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Military_units_and_formations_of_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="Category:Military units and formations of the Byzantine Empire">Military units</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Byzantine_revolts_and_civil_wars" title="List of Byzantine revolts and civil wars">Revolts</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal">Early</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Late_Roman_army" title="Late Roman army">Late Roman army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Roman_army" class="mw-redirect" title="East Roman army">East Roman army</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Foederati" title="Foederati">Foederati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bucellarii" title="Bucellarii">Bucellarii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scholae_Palatinae" title="Scholae Palatinae">Scholae Palatinae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Excubitors" title="Excubitors">Excubitors</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal">Middle</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theme_(Byzantine_district)" title="Theme (Byzantine district)">Themata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kleisoura_(Byzantine_district)" title="Kleisoura (Byzantine district)">Kleisourai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourma" class="mw-redirect" title="Tourma">Tourma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Droungos" title="Droungos">Droungos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bandon_(Byzantine_Empire)" title="Bandon (Byzantine Empire)">Bandon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tagma_(military)" title="Tagma (military)">Tagmata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domestic_of_the_Schools" title="Domestic of the Schools">Domestic of the Schools</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hetaireia" title="Hetaireia">Hetaireia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akritai" title="Akritai">Akritai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Varangian_Guard" title="Varangian Guard">Varangian Guard</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal">Late</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_army_(Komnenian_era)" title="Byzantine army (Komnenian era)">Komnenian army</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pronoia" title="Pronoia">Pronoia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vestiaritai" title="Vestiaritai">Vestiaritai</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_army_(Palaiologan_era)" title="Byzantine army (Palaiologan era)">Palaiologan army</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allagion" title="Allagion">Allagion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paramonai" title="Paramonai">Paramonai</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_domestic" title="Grand domestic">Grand domestic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.75em"><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_navy" title="Byzantine navy">Navy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Karabisianoi" title="Karabisianoi">Karabisianoi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theme_(Byzantine_district)" title="Theme (Byzantine district)">Maritime themata</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cibyrrhaeot_Theme" title="Cibyrrhaeot Theme">Cibyrrhaeot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aegean_Sea_(theme)" title="Aegean Sea (theme)">Aegean Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samos_(theme)" title="Samos (theme)">Samos</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dromon" title="Dromon">Dromon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_fire" title="Greek fire">Greek fire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Droungarios_of_the_Fleet" title="Droungarios of the Fleet">Droungarios of the Fleet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megas_doux" title="Megas doux">Megas doux</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Byzantine_admirals" title="Category:Byzantine admirals">Admirals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Naval_battles_involving_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="Category:Naval battles involving the Byzantine Empire">Naval battles</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.75em">Conflicts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Persian_Wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman–Persian Wars">Persian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine%E2%80%93Serbian_wars" title="Byzantine–Serbian wars">Serbian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine%E2%80%93Lombard_wars" title="Byzantine–Lombard wars">Lombard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab%E2%80%93Byzantine_wars" title="Arab–Byzantine wars">Arab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine%E2%80%93Bulgarian_wars" title="Byzantine–Bulgarian wars">Bulgarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rus%27%E2%80%93Byzantine_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Rus'–Byzantine War">Rus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine%E2%80%93Norman_wars" title="Byzantine–Norman wars">Norman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine%E2%80%93Georgian_wars" title="Byzantine–Georgian wars">Georgian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine%E2%80%93Seljuk_wars" title="Byzantine–Seljuk wars">Seljuk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine%E2%80%93Ottoman_wars" title="Byzantine–Ottoman wars">Ottoman</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Religion_and_law337" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Religion and law</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.75em"><a href="/wiki/Category:Religion_in_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="Category:Religion in the Byzantine Empire">Religion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_Church" title="Eastern Orthodox Church">Eastern Orthodoxy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Rite" title="Byzantine Rite">Byzantine Rite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hesychasm" title="Hesychasm">Hesychasm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hayhurum" title="Hayhurum">Hayhurum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecumenical_Patriarchate_of_Constantinople" title="Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople">Patriarchate of Constantinople</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Byzantine_saints" title="Category:Byzantine saints">Saints</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oriental_Orthodox_Churches" title="Oriental Orthodox Churches">Oriental Orthodoxy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alexandrian_Rite" class="mw-redirect" title="Alexandrian Rite">Alexandrian Rite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_Rite" title="Armenian Rite">Armenian Rite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Syriac_Rite" title="West Syriac Rite">West Syriac Rite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miaphysitism" title="Miaphysitism">Miaphysitism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecumenical_council" title="Ecumenical council">Ecumenical councils</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arianism" title="Arianism">Arianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monophysitism" title="Monophysitism">Monophysitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paulicianism" title="Paulicianism">Paulicianism</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Iconoclasm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East%E2%80%93West_Schism" title="East–West Schism">Great Schism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bogomilism" title="Bogomilism">Bogomilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mount_Athos" title="Mount Athos">Mount Athos</a></li> <li>Missionary activity <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Bulgaria" title="Christianization of Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Moravia" title="Christianization of Moravia">Moravia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_the_Serbs" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianization of the Serbs">Serbs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Kievan_Rus%27" title="Christianization of Kievan Rus'">Kievan Rus'</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="History of the Jews in the Byzantine Empire">Jews</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.75em"><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_law" title="Byzantine law">Law</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Codex_Theodosianus" title="Codex Theodosianus">Codex Theodosianus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corpus_Juris_Civilis" title="Corpus Juris Civilis">Corpus Juris Civilis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Code_of_Justinian" title="Code of Justinian">Code of Justinian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecloga" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecloga">Ecloga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basilika" title="Basilika">Basilika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constantine_Harmenopoulos" title="Constantine Harmenopoulos">Hexabiblos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_mutilation_in_Byzantine_culture" title="Political mutilation in Byzantine culture">Mutilation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Culture_and_society337" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Culture and society</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.75em"><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_architecture" title="Byzantine architecture">Architecture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Byzantine_secular_architecture" title="Category:Byzantine secular architecture">Secular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Byzantine_sacred_architecture" title="Category:Byzantine sacred architecture">Sacred</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cross-in-square" title="Cross-in-square">Cross-in-square</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Roman_and_Byzantine_domes" title="History of Roman and Byzantine domes">Domes</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal"><a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinople</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Basilica_Cistern" title="Basilica Cistern">Basilica Cistern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baths_of_Zeuxippus" title="Baths of Zeuxippus">Baths of Zeuxippus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palace_of_Blachernae" title="Palace of Blachernae">Blachernae Palace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chora_Church" class="mw-redirect" title="Chora Church">Chora Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walls_of_Constantinople" title="Walls of Constantinople">City Walls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Palace_of_Constantinople" title="Great Palace of Constantinople">Great Palace of Constantinople</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hagia_Irene" title="Hagia Irene">Hagia Irene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hagia_Sophia" title="Hagia Sophia">Hagia Sophia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippodrome_of_Constantinople" title="Hippodrome of Constantinople">Hippodrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pammakaristos_Church" title="Pammakaristos Church">Pammakaristos Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prison_of_Anemas" title="Prison of Anemas">Prison of Anemas</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal"><a href="/wiki/Thessaloniki" title="Thessaloniki">Thessalonica</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arch_of_Galerius_and_Rotunda" title="Arch of Galerius and Rotunda">Arch of Galerius and Rotunda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Bath_(Thessaloniki)" title="Byzantine Bath (Thessaloniki)">Byzantine Bath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hagia_Sophia,_Thessaloniki" title="Hagia Sophia, Thessaloniki">Hagia Sophia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hagios_Demetrios" title="Hagios Demetrios">Hagios Demetrios</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_of_Panagia_Chalkeon" title="Church of Panagia Chalkeon">Panagia Chalkeon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walls_of_Thessaloniki" title="Walls of Thessaloniki">Walls of Thessaloniki</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal"><a href="/wiki/Ravenna" title="Ravenna">Ravenna</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Basilica_of_San_Vitale" title="Basilica of San Vitale">San Vitale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basilica_of_Sant%27Apollinare_in_Classe" title="Basilica of Sant'Apollinare in Classe">Sant'Apollinare in Classe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basilica_of_Sant%27Apollinare_Nuovo" title="Basilica of Sant'Apollinare Nuovo">Sant'Apollinare Nuovo</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal">Other locations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Daphni_Monastery" title="Daphni Monastery">Daphni Monastery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hosios_Loukas" title="Hosios Loukas">Hosios Loukas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nea_Moni_of_Chios" title="Nea Moni of Chios">Nea Moni of Chios</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Little_Metropolis" title="Little Metropolis">Panagia Gorgoepikoos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint_Catherine%27s_Monastery" title="Saint Catherine's Monastery">Saint Catherine's Monastery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mystras" title="Mystras">Mystras</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.75em"><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_art" title="Byzantine art">Art</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Icon" title="Icon">Icons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_enamel" title="Byzantine enamel">Enamel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_glass" title="Byzantine glass">Glass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mosaic#Byzantine_mosaics" title="Mosaic">Mosaics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_Byzantine_mosaics_in_the_Middle_East" title="Early Byzantine mosaics in the Middle East">Early Byzantine mosaics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Byzantine_painters" title="Category:Byzantine painters">Painters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macedonian_art_(Byzantine)" title="Macedonian art (Byzantine)">Macedonian period art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_civilisation_in_the_12th_century" title="Byzantine civilisation in the 12th century">Komnenian renaissance</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.75em"><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_economy" title="Byzantine economy">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_agriculture" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine agriculture">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_coinage" title="Byzantine coinage">Coinage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_mints" title="Byzantine mints">Mints</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_trade" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine trade">Trade</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_silk" title="Byzantine silk">silk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silk_Road" title="Silk Road">Silk Road</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trade_route_from_the_Varangians_to_the_Greeks" class="mw-redirect" title="Trade route from the Varangians to the Greeks">Varangians</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dynatoi" title="Dynatoi">Dynatoi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.75em"><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_literature" title="Byzantine literature">Literature</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_novel" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine novel">Novel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acritic_songs" title="Acritic songs">Acritic songs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Digenes_Akritas" title="Digenes Akritas">Digenes Akritas</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Romance" title="Alexander Romance">Alexander Romance</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Byzantine_historians" title="Category:Byzantine historians">Historians</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.75em">Everyday life</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_calendar" title="Byzantine calendar">Calendar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cities_in_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="Cities in the Byzantine Empire">Cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_cuisine" title="Byzantine cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_dance" title="Byzantine dance">Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_dress" title="Byzantine dress">Dress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_flags_and_insignia" title="Byzantine flags and insignia">Flags and insignia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_gardens" title="Byzantine gardens">Gardens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenization_in_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="Hellenization in the Byzantine Empire">Hellenization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_music" title="Byzantine music">Music</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_lyra" title="Byzantine lyra">Lyra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Octoechos" title="Octoechos">Octoechos</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Byzantine_people" title="Category:Byzantine people">People</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Greeks" title="Byzantine Greeks">Byzantine Greeks</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="Women in the Byzantine Empire">Women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="Slavery in the Byzantine Empire">Slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_in_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="Death in the Byzantine Empire">Death</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_units_of_measurement" title="Byzantine units of measurement">Units of measurement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.75em"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_science" title="Byzantine science">Science</a></li><li>Learning</li></ul></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Byzantine_Greek_encyclopedias" title="Category:Byzantine Greek encyclopedias">Encyclopedias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Library_of_Constantinople" title="Imperial Library of Constantinople">Imperial Library</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Byzantine_inventions" title="List of Byzantine inventions">Inventions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_medicine" title="Byzantine medicine">Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_philosophy" title="Byzantine philosophy">Philosophy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_rhetoric" title="Byzantine rhetoric">Rhetoric</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Byzantine_scholars" title="List of Byzantine scholars">Scholars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_university" title="Byzantine university">University</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Constantinople" title="University of Constantinople">University of Constantinople</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Impact337" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Impact</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_commonwealth" title="Byzantine commonwealth">Byzantine commonwealth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_studies" title="Byzantine studies">Byzantine studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Byzantine_museums" title="Category:Byzantine museums">Museums</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantinism" title="Byzantinism">Byzantinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyrillic_script" title="Cyrillic script">Cyrillic script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Revival_architecture" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine Revival architecture">Neo-Byzantine architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_scholars_in_the_Renaissance" title="Greek scholars in the Renaissance">Greek scholars in the Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Succession_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Succession of the Roman Empire">Third Rome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megali_Idea" title="Megali Idea">Megali Idea</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_Byzantine_Empire%E2%80%93related_articles" title="Index of Byzantine Empire–related articles">Index</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="Outline of the Byzantine Empire">Outline</a></li><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/20px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/40px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Byzantine_Empire" title="Portal:Byzantine Empire">Portal</a></li></ul></div></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=desktop&type=1x1&usesul3=0" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Byzantine_Iconoclasm&oldid=1281576026">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Byzantine_Iconoclasm&oldid=1281576026</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Byzantine_Iconoclasm" title="Category:Byzantine Iconoclasm">Byzantine Iconoclasm</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Byzantine_Anatolia" title="Category:Byzantine Anatolia">Byzantine Anatolia</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:8th_century_in_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="Category:8th century in the Byzantine Empire">8th century in the Byzantine Empire</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:9th_century_in_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="Category:9th century in the Byzantine Empire">9th century in the Byzantine Empire</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Leo_III_the_Isaurian" title="Category:Leo III the Isaurian">Leo III the Isaurian</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Theological_controversies" title="Category:Theological controversies">Theological controversies</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_is_different_from_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description is different from Wikidata">Short description is different from Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_needing_additional_references_from_December_2017" title="Category:Articles needing additional references from December 2017">Articles needing additional references from December 2017</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_needing_additional_references" title="Category:All articles needing additional references">All articles needing additional references</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_Ancient_Greek_(to_1453)-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text">Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_clarification_from_July_2024" title="Category:Wikipedia articles needing clarification from July 2024">Wikipedia articles needing clarification from July 2024</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_unsourced_statements" title="Category:All articles with unsourced statements">All articles with unsourced statements</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_July_2024" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from July 2024">Articles with unsourced statements from July 2024</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_April_2017" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from April 2017">Articles with unsourced statements from April 2017</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Commons_category_link_from_Wikidata" title="Category:Commons category link from Wikidata">Commons category link from Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_articles_incorporating_a_citation_from_the_1911_Encyclopaedia_Britannica_with_Wikisource_reference" title="Category:Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference">Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 21 March 2025, at 05:27<span class="anonymous-show"> (UTC)</span>.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms_of_Use" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms of Use">Terms of Use</a> and <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy policy">Privacy Policy</a>. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/">Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.</a>, a non-profit organization.</li> </ul> <ul id="footer-places"> <li id="footer-places-privacy"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy">Privacy policy</a></li> <li id="footer-places-about"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About">About Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-disclaimers"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:General_disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-contact"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us">Contact Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-wm-codeofconduct"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Universal_Code_of_Conduct">Code of Conduct</a></li> <li id="footer-places-developers"><a href="https://developer.wikimedia.org">Developers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-statslink"><a href="https://stats.wikimedia.org/#/en.wikipedia.org">Statistics</a></li> <li id="footer-places-cookiestatement"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Cookie_statement">Cookie statement</a></li> <li id="footer-places-mobileview"><a href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Byzantine_Iconoclasm&mobileaction=toggle_view_mobile" class="noprint stopMobileRedirectToggle">Mobile view</a></li> </ul> <ul id="footer-icons" class="noprint"> <li id="footer-copyrightico"><a href="https://www.wikimedia.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><picture><source media="(min-width: 500px)" srcset="/static/images/footer/wikimedia-button.svg" width="84" height="29"><img src="/static/images/footer/wikimedia.svg" width="25" height="25" alt="Wikimedia Foundation" lang="en" loading="lazy"></picture></a></li> <li id="footer-poweredbyico"><a href="https://www.mediawiki.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><picture><source media="(min-width: 500px)" srcset="/w/resources/assets/poweredby_mediawiki.svg" width="88" height="31"><img src="/w/resources/assets/mediawiki_compact.svg" alt="Powered by MediaWiki" lang="en" width="25" height="25" loading="lazy"></picture></a></li> </ul> </footer> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-header-container vector-sticky-header-container"> <div id="vector-sticky-header" class="vector-sticky-header"> <div class="vector-sticky-header-start"> <div class="vector-sticky-header-icon-start vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" aria-hidden="true"> <button class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-sticky-header-search-toggle" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ui.vector-sticky-search-form.icon"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-search mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-search"></span> <span>Search</span> </button> </div> <div role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box"> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="vector-sticky-search-form" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia"> <span class="cdx-text-input__icon cdx-text-input__start-icon"></span> </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Search</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-context-bar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-sticky-header-toc" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-sticky-header-toc vector-sticky-header-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-sticky-header-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-sticky-header-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-sticky-header-toc-label" for="vector-sticky-header-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-sticky-header-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div class="vector-sticky-header-context-bar-primary" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="mw-page-title-main">Byzantine Iconoclasm</span></div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-end" aria-hidden="true"> <div class="vector-sticky-header-icons"> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-talk-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="talk-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-speechBubbles mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-speechBubbles"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-subject-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="subject-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-article mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-article"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-history-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="history-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-history mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-history"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only mw-watchlink" id="ca-watchstar-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="watch-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-star mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-star"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-edit-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="wikitext-edit-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikiText mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-wikiText"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-ve-edit-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ve-edit-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-edit mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-edit"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-viewsource-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ve-edit-protected-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-editLock mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-editLock"></span> <span></span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-buttons"> <button class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet mw-interlanguage-selector" id="p-lang-btn-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-language"></span> <span>39 languages</span> </button> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive" id="ca-addsection-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="addsection-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-speechBubbleAdd-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-speechBubbleAdd-progressive"></span> <span>Add topic</span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-icon-end"> <div class="vector-user-links"> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="mw-portlet mw-portlet-dock-bottom emptyPortlet" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul> </ul> </div> <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-5c6f46dcf-v6hfh","wgBackendResponseTime":1356,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"0.882","walltime":"1.143","ppvisitednodes":{"value":7068,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":255846,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":7883,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":16,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":8,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":164160,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":1,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 915.133 1 -total"," 22.45% 205.414 1 Template:Reflist"," 10.85% 99.260 7 Template:Cite_web"," 10.40% 95.173 1 Template:Langx"," 9.08% 83.073 22 Template:Cite_book"," 8.98% 82.144 22 Template:Sfnp"," 7.54% 69.036 1 Template:Christian_History"," 6.72% 61.516 1 Template:Short_description"," 6.54% 59.823 1 Template:Commons_category"," 6.31% 57.728 1 Template:Sister_project"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"0.527","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":21248644,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-logs":"anchor_id_list = table#1 {\n [\"CITEREFBeckwith1979\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrown2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrubakerHaldon2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrubakerHaldon2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFConybeare1911\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCormack1985\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDeen_Schildgen_Schildgen2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFreeman2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGero1974\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGwynn2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFH.C._Evans_\u0026amp;_W.D._Wixom1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHaldon2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHalsall2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHefele2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHerrin2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHumphreys2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJuan_Signes_Codoñer2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKitzinger1977\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMango1977\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMango1986\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMango2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNoble2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNorwich1990\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFPratsch1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSavvas_Neocleous2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFToynbee1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWickham2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFvon_Grunebaum1962\"] = 1,\n [\"HEMED,_Thematic_Network:_Euro-Mediterranean_history_Le_Mans_Université\"] = 2,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"Bibleverse\"] = 3,\n [\"Byzantine Empire topics\"] = 1,\n [\"Christian History\"] = 1,\n [\"Citation\"] = 1,\n [\"Citation needed\"] = 2,\n [\"Cite EB1911\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 22,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 5,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 7,\n [\"Commons category\"] = 1,\n [\"Fact\"] = 3,\n [\"Harvtxt\"] = 1,\n [\"How?\"] = 1,\n [\"ISBN\"] = 5,\n [\"Lang\"] = 4,\n [\"Langx\"] = 1,\n [\"More citations needed\"] = 1,\n [\"More information\"] = 1,\n [\"Other uses\"] = 1,\n [\"Refbegin\"] = 1,\n [\"Refend\"] = 1,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"Refn\"] = 1,\n [\"Sfnp\"] = 22,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Wikiquote-inline\"] = 1,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\nciteref_patterns = table#1 {\n}\n"},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.main-5c6f46dcf-v6hfh","timestamp":"20250329121357","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Byzantine Iconoclasm","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Byzantine_Iconoclasm","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q1018769","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q1018769","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2007-03-01T15:21:38Z","dateModified":"2025-03-21T05:27:24Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/6\/6b\/Irenekirken.jpg","headline":"Two periods in the history of the Byzantine Empire when the use of religious images or icons was opposed by religious and imperial authorities."}</script> </body> </html>