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vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#As_a_civic_art"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.2 As a civic art </div> </a> <ul id="toc-As_a_civic_art-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-As_a_political_tool" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#As_a_political_tool"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.3 As a political tool </div> </a> <ul id="toc-As_a_political_tool-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-As_a_course_of_study" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#As_a_course_of_study"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.4 As a course of study </div> </a> <ul id="toc-As_a_course_of_study-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Canons" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Canons"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.4.1 Canons </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Canons-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Music" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Music"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.5 Music </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Music-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Knowledge" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Knowledge"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.6 Knowledge </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Knowledge-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History_and_development" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History_and_development"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 History and development </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History_and_development-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle History and development subsection </button> <ul id="toc-History_and_development-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Ancient_Greece" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ancient_Greece"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Ancient Greece </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ancient_Greece-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Sophists" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sophists"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1.1 Sophists </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sophists-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Isocrates" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Isocrates"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1.2 Isocrates </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Isocrates-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Plato" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Plato"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1.3 Plato </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Plato-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Aristotle" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aristotle"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1.4 Aristotle </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Aristotle-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-India" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#India"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 India </div> </a> <ul id="toc-India-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rome" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rome"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 Rome </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rome-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Cicero" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cicero"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3.1 Cicero </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cicero-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Quintilian" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Quintilian"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3.2 Quintilian </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Quintilian-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Medieval_to_Enlightenment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Medieval_to_Enlightenment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4 Medieval to Enlightenment </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Medieval_to_Enlightenment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sixteenth_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sixteenth_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.5 Sixteenth century </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sixteenth_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Seventeenth_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Seventeenth_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.6 Seventeenth century </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Seventeenth_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Eighteenth_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Eighteenth_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.7 Eighteenth century </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Eighteenth_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Modern </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Modern-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Modern subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Modern-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Notable_theorists" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notable_theorists"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Notable theorists </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notable_theorists-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Methods_of_analysis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Methods_of_analysis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Methods of analysis </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Methods_of_analysis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Criticism_seen_as_a_method" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Criticism_seen_as_a_method"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2.1 Criticism seen as a method </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Criticism_seen_as_a_method-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Strategies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Strategies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 Strategies </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Strategies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Criticism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Criticism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4 Criticism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Criticism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Additional_theoretical_approaches" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Additional_theoretical_approaches"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4.1 Additional theoretical approaches </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Additional_theoretical_approaches-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Purpose_of_criticism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Purpose_of_criticism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4.2 Purpose of criticism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Purpose_of_criticism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Animal_rhetoric" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Animal_rhetoric"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Animal rhetoric </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Animal_rhetoric-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Comparative_rhetoric" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Comparative_rhetoric"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Comparative rhetoric </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Comparative_rhetoric-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Automatic_detection_of_rhetorical_figures" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Automatic_detection_of_rhetorical_figures"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Automatic detection of rhetorical figures </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Automatic_detection_of_rhetorical_figures-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Academic_journals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Academic_journals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Academic journals </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Academic_journals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 References </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle References subsection </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.1 Citations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.2 Sources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Rhetoric</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 93 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-93" aria-hidden="true" > 93 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retoriek" title="Retoriek – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Retoriek" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhetorik" title="Rhetorik – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Rhetorik" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%BA%D8%A9" title="بلاغة – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="بلاغة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retorica" title="Retorica – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Retorica" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aragonés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ret%C3%B3rica" title="Retórica – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Retórica" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ritorika" title="Ritorika – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Ritorika" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%BA%D8%AA" title="بلاغت – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="بلاغت" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%85%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%99%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%B6%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0" title="অলঙ্কারশাস্ত্র – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="অলঙ্কারশাস্ত্র" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siu-s%C3%BB-ha%CC%8Dk" title="Siu-sû-ha̍k – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Siu-sû-ha̍k" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D1%8B%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%8B%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Рыторыка – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Рыторыка" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D1%8B%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%8B%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Рыторыка – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Рыторыка" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Реторика – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Реторика" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retorik" title="Retorik – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Retorik" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ret%C3%B2rica" title="Retòrica – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Retòrica" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%A9torika" title="Rétorika – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Rétorika" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhethreg" title="Rhethreg – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Rhethreg" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retorik" title="Retorik – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Retorik" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhetorik" title="Rhetorik – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Rhetorik" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retoorika" title="Retoorika – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Retoorika" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A1%CE%B7%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%81%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE" title="Ρητορική – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ρητορική" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ret%C3%B3rica" title="Retórica – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Retórica" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retoriko" title="Retoriko – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Retoriko" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erretorika" title="Erretorika – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Erretorika" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%BA%D8%AA" title="بلاغت – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="بلاغت" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rh%C3%A9torique" title="Rhétorique – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Rhétorique" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fur mw-list-item"><a href="https://fur.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retoriche" title="Retoriche – Friulian" lang="fur" hreflang="fur" data-title="Retoriche" data-language-autonym="Furlan" data-language-local-name="Friulian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Furlan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ret%C3%B3rica" title="Retórica – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Retórica" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gu mw-list-item"><a href="https://gu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AA%B5%E0%AA%BE%E0%AA%95%E0%AA%9B%E0%AA%9F%E0%AA%BE" title="વાકછટા – Gujarati" lang="gu" hreflang="gu" data-title="વાકછટા" data-language-autonym="ગુજરાતી" data-language-local-name="Gujarati" class="interlanguage-link-target">ગુજરાતી</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%88%98%EC%82%AC%ED%95%99" title="수사학 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="수사학" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%80%D5%BC%D5%A5%D5%BF%D5%B8%D6%80%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Հռետորություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Հռետորություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%96%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0" title="व्याख्यान शास्त्र – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="व्याख्यान शास्त्र" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gr%C4%8Dka_retorika" title="Grčka retorika – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Grčka retorika" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retoriko" title="Retoriko – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Retoriko" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retorika" title="Retorika – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Retorika" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A6lskufr%C3%A6%C3%B0i" title="Mælskufræði – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Mælskufræði" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retorica" title="Retorica – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Retorica" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A8%D7%98%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%A7%D7%94" title="רטוריקה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="רטוריקה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%E1%83%A2%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%E1%83%99%E1%83%90" title="რიტორიკა – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="რიტორიკა" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk badge-Q70893996 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Риторика – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Риторика" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balagha" title="Balagha – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Balagha" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retorik" title="Retorik – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Retorik" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kreyòl ayisyen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0_(%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0)" title="Риторика (лингвистика) – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Риторика (лингвистика)" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lad mw-list-item"><a href="https://lad.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retorika" title="Retorika – Ladino" lang="lad" hreflang="lad" data-title="Retorika" data-language-autonym="Ladino" data-language-local-name="Ladino" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ladino</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ars_rhetorica" title="Ars rhetorica – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Ars rhetorica" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retorika" title="Retorika – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Retorika" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retorika" title="Retorika – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Retorika" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retorica" title="Retorica – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Retorica" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Limburgs</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sz%C3%B3noklattan" title="Szónoklattan – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Szónoklattan" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Реторика – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Реторика" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%E1%83%A2%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%E1%83%99%E1%83%90" title="რიტორიკა – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="რიტორიკა" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">მარგალური</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retorik" title="Retorik – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Retorik" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mdf mw-list-item"><a href="https://mdf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%8C" title="Риторикась – Moksha" lang="mdf" hreflang="mdf" data-title="Риторикась" data-language-autonym="Мокшень" data-language-local-name="Moksha" class="interlanguage-link-target">Мокшень</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BA" title="Реторик – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Реторик" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retorica" title="Retorica – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Retorica" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BF%AE%E8%BE%9E%E5%AD%A6" title="修辞学 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="修辞学" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retorikk" title="Retorikk – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Retorikk" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retorikk" title="Retorikk – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Retorikk" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retorica" title="Retorica – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Retorica" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ritorika" title="Ritorika – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Ritorika" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%B5%E0%A8%96%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%86%E0%A8%A8-%E0%A8%95%E0%A8%B2%E0%A8%BE" title="ਵਖਿਆਨ-ਕਲਾ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਵਖਿਆਨ-ਕਲਾ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%BA%D8%AA" title="بلاغت – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="بلاغت" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-km mw-list-item"><a href="https://km.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%9B%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%94%E1%9F%88%E1%9E%94%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9A%E1%9E%BE%E1%9E%9C%E1%9F%84%E1%9E%A0%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%9A%E1%9E%94%E1%9E%84%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%A0%E1%9E%BC%E1%9E%9A%E1%9E%82%E1%9F%86%E1%9E%93%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%8F" title="សិល្បៈប្រើវោហារបង្ហូរគំនិត – Khmer" lang="km" hreflang="km" data-title="សិល្បៈប្រើវោហារបង្ហូរគំនិត" data-language-autonym="ភាសាខ្មែរ" data-language-local-name="Khmer" class="interlanguage-link-target">ភាសាខ្មែរ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retoryka" title="Retoryka – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Retoryka" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ret%C3%B3rica" title="Retórica – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Retórica" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kaa mw-list-item"><a href="https://kaa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ritorika" title="Ritorika – Kara-Kalpak" lang="kaa" hreflang="kaa" data-title="Ritorika" data-language-autonym="Qaraqalpaqsha" data-language-local-name="Kara-Kalpak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Qaraqalpaqsha</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retoric%C4%83" title="Retorică – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Retorică" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Реторика – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Реторика" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русиньскый</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Риторика – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Риторика" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retorika" title="Retorika – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Retorika" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rit%C3%B2rica" title="Ritòrica – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Ritòrica" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sicilianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhetoric" title="Rhetoric – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Rhetoric" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%BA%D8%AA" title="بلاغت – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="بلاغت" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target">سنڌي</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%A9torika_(re%C4%8Dn%C3%ADcke_umenie)" title="Rétorika (rečnícke umenie) – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Rétorika (rečnícke umenie)" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retorika" title="Retorika – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Retorika" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%95%DB%95%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%A8%DB%8E%DA%98%DB%8C" title="ڕەوانبێژی – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="ڕەوانبێژی" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Реторика – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Реторика" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retorika" title="Retorika – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Retorika" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retorik" title="Retorik – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Retorik" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sunda</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retoriikka" title="Retoriikka – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Retoriikka" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retorik" title="Retorik – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Retorik" data-language-autonym="Svenska" 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class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle">(Redirected from <a href="/w/index.php?title=Five_Canons_of_Rhetoric&redirect=no" class="mw-redirect" title="Five Canons of Rhetoric">Five Canons of Rhetoric</a>)</div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Art of persuasion</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For the work by Aristotle, see <a href="/wiki/Rhetoric_(Aristotle)" title="Rhetoric (Aristotle)">Rhetoric (Aristotle)</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · 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.sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Rhetoric" title="Category:Rhetoric">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Rhetoric</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Cicero_Denounces_Catiline_in_the_Roman_Senate_by_Cesare_Maccari_-_3.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Cicero_Denounces_Catiline_in_the_Roman_Senate_by_Cesare_Maccari_-_3.jpg/150px-Cicero_Denounces_Catiline_in_the_Roman_Senate_by_Cesare_Maccari_-_3.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="94" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Cicero_Denounces_Catiline_in_the_Roman_Senate_by_Cesare_Maccari_-_3.jpg/225px-Cicero_Denounces_Catiline_in_the_Roman_Senate_by_Cesare_Maccari_-_3.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Cicero_Denounces_Catiline_in_the_Roman_Senate_by_Cesare_Maccari_-_3.jpg/300px-Cicero_Denounces_Catiline_in_the_Roman_Senate_by_Cesare_Maccari_-_3.jpg 2x" data-file-width="962" data-file-height="600" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#History_and_development">History</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Ancient_Greece">Ancient Greece</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asiatic_style" title="Asiatic style">Asianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atticism" title="Atticism">Atticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attic_orators" title="Attic orators">Attic orators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calliope" title="Calliope">Calliope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sophist" title="Sophist">Sophists</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Indian_rhetoric" title="Ancient Indian rhetoric">Ancient India</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Rome">Ancient Rome</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Latin_literature#The_age_of_Cicero" title="Latin literature">The age of Cicero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Sophistic" title="Second Sophistic">Second Sophistic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Medieval_to_Enlightenment">Middle Ages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_rhetoric" title="Byzantine rhetoric">Byzantine rhetoric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trivium" title="Trivium">Trivium</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Sixteenth_century">Renaissance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Studia_humanitatis" class="mw-redirect" title="Studia humanitatis">Studia humanitatis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_rhetoric" title="Modern rhetoric">Modern period</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Concepts</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Captatio_benevolentiae" title="Captatio benevolentiae">Captatio benevolentiae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chironomia" title="Chironomia">Chironomia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decorum" title="Decorum">Decorum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Delectare" class="mw-redirect" title="Delectare">Delectare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Docere" class="mw-redirect" title="Docere">Docere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetorical_device" title="Rhetorical device">Device</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eloquence" title="Eloquence">Eloquence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eloquentia_perfecta" title="Eloquentia perfecta">Eloquentia perfecta</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eunoia" title="Eunoia">Eunoia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enthymeme" title="Enthymeme">Enthymeme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Facilitas" title="Facilitas">Facilitas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fallacy" title="Fallacy">Fallacy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Informal_fallacy" title="Informal fallacy">Informal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Figure_of_speech" title="Figure of speech">Figure of speech</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scheme_(rhetoric)" title="Scheme (rhetoric)">Scheme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trope_(literature)" title="Trope (literature)">Trope</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five_Canons_of_Rhetoric" class="mw-redirect" title="Five Canons of Rhetoric">Five canons</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inventio" title="Inventio">Inventio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dispositio" title="Dispositio">Dispositio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elocutio" title="Elocutio">Elocutio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memoria" title="Memoria">Memoria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pronuntiatio" title="Pronuntiatio">Pronuntiatio</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypsos" title="Hypsos">Hypsos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dionysian_imitatio" title="Dionysian imitatio">Imitatio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kairos" title="Kairos">Kairos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Method_of_loci" title="Method of loci">Method of loci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetorical_modes" title="Rhetorical modes">Modes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetorical_operations" title="Rhetorical operations">Operations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modes_of_persuasion" title="Modes of persuasion">Persuasion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ethos" title="Ethos">Ethos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pathos" title="Pathos">Pathos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logos" title="Logos">Logos</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetorical_situation" title="Rhetorical situation">Situation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Style_(sociolinguistics)" title="Style (sociolinguistics)">Style</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Grand_style_(rhetoric)" title="Grand style (rhetoric)">Grand</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sotto_voce" title="Sotto voce">Sotto voce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literary_topos" title="Literary topos">Topos</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Genres</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apologetics" title="Apologetics">Apologetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Debate" title="Debate">Debate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Declamation" title="Declamation">Declamation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Controversia" title="Controversia">Controversia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deliberative_rhetoric" title="Deliberative rhetoric">Deliberative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demagogue" title="Demagogue">Demagogy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dialectic" title="Dialectic">Dialectic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Socratic_method" title="Socratic method">Socratic method</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dissoi_logoi" title="Dissoi logoi">Dissoi logoi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elocution" title="Elocution">Elocution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epideictic" title="Epideictic">Epideictic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Encomium" title="Encomium">Encomium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panegyric" title="Panegyric">Panegyric</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eulogy" title="Eulogy">Eulogy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Farewell_speech" title="Farewell speech">Farewell speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_rhetoric" title="Forensic rhetoric">Forensic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Funeral_oration_(ancient_Greece)" title="Funeral oration (ancient Greece)">Funeral oration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homiletics" title="Homiletics">Homiletics‎</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sermon" title="Sermon">Sermon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invitational_rhetoric" title="Invitational rhetoric">Invitational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lecture" title="Lecture">Lecture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Public_lecture" title="Public lecture">Public</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lightning_talk" title="Lightning talk">Lightning talk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maiden_speech" title="Maiden speech">Maiden speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_speaking" title="Public speaking">Oratory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polemic" title="Polemic">Polemic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diatribe" title="Diatribe">Diatribe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eristic" title="Eristic">Eristic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippic" title="Philippic">Philippic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progymnasmata" title="Progymnasmata">Progymnasmata</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Suasoria" title="Suasoria">Suasoria</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propaganda" title="Propaganda">Propaganda</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spin_(propaganda)" title="Spin (propaganda)">Spin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resignation_speech" title="Resignation speech">Resignation speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stump_speech" title="Stump speech">Stump speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pro-war_rhetoric" title="Pro-war rhetoric">War-mongering</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Rhetorical_criticism" title="Rhetorical criticism">Criticism</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cluster_criticism" title="Cluster criticism">Cluster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dramatism" title="Dramatism">Dramatic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dramatistic_pentad" title="Dramatistic pentad">Pentadic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frame_analysis" title="Frame analysis">Frame</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genre_criticism" title="Genre criticism">Genre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ideological_criticism" title="Ideological criticism">Ideological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphoric_criticism" title="Metaphoric criticism">Metaphoric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mimesis_criticism" title="Mimesis criticism">Mimesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narrative_criticism" title="Narrative criticism">Narrative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Aristotelianism_(literature)" title="Neo-Aristotelianism (literature)">Neo-Aristotelian</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Rhetoricians</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aspasia" title="Aspasia">Aspasia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Bakhtin" title="Mikhail Bakhtin">Bakhtin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wayne_C._Booth" title="Wayne C. Booth">Booth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Brueggemann" title="Walter Brueggemann">Brueggemann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Burke" title="Kenneth Burke">Burke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_de_Man" title="Paul de Man">de Man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demosthenes" title="Demosthenes">Demosthenes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Derrida" title="Jacques Derrida">Derrida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erasmus" title="Erasmus">Erasmus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gorgias" title="Gorgias">Gorgias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Hobbes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isocrates" title="Isocrates">Isocrates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucian" title="Lucian">Lucian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lysias" title="Lysias">Lysias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marshall_McLuhan" title="Marshall McLuhan">McLuhan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_J._Ong" title="Walter J. Ong">Ong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cha%C3%AFm_Perelman" title="Chaïm Perelman">Perelman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christine_de_Pizan" title="Christine de Pizan">Pizan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protagoras" title="Protagoras">Protagoras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintilian" title="Quintilian">Quintilian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petrus_Ramus" title="Petrus Ramus">Ramus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/I._A._Richards" title="I. A. Richards">Richards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tacitus" title="Tacitus">Tacitus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Toulmin" title="Stephen Toulmin">Toulmin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giambattista_Vico" title="Giambattista Vico">Vico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_M._Weaver" title="Richard M. Weaver">Weaver</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Works</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gorgias_(dialogue)" title="Gorgias (dialogue)">Gorgias</a> (380 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phaedrus_(dialogue)#Discussion_of_rhetoric_and_writing_(257c–279c)" title="Phaedrus (dialogue)">Phaedrus</a> (c. 370 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric_(Aristotle)" title="Rhetoric (Aristotle)">Rhetoric</a> (c. 350 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric_to_Alexander" title="Rhetoric to Alexander">Rhetoric to Alexander</a> (c. 350 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sophistical_Refutations" title="Sophistical Refutations">De Sophisticis Elenchis</a> (c. 350 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Topics_(Aristotle)" title="Topics (Aristotle)">Topics</a> (c. 350 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/De_Inventione" title="De Inventione">De Inventione</a> (84 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium" title="Rhetorica ad Herennium">Rhetorica ad Herennium</a> (80 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/De_Oratore" title="De Oratore">De Oratore</a> (55 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_Dialogue_Concerning_Oratorical_Partitions" title="A Dialogue Concerning Oratorical Partitions">A Dialogue Concerning Oratorical Partitions</a> (c. 50 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/De_Optimo_Genere_Oratorum" title="De Optimo Genere Oratorum">De Optimo Genere Oratorum</a> (46 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orator_(Cicero)" title="Orator (Cicero)">Orator</a> (46 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_the_Sublime" title="On the Sublime">On the Sublime</a> (c. 50)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institutio_Oratoria" title="Institutio Oratoria">Institutio Oratoria</a> (95)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panegyrici_Latini" title="Panegyrici Latini">Panegyrici Latini</a> (100–400)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dialogus_de_oratoribus" title="Dialogus de oratoribus">Dialogus de oratoribus</a> (102)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/De_doctrina_Christiana" title="De doctrina Christiana">De doctrina Christiana</a> (426)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/De_vulgari_eloquentia" title="De vulgari eloquentia">De vulgari eloquentia</a> (1305)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copia:_Foundations_of_the_Abundant_Style" title="Copia: Foundations of the Abundant Style">Copia: Foundations of the Abundant Style</a> (1521)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_as_Symbolic_Action" title="Language as Symbolic Action">Language as Symbolic Action</a> (1966)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_General_Rhetoric" title="A General Rhetoric">A General Rhetoric</a> (1970)</li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Subfields</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Argumentation_theory" title="Argumentation theory">Argumentation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_rhetoric" title="Cognitive rhetoric">Cognitive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contrastive_rhetoric" title="Contrastive rhetoric">Contrastive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutive_rhetoric" title="Constitutive rhetoric">Constitutive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_rhetoric" title="Digital rhetoric">Digital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_rhetoric" title="Feminist rhetoric">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_rhetoric" title="Native American rhetoric">Native American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_rhetorics" class="mw-redirect" title="New rhetorics">New</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric_of_health_and_medicine" title="Rhetoric of health and medicine">Health and medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theories_of_rhetoric_and_composition_pedagogy" title="Theories of rhetoric and composition pedagogy">Pedagogy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Procedural_rhetoric" title="Procedural rhetoric">Procedural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric_of_science" title="Rhetoric of science">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric_of_technology" title="Rhetoric of technology">Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric_of_therapy" title="Rhetoric of therapy">Therapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visual_rhetoric" title="Visual rhetoric">Visual</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Visual_rhetoric_and_composition" title="Visual rhetoric and composition">Composition</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Related</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ars_dictaminis" title="Ars dictaminis">Ars dictaminis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communication_studies" title="Communication studies">Communication studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Composition_studies" title="Composition studies">Composition studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doxa" title="Doxa">Doxa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_rhetorical_terms" title="Glossary of rhetorical terms">Glossary of rhetorical terms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossophobia" title="Glossophobia">Glossophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_feminist_rhetoricians" title="List of feminist rhetoricians">List of feminist rhetoricians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_speeches" title="List of speeches">List of speeches</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oral_skills" title="Oral skills">Oral skills</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orator" title="Orator">Orator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pistis" title="Pistis">Pistis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_rhetoric" title="Public rhetoric">Public rhetoric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric_of_social_intervention_model" title="Rhetoric of social intervention model">Rhetoric of social intervention model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetrickery" title="Rhetrickery">Rhetrickery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rogerian_argument" title="Rogerian argument">Rogerian argument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seduction" title="Seduction">Seduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speechwriter" title="Speechwriter">Speechwriting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Talking_point" title="Talking point">Talking point</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TED_(conference)" title="TED (conference)">TED</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terministic_screen" title="Terministic screen">Terministic screen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toulmin_model" class="mw-redirect" title="Toulmin model">Toulmin model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wooden_iron" title="Wooden iron">Wooden iron</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Rhetoric" title="Template:Rhetoric"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Rhetoric" title="Template talk:Rhetoric"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Rhetoric" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Rhetoric"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Knight_academy_lecture_(Rosenborg_Palace).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Knight_academy_lecture_%28Rosenborg_Palace%29.jpg/280px-Knight_academy_lecture_%28Rosenborg_Palace%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="280" height="219" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Knight_academy_lecture_%28Rosenborg_Palace%29.jpg/420px-Knight_academy_lecture_%28Rosenborg_Palace%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/54/Knight_academy_lecture_%28Rosenborg_Palace%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="550" data-file-height="431" /></a><figcaption>Painting depicting a lecture in a knight academy, painted by <a href="/wiki/Pieter_Isaacsz" title="Pieter Isaacsz">Pieter Isaacsz</a> or <a href="/wiki/Reinhold_Timm" title="Reinhold Timm">Reinhold Timm</a> for <a href="/wiki/Rosenborg_Castle" title="Rosenborg Castle">Rosenborg Castle</a> as part of a series of seven paintings depicting the seven independent arts. This painting illustrates rhetoric.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jesus-SermonOnTheMount_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Jesus-SermonOnTheMount_%28cropped%29.jpg/170px-Jesus-SermonOnTheMount_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="233" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Jesus-SermonOnTheMount_%28cropped%29.jpg/255px-Jesus-SermonOnTheMount_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Jesus-SermonOnTheMount_%28cropped%29.jpg/340px-Jesus-SermonOnTheMount_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="502" data-file-height="689" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Jesus" title="Jesus">Jesus</a> was a preacher in 1st-century <a href="/wiki/Judea_(Roman_province)" class="mw-redirect" title="Judea (Roman province)">Judea</a>.</figcaption></figure> Rhetoric (<a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/ˈrɛtərɪk/</a>)<a href="#cite_note-2">[note 1]</a> is the <a href="/wiki/Art_(skill)" class="mw-redirect" title="Art (skill)">art</a> of <a href="/wiki/Persuasion" title="Persuasion">persuasion</a>. It is one of the three ancient arts of discourse (<a href="/wiki/Trivium" title="Trivium">trivium</a>) along with <a href="/wiki/Grammar" title="Grammar">grammar</a> and <a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">logic</a>/<a href="/wiki/Dialectic" title="Dialectic">dialectic</a>. As an <a href="/wiki/Academic_discipline" title="Academic discipline">academic discipline</a> within the <a href="/wiki/Humanities" title="Humanities">humanities</a>, rhetoric aims to study the techniques that speakers or writers use to inform, persuade, and motivate their <a href="/wiki/Audience" title="Audience">audiences</a>.<a href="#cite_note-3">[2]</a> Rhetoric also provides <a href="/wiki/Heuristics" class="mw-redirect" title="Heuristics">heuristics</a> for understanding, discovering, and developing <a href="/wiki/Argument" title="Argument">arguments</a> for particular situations. <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> defined rhetoric as "the faculty of observing in any given case the available means of persuasion", and since mastery of the art was necessary for victory in a case at law, for passage of proposals in the assembly, or for fame as a speaker in civic ceremonies, he called it "a combination of the science of logic and of the ethical branch of politics".<a href="#cite_note-4">[3]</a> Aristotle also identified three persuasive audience appeals: <a href="/wiki/Logos" title="Logos">logos</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pathos" title="Pathos">pathos</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ethos" title="Ethos">ethos</a>. The <a href="#Five_Canons_of_Rhetoric">five canons of rhetoric</a>, or phases of developing a persuasive speech, were first codified in classical Rome: <a href="/wiki/Inventio" title="Inventio">invention</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dispositio" title="Dispositio">arrangement</a>, <a href="/wiki/Elocutio" title="Elocutio">style</a>, <a href="/wiki/Memoria" title="Memoria">memory</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Pronuntiatio" title="Pronuntiatio">delivery</a>. From <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Ancient Greece</a> to the late 19th century, rhetoric played a central role in <a href="/wiki/Western_education" title="Western education">Western education</a> in training <a href="/wiki/Public_speaking" title="Public speaking">orators</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lawyer" title="Lawyer">lawyers</a>, counsellors, <a href="/wiki/Historian" title="Historian">historians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Politician" title="Politician">statesmen</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Poet" title="Poet">poets</a>.<a href="#cite_note-5">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-7">[note 2]</a> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Uses">Uses</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Rhetoric&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Uses">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Scope">Scope</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Rhetoric&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Scope">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Schnorr_von_Carolsfeld_Bibel_in_Bildern_1860_126.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Schnorr_von_Carolsfeld_Bibel_in_Bildern_1860_126.png/220px-Schnorr_von_Carolsfeld_Bibel_in_Bildern_1860_126.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="185" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Schnorr_von_Carolsfeld_Bibel_in_Bildern_1860_126.png/330px-Schnorr_von_Carolsfeld_Bibel_in_Bildern_1860_126.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Schnorr_von_Carolsfeld_Bibel_in_Bildern_1860_126.png/440px-Schnorr_von_Carolsfeld_Bibel_in_Bildern_1860_126.png 2x" data-file-width="1080" data-file-height="906" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Ezra" title="Ezra">Ezra</a> calls for the rebuilding of the temple in this 1860 woodcut by <a href="/wiki/Julius_Schnorr_von_Karolsfeld" class="mw-redirect" title="Julius Schnorr von Karolsfeld">Julius Schnorr von Karolsfeld</a>.</figcaption></figure> Scholars have debated the scope of rhetoric since ancient times. Although some have limited rhetoric to the specific realm of <a href="/wiki/Discourse_analysis" title="Discourse analysis">political discourse</a>, to many modern scholars it encompasses every aspect of culture. Contemporary studies of rhetoric address a much more diverse range of domains than was the case in ancient times. While classical rhetoric trained speakers to be effective persuaders in public forums and in institutions such as courtrooms and assemblies, contemporary rhetoric investigates human discourse <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/writ_large" class="extiw" title="wikt:writ large">writ large</a>. Rhetoricians have studied the discourses of a wide variety of domains, including the natural and social sciences, fine art, religion, journalism, digital media, fiction, history, <a href="/wiki/Cartography" title="Cartography">cartography</a>, and architecture, along with the more traditional domains of politics and the law.<a href="#cite_note-8">[6]</a> Because the ancient Greeks valued public political participation, rhetoric emerged as an important curriculum for those desiring to influence politics. Rhetoric is still associated with its political origins. However, even the original instructors of <a href="/wiki/Western_culture" title="Western culture">Western</a> speech—the <a href="/wiki/Sophists" class="mw-redirect" title="Sophists">Sophists</a>—disputed this limited view of rhetoric. According to Sophists like <a href="/wiki/Gorgias" title="Gorgias">Gorgias</a>, a successful rhetorician could speak convincingly on a topic in any field, regardless of his experience in that field. This suggested rhetoric could be a means of communicating any expertise, not just politics. In his <a href="/wiki/Encomium_to_Helen" class="mw-redirect" title="Encomium to Helen">Encomium to Helen</a>, Gorgias even applied rhetoric to fiction by seeking, for his amusement, to prove the blamelessness of the mythical <a href="/wiki/Helen_of_Troy" title="Helen of Troy">Helen of Troy</a> in starting the <a href="/wiki/Trojan_War" title="Trojan War">Trojan War</a>.<a href="#cite_note-9">[7]</a> <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a> defined the scope of rhetoric according to his negative opinions of the art. He criticized the Sophists for using rhetoric to deceive rather than to discover truth. In <a href="/wiki/Gorgias_(dialogue)" title="Gorgias (dialogue)">Gorgias</a>, one of his <a href="/wiki/Socratic_Dialogues" class="mw-redirect" title="Socratic Dialogues">Socratic Dialogues</a>, Plato defines rhetoric as the persuasion of ignorant masses within the courts and assemblies.<a href="#cite_note-10">[8]</a> Rhetoric, in Plato's opinion, is merely a form of flattery and functions similarly to <a href="/wiki/Culinary_arts" title="Culinary arts">culinary arts</a>, which mask the undesirability of unhealthy food by making it taste good. Plato considered any speech of lengthy <a href="/wiki/Prose" title="Prose">prose</a> aimed at flattery as within the scope of rhetoric. Some scholars, however, contest the idea that Plato despised rhetoric and instead view his dialogues as a dramatization of complex rhetorical principles.<a href="#cite_note-KBB-11">[9]</a> Aristotle both redeemed rhetoric from his teacher and narrowed its focus by defining three genres of rhetoric—<a href="/wiki/Deliberative" class="mw-redirect" title="Deliberative">deliberative</a>, <a href="/wiki/Forensic_rhetoric" title="Forensic rhetoric">forensic</a> or judicial, and <a href="/wiki/Epideictic" title="Epideictic">epideictic</a>.<a href="#cite_note-12">[10]</a> Yet, even as he provided order to existing rhetorical theories, Aristotle generalized the definition of rhetoric to be the ability to identify the appropriate means of persuasion in a given situation based upon the art of rhetoric (technê).<a href="#cite_note-13">[11]</a> This made rhetoric applicable to all fields, not just politics. Aristotle viewed the <a href="/wiki/Enthymeme" title="Enthymeme">enthymeme</a> based upon <a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">logic</a> (especially, based upon the syllogism) as the basis of rhetoric. Aristotle also outlined generic constraints that focused the rhetorical art squarely within the domain of public political practice. He restricted rhetoric to the domain of the <a href="/wiki/Contingency_(philosophy)" title="Contingency (philosophy)">contingent</a> or probable: those matters that admit multiple legitimate opinions or arguments.<a href="#cite_note-14">[12]</a> Since the time of Aristotle, logic has changed. For example, <a href="/wiki/Modal_logic" title="Modal logic">modal logic</a> has undergone a major development that also modifies rhetoric.<a href="#cite_note-15">[13]</a> The contemporary <a href="/wiki/Neo-Aristotelianism_(literature)" title="Neo-Aristotelianism (literature)">neo-Aristotelian</a> and neo-Sophistic positions on rhetoric mirror the division between the Sophists and Aristotle. Neo-Aristotelians generally study rhetoric as political discourse, while the neo-Sophistic view contends that rhetoric cannot be so limited. Rhetorical scholar <a href="/wiki/Michael_Leff" title="Michael Leff">Michael Leff</a> characterizes the conflict between these positions as viewing rhetoric as a "thing contained" versus a "container". The neo-Aristotelian view threatens the study of rhetoric by restraining it to such a limited field, ignoring many critical applications of rhetorical theory, criticism, and practice. Simultaneously, the neo-Sophists threaten to expand rhetoric beyond a point of coherent theoretical value. In more recent years, people studying rhetoric have tended to enlarge its object domain beyond speech. <a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Burke" title="Kenneth Burke">Kenneth Burke</a> asserted humans use rhetoric to resolve conflicts by identifying shared characteristics and interests in symbols. People engage in <a href="/wiki/Identification_(psychology)" title="Identification (psychology)">identification</a>, either to assign themselves or another to a group. This definition of <a href="/wiki/Identification_in_rhetoric" title="Identification in rhetoric">rhetoric as identification</a> broadens the scope from strategic and overt political persuasion to the more implicit tactics of identification found in an immense range of sources[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">specify</a>].<a href="#cite_note-16">[14]</a> Among the many scholars who have since pursued Burke's line of thought, <a href="/wiki/James_Boyd_White" title="James Boyd White">James Boyd White</a> sees rhetoric as a broader domain of social experience in his notion of <a href="/wiki/Constitutive_rhetoric" title="Constitutive rhetoric">constitutive rhetoric</a>. Influenced by theories of <a href="/wiki/Social_construction" class="mw-redirect" title="Social construction">social construction</a>, White argues that culture is "reconstituted" through language. Just as language influences people, people influence language. Language is socially constructed, and depends on the meanings people attach to it. Because language is not rigid and changes depending on the situation, the very usage of language is rhetorical. An author, White would say, is always trying to construct a new world and persuading his or her readers to share that world within the text.<a href="#cite_note-WhiteWords-17">[15]</a> People engage in rhetoric any time they speak or produce meaning. Even in the field of <a href="/wiki/Science" title="Science">science</a>, via practices which were once viewed as being merely the objective testing and reporting of knowledge, scientists persuade their audience to accept their findings by sufficiently demonstrating that their study or experiment was conducted reliably and resulted in sufficient evidence to support their conclusions.<a href="#cite_note-18">[16]</a> The vast scope of rhetoric is difficult to define. Political discourse remains the paradigmatic example for studying and theorizing specific techniques and conceptions of persuasion or rhetoric.<a href="#cite_note-19">[17]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="As_a_civic_art">As a civic art</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Rhetoric&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: As a civic art">edit</a>]</div> Throughout <a href="/wiki/European_History" class="mw-redirect" title="European History">European History</a>, rhetoric meant persuasion in public and political settings such as assemblies and courts.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Because of its associations with democratic institutions, rhetoric is commonly said to flourish in open and democratic societies with rights of <a href="/wiki/Free_speech" class="mw-redirect" title="Free speech">free speech</a>, free assembly, and political enfranchisement for some portion of the population.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Those who classify rhetoric as a civic art believe that rhetoric has the power to shape communities, form the character of citizens, and greatly affect civic life. Rhetoric was viewed as a civic art by several of the ancient philosophers. Aristotle and <a href="/wiki/Isocrates" title="Isocrates">Isocrates</a> were two of the first to see rhetoric in this light. In <a href="/wiki/Antidosis" class="mw-redirect" title="Antidosis">Antidosis</a>, Isocrates states, "We have come together and founded cities and made laws and invented arts; and, generally speaking, there is no institution devised by man which the power of speech has not helped us to establish."[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Inline_citation#When_you_must_use_inline_citations" title="Wikipedia:Inline citation">This quote needs a citation</a>] With this statement he argues that rhetoric is a fundamental part of civic life in every society and that it has been necessary in the foundation of all aspects of society. He further argues in <a href="/wiki/Against_the_Sophists" title="Against the Sophists">Against the Sophists</a> that rhetoric, although it cannot be taught to just anyone, is capable of shaping the character of man. He writes, "I do think that the study of political discourse can help more than any other thing to stimulate and form such qualities of character."[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Inline_citation#When_you_must_use_inline_citations" title="Wikipedia:Inline citation">This quote needs a citation</a>] Aristotle, writing several years after Isocrates, supported many of his arguments and argued for rhetoric as a civic art. In the words of Aristotle, in the Rhetoric, rhetoric is "...the faculty of observing in any given case the available means of persuasion". According to Aristotle, this art of persuasion could be used in public settings in three different ways: "A member of the assembly decides about future events, a juryman about past events: while those who merely decide on the orator's skill are observers. From this it follows that there are three divisions of oratory—(1) political, (2) forensic, and (3) the ceremonial oratory of display".<a href="#cite_note-20">[18]</a> Eugene Garver, in his critique of Aristotle's Rhetoric, confirms that Aristotle viewed rhetoric as a civic art. Garver writes, "Rhetoric articulates a civic art of rhetoric, combining the almost incompatible properties of techne and appropriateness to citizens."<a href="#cite_note-21">[19]</a> Each of Aristotle's divisions plays a role in civic life and can be used in a different way to affect the <a href="/wiki/Polis" title="Polis">polis</a>. Because rhetoric is a public art capable of shaping opinion, some of the ancients, including <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a> found fault in it. They claimed that while it could be used to improve civic life, it could be used just as easily to deceive or manipulate. The masses were incapable of analyzing or deciding anything on their own and would therefore be swayed by the most persuasive speeches. Thus, civic life could be controlled by whoever could deliver the best speech. Plato explores the problematic moral status of rhetoric twice: in Gorgias and in The <a href="/wiki/Phaedrus_(dialogue)" title="Phaedrus (dialogue)">Phaedrus</a>, a dialogue best-known for its commentary on love. More trusting in the power of rhetoric to support a republic, the Roman orator <a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a> argued that art required something more than eloquence. A good orator needed also to be a good man, a person enlightened on a variety of civic topics. He describes the proper training of the orator in his major text on rhetoric, <a href="/wiki/De_Oratore" title="De Oratore">De Oratore</a>, which he modeled on Plato's dialogues. Modern works continue to support the claims of the ancients that rhetoric is an art capable of influencing civic life. In Political Style, <a href="/wiki/Robert_Hariman" title="Robert Hariman">Robert Hariman</a> claims that "questions of freedom, equality, and justice often are raised and addressed through performances ranging from debates to demonstrations without loss of moral content".<a href="#cite_note-22">[20]</a> <a href="/wiki/James_Boyd_White" title="James Boyd White">James Boyd White</a> argues that rhetoric is capable not only of addressing issues of political interest but that it can influence culture as a whole. In his book, When Words Lose Their Meaning, he argues that words of persuasion and identification define community and civic life. He states that words produce "the methods by which culture is maintained, criticized, and transformed".<a href="#cite_note-WhiteWords-17">[15]</a> Rhetoric remains relevant as a civic art. In speeches, as well as in non-verbal forms, rhetoric continues to be used as a tool to influence communities from local to national levels. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="As_a_political_tool">As a political tool</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Rhetoric&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: As a political tool">edit</a>]</div> Political parties employ "manipulative rhetoric" to advance their party-line goals and lobbyist agendas. They use it to portray themselves as champions of compassion, freedom, and culture, all while implementing policies that appear to contradict these claims. It serves as a form of political propaganda, presented to sway and maintain public opinion in their favor, and garner a positive image, potentially at the expense of suppressing dissent or criticism. An example of this is the government's actions in freezing bank accounts and regulating internet speech, ostensibly to protect the vulnerable and preserve freedom of expression, despite contradicting values and rights.<a href="#cite_note-23">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-24">[22]</a><a href="#cite_note-25">[23]</a> Going back to the fifth century BCE, the term rhetoric originated in Ancient Greece. During this period, a new government (democracy) had been formed and as speech was the main method of information, an effective communication strategy was needed. Sophists, a group of intellectuals from Sicily, taught the ancient Greeks the art of persuasive speech in order to be able to navigate themselves in the court and senate.<a href="#cite_note-:2-26">[24]</a> This new technique was then used as an effective method of speech in political speeches and throughout government. Consequently people began to fear that persuasive speech would overpower truth. However, Aristotle argued that speech can be used to classify, study, and interpret speeches and as a useful skill. Aristotle believed that this technique was an art, and that persuasive speech could have truth and logic embedded within it. In the end, rhetoric speech still remained popular and was used by many scholars and philosophers.<a href="#cite_note-:2-26">[24]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="As_a_course_of_study">As a course of study</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Rhetoric&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: As a course of study">edit</a>]</div> The study of rhetoric trains students to speak and/or write effectively, and to critically understand and analyze discourse. It is concerned with how people use symbols, especially language, to reach agreement that permits coordinated effort.<a href="#cite_note-27">[25]</a> Rhetoric as a course of study has evolved since its ancient beginnings, and has adapted to the particular exigencies of various times, venues,<a href="#cite_note-28">[26]</a> and applications ranging from architecture to literature.<a href="#cite_note-29">[27]</a> Although the curriculum has transformed in a number of ways, it has generally emphasized the study of principles and rules of composition as a means for moving audiences. Rhetoric began as a civic art in Ancient Greece where students were trained to develop tactics of oratorical persuasion, especially in legal disputes. Rhetoric originated in a school of <a href="/wiki/Pre-Socratic" class="mw-redirect" title="Pre-Socratic">pre-Socratic</a> philosophers known as the <a href="/wiki/Sophists" class="mw-redirect" title="Sophists">Sophists</a> <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 600 BCE. <a href="/wiki/Demosthenes" title="Demosthenes">Demosthenes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lysias" title="Lysias">Lysias</a> emerged as major orators during this period, and <a href="/wiki/Isocrates" title="Isocrates">Isocrates</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gorgias" title="Gorgias">Gorgias</a> as prominent teachers. Modern teachings continue to reference these rhetoricians and their work in discussions of classical rhetoric and persuasion. Rhetoric was taught in universities during the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a> as one of the three original <a href="/wiki/Liberal_arts" class="mw-redirect" title="Liberal arts">liberal arts</a> or <a href="/wiki/Trivium_(education)" class="mw-redirect" title="Trivium (education)">trivium</a> (along with <a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">logic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Grammar" title="Grammar">grammar</a>).<a href="#cite_note-30">[28]</a> During the medieval period, political rhetoric declined as republican oratory died out and the emperors of Rome garnered increasing authority. With the rise of European monarchs, rhetoric shifted into courtly and religious applications. <a href="/wiki/Augustine" class="mw-redirect" title="Augustine">Augustine</a> exerted strong influence on Christian rhetoric in the Middle Ages, advocating the use of rhetoric to lead audiences to truth and understanding, especially in the church. The study of liberal arts, he believed, contributed to rhetorical study: "In the case of a keen and ardent nature, fine words will come more readily through reading and hearing the eloquent than by pursuing the rules of rhetoric."<a href="#cite_note-31">[29]</a> Poetry and letter writing became central to rhetorical study during the Middle Ages.<a href="#cite_note-Prill1987-32">[30]</a>: 129–47  After the fall of the Roman republic, poetry became a tool for rhetorical training since there were fewer opportunities for political speech.<a href="#cite_note-Prill1987-32">[30]</a>: 131  Letter writing was the primary way business was conducted both in state and church, so it became an important aspect of rhetorical education.<a href="#cite_note-bedfordstmartins.com-33">[31]</a> Rhetorical education became more restrained as style and substance separated in 16th-century France, and attention turned to the scientific method. Influential scholars like <a href="/wiki/Peter_Ramus" class="mw-redirect" title="Peter Ramus">Peter Ramus</a> argued that the processes of invention and arrangement should be elevated to the domain of philosophy, while rhetorical instruction should be chiefly concerned with the use of figures and other forms of the ornamentation of language. Scholars such as <a href="/wiki/Francis_Bacon" title="Francis Bacon">Francis Bacon</a> developed the study of "scientific rhetoric"<a href="#cite_note-34">[32]</a> which rejected the elaborate style characteristic of classical oration. This plain language carried over to <a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a>'s teaching, which emphasized concrete knowledge and steered away from ornamentation in speech, further alienating rhetorical instruction—which was identified wholly with such ornamentation—from the pursuit of knowledge. In the 18th century, rhetoric assumed a more social role, leading to the creation of new education systems (predominantly in England): "<a href="/wiki/Elocution" title="Elocution">Elocution</a> schools" in which girls and women analyzed classic literature, most notably the works of <a href="/wiki/William_Shakespeare" title="William Shakespeare">William Shakespeare</a>, and discussed pronunciation tactics.<a href="#cite_note-35">[33]</a> The study of rhetoric underwent a revival with the rise of democratic institutions during the late 18th and early 19th centuries. <a href="/wiki/Hugh_Blair" title="Hugh Blair">Hugh Blair</a> was a key early leader of this movement. In his most famous work, Lectures on Rhetoric and Belles Lettres, he advocates rhetorical study for common citizens as a resource for social success. Many American colleges and secondary schools used Blair's text throughout the 19th century to train students of rhetoric.<a href="#cite_note-bedfordstmartins.com-33">[31]</a> Political rhetoric also underwent renewal in the wake of the U.S. and French revolutions. The rhetorical studies of ancient Greece and Rome were resurrected as speakers and teachers looked to <a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a> and others to inspire defenses of the new republics. Leading rhetorical theorists included <a href="/wiki/John_Quincy_Adams" title="John Quincy Adams">John Quincy Adams</a> of <a href="/wiki/Harvard" class="mw-redirect" title="Harvard">Harvard</a>, who advocated the democratic advancement of rhetorical art. Harvard's founding of the <a href="/wiki/Boylston_Professorship_of_Rhetoric_and_Oratory" title="Boylston Professorship of Rhetoric and Oratory">Boylston Professorship of Rhetoric and Oratory</a> sparked the growth of the study of rhetoric in colleges across the United States.<a href="#cite_note-bedfordstmartins.com-33">[31]</a> Harvard's rhetoric program drew inspiration from literary sources to guide organization and style, and studies the rhetoric used in political communication to illustrate how political figures persuade audiences.<a href="#cite_note-36">[34]</a> <a href="/wiki/William_G._Allen" title="William G. Allen">William G. Allen</a> became the first American college professor of rhetoric, at <a href="/wiki/New-York_Central_College" class="mw-redirect" title="New-York Central College">New-York Central College</a>, 1850–1853. Debate clubs and lyceums also developed as forums in which common citizens could hear speakers and sharpen debate skills. The American lyceum in particular was seen as both an educational and social institution, featuring group discussions and guest lecturers.<a href="#cite_note-37">[35]</a> These programs cultivated democratic values and promoted active participation in political analysis. Throughout the 20th century, rhetoric developed as a concentrated field of study, with the establishment of rhetorical courses in high schools and universities. Courses such as <a href="/wiki/Public_speaking" title="Public speaking">public speaking</a> and <a href="/wiki/Speech_analysis" class="mw-redirect" title="Speech analysis">speech analysis</a> apply fundamental Greek theories (such as the modes of persuasion: <a href="/wiki/Ethos" title="Ethos">ethos</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pathos" title="Pathos">pathos</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Logos" title="Logos">logos</a>) and trace rhetorical development through history. Rhetoric earned a more esteemed reputation as a field of study with the emergence of <a href="/wiki/Communication_Studies" class="mw-redirect" title="Communication Studies">Communication Studies</a> departments and of Rhetoric and Composition programs within English departments in universities,<a href="#cite_note-38">[36]</a> and in conjunction with the <a href="/wiki/Linguistic_turn" title="Linguistic turn">linguistic turn</a> in <a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western philosophy</a>. Rhetorical study has broadened in scope, and is especially used by the fields of marketing, politics, and literature. Another area of rhetoric is the study of cultural rhetorics, which is the communication that occurs between cultures and the study of the way members of a culture communicate with each other.<a href="#cite_note-:7-39">[37]</a> These ideas[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">specify</a>] can then be studied and understood by other cultures, in order to bridge gaps in modes of communication and help different cultures communicate effectively with each other. James Zappen defines cultural rhetorics as the idea that rhetoric is concerned with negotiation and listening, not persuasion, which differs from ancient definitions.<a href="#cite_note-:7-39">[37]</a> Some ancient rhetoric was disparaged because its persuasive techniques could be used to teach falsehoods.<a href="#cite_note-40">[38]</a> Communication as studied in cultural rhetorics is focused on listening and negotiation, and has little to do with persuasion.<a href="#cite_note-:7-39">[37]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Canons">Canons</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Rhetoric&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Canons">edit</a>]</div> Rhetorical education focused on five <a href="/wiki/Canon_(basic_principle)" title="Canon (basic principle)">canons</a>. The <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238216509">.mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#b1d2ff}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#0f4dc9}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#0f4dc9}}</style>Five Canons of Rhetoric serve as a guide to creating persuasive messages and arguments: <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Inventio" title="Inventio">inventio</a> (invention)</dt> <dd>the process that leads to the development and refinement of an argument.</dd> <dt><a href="/wiki/Dispositio" title="Dispositio">dispositio</a> (disposition, or arrangement)</dt> <dd>used to determine how an argument should be organized for greatest effect, usually beginning with the <a href="/wiki/Exordium_(rhetoric)" class="mw-redirect" title="Exordium (rhetoric)">exordium</a></dd> <dt><a href="/wiki/Elocutio" title="Elocutio">elocutio</a> (style)</dt> <dd>determining how to present the arguments</dd> <dt><a href="/wiki/Memoria" title="Memoria">memoria</a> (memory)</dt> <dd>the process of learning and memorizing the speech and persuasive messages</dd> <dt><a href="/wiki/Pronuntiatio" title="Pronuntiatio">pronuntiatio</a> (presentation) and <a href="/wiki/Actio" class="mw-redirect" title="Actio">actio</a> (delivery)</dt> <dd>the gestures, pronunciation, tone, and pace used when presenting the persuasive arguments—the <a href="/wiki/Grand_Style" class="mw-redirect" title="Grand Style">Grand Style</a>.</dd></dl> <a href="/wiki/Memoria" title="Memoria">Memory</a> was added much later to the original four canons.<a href="#cite_note-41">[39]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Music">Music</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Rhetoric&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Music">edit</a>]</div> During the <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a> rhetoric enjoyed a resurgence, and as a result nearly every author who wrote about music before the <a href="/wiki/Romantic_era" class="mw-redirect" title="Romantic era">Romantic era</a> discussed rhetoric.<a href="#cite_note-42">[40]</a> <a href="/wiki/Joachim_Burmeister" title="Joachim Burmeister">Joachim Burmeister</a> wrote in 1601, "there is only little difference between music and the nature of oration".[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Inline_citation#When_you_must_use_inline_citations" title="Wikipedia:Inline citation">This quote needs a citation</a>] <a href="/wiki/Christoph_Bernhard" title="Christoph Bernhard">Christoph Bernhard</a> in the latter half of the century said "...until the art of music has attained such a height in our own day, that it may indeed be compared to a rhetoric, in view of the multitude of figures"[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Writing_better_articles#Provide_context_for_the_reader" title="Wikipedia:Writing better articles">needs context</a>].<a href="#cite_note-43">[41]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Knowledge">Knowledge</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Rhetoric&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Knowledge">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a> and rhetoric have been compared to one another for decades, but the specifications of their similarities have gone undefined. Since scholar <a href="/wiki/Robert_L._Scott" title="Robert L. Scott">Robert L. Scott</a> stated that, "rhetoric is <a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">epistemic</a>,"<a href="#cite_note-:8-44">[42]</a> rhetoricians and <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophers</a> alike have struggled to concretely define the expanse of implications these words hold. Those who have identified this inconsistency maintain the idea that <a href="/wiki/Robert_L._Scott" title="Robert L. Scott">Scott's</a> relation is important, but requires further study.<a href="#cite_note-:9-45">[43]</a> The root of the issue lies in the ambiguous use of the term rhetoric itself, as well as the epistemological terms <a href="/wiki/Knowledge" title="Knowledge">knowledge</a>, <a href="/wiki/Certainty" title="Certainty">certainty</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Truth" title="Truth">truth</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:9-45">[43]</a> Though counterintuitive and vague, <a href="/wiki/Robert_L._Scott" title="Robert L. Scott">Scott's</a> claims are accepted by some academics, but are then used to draw different conclusions. <a href="/wiki/Sonja_K._Foss" title="Sonja K. Foss">Sonja K. Foss</a>, for example, takes on the view that, "rhetoric creates knowledge,"<a href="#cite_note-46">[44]</a> whereas <a href="/wiki/James_A._Herrick" title="James A. Herrick">James Herrick</a> writes that rhetoric assists in people's ability to form <a href="/wiki/Belief" title="Belief">beliefs</a>, which are defined as <a href="/wiki/Knowledge" title="Knowledge">knowledge</a> once they become widespread in a community.<a href="#cite_note-47">[45]</a> It is unclear whether <a href="/wiki/Robert_L._Scott" title="Robert L. Scott">Scott</a> holds that <a href="/wiki/Certainty" title="Certainty">certainty</a> is an inherent part of establishing <a href="/wiki/Knowledge" title="Knowledge">knowledge</a>, his references to the term abstract.<a href="#cite_note-:8-44">[42]</a><a href="#cite_note-48">[46]</a> He is not the only one, as the debate's persistence in <a href="/wiki/Philosophical" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophical">philosophical</a> circles long predates his addition of rhetoric. There is an overwhelming majority that does support the concept of <a href="/wiki/Certainty" title="Certainty">certainty</a> as a requirement for <a href="/wiki/Knowledge" title="Knowledge">knowledge</a>, but it is at the definition of <a href="/wiki/Certainty" title="Certainty">certainty</a> where parties begin to diverge. One definition maintains that <a href="/wiki/Certainty" title="Certainty">certainty</a> is subjective and feeling-based, the other that it is a byproduct of <a href="/wiki/Justification_(epistemology)" title="Justification (epistemology)">justification</a>. The more commonly accepted definition of rhetoric claims it is synonymous with <a href="/wiki/Persuasion" title="Persuasion">persuasion</a>. For rhetorical purposes, this definition, like many others, is too broad. The same issue presents itself with definitions that are too narrow. Rhetoricians in support of the <a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">epistemic</a> view of rhetoric have yet to agree in this regard.<a href="#cite_note-:9-45">[43]</a> <a href="/wiki/Philosophical" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophical">Philosophical</a> teachings refer to <a href="/wiki/Knowledge" title="Knowledge">knowledge</a> as a <a href="/wiki/Justified_true_belief" class="mw-redirect" title="Justified true belief">justified true belief</a>. However, the <a href="/wiki/Gettier_problem" title="Gettier problem">Gettier Problem</a> explores the room for fallacy in this concept.<a href="#cite_note-49">[47]</a> Therefore, the <a href="/wiki/Gettier_problem" title="Gettier problem">Gettier Problem</a> impedes the effectivity of the argument of Richard A. Cherwitz and James A. Hikins,<a href="#cite_note-:10-50">[48]</a> who employ the <a href="/wiki/Justified_true_belief" class="mw-redirect" title="Justified true belief">justified true belief</a> standpoint in their argument for rhetoric as <a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">epistemic</a>. Celeste Condit Railsback takes a different approach,<a href="#cite_note-51">[49]</a> drawing from Ray E. McKerrow's system of <a href="/wiki/Belief" title="Belief">belief</a> based on <a href="/wiki/Validity_(logic)" title="Validity (logic)">validity</a> rather than <a href="/wiki/Certainty" title="Certainty">certainty</a>.<a href="#cite_note-52">[50]</a> William D. Harpine refers to the issue of unclear definitions that occurs in the theories of "rhetoric is epistemic" in his 2004 article "What Do You Mean, Rhetoric is Epistemic?".<a href="#cite_note-:9-45">[43]</a> In it, he focuses on uncovering the most appropriate definitions for the terms "rhetoric", "knowledge", and "certainty". According to Harpine, certainty is either objective or subjective. Although both Scotts<a href="#cite_note-:8-44">[42]</a> and Cherwitz and Hikins<a href="#cite_note-:10-50">[48]</a> theories deal with some form of certainty, Harpine believes that knowledge is not required to be neither objectively nor subjectively certain. In terms of "rhetoric", Harpine argues that the definition of rhetoric as "the art of persuasion" is the best choice in the context of this theoretical approach of rhetoric as epistemic. Harpine then proceeds to present two methods of approaching the idea of rhetoric as epistemic based on the definitions presented. One centers on Alston's<a href="#cite_note-53">[51]</a> view that one's beliefs are justified if formed by one's normal doxastic while the other focuses on the causal theory of knowledge.<a href="#cite_note-54">[52]</a> Both approaches manage to avoid Gettier's problems and do not rely on unclear conceptions of certainty. In the discussion of rhetoric and <a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">epistemology</a>, comes the question of <a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">ethics</a>. Is it <a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">ethical</a> for rhetoric to present itself in the branch of <a href="/wiki/Knowledge" title="Knowledge">knowledge</a>? <a href="/wiki/Robert_L._Scott" title="Robert L. Scott">Scott</a> rears this question, addressing the issue, not with ambiguity in the definitions of other terms, but against subjectivity regarding <a href="/wiki/Certainty" title="Certainty">certainty</a>. Ultimately, according to Thomas O. Sloane, rhetoric and <a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">epistemology</a> exist as counterparts, working towards the same purpose of establishing <a href="/wiki/Knowledge" title="Knowledge">knowledge</a>, with the common enemy of subjective <a href="/wiki/Certainty" title="Certainty">certainty</a>.<a href="#cite_note-55">[53]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History_and_development">History and development</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Rhetoric&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: History and development">edit</a>]</div> Rhetoric is a persuasive speech that holds people to a common purpose and therefore facilitates collective action. During the fifth century BCE, Athens had become active in metropolis and people all over there. During this time the Greek city state had been experimenting with a new form of government – democracy, demos, "the people". Political and cultural identity had been tied to the city area – the citizens of Athens formed institutions to the red processes: are the Senate, jury trials, and forms of public discussions, but people needed to learn how to navigate these new institutions. With no forms of passing on the information, other than word of mouth the Athenians needed an effective strategy to inform the people. A group of wandering Sicilian's later known as the Sophists, began teaching the Athenians persuasive speech, with the goal of navigating the courts and senate. The sophists became speech teachers known as Sophia; Greek for "wisdom" and root for philosophy, or "love of wisdom" – the sophists came to be common term for someone who sold wisdom for money.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-56">[54]</a> Although there is no clear understanding why the Sicilians engaged to educating the Athenians persuasive speech. It is known that the Athenians did, indeed rely on persuasive speech, more during public speak, and four new political processes, also increasing the sophists trainings leading too many victories for legal cases, public debate, and even a simple persuasive speech. This ultimately led to concerns rising on falsehood over truth, with highly trained, persuasive speakers, knowingly, misinforming.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-56">[54]</a> Rhetoric has its origins in <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:0-57">[55]</a> Some of the earliest examples of rhetoric can be found in the <a href="/wiki/Akkadian_literature" title="Akkadian literature">Akkadian writings</a> of the princess and priestess <a href="/wiki/Enheduanna" title="Enheduanna">Enheduanna</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 2285–2250 BCE).<a href="#cite_note-:1-58">[56]</a> As the first named author in history,<a href="#cite_note-:0-57">[55]</a><a href="#cite_note-:1-58">[56]</a> Enheduanna's writing exhibits numerous rhetorical features that would later become canon in Ancient Greece. Enheduanna's "The Exaltation of <a href="/wiki/Inanna" title="Inanna">Inanna</a>," includes an <a href="/wiki/Exordium_(rhetoric)" class="mw-redirect" title="Exordium (rhetoric)">exordium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Argument" title="Argument">argument</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Peroration" class="mw-redirect" title="Peroration">peroration</a>,<a href="#cite_note-:0-57">[55]</a> as well as elements of ethos, pathos, and logos,<a href="#cite_note-:1-58">[56]</a> and repetition and <a href="/wiki/Metonymy" title="Metonymy">metonymy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-59">[57]</a> She is also known for describing her process of invention in "The Exaltation of Inanna," moving between first- and third-person address to relate her composing process in collaboration with the goddess Inanna,<a href="#cite_note-:1-58">[56]</a> reflecting a mystical <a href="/wiki/Enthymeme" title="Enthymeme">enthymeme</a><a href="#cite_note-60">[58]</a> in drawing upon a Cosmic audience.<a href="#cite_note-:1-58">[56]</a> Later examples of early rhetoric can be found in the <a href="/wiki/Neo-Assyrian_Empire" title="Neo-Assyrian Empire">Neo-Assyrian Empire</a> during the time of <a href="/wiki/Sennacherib" title="Sennacherib">Sennacherib</a> (704–681 BCE).<a href="#cite_note-61">[59]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">ancient Egypt</a>, rhetoric had existed since at least the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="Middle Kingdom of Egypt">Middle Kingdom period</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 2080–1640 BCE). The five canons of eloquence in ancient Egyptian rhetoric were silence, timing, restraint, fluency, and truthfulness.<a href="#cite_note-62">[60]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Egyptians" title="Egyptians">Egyptians</a> held eloquent speaking in high esteem. Egyptian rules of rhetoric specified that "knowing when not to speak is essential, and very respected, rhetorical knowledge", making rhetoric a "balance between eloquence and wise silence". They also emphasized "adherence to social behaviors that support a conservative status quo" and they held that "skilled speech should support, not question, society".<a href="#cite_note-63">[61]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Ancient_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient China">ancient China</a>, rhetoric dates back to the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Chinese philosopher</a>, <a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a> (551–479 BCE). The tradition of <a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a> emphasized the use of <a href="/wiki/Eloquence" title="Eloquence">eloquence</a> in speaking.<a href="#cite_note-64">[62]</a> The use of rhetoric can also be found in the ancient <a href="/wiki/Biblical" class="mw-redirect" title="Biblical">Biblical</a> tradition.<a href="#cite_note-65">[63]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ancient_Greece">Ancient Greece</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Rhetoric&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Ancient Greece">edit</a>]</div> In Europe, organized thought about public speaking began in <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">ancient Greece</a>.<a href="#cite_note-66">[64]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">ancient Greece</a>, the earliest mention of oratorical skill occurs in <a href="/wiki/Homer" title="Homer">Homer</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Iliad" title="Iliad">Iliad</a>, in which heroes like <a href="/wiki/Achilles" title="Achilles">Achilles</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hector" title="Hector">Hector</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Odysseus" title="Odysseus">Odysseus</a> were honored for their ability to advise and exhort their peers and followers (the Laos or army) to wise and appropriate action. With the rise of the democratic polis, speaking skill was adapted to the needs of the public and political life of cities in ancient Greece. Greek citizens used <a href="/wiki/Oratory_(speech)" class="mw-redirect" title="Oratory (speech)">oratory</a> to make political and judicial decisions, and to develop and disseminate philosophical ideas. For modern students, it can be difficult to remember that the wide use and availability of written texts is a phenomenon that was just coming into vogue in <a href="/wiki/Classical_Greece" title="Classical Greece">Classical Greece</a>. In Classical times, many of the great thinkers and political leaders performed their works before an audience, usually in the context of a competition or contest for fame, political influence, and cultural capital. In fact, many of them are known only through the texts that their students, followers, or detractors wrote down. Rhetor was the Greek term for "orator": A rhetor was a citizen who regularly addressed juries and political assemblies and who was thus understood to have gained some knowledge about public speaking in the process, though in general facility with language was often referred to as logôn techne, "skill with arguments" or "verbal artistry".<a href="#cite_note-67">[65]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] Possibly the first study about the power of language may be attributed to the philosopher <a href="/wiki/Empedocles" title="Empedocles">Empedocles</a> (d. <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 444 BCE), whose theories on human knowledge would provide a basis for many future rhetoricians. The first written manual is attributed to <a href="/wiki/Corax_of_Syracuse" title="Corax of Syracuse">Corax</a> and his pupil <a href="/wiki/Tisias" class="mw-redirect" title="Tisias">Tisias</a>. Their work, as well as that of many of the early rhetoricians, grew out of the courts of law; Tisias, for example, is believed to have written judicial speeches that others delivered in the courts. Rhetoric evolved as an important art, one that provided the orator with the forms, means, and strategies for persuading an audience of the correctness of the orator's arguments. Today the term rhetoric can be used at times to refer only to the form of argumentation, often with the pejorative connotation that rhetoric is a means of obscuring the truth. Classical <a href="/wiki/Philosopher" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosopher">philosophers</a> believed quite the contrary: the skilled use of rhetoric was essential to the discovery of truths, because it provided the means of ordering and clarifying arguments. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Sophists">Sophists</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Rhetoric&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Sophists">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Sophist" title="Sophist">Sophists</a></div> Teaching in oratory was popularized in the 5th century BCE by itinerant teachers known as <a href="/wiki/Sophist" title="Sophist">sophists</a>, the best known of whom were <a href="/wiki/Protagoras" title="Protagoras">Protagoras</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 481–420 BCE), <a href="/wiki/Gorgias" title="Gorgias">Gorgias</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 483–376 BCE), and <a href="/wiki/Isocrates" title="Isocrates">Isocrates</a> (436–338 BCE). <a href="/wiki/Aspasia" title="Aspasia">Aspasia</a> of Miletus is believed to be one of the first women to engage in private and public rhetorical activities as a Sophist.<a href="#cite_note-68">[66]</a> The Sophists were a disparate group who travelled from city to city, teaching in public places to attract students and offer them an education. Their central focus was on logos, or what we might broadly refer to as discourse, its functions and powers.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] They defined parts of speech, analyzed poetry, parsed close synonyms, invented argumentation strategies, and debated the nature of reality.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] They claimed to make their students better, or, in other words, to teach virtue. They thus claimed that human excellence was not an accident of fate or a prerogative of noble birth, but an art or "techne" that could be taught and learned. They were thus among the first humanists.<a href="#cite_note-69">[67]</a> Several Sophists also questioned received wisdom about the gods and the Greek culture, which they believed was taken for granted by Greeks of their time, making these Sophists among the first agnostics. For example, some argued that cultural practices were a function of convention or <a href="/wiki/Law" title="Law">nomos</a> rather than blood or birth or <a href="/wiki/Phusis" class="mw-redirect" title="Phusis">phusis</a>.<a href="#cite_note-70">[68]</a> They argued further that the morality or immorality of any action could not be judged outside of the cultural context within which it occurred. The well-known phrase, "Man is the measure of all things" arises from this belief.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] One of the Sophists' most famous, and infamous, doctrines has to do with probability and counter arguments. They taught that every argument could be countered with an opposing argument, that an argument's effectiveness derived from how "likely" it appeared to the audience (its probability of seeming true), and that any probability argument could be countered with an inverted probability argument. Thus, if it seemed likely that a strong, poor man were guilty of robbing a rich, weak man, the strong poor man could argue, on the contrary, that this very likelihood (that he would be a suspect) makes it unlikely that he committed the crime, since he would most likely be apprehended for the crime.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] They also taught and were known for their ability to make the weaker (or worse) argument the stronger (or better).[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <a href="/wiki/Aristophanes" title="Aristophanes">Aristophanes</a> famously parodies the clever inversions that sophists were known for in his play <a href="/wiki/The_Clouds" title="The Clouds">The Clouds</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] The word "sophistry" developed negative connotations in ancient Greece that continue today, but in ancient Greece, Sophists were popular and well-paid professionals, respected for their abilities and also criticized for their excesses. According to William Keith and Christian Lundberg, as the Greek society shifted towards more democratic values, the Sophists were responsible for teaching the newly democratic Greek society the importance of persuasive speech and strategic communication for its new governmental institutions.<a href="#cite_note-71">[69]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Isocrates">Isocrates</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Rhetoric&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Isocrates">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Isocrates" title="Isocrates">Isocrates</a></div> Isocrates (436–338 BCE), like the Sophists, taught public speaking as a means of human improvement, but he worked to distinguish himself from the Sophists, whom he saw as claiming far more than they could deliver. He suggested that while an art of virtue or excellence did exist, it was only one piece, and the least, in a process of self-improvement that relied much more on native talent, desire, constant practice, and the imitation of good models. Isocrates believed that practice in speaking publicly about noble themes and important questions would improve the character of both speaker and audience while also offering the best service to a city. Isocrates was an outspoken champion of rhetoric as a mode of civic engagement.<a href="#cite_note-72">[70]</a> He thus wrote his speeches as "models" for his students to imitate in the same way that poets might imitate Homer or Hesiod, seeking to inspire in them a desire to attain fame through civic leadership. His was the first permanent school in <a href="/wiki/Athens" title="Athens">Athens</a> and it is likely that <a href="/wiki/Plato%27s_Academy" class="mw-redirect" title="Plato's Academy">Plato's Academy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Aristotle%27s_Lyceum" class="mw-redirect" title="Aristotle's Lyceum">Aristotle's Lyceum</a> were founded in part as a response to Isocrates. Though he left no handbooks, his speeches ("<a href="/wiki/Antidosis_(treatise)" title="Antidosis (treatise)">Antidosis</a>" and "<a href="/wiki/Against_the_Sophists" title="Against the Sophists">Against the Sophists</a>" are most relevant to students of rhetoric) became models of oratory and keys to his entire educational program. He was one of the canonical "<a href="/wiki/Ten_Attic_Orators" class="mw-redirect" title="Ten Attic Orators">Ten Attic Orators</a>". He influenced <a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a> and <a href="/wiki/Quintilian" title="Quintilian">Quintilian</a>, and through them, the entire educational system of the west. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Plato">Plato</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Rhetoric&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Plato">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a> and <a href="/wiki/Platonism" title="Platonism">Platonism</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a> (427–347 BCE) outlined the differences between true and false rhetoric in a number of dialogues—particularly the <a href="/wiki/Gorgias_(dialogue)" title="Gorgias (dialogue)">Gorgias</a> and <a href="/wiki/Phaedrus_(dialogue)" title="Phaedrus (dialogue)">Phaedrus</a>, dialogues in which Plato disputes the <a href="/wiki/Sophistry" class="mw-redirect" title="Sophistry">sophistic</a> notion that the art of persuasion (the Sophists' art, which he calls "rhetoric"), can exist independent of the art of <a href="/wiki/Dialectic" title="Dialectic">dialectic</a>. Plato claims that since Sophists appeal only to what seems probable, they are not advancing their students and audiences, but simply flattering them with what they want to hear. While Plato's condemnation of rhetoric is clear in the Gorgias, in the Phaedrus he suggests the possibility of a true art wherein rhetoric is based upon the knowledge produced by dialectic. He relies on a dialectically informed rhetoric to appeal to the main character, Phaedrus, to take up philosophy. Thus Plato's rhetoric is actually dialectic (or philosophy) "turned" toward those who are not yet philosophers and are thus unready to pursue dialectic directly. Plato's animosity against rhetoric, and against the Sophists, derives not only from their inflated claims to teach virtue and their reliance on appearances, but from the fact that his teacher, Socrates, was sentenced to death after Sophists' efforts. Some scholars, however, see Plato not as an opponent of rhetoric but rather as a nuanced rhetorical theorist who dramatized rhetorical practice in his dialogues and imagined rhetoric as more than just oratory.<a href="#cite_note-KBB-11">[9]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Aristotle">Aristotle</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Rhetoric&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Aristotle">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Aristotle_Altemps_Inv8575.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Aristotle_Altemps_Inv8575.jpg/180px-Aristotle_Altemps_Inv8575.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="241" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Aristotle_Altemps_Inv8575.jpg/270px-Aristotle_Altemps_Inv8575.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Aristotle_Altemps_Inv8575.jpg/360px-Aristotle_Altemps_Inv8575.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1700" data-file-height="2275" /></a><figcaption>A marble bust of Aristotle</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Rhetoric_(Aristotle)" title="Rhetoric (Aristotle)">Rhetoric (Aristotle)</a></div>Aristotle: Rhetoric is an antistrophes to dialectic. "Let rhetoric [be defined as] an ability [dynamis], in each [particular] case, to see the available means of persuasion." "Rhetoric is a counterpart of dialectic" — an art of practical civic reasoning, applied to deliberative, judicial, and "display" speeches in political assemblies, lawcourts, and other public gatherings.<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a>. Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Rhetoric" title="Special:EditPage/Rhetoric">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (September 2013) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> (384–322 BCE) was a student of Plato who set forth an extended treatise on rhetoric that still repays careful study today. In the first sentence of <a href="/wiki/Rhetoric_(Aristotle)" title="Rhetoric (Aristotle)">The Art of Rhetoric</a>, Aristotle says that "rhetoric is the <a href="/wiki/Antistrophe" title="Antistrophe">antistrophe</a> of dialectic".<a href="#cite_note-Aristotle-73">[71]</a>: I.1  As the "antistrophe" of a Greek <a href="/wiki/Ode" title="Ode">ode</a> responds to and is patterned after the structure of the "<a href="/wiki/Strophe" title="Strophe">strophe</a>" (they form two sections of the whole and are sung by two parts of the chorus), so the art of rhetoric follows and is structurally patterned after the art of dialectic because both are arts of discourse production. While dialectical methods are necessary to find truth in theoretical matters, rhetorical methods are required in practical matters such as adjudicating somebody's guilt or innocence when charged in a court of law, or adjudicating a prudent course of action to be taken in a deliberative assembly. For Plato and Aristotle, dialectic involves persuasion, so when Aristotle says that rhetoric is the antistrophe of dialectic, he means that rhetoric as he uses the term has a domain or scope of application that is parallel to, but different from, the domain or scope of application of dialectic. Claude Pavur explains that "[t]he Greek prefix 'anti' does not merely designate opposition, but it can also mean 'in place of'".<a href="#cite_note-74">[72]</a> Aristotle's treatise on rhetoric systematically describes civic rhetoric as a human art or skill (techne). It is more of an objective theory[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify">clarification needed</a>] than it is an interpretive theory with a rhetorical tradition. Aristotle's art of rhetoric emphasizes persuasion as the purpose of rhetoric. His definition of rhetoric as "the faculty of observing in any given case the available means of persuasion", essentially a mode of discovery, limits the art to the inventional process; Aristotle emphasizes the logical aspect of this process. A speaker supports the probability of a message by logical, ethical, and emotional proofs. Aristotle identifies three steps or "offices" of rhetoric—invention, arrangement, and style—and three different types of rhetorical proof:<a href="#cite_note-Aristotle-73">[71]</a>: I.2  <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Ethos" title="Ethos">ethos</a></dt> <dd>Aristotle's theory of character and how the character and credibility of a speaker can influence an audience to consider him/her to be believable—there being three qualities that contribute to a credible ethos: perceived intelligence, virtuous character, and goodwill</dd> <dt><a href="/wiki/Pathos" title="Pathos">pathos</a></dt> <dd>the use of emotional appeals to alter the audience's judgment through metaphor, amplification, storytelling, or presenting the topic in a way that evokes strong emotions in the audience</dd> <dt><a href="/wiki/Logos" title="Logos">logos</a></dt> <dd>the use of reasoning, either <a href="/wiki/Inductive_reasoning" title="Inductive reasoning">inductive</a> or <a href="/wiki/Deductive_reasoning" title="Deductive reasoning">deductive</a>, to construct an argument</dd></dl> Aristotle emphasized <a href="/wiki/Deductive_reasoning" title="Deductive reasoning">enthymematic reasoning</a> as central to the process of rhetorical invention, though later rhetorical theorists placed much less emphasis on it. An "enthymeme" follows the form of a <a href="/wiki/Syllogism" title="Syllogism">syllogism</a>, however it excludes either the major or minor premise. An enthymeme is persuasive because the audience provides the missing premise. Because the audience participates in providing the missing premise, they are more likely to be persuaded by the message. Aristotle identified three different types or genres of civic rhetoric:<a href="#cite_note-Aristotle-73">[71]</a>: I.3  <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Forensic_rhetoric" title="Forensic rhetoric">Forensic</a> (also known as judicial)</dt> <dd>concerned with determining the truth or falseness of events that took place in the past and issues of guilt—for example, in a courtroom<a href="#cite_note-Aristotle-73">[71]</a>: I.10–15 </dd> <dt><a href="/wiki/Deliberative" class="mw-redirect" title="Deliberative">Deliberative</a> (also known as political)</dt> <dd>concerned with determining whether or not particular actions should or should not be taken in the future—for example, making laws</dd> <dt><a href="/wiki/Epideictic" title="Epideictic">Epideictic</a> (also known as ceremonial)</dt> <dd>concerned with praise and blame, values, right and wrong, demonstrating beauty and skill in the present—for example, a eulogy or a wedding toast</dd></dl> Another Aristotelian doctrine was the idea of topics (also referred to as <a href="/wiki/The_Common_Topics" title="The Common Topics">common topics</a> or commonplaces). Though the term had a wide range of application (as a memory technique or compositional exercise, for example) it most often referred to the "seats of argument"—the list of categories of thought or modes of reasoning—that a speaker could use to generate arguments or proofs. The topics were thus a heuristic or inventional tool designed to help speakers categorize and thus better retain and apply frequently used types of argument. For example, since we often see effects as "like" their causes, one way to invent an argument (about a future effect) is by discussing the cause (which it will be "like"). This and other rhetorical topics derive from Aristotle's belief that there are certain predictable ways in which humans (particularly non-specialists) draw conclusions from premises. Based upon and adapted from his dialectical Topics, the rhetorical topics became a central feature of later rhetorical theorizing, most famously in Cicero's work of that name. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="India">India</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Rhetoric&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: India">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Indian_rhetoric" title="Ancient Indian rhetoric">Ancient Indian rhetoric</a></div> <a href="/wiki/India%27s_Struggle_for_Independence" title="India's Struggle for Independence">India's Struggle for Independence</a> offers a vivid description of the culture that sprang up around the newspaper in village India of the early 1870s: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">A newspaper would reach remote villages and would then be read by a reader to tens of others. Gradually library movements sprung up all over the country. A local 'library' would be organized around a single newspaper. A table, a bench or two or a charpoy would constitute the capital equipment. Every piece of news or editorial comment would be read or heard and thoroughly discussed. The newspaper not only became the political educator; reading or discussing it became a form of political participation.<a href="#cite_note-75">[73]</a></blockquote> This reading and discussion was the focal point of origin of the modern Indian rhetorical movement. Much before this, ancients such as <a href="/wiki/Kautilya" class="mw-redirect" title="Kautilya">Kautilya</a>, <a href="/wiki/Birbal" title="Birbal">Birbal</a>, and the like indulged in a great deal of discussion and persuasion. Keith Lloyd argued that much of the recital of the <a href="/wiki/Vedas" title="Vedas">Vedas</a> can be likened to the recital of ancient Greek poetry.<a href="#cite_note-76">[74]</a> Lloyd proposed including the <a href="/wiki/Ny%C4%81ya_S%C5%ABtras" title="Nyāya Sūtras">Nyāya Sūtras</a> in the field of rhetorical studies, exploring its methods within their historical context, comparing its approach to the traditional logical syllogism, and relating it to modern perspectives of <a href="/wiki/Stephen_Toulmin" title="Stephen Toulmin">Stephen Toulmin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Burke" title="Kenneth Burke">Kenneth Burke</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Chaim_Perelman" class="mw-redirect" title="Chaim Perelman">Chaim Perelman</a>. Nyaya is a Sanskrit word which means "just" or "right" and refers to "the science of right and wrong reasoning".<a href="#cite_note-RadMoo-77">[75]</a>: 356  Sutra is also a Sanskrit word which means string or thread. Here sutra refers to a collection of aphorism in the form of a manual. Each sutra is a short rule usually consisted of one or two sentences. An example of a sutra is: "Reality is truth, and what is true is so, irrespective of whether we know it is, or are aware of that truth." The Nyāya Sūtras is an ancient Indian Sanskrit text composed by <a href="/wiki/Aksapada_Gautama" class="mw-redirect" title="Aksapada Gautama">Aksapada Gautama</a>. It is the foundational text of the <a href="/wiki/Nyaya" title="Nyaya">Nyaya</a> school of Hindu philosophy. It is estimated that the text was composed between 6th-century BCE and 2nd-century CE. The text may have been composed by more than one author, over a period of time.<a href="#cite_note-78">[76]</a> Radhakrishan and Moore placed its origin in the third century BCE "though some of the contents of the Nyaya Sutra are certainly a post-Christian era".<a href="#cite_note-RadMoo-77">[75]</a>: 36  The ancient school of Nyaya extended over a period of one thousand years, beginning with Gautama about 550 BCE and ending with Vatsyayana about 400 CE.<a href="#cite_note-79">[77]</a> Nyaya provides insight into Indian rhetoric. Nyaya presents an argumentative approach with which a rhetor can decide about any argument. In addition, it proposes an approach to thinking about cultural tradition which is different from Western rhetoric. Whereas Toulmin emphasizes the situational dimension of argumentative genre as the fundamental component of any rhetorical logic; Nyaya views this situational rhetoric in a new way which offers context of practical arguments[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Vagueness" title="Wikipedia:Vagueness">vague</a>]. Some of India's famous rhetors include <a href="/wiki/Kabir_Das" class="mw-redirect" title="Kabir Das">Kabir Das</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rahim_Das" class="mw-redirect" title="Rahim Das">Rahim Das</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chanakya" title="Chanakya">Chanakya</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Chandragupt_Maurya" class="mw-redirect" title="Chandragupt Maurya">Chandragupt Maurya</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rome">Rome</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Rhetoric&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Rome">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Cicero">Cicero</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Rhetoric&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Cicero">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Thorvaldsen_Cicero.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Thorvaldsen_Cicero.jpg/180px-Thorvaldsen_Cicero.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="249" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Thorvaldsen_Cicero.jpg/270px-Thorvaldsen_Cicero.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Thorvaldsen_Cicero.jpg/360px-Thorvaldsen_Cicero.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2174" data-file-height="3008" /></a><figcaption>Bust of Marcus Tullius Cicero</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a>, <a href="/wiki/Asiatic_style" title="Asiatic style">Asiatic style</a>, <a href="/wiki/De_Inventione" title="De Inventione">De Inventione</a>, <a href="/wiki/De_Oratore" title="De Oratore">De Oratore</a>, <a href="/wiki/Brutus_(Cicero)" title="Brutus (Cicero)">Brutus (Cicero)</a>, <a href="/wiki/De_Optimo_Genere_Oratorum" title="De Optimo Genere Oratorum">De Optimo Genere Oratorum</a>, and <a href="/wiki/De_Partitionibus_Oratoriae" class="mw-redirect" title="De Partitionibus Oratoriae">De Partitionibus Oratoriae</a></div> For the Romans, oration became an important part of public life. <a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a> (106–43 BCE) was chief among Roman rhetoricians and remains the best known ancient orator and the only orator who both spoke in public and produced treatises on the subject. <a href="/wiki/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium" title="Rhetorica ad Herennium">Rhetorica ad Herennium</a>, formerly attributed to Cicero but now considered to be of unknown authorship, is one of the most significant works on rhetoric and is still widely used as a reference today. It is an extensive reference on the use of rhetoric, and in the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a> and <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a>, it achieved wide publication as an advanced school text on rhetoric. Cicero charted a middle path between the competing <a href="/wiki/Atticism" title="Atticism">Attic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Asiatic_style" title="Asiatic style">Asiatic styles</a> to become considered second only to <a href="/wiki/Demosthenes" title="Demosthenes">Demosthenes</a> among history's orators.<a href="#cite_note-80">[78]</a> His works include the early and very influential <a href="/wiki/De_Inventione" title="De Inventione">De Inventione</a> (On Invention, often read alongside Ad Herennium as the two basic texts of rhetorical theory throughout the Middle Ages and into the Renaissance), <a href="/wiki/De_Oratore" title="De Oratore">De Oratore</a> (a fuller statement of rhetorical principles in dialogue form), <a href="/w/index.php?title=Topica_(Cicero)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Topica (Cicero) (page does not exist)">Topics</a> (a rhetorical treatment of common topics, highly influential through the Renaissance), <a href="/wiki/Brutus_(Cicero)" title="Brutus (Cicero)">Brutus</a> (a discussion of famous orators), and <a href="/wiki/Orator_(Cicero)" title="Orator (Cicero)">Orator</a> (a defense of Cicero's style). Cicero also left a large body of speeches and letters which would establish the outlines of Latin eloquence and style for generations. The rediscovery of Cicero's speeches (such as <a href="/wiki/Pro_Archia_Poeta" title="Pro Archia Poeta">the defense of Archias</a>) and letters (<a href="/wiki/Epistulae_ad_Atticum" title="Epistulae ad Atticum">to Atticus</a>) by Italians like <a href="/wiki/Petrarch" title="Petrarch">Petrarch</a> helped to ignite the Renaissance.<a href="#cite_note-81">[79]</a> Cicero championed the learning of Greek (and Greek rhetoric), contributed to Roman ethics, linguistics, philosophy, and politics, and emphasized the importance of all forms of appeal (emotion, humor, stylistic range, irony, and digression in addition to pure reasoning) in oratory. But perhaps his most significant contribution to subsequent rhetoric, and education in general, was his argument that orators learn not only about the specifics of their case (the hypothesis) but also about the general questions from which they derived (the theses).[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Thus, in giving a speech in defense of a poet whose Roman citizenship had been questioned, the orator should examine not only the specifics of that poet's civic status, he should also examine the role and value of poetry and of literature more generally in Roman culture and political life. The orator, said Cicero, needed to be knowledgeable about all areas of human life and culture, including law, politics, history, literature, ethics, warfare, medicine, and even arithmetic and geometry. Cicero gave rise to the idea that the "ideal orator" be well-versed in all branches of learning: an idea that was rendered as "liberal humanism", and that lives on today in liberal arts or general education requirements in colleges and universities around the world.<a href="#cite_note-82">[80]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Quintilian">Quintilian</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Rhetoric&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Quintilian">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Quintilian" title="Quintilian">Quintilian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_rhetoric" title="Byzantine rhetoric">Byzantine rhetoric</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a>. Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Rhetoric" title="Special:EditPage/Rhetoric">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>. (July 2010) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> Quintilian (35–100 CE) began his career as a pleader in the courts of law; his reputation grew so great that <a href="/wiki/Vespasian" title="Vespasian">Vespasian</a> created a chair of rhetoric for him in Rome. The culmination of his life's work was the <a href="/wiki/Institutio_Oratoria" title="Institutio Oratoria">Institutio Oratoria</a> (Institutes of Oratory, or alternatively, The Orator's Education), a lengthy treatise on the training of the orator, in which he discusses the training of the "perfect" orator from birth to old age and, in the process, reviews the doctrines and opinions of many influential rhetoricians who preceded him. In the Institutes, Quintilian organizes rhetorical study through the stages of education that an aspiring orator would undergo, beginning with the selection of a nurse. Aspects of elementary education (training in reading and writing, grammar, and literary criticism) are followed by preliminary rhetorical exercises in composition (the <a href="/wiki/Progymnasmata" title="Progymnasmata">progymnasmata</a>) that include maxims and fables, narratives and comparisons, and finally full legal or political speeches. The delivery of speeches within the context of education or for entertainment purposes became widespread and popular under the term "declamation". This work was available only in fragments in medieval times, but the discovery of a complete copy at the <a href="/wiki/Abbey_of_St._Gall" class="mw-redirect" title="Abbey of St. Gall">Abbey of St. Gall</a> in 1416 led to its emergence as one of the most influential works on rhetoric during the Renaissance. Quintilian's work describes not just the art of rhetoric, but the formation of the perfect orator as a politically active, virtuous, publicly minded citizen. His emphasis was on the ethical application of rhetorical training, in part in reaction against the tendency in Roman schools toward standardization of themes and techniques. At the same time that rhetoric was becoming divorced from political decision making, rhetoric rose as a culturally vibrant and important mode of entertainment and cultural criticism in a movement known as the "<a href="/wiki/Second_Sophistic" title="Second Sophistic">Second Sophistic</a>", a development that gave rise to the charge (made by Quintilian and others) that teachers were emphasizing style over substance in rhetoric. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Medieval_to_Enlightenment">Medieval to Enlightenment</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Rhetoric&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Medieval to Enlightenment">edit</a>]</div> After the breakup of the western Roman Empire, the study of rhetoric continued to be central to the study of the verbal arts. However the study of the verbal arts went into decline for several centuries, followed eventually by a gradual rise in formal education, culminating in the rise of medieval universities. Rhetoric transmuted during this period into the arts of letter writing (<a href="/wiki/Ars_dictaminis" title="Ars dictaminis">ars dictaminis</a>) and sermon writing (ars praedicandi). As part of the <a href="/wiki/Trivium_(education)" class="mw-redirect" title="Trivium (education)">trivium</a>, rhetoric was secondary to the study of logic, and its study was highly scholastic: students were given repetitive exercises in the creation of discourses on historical subjects (suasoriae) or on classic legal questions (controversiae). Although he is not commonly regarded as a rhetorician, <a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">St. Augustine</a> (354–430) was trained in rhetoric and was at one time a professor of Latin rhetoric in Milan. After his conversion to Christianity, he became interested in using these "<a href="/wiki/Paganism" title="Paganism">pagan</a>" arts for spreading his religion. He explores this new use of rhetoric in <a href="/wiki/De_doctrina_Christiana" title="De doctrina Christiana">De doctrina Christiana</a>, which laid the foundation of what would become <a href="/wiki/Homiletics" title="Homiletics">homiletics</a>, the rhetoric of the sermon. Augustine asks why "the power of eloquence, which is so efficacious in pleading either for the erroneous cause or the right", should not be used for righteous purposes.<a href="#cite_note-83">[81]</a> One early concern of the medieval Christian church was its attitude to classical rhetoric itself. <a href="/wiki/Jerome" title="Jerome">Jerome</a> (d. 420) complained, "What has <a href="/wiki/Horace" title="Horace">Horace</a> to do with the Psalms, <a href="/wiki/Virgil" title="Virgil">Virgil</a> with the Gospels, Cicero with the Apostles?"<a href="#cite_note-84">[82]</a> Augustine is also remembered for arguing for the preservation of pagan works and fostering a church tradition that led to conservation of numerous pre-Christian rhetorical writings. Rhetoric would not regain its classical heights until the Renaissance, but new writings did advance rhetorical thought. <a href="/wiki/Boethius" title="Boethius">Boethius</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 480–524), in his brief Overview of the Structure of Rhetoric, continues Aristotle's taxonomy by placing rhetoric in subordination to philosophical argument or dialectic.<a href="#cite_note-85">[83]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Islamic_contributions_to_Medieval_Europe" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic contributions to Medieval Europe">introduction of Arab scholarship</a> from European relations with the <a href="/wiki/Caliphate" title="Caliphate">Muslim empire</a> (in particular <a href="/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus">Al-Andalus</a>) renewed interest in Aristotle and Classical thought in general, leading to what some historians call <a href="/wiki/Renaissance_of_the_12th_century" title="Renaissance of the 12th century">the 12th century Renaissance</a>. A number of medieval grammars and studies of poetry and rhetoric appeared. Late medieval rhetorical writings include those of St. <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1225–1274), <a href="/wiki/Matthew_of_Vend%C3%B4me" title="Matthew of Vendôme">Matthew of Vendôme</a> (Ars Versificatoria, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1175), and <a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_of_Vinsauf" title="Geoffrey of Vinsauf">Geoffrey of Vinsauf</a> (<a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_of_Vinsauf#The_Poetria_nova" title="Geoffrey of Vinsauf">Poetria Nova</a>, 1200–1216). Pre-modern female rhetoricians, outside of Socrates' friend <a href="/wiki/Aspasia" title="Aspasia">Aspasia</a>, are rare; but medieval rhetoric produced by women either in religious orders, such as <a href="/wiki/Julian_of_Norwich" title="Julian of Norwich">Julian of Norwich</a> (d. 1415), or the very well-connected <a href="/wiki/Christine_de_Pizan" title="Christine de Pizan">Christine de Pizan</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1364–<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1430), did occur although it was not always recorded in writing. In his 1943 <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University" class="mw-redirect" title="Cambridge University">Cambridge University</a> doctoral dissertation in English, Canadian <a href="/wiki/Marshall_McLuhan" title="Marshall McLuhan">Marshall McLuhan</a> (1911–1980) surveys the verbal arts from approximately the time of <a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a> down to the time of <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Nashe" title="Thomas Nashe">Thomas Nashe</a> (1567–<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1600).<a href="#cite_note-86">[84]</a> His dissertation is still noteworthy for undertaking to study the history of the verbal arts together as the trivium, even though the developments that he surveys have been studied in greater detail since he undertook his study. As noted below, McLuhan became one of the most widely publicized communication theorists of the 20th century. Another interesting record of medieval rhetorical thought can be seen in the many <a href="/wiki/Medieval_debate_literature" class="mw-redirect" title="Medieval debate literature">animal debate poems</a> popular in England and the continent during the Middle Ages, such as <a href="/wiki/The_Owl_and_the_Nightingale" title="The Owl and the Nightingale">The Owl and the Nightingale</a> (13th century) and <a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_Chaucer" title="Geoffrey Chaucer">Geoffrey Chaucer</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_Fowls" class="mw-redirect" title="Parliament of Fowls">Parliament of Fowls</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sixteenth_century">Sixteenth century</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Rhetoric&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Sixteenth century">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Renaissance_humanism" title="Renaissance humanism">Renaissance humanism</a> defined itself broadly as disfavoring medieval scholastic logic and dialectic and as favoring instead the study of classical Latin style and grammar and philology and rhetoric.<a href="#cite_note-87">[85]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Quentin_Massys-_Erasmus_of_Rotterdam.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Quentin_Massys-_Erasmus_of_Rotterdam.JPG/190px-Quentin_Massys-_Erasmus_of_Rotterdam.JPG" decoding="async" width="190" height="248" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Quentin_Massys-_Erasmus_of_Rotterdam.JPG/285px-Quentin_Massys-_Erasmus_of_Rotterdam.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Quentin_Massys-_Erasmus_of_Rotterdam.JPG/380px-Quentin_Massys-_Erasmus_of_Rotterdam.JPG 2x" data-file-width="806" data-file-height="1050" /></a><figcaption>Portrait of <a href="/wiki/Erasmus_of_Rotterdam" class="mw-redirect" title="Erasmus of Rotterdam">Erasmus of Rotterdam</a></figcaption></figure> One influential figure in the rebirth of interest in classical rhetoric was <a href="/wiki/Erasmus" title="Erasmus">Erasmus</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1466–1536). His 1512 work, De Duplici Copia Verborum et Rerum (also known as <a href="/wiki/Copia:_Foundations_of_the_Abundant_Style" title="Copia: Foundations of the Abundant Style">Copia: Foundations of the Abundant Style</a>), was widely published (it went through more than 150 editions throughout Europe) and became one of the basic school texts on the subject. Its treatment of rhetoric is less comprehensive than the classic works of antiquity, but provides a traditional treatment of res-verba (matter and form). Its first book treats the subject of <a href="/wiki/Elocutio" title="Elocutio">elocutio</a>, showing the student how to use <a href="/wiki/Figure_of_speech" title="Figure of speech">schemes and tropes</a>; the second book covers <a href="/wiki/Inventio" title="Inventio">inventio</a>. Much of the emphasis is on abundance of variation (copia means "plenty" or "abundance", as in copious or cornucopia), so both books focus on ways to introduce the maximum amount of variety into discourse. For instance, in one section of the De Copia, Erasmus presents two hundred variations of the sentence "Always, as long as I live, I shall remember you" ("Semper, dum vivam, tui meminero.") Another of his works, the extremely popular <a href="/wiki/The_Praise_of_Folly" class="mw-redirect" title="The Praise of Folly">The Praise of Folly</a>, also had considerable influence on the teaching of rhetoric in the later 16th century. Its orations in favour of qualities such as madness spawned a type of exercise popular in Elizabethan grammar schools, later called <a href="/wiki/Adoxography" title="Adoxography">adoxography</a>, which required pupils to compose passages in praise of useless things. <a href="/wiki/Juan_Luis_Vives" title="Juan Luis Vives">Juan Luis Vives</a> (1492–1540) also helped shape the study of rhetoric in England. A Spaniard, he was appointed in 1523 to the Lectureship of Rhetoric at Oxford by <a href="/wiki/Cardinal_Wolsey" class="mw-redirect" title="Cardinal Wolsey">Cardinal Wolsey</a>, and was entrusted by <a href="/wiki/Henry_VIII_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Henry VIII of England">Henry VIII</a> to be one of the tutors of Mary. Vives fell into disfavor when Henry VIII divorced <a href="/wiki/Catherine_of_Aragon" title="Catherine of Aragon">Catherine of Aragon</a> and left England in 1528. His best-known work was a book on education, De Disciplinis, published in 1531, and his writings on rhetoric included Rhetoricae, sive De Ratione Dicendi, Libri Tres (1533), De Consultatione (1533), and a treatise on letter writing, De Conscribendis Epistolas (1536). It is likely that many well-known English writers were exposed to the works of Erasmus and Vives (as well as those of the Classical rhetoricians) in their schooling, which was conducted in Latin (not English), often included some study of Greek, and placed considerable emphasis on rhetoric.<a href="#cite_note-88">[86]</a> The mid-16th century saw the rise of vernacular rhetorics—those written in English rather than in the Classical languages. Adoption of works in English was slow, however, due to the strong scholastic orientation toward Latin and Greek. <a href="/wiki/Leonard_Cox" title="Leonard Cox">Leonard Cox</a>'s The Art or Crafte of Rhetoryke (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1524–1530; second edition published in 1532) is the earliest text on rhetorics in English; it was, for the most part, a translation of the work of <a href="/wiki/Melanchthon" class="mw-redirect" title="Melanchthon">Philipp Melanchthon</a>.<a href="#cite_note-89">[87]</a> <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Wilson_(rhetorician)" title="Thomas Wilson (rhetorician)">Thomas Wilson</a>'s The Arte of Rhetorique (1553) presents a traditional treatment of rhetoric, for instance, the standard five canons of rhetoric. Other notable works included <a href="/wiki/Angel_Day" title="Angel Day">Angel Day</a>'s The English Secretorie (1586, 1592), <a href="/wiki/George_Puttenham" title="George Puttenham">George Puttenham</a>'s The Arte of English Poesie (1589), and Richard Rainholde's Foundacion of Rhetorike (1563). During this same period, a movement began that would change the organization of the school curriculum in Protestant and especially Puritan circles and that led to rhetoric losing its central place. A French scholar, <a href="/wiki/Petrus_Ramus" title="Petrus Ramus">Petrus Ramus</a> (1515–1572), dissatisfied with what he saw as the overly broad and redundant organization of the <a href="/wiki/Trivium_(education)" class="mw-redirect" title="Trivium (education)">trivium</a>, proposed a new curriculum. In his scheme of things, the five components of rhetoric no longer lived under the common heading of rhetoric. Instead, invention and disposition were determined to fall exclusively under the heading of dialectic, while style, delivery, and memory were all that remained for rhetoric.<a href="#cite_note-90">[88]</a> Ramus was martyred during the French Wars of Religion. His teachings, seen as inimical to Catholicism, were short-lived in France but found a fertile ground in the Netherlands, Germany, and England.<a href="#cite_note-91">[89]</a> One of Ramus' French followers, <a href="/wiki/Audomarus_Talaeus" class="mw-redirect" title="Audomarus Talaeus">Audomarus Talaeus</a> (Omer Talon) published his rhetoric, Institutiones Oratoriae, in 1544. This work emphasized style, and became so popular that it was mentioned in <a href="/wiki/John_Brinsley_the_elder" class="mw-redirect" title="John Brinsley the elder">John Brinsley</a>'s (1612) Ludus literarius; or The Grammar Schoole as being the "most used in the best schooles". Many other <a href="/wiki/Ramist" class="mw-redirect" title="Ramist">Ramist</a> rhetorics followed in the next half-century, and by the 17th century, their approach became the primary method of teaching rhetoric in Protestant and especially Puritan circles.<a href="#cite_note-92">[90]</a> <a href="/wiki/John_Milton" title="John Milton">John Milton</a> (1608–1674) wrote a textbook in logic or dialectic in Latin based on Ramus' work.<a href="#cite_note-93">[91]</a> Ramism could not exert any influence on the established Catholic schools and universities, which remained loyal to Scholasticism, or on the new Catholic schools and universities founded by members of the <a href="/wiki/Society_of_Jesus" class="mw-redirect" title="Society of Jesus">Society of Jesus</a> or the Oratorians, as can be seen in the <a href="/wiki/Jesuit" class="mw-redirect" title="Jesuit">Jesuit</a> curriculum (in use up to the 19th century across the Christian world) known as the <a href="/wiki/Ratio_Studiorum" title="Ratio Studiorum">Ratio Studiorum</a>.<a href="#cite_note-94">[92]</a> If the influence of Cicero and Quintilian permeates the Ratio Studiorum, it is through the lenses of devotion and the militancy of the <a href="/wiki/Counter-Reformation" title="Counter-Reformation">Counter-Reformation</a>. The Ratio was indeed imbued with a sense of the divine, of the incarnate logos, that is of rhetoric as an eloquent and humane means to reach further devotion and further action in the Christian city, which was absent from Ramist formalism. The Ratio is, in rhetoric, the answer to <a href="/wiki/Ignatius_Loyola" class="mw-redirect" title="Ignatius Loyola">Ignatius Loyola</a>'s practice, in devotion, of "<a href="/wiki/Spiritual_Exercises" title="Spiritual Exercises">spiritual exercises</a>". This complex oratorical-prayer system is absent from Ramism. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Seventeenth_century">Seventeenth century</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Rhetoric&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Seventeenth century">edit</a>]</div> In New England and at <a href="/wiki/Harvard_College" title="Harvard College">Harvard College</a> (founded 1636), Ramus and his followers dominated.<a href="#cite_note-95">[93]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] However, in England, several writers influenced the course of rhetoric during the 17th century, many of them carrying forward the dichotomy[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">specify</a>] that had been set forth by Ramus and his followers during the preceding decades. This century also saw the development of a modern, vernacular style that looked to English, rather than to Greek, Latin, or French models. <a href="/wiki/Francis_Bacon" title="Francis Bacon">Francis Bacon</a> (1561–1626), although not a rhetorician, contributed to the field in his writings. One of the concerns of the age was to find a suitable style for the discussion of scientific topics, which needed above all a clear exposition of facts and arguments, rather than an ornate style. Bacon in his <a href="/wiki/The_Advancement_of_Learning" title="The Advancement of Learning">The Advancement of Learning</a> criticized those who are preoccupied with style rather than "the weight of matter, worth of subject, soundness of argument, life of invention, or depth of judgment".<a href="#cite_note-96">[94]</a> On matters of style, he proposed that the style conform to the subject matter and to the audience, that simple words be employed whenever possible, and that the style should be agreeable.<a href="#cite_note-97">[95]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Thomas Hobbes</a> (1588–1679) also wrote on rhetoric. Along with a shortened translation of <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>'s Rhetoric, Hobbes also produced a number of other works on the subject. Sharply contrarian on many subjects, Hobbes, like Bacon, also promoted a simpler and more natural style that used figures of speech sparingly. Perhaps the most influential development in English style came out of the work of the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Society" title="Royal Society">Royal Society</a> (founded in 1660), which in 1664 set up a committee to improve the English language. Among the committee's members were <a href="/wiki/John_Evelyn" title="John Evelyn">John Evelyn</a> (1620–1706), <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Sprat" title="Thomas Sprat">Thomas Sprat</a> (1635–1713), and <a href="/wiki/John_Dryden" title="John Dryden">John Dryden</a> (1631–1700). Sprat regarded "fine speaking" as a disease, and thought that a proper style should "reject all amplifications, digressions, and swellings of style" and instead "return back to a primitive purity and shortness".<a href="#cite_note-98">[96]</a> While the work of this committee never went beyond planning, John Dryden is often credited with creating and exemplifying a new and modern English style. His central tenet was that the style should be proper "to the occasion, the subject, and the persons".<a href="#cite_note-99">[97]</a> As such, he advocated the use of English words whenever possible instead of foreign ones, as well as vernacular, rather than Latinate, syntax. His own prose (and his poetry) became exemplars of this new style. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Eighteenth_century">Eighteenth century</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Rhetoric&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Eighteenth century">edit</a>]</div> Arguably one of the most influential schools of rhetoric during the 18th century was Scottish <a href="/wiki/Belles-lettres" title="Belles-lettres">Belletristic</a> rhetoric, exemplified by such professors of rhetoric as <a href="/wiki/Hugh_Blair" title="Hugh Blair">Hugh Blair</a> whose <a href="/wiki/Lectures_on_Rhetoric_and_Belles_Lettres" class="mw-redirect" title="Lectures on Rhetoric and Belles Lettres">Lectures on Rhetoric and Belles Lettres</a> saw international success in various editions and translations, and <a href="/wiki/Lord_Kames" class="mw-redirect" title="Lord Kames">Lord Kames</a> with his influential Elements of Criticism. Another notable figure in 18th century rhetoric was <a href="/wiki/Maria_Edgeworth" title="Maria Edgeworth">Maria Edgeworth</a>, a novelist and children's author whose work often parodied the male-centric rhetorical strategies of her time. In her 1795 "An Essay on the Noble Science of Self-Justification," Edgeworth presents a satire of Enlightenment rhetoric's science-centrism and the Belletristic Movement.<a href="#cite_note-100">[98]</a> She was called "the great Maria" by <a href="/wiki/Walter_Scott" title="Walter Scott">Sir Walter Scott</a>, with whom she corresponded,<a href="#cite_note-101">[99]</a> and by modern scholars is noted as "a transgressive and ironic reader" of the 18th century rhetorical norms.<a href="#cite_note-102">[100]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Modern">Modern</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Rhetoric&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Modern">edit</a>]</div> At the turn of the 20th century, there was a revival of rhetorical study manifested in the establishment of departments of rhetoric and speech at academic institutions, as well as the formation of national and international professional organizations.<a href="#cite_note-103">[101]</a> The early interest in rhetorical studies was a movement away from elocution as taught in English departments in the United States, and an attempt to refocus rhetorical studies from delivery-only to civic engagement and a "rich complexity" of the nature of rhetoric.<a href="#cite_note-104">[102]</a> By the 1930s, advances in <a href="/wiki/Mass_media" title="Mass media">mass media</a> technology led to a revival of the study of rhetoric, language, persuasion, and political rhetoric and its consequences. The <a href="/wiki/Linguistic_turn" title="Linguistic turn">linguistic turn</a> in philosophy also contributed to this revival. The term rhetoric came to be applied to media forms other than verbal language, e.g. <a href="/wiki/Visual_rhetoric" title="Visual rhetoric">visual rhetoric</a>, "temporal rhetorics",<a href="#cite_note-105">[103]</a> and the "temporal turn"<a href="#cite_note-106">[104]</a> in rhetorical theory and practice. The rise of <a href="/wiki/Advertising" title="Advertising">advertising</a> and of mass media such as <a href="/wiki/Photography" title="Photography">photography</a>, <a href="/wiki/Telegraphy" title="Telegraphy">telegraphy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Radio" title="Radio">radio</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Film" title="Film">film</a> brought rhetoric more prominently into people's lives. The discipline of rhetoric has been used to study how <a href="/wiki/Advertising" title="Advertising">advertising</a> persuades,<a href="#cite_note-107">[105]</a> and to help understand the spread of <a href="/wiki/Fake_news" title="Fake news">fake news</a> and <a href="/wiki/Conspiracy_theory" title="Conspiracy theory">conspiracy theories</a> on social media.<a href="#cite_note-108">[106]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Notable_theorists">Notable theorists</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Rhetoric&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Notable theorists">edit</a>]</div> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Burke" title="Kenneth Burke">Kenneth Burke</a></dt> <dd>Burke was a rhetorical theorist, philosopher, and poet. Many of his works are central to modern rhetorical theory: Counterstatement (1931), A Grammar of Motives (1945), A Rhetoric of Motives (1950), and Language as Symbolic Action (1966). Among his influential concepts are "identification", "consubstantiality", and the "<a href="/wiki/Dramatistic_pentad" title="Dramatistic pentad">dramatistic pentad</a>". He described rhetoric as "the use of language as a symbolic means of inducing cooperation in beings that by nature respond to symbols".<a href="#cite_note-109">[107]</a> In relation to Aristotle's theory, Aristotle was more interested in constructing rhetoric, while Burke was interested in "debunking" it.</dd> <dt>The <a href="/wiki/Groupe_%CE%BC" title="Groupe μ">Groupe μ</a></dt> <dd>This interdisciplinary team contributed to the renovation of the elocutio in the context of poetics and modern linguistics, significantly with Rhétorique générale<a href="#cite_note-110">[108]</a> and Rhétorique de la poésie (1977).</dd> <dt><a href="/wiki/Marshall_McLuhan" title="Marshall McLuhan">Marshall McLuhan</a></dt> <dd>McLuhan was a media theorist whose theories and whose choice of objects of study are important to the study of rhetoric. McLuhan's book <a href="/wiki/The_Mechanical_Bride" title="The Mechanical Bride">The Mechanical Bride</a><a href="#cite_note-111">[109]</a> was a compilation of exhibits of ads and other materials from popular culture with short essays involving rhetorical analyses of the persuasive strategies in each item. McLuhan later shifted the focus of his rhetorical analysis and began to consider how communication media themselves affect us as persuasive devices. His famous dictum "<a href="/wiki/The_medium_is_the_message" title="The medium is the message">the medium is the message</a>" highlights the significance of the medium itself. This shift in focus led to his two most widely known books, <a href="/wiki/The_Gutenberg_Galaxy" title="The Gutenberg Galaxy">The Gutenberg Galaxy</a><a href="#cite_note-112">[110]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Understanding_Media" title="Understanding Media">Understanding Media</a>.<a href="#cite_note-113">[111]</a> These books represent an inward turn to attending to one's consciousness in contrast to the more outward orientation of other rhetoricians toward sociological considerations and symbolic interaction. No other scholar of the history and theory of rhetoric was as widely publicized in the 20th century as McLuhan.</dd> <dt><a href="/wiki/Cha%C3%AFm_Perelman" title="Chaïm Perelman">Chaïm Perelman</a></dt> <dd>Perelman was among the most important <a href="/wiki/Argumentation_theory" title="Argumentation theory">argumentation</a> theorists of the 20th century. His chief work is the Traité de l'argumentation—la nouvelle rhétorique (1958), with <a href="/wiki/Lucie_Olbrechts-Tyteca" title="Lucie Olbrechts-Tyteca">Lucie Olbrechts-Tyteca</a>, which was translated into English as The New Rhetoric: A Treatise on Argumentation.<a href="#cite_note-114">[112]</a> Perelman and Olbrechts-Tyteca move rhetoric from the periphery to the center of argumentation theory. Among their most influential concepts are "dissociation", "the universal audience", "quasi-logical argument", and "presence".</dd> <dt><a href="/wiki/I._A._Richards" title="I. A. Richards">I. A. Richards</a></dt> <dd>Richards was a literary critic and rhetorician. His The Philosophy of Rhetoric is an important text in modern rhetorical theory.<a href="#cite_note-Richards1965-115">[113]</a> In this work, he defined rhetoric as "a study of misunderstandings and its remedies", and introduced the influential concepts tenor and vehicle to describe the components of a metaphor—the main idea and the concept to which it is compared.<a href="#cite_note-Richards1965-115">[113]</a>: 97 </dd> <dt><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Toulmin" title="Stephen Toulmin">Stephen Toulmin</a></dt> <dd>Toulmin was a philosopher whose Uses of Argument is an important text in modern rhetorical theory and <a href="/wiki/Argumentation_theory" title="Argumentation theory">argumentation theory</a>.<a href="#cite_note-116">[114]</a></dd> <dt><a href="/wiki/Richard_M._Weaver" title="Richard M. Weaver">Richard M. Weaver</a></dt> <dd>Weaver was a rhetorical and cultural critic known for his contributions to the new conservatism. He focused on the ethical implications of rhetoric in his books Language is Sermonic and The Ethics of Rhetoric. According to Weaver there are four types of argument, and through the argument type a rhetorician habitually uses a critic can discern their worldview. Those who prefer the argument from genus or definition are idealists. Those who argue from similitude, such as poets and religious people, see the connectedness between things. The argument from consequence sees a cause and effect relationship. Finally the argument from circumstance considers the particulars of a situation and is an argument preferred by liberals.</dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Methods_of_analysis">Methods of analysis</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Rhetoric&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Methods of analysis">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Criticism_seen_as_a_method">Criticism seen as a method</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Rhetoric&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Criticism seen as a method">edit</a>]</div> Rhetoric can be analyzed by a variety of methods and theories. One such method is criticism. When those using criticism analyze instances of rhetoric what they do is called rhetorical criticism (<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1033199720">.mw-parser-output div.crossreference{padding-left:0}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951">see <a href="#Criticism">Criticism</a>). According to rhetorical critic <a href="/wiki/Jim_A._Kuypers" title="Jim A. Kuypers">Jim A. Kuypers</a>, "The use of rhetoric is an art, and as such, it does not lend itself well to scientific methods of analysis. Criticism is an art as well, and as such is particularly well suited for examining rhetorical creations."<a href="#cite_note-Jim_A_2009-117">[115]</a>: 14  He asserts that criticism is a method of generating knowledge just as the scientific method is a method for generating knowledge:<a href="#cite_note-Jim_A_2009-117">[115]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">The way the Sciences and the Humanities study the phenomena that surround us differ greatly in the amount of researcher personality allowed to influence the results of the study. For example, in the Sciences researchers purposefully adhere to a strict method (the scientific method).... Generally speaking, the researcher's personality, likes and dislikes, and religious and political preferences are supposed to be as far removed as possible from the actual study.... In sharp contrast, criticism (one of many Humanistic methods of generating knowledge) actively involves the personality of the researcher. The very choices of what to study, and how and why to study a rhetorical artifact are heavily influenced by the personal qualities of the researcher.... In the Humanities, methods of research may also take many forms—criticism, ethnography, for example—but the personality of the researcher is an integral component of the study. Further personalizing criticism, we find that rhetorical critics use a variety of means when examining a particular rhetorical artifact, with some critics even developing their own unique perspective to better examine a rhetorical artifact.<a href="#cite_note-Jim_A_2009-117">[115]</a>: 14 <div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Jim A. Kuypers</cite></div></blockquote> <a href="/wiki/Edwin_Black_(rhetorician)" title="Edwin Black (rhetorician)">Edwin Black</a> wrote on this point that, "Methods, then, admit of varying degrees of personality. And criticism, on the whole, is near the indeterminate, contingent, personal end of the methodological scale. In consequence of this placement, it is neither possible nor desirable for criticism to be fixed into a system, for critical techniques to be objectified, for critics to be interchangeable for purposes of replication, or for rhetorical criticism to serve as the handmaiden of quasi-scientific theory."<a href="#cite_note-Black1978-118">[116]</a>: xi  Jim A. Kuypers sums this idea of criticism as art in the following manner: "In short, criticism is an art, not a science. It is not a scientific method; it uses subjective methods of argument; it exists on its own, not in conjunction with other methods of generating knowledge (i.e., social scientific or scientific)... [I]nsight and imagination top statistical applications when studying rhetorical action."<a href="#cite_note-Jim_A_2009-117">[115]</a>: 14–15  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Strategies">Strategies</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Rhetoric&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Strategies">edit</a>]</div> Rhetorical strategies are the efforts made by authors or speakers to persuade or inform their audiences. According to James W. Gray,[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:What_Wikipedia_is_not#Encyclopedic_content" title="Wikipedia:What Wikipedia is not">importance?</a>] there are various argument strategies used in writing. He describes four of these as argument from analogy, argument from absurdity, thought experiments, and inference to the best explanation.<a href="#cite_note-119">[117]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Criticism">Criticism</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Rhetoric&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Criticism">edit</a>]</div> Modern <a href="/wiki/Rhetorical_criticism" title="Rhetorical criticism">rhetorical criticism</a> explores the relationship between text and context; that is, how an instance of rhetoric relates to circumstances. Since the aim of rhetoric is to be persuasive, the level to which the rhetoric in question persuades its audience is what must be analyzed, and later criticized. In determining the extent to which a text is persuasive, one may explore the text's relationship with its audience, purpose, ethics, argument, evidence, arrangement, delivery, and style.<a href="#cite_note-120">[118]</a> In his Rhetorical Criticism: A Study in Method, Edwin Black states, "It is the task of criticism not to measure... discourses dogmatically against some parochial standard of rationality but, allowing for the immeasurable wide range of human experience, to see them as they really are."<a href="#cite_note-Black1978-118">[116]</a>: 131  While "as they really are" is debatable, rhetorical critics explain texts and speeches by investigating their <a href="/wiki/Rhetorical_situation" title="Rhetorical situation">rhetorical situation</a>, typically placing them in a framework of speaker/audience exchange. The antithetical view places the rhetor at the center of creating that which is considered the extant situation; i.e., the agenda and spin.<a href="#cite_note-121">[119]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Additional_theoretical_approaches">Additional theoretical approaches</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Rhetoric&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Additional theoretical approaches">edit</a>]</div> Following the <a href="/wiki/Neo-Aristotelianism_(literature)" title="Neo-Aristotelianism (literature)">neo-Aristotelian</a> approaches to criticism, scholars began to derive methods from other disciplines, such as history, philosophy, and the social sciences.<a href="#cite_note-Jansinski2001-122">[120]</a>: 249  The importance of critics' personal judgment decreased in explicit coverage[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify">clarification needed</a>] while the analytical dimension of criticism began to gain momentum. Throughout the 1960s and 1970s, methodological pluralism replaced the singular neo-Aristotelian method. Methodological rhetorical criticism is typically done by deduction, in which a broad method[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Vagueness" title="Wikipedia:Vagueness">vague</a>] is used to examine a specific case of rhetoric.<a href="#cite_note-123">[121]</a> These types[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify">clarification needed</a>] include: <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Ideological_criticism" title="Ideological criticism">Ideological criticism</a></dt> <dd>engages rhetoric as it suggests the beliefs, values, assumptions, and interpretations held by the rhetor or the larger culture</dd> <dd>Ideological criticism also treats ideology as an artifact of discourse, one that is embedded in key terms (called "<a href="/wiki/Ideographs" class="mw-redirect" title="Ideographs">ideographs</a>") as well as material resources and discursive embodiment.</dd> <dt><a href="/wiki/Cluster_criticism" title="Cluster criticism">Cluster criticism</a></dt> <dd>seeks to help the critic understand the rhetor's worldview (developed by <a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Burke" title="Kenneth Burke">Kenneth Burke</a>)</dd> <dd>This means identifying terms that are "clustered" around key symbols in the rhetorical artifact and the patterns in which they appear.</dd> <dt><a href="/wiki/Frame_analysis" title="Frame analysis">Frame analysis</a></dt> <dd>looks for how rhetors construct an interpretive lens in their discourse</dd> <dd>In short, how they make certain facts more noticeable than others. It is particularly useful for analyzing products of the news media.</dd> <dt><a href="/wiki/Genre_criticism" title="Genre criticism">Genre criticism</a></dt> <dd>assumes certain situations call for similar needs and expectations within the audience, therefore calling for certain types of rhetoric</dd> <dd>It studies rhetoric in different times and locations, looking at similarities in the rhetorical situation and the rhetoric that responds to them. Examples include eulogies, inaugural addresses, and declarations of war.</dd> <dt><a href="/wiki/Narrative_criticism" title="Narrative criticism">Narrative criticism</a></dt> <dd>narratives help organize experiences in order to endow meaning to historical events and transformations</dd> <dd>Narrative criticism focuses on the story itself and how the construction of the narrative directs the interpretation of the situation.</dd></dl> By the mid-1980s the study of rhetorical criticism began to move away from precise methodology towards conceptual issues. Conceptually-driven criticism<a href="#cite_note-124">[122]</a> operates more through abduction, according to scholar James Jasinski, who argues that this type of criticism can be thought of as a back-and-forth between the text and the concepts[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">specify</a>], which are being explored at the same time. The concepts remain "works in progress", and understanding those terms[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify">clarification needed</a>] develops through the analysis of a text.<a href="#cite_note-Jansinski2001-122">[120]</a>: 256  Criticism is considered rhetorical when it focuses on the way some types of discourse react to situational exigencies—problems or demands—and constraints. Modern rhetorical criticism concerns how the rhetorical case or object persuades, defines, or constructs the audience. In modern terms, rhetoric includes, but it is not limited to, speeches, scientific discourse, pamphlets, literary work, works of art, and pictures. Contemporary rhetorical criticism has maintained aspects of early neo-Aristotelian thinking through close reading, which attempts to explore the organization and stylistic structure of a rhetorical object.<a href="#cite_note-125">[123]</a> Using close textual analysis means rhetorical critics use the tools of classical rhetoric and literary analysis to evaluate the style and strategy used to communicate the argument. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Purpose_of_criticism">Purpose of criticism</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Rhetoric&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Purpose of criticism">edit</a>]</div> Rhetorical criticism serves several purposes. For one, it hopes to help form or improve public taste. It helps educate audiences and develops them into better judges of rhetorical situations by reinforcing ideas of value, morality, and suitability. Rhetorical criticism can thus contribute to the audience's understanding of themselves and society. According to Jim A. Kuypers, a second purpose for performing criticism should be to enhance our appreciation and understanding. "[W]e wish to enhance both our own and others' understanding of the rhetorical act; we wish to share our insights with others, and to enhance their appreciation of the rhetorical act. These are not hollow goals, but quality of life issues. By improving understanding and appreciation, the critic can offer new and potentially exciting ways for others to see the world. Through understanding we also produce knowledge about human communication; in theory this should help us to better govern our interactions with others." Criticism is a humanizing activity in that it explores and highlights qualities that make us human.<a href="#cite_note-Jim_A_2009-117">[115]</a>: 13  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Animal_rhetoric">Animal rhetoric</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Rhetoric&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Animal rhetoric">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Essay-like plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-style ambox-essay-like" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/40px-Edit-clear.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/60px-Edit-clear.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/80px-Edit-clear.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section is written like a <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:What_Wikipedia_is_not#Wikipedia_is_not_a_publisher_of_original_thought" title="Wikipedia:What Wikipedia is not">personal reflection, personal essay, or argumentative essay</a> that states a Wikipedia editor's personal feelings or presents an original argument about a topic. Please <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rhetoric&action=edit">help improve it</a> by rewriting it in an <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Writing_better_articles#Information_style_and_tone" title="Wikipedia:Writing better articles">encyclopedic style</a>. (September 2023) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> Rhetoric is practiced by <a href="/wiki/Social" title="Social">social</a> animals in a variety of ways. For example, birds use <a href="/wiki/Bird_vocalization" title="Bird vocalization">song</a>, various animals warn members of their species of danger, <a href="/wiki/Common_chimpanzee" class="mw-redirect" title="Common chimpanzee">chimpanzees</a> have the capacity to deceive through communicative keyboard systems, and deer stags compete for the attention of mates. While these might be understood as <a href="/wiki/Animal_communication" title="Animal communication">rhetorical actions</a> (attempts at persuading through meaningful actions and <a href="/wiki/Utterance" title="Utterance">utterances</a>), they can also be seen as rhetorical fundamentals shared by humans and animals.<a href="#cite_note-126">[124]</a> The study of animal rhetoric has been called "biorhetorics".<a href="#cite_note-127">[125]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Self-awareness" title="Self-awareness">self-awareness</a> required to practice rhetoric might be difficult to notice and acknowledge in some animals. However, some animals are capable of <a href="/wiki/Mirror_test" title="Mirror test">acknowledging themselves in a mirror</a>, and therefore, they might be understood to be self-aware and therefore, argue philosophers such as Diane Davis, are able to engage with rhetoric when practicing some form of language.<a href="#cite_note-128">[126]</a> Anthropocentrism plays a significant role in human-animal relationships, reflecting and perpetuating binaries in which humans assume they are beings that have extraordinary qualities while they regard animals as beings that lack those qualities. This dualism is manifested in other forms as well, such as reason and sense, mind and body, ideal and phenomenal in which the first category of each pair (<a href="/wiki/Reason" title="Reason">reason</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mind" title="Mind">mind</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Platonic_ideal" class="mw-redirect" title="Platonic ideal">ideal</a>) represents and belongs to only humans. By becoming aware of and overcoming these dualistic conceptions including the one between humans and animals, humans will be able to more easily engage with and communicate with animals, with the understanding that animals are capable of reciprocating communication. <a href="#cite_note-129">[127]</a> The relationship between humans and animals (as well as the rest of the natural world) is often defined by the human rhetorical act of naming and categorizing animals through <a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)" title="Taxonomy (biology)">scientific</a> and <a href="/wiki/Folk_taxonomy" title="Folk taxonomy">folk</a> labeling. The act of naming partially defines the rhetorical relationships between humans and animals, though both may engage in rhetoric beyond human naming and categorizing.<a href="#cite_note-130">[128]</a> Some animals have a sort of <a href="/wiki/Phronesis" title="Phronesis">phrónēsis</a> which enables them to "learn and receive instruction" with rudimentary understanding of some significant signs. Those animals practice deliberative, judicial, and <a href="/wiki/Epideictic" title="Epideictic">epideictic</a> rhetoric deploying ethos, logos, and pathos with gesture and preen, sing and growl.<a href="#cite_note-131">[129]</a> Since animals offer models of rhetorical behavior and interaction that are physical, even instinctual, but perhaps no less artful, transcending our accustomed focus on verbal language and consciousness concepts will help people interested in rhetoric and communication to promote human-animal rhetoric.<a href="#cite_note-132">[130]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Comparative_rhetoric">Comparative rhetoric</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Rhetoric&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Comparative rhetoric">edit</a>]</div> Comparative rhetoric is a practice and methodology that developed in the late twentieth century to broaden the study of rhetoric beyond the dominant rhetorical tradition that has been constructed and shaped in western Europe and the U.S.<a href="#cite_note-:3-133">[131]</a><a href="#cite_note-134">[132]</a> As a research practice, comparative rhetoric studies past and present cultures across the globe to reveal diversity in the uses of rhetoric and to uncover rhetorical perspectives, practices, and traditions that have been historically underrepresented or dismissed.<a href="#cite_note-:3-133">[131]</a><a href="#cite_note-:4-135">[133]</a><a href="#cite_note-:6-136">[134]</a> As a methodology, comparative rhetoric constructs a culture's rhetorical perspectives, practices, and traditions on their own terms, in their own contexts, as opposed to using European or American theories, terminology, or framing.<a href="#cite_note-:3-133">[131]</a> Comparative rhetoric is comparative in that it illuminates how rhetorical traditions relate to one another, while seeking to avoid binary depictions or value judgments.<a href="#cite_note-:3-133">[131]</a> This can reveal issues of power within and between cultures as well as new or under-recognized ways of thinking, doing, and being that challenge or enrich the dominant Euro-American tradition and provide a fuller account of rhetorical studies.<a href="#cite_note-137">[135]</a> <a href="/wiki/Robert_T._Oliver" title="Robert T. Oliver">Robert T. Oliver</a> is credited as the first scholar who recognized the need to study non-Western rhetorics in his 1971 publication Communication and Culture in Ancient India and China.<a href="#cite_note-:4-135">[133]</a><a href="#cite_note-:5-138">[136]</a> <a href="/wiki/George_A._Kennedy_(classicist)" title="George A. Kennedy (classicist)">George A. Kennedy</a> has been credited for the first cross-cultural overview of rhetoric in his 1998 publication Comparative Rhetoric: An Historical and Cross-cultural Introduction.<a href="#cite_note-:5-138">[136]</a> Though Oliver's and Kennedy's works contributed to the birth of comparative rhetoric, given the newness of the field, they both used Euro-American terms and theories to interpret non-Euro-American cultures' practices.<a href="#cite_note-:5-138">[136]</a><a href="#cite_note-139">[137]</a> LuMing Mao, Xing Lu, Mary Garrett, Arabella Lyon, Bo Wang, Hui Wu, and Keith Lloyd have published extensively on comparative rhetoric, helping to shape and define the field.<a href="#cite_note-:5-138">[136]</a> In 2013, LuMing Mao edited a special issue on comparative rhetoric in Rhetoric Society Quarterly,<a href="#cite_note-140">[138]</a> focusing on comparative methodologies in the age of globalization. In 2015, LuMing Mao and Bo Wang coedited a symposium<a href="#cite_note-MaoWang-141">[139]</a> featuring position essays by a group of leading scholars in the field. In their introduction, Mao and Wang emphasize the fluid and cross-cultural nature of rhetoric, "Rhetorical knowledge, like any other knowledge, is heterogeneous, multidimentional, and always in the process of being created."<a href="#cite_note-MaoWang-141">[139]</a>: 241  The symposium includes "A Manifesto: The What and How of Comparative Rhetoric", demonstrating the first collective effort to identify and articulate comparative rhetoric's definition, goals, and methodologies.<a href="#cite_note-:6-136">[134]</a> The tenets of this manifesto are engaged within many later works that study or utilize comparative rhetoric.<a href="#cite_note-:5-138">[136]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Automatic_detection_of_rhetorical_figures">Automatic detection of rhetorical figures</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Rhetoric&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Automatic detection of rhetorical figures">edit</a>]</div> As <a href="/wiki/Natural_language_processing" title="Natural language processing">natural language processing</a> has developed, so has interest in automatically detecting <a href="/wiki/Rhetorical_device" title="Rhetorical device">rhetorical figures</a>. The major focus has been to detect specific figures, such as <a href="/wiki/Chiasmus" title="Chiasmus">chiasmus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anaphora_(rhetoric)" title="Anaphora (rhetoric)">epanaphora</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Epistrophe" title="Epistrophe">epiphora</a><a href="#cite_note-142">[140]</a> using <a href="/wiki/Statistical_classification" title="Statistical classification">classifiers</a> trained with <a href="/wiki/Labeled_data" title="Labeled data">labeled data</a>. A major shortcoming to achieving high accuracy with these systems is the shortage of labeled data for these tasks, but with recent advances in <a href="/wiki/Language_modeling" class="mw-redirect" title="Language modeling">language modeling</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Few-shot_learning_(natural_language_processing)" class="mw-redirect" title="Few-shot learning (natural language processing)">few-shot learning</a>, it may be possible to detect more rhetorical figures with less data.<a href="#cite_note-143">[141]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Academic_journals">Academic journals</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Rhetoric&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Academic journals">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.americanforensicsassoc.org/argumentation-and-advocacy/">Argumentation and Advocacy</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cccc.ncte.org/cccc/ccc">College Composition and Communication</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ncte.org/resources/journals/college-english/">College English</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://enculturation.net/">Enculturation</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://harlotofthearts.org/">Harlot</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kairos.technorhetoric.net">Kairos</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cfshrc.org/peitho-journal/">Peitho</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.presenttensejournal.org/">Present Tense</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://relevantrhetoric.com/">Relevant Rhetoric</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/hrhr20">Rhetoric Review</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://associationdatabase.com/aws/RSA/pt/sp/rsq">Rhetoric Society Quarterly (RSQ)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://xchanges.org">XChanges</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Rhetoric&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1266661725">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/18px-Socrates.png" decoding="async" width="18" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/27px-Socrates.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/36px-Socrates.png 2x" data-file-width="326" data-file-height="500" /><a href="/wiki/Portal:Philosophy" title="Portal:Philosophy">Philosophy portal</a></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Psi2.svg/28px-Psi2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Psi2.svg/42px-Psi2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Psi2.svg/56px-Psi2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /><a href="/wiki/Portal:Psychology" title="Portal:Psychology">Psychology portal</a></li></ul> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_rhetoric" class="mw-redirect" title="Glossary of rhetoric">Glossary of rhetoric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_slogans" title="List of political slogans">List of political slogans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_speeches" title="List of speeches">List of speeches</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artes_liberales" class="mw-redirect" title="Artes liberales">Artes liberales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civic_humanism" class="mw-redirect" title="Civic humanism">Civic humanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Composition_studies" title="Composition studies">Composition studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conversation_theory" title="Conversation theory">Conversation theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demagogy" class="mw-redirect" title="Demagogy">Demagogy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discourse_analysis" title="Discourse analysis">Discourse analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grammarian_(Greco-Roman_world)" class="mw-redirect" title="Grammarian (Greco-Roman world)">Grammarian (Greco-Roman world)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kish%C5%8Dtenketsu" title="Kishōtenketsu">Kishōtenketsu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_and_thought" title="Language and thought">Language and thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multimodality" title="Multimodality">Multimodality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_rhetoric" title="New rhetoric">New rhetoric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedagogy" title="Pedagogy">Pedagogy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persuasion_technology" class="mw-redirect" title="Persuasion technology">Persuasion technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propaganda" title="Propaganda">Propaganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speechwriting" class="mw-redirect" title="Speechwriting">Speechwriting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technical_communication" title="Technical communication">Technical communication</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Rhetoric&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> The word rhetoric comes from the <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a> ῥητορικός rhētorikós, "oratorical", from ῥήτωρ rhḗtōr, "public speaker".<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a> The adjective form, rhetorical, is pronounced <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/rɪˈtɒrɪkəl/</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a> The definition of rhetoric is a controversial subject in the field and has given rise to philological battles over its meaning in Ancient Greece.<a href="#cite_note-6">[5]</a> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Rhetoric&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Rhetoric&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Citations">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline;"><ul style="display:inline;"><li style="margin-bottom:.5em; display:block;;display:inline; margin:0;"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFLiddellScott1940" class="citation book cs1">Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert (1940). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3D%2392374">"ῥητορ-ικός (rhetorikos)"</a>. A Greek-English Lexicon. Oxford: Clarendon Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=%E1%BF%A5%CE%B7%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%81-%CE%B9%CE%BA%CF%8C%CF%82+%28rhetorikos%29&rft.btitle=A+Greek-English+Lexicon&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Clarendon+Press&rft.date=1940&rft.aulast=Liddell&rft.aufirst=Henry+George&rft.au=Scott%2C+Robert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.perseus.tufts.edu%2Fhopper%2Ftext%3Fdoc%3DPerseus%253Atext%253A1999.04.0057%253Aentry%253D%252392374&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARhetoric" class="Z3988"></li><li style="margin-bottom:.5em; display:block;;margin-top:.5em;">op. cit. at <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3D%2392385">"ῥήτωρ (rhetor)"</a></li><li style="margin-bottom:.5em; display:block;">op. cit. at <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3D%2392330">"ῥῆμα (rhema)"</a></li><li style="margin-bottom:.5em; display:block;">op. cit. at <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3D%2342831">"ἐρῶ (ero)"</a></li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline;"><ul style="display:inline;"><li style="margin-bottom:.5em; display:block;;display:inline; margin:0;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCorbett1990" class="citation book cs1">Corbett, E. P. J. (1990). Classical rhetoric for the modern student. New York: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. p. 1.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Classical+rhetoric+for+the+modern+student&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=1&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1990&rft.aulast=Corbett&rft.aufirst=E.+P.+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARhetoric" class="Z3988"></li><li style="margin-bottom:.5em; display:block;;margin-top:.5em;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYoungBeckerPike1970" class="citation book cs1">Young, R. E.; Becker, A. L.; Pike, K. L. (1970). Rhetoric: discovery and change. New York: Harcourt Brace & World. p. 1.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rhetoric%3A+discovery+and+change&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=1&rft.pub=Harcourt+Brace+%26+World&rft.date=1970&rft.aulast=Young&rft.aufirst=R.+E.&rft.au=Becker%2C+A.+L.&rft.au=Pike%2C+K.+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARhetoric" class="Z3988"></li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline;"><ul style="display:inline;"><li style="margin-bottom:.5em; display:block;;display:inline; margin:0;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAristotle" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080916083515/http://www.public.iastate.edu/~honeyl/Rhetoric/rhet1-4.html">"I.2§1359"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Politics_(Aristotle)" title="Politics (Aristotle)">Politics</a>. Translated by Roberts, W. Rhys. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.public.iastate.edu/~honeyl/Rhetoric/rhet1-4.html">the original</a> on 16 September 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=I.2%C2%A71359&rft.btitle=Politics&rft.au=Aristotle&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.public.iastate.edu%2F~honeyl%2FRhetoric%2Frhet1-4.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARhetoric" class="Z3988"></li><li style="margin-bottom:.5em; display:block;;margin-top:.5em;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAristotle" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120415101347/http://rhetoric.eserver.org/aristotle/rhet1-2.html">"I.2"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Rhetoric_(Aristotle)" title="Rhetoric (Aristotle)">Rhetoric</a>. 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Bedford/St. Martin's. pp. 5–8. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-312-47239-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-312-47239-9"><bdi>978-0-312-47239-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Essential+Guide+to+Rhetoric&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E5-%3C%2Fspan%3E8&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Bedford%2FSt.+Martin%27s&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-312-47239-9&rft.aulast=Lundberg&rft.aufirst=Keith&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARhetoric" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHeinrichs2017" class="citation book cs1">Heinrichs, Jay (2017). <a href="/wiki/Thank_You_for_Arguing:_What_Aristotle,_Lincoln,_and_Homer_Simpson_Can_Teach_Us_About_the_Art_of_Persuasion" title="Thank You for Arguing: What Aristotle, Lincoln, and Homer Simpson Can Teach Us About the Art of Persuasion">Thank You for Arguing</a>. p. 303.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Thank+You+for+Arguing&rft.pages=303&rft.date=2017&rft.aulast=Heinrichs&rft.aufirst=Jay&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARhetoric" class="Z3988">[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">ISBN missing</a>] </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHaynes2007" class="citation book cs1">Haynes, Bruce (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=nOAtpUTjewEC">The End of Early Music: A Period Performer's History of Music</a>. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. p. 8. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-804094-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-804094-1"><bdi>978-0-19-804094-1</bdi></a>. 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Musica Poetica: Musical-Rhetorical Figures in German Baroque Music. <a href="/wiki/University_of_Nebraska_Press" title="University of Nebraska Press">University of Nebraska Press</a>. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=p45OwxQB05YC&pg=PA57">57</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8032-3593-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-8032-3593-3"><bdi>0-8032-3593-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Musica+Poetica%3A+Musical-Rhetorical+Figures+in+German+Baroque+Music&rft.pages=57&rft.pub=University+of+Nebraska+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=0-8032-3593-3&rft.aulast=Bartel&rft.aufirst=Dietrich&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARhetoric" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:8-44">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:8_44-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:8_44-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:8_44-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFScott1967" class="citation journal cs1">Scott, Robert L. 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Informa UK Limited: 365–384. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F07350190701577892">10.1080/07350190701577892</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0735-0198">0735-0198</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:43698162">43698162</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Rhetoric+Review&rft.atitle=Rethinking+Rhetoric+from+an+Indian+Perspective%3A+Implications+in+the+Nyaya+Sutra&rft.volume=26&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E365-%3C%2Fspan%3E384&rft.date=2007&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A43698162%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0735-0198&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F07350190701577892&rft.aulast=Lloyd&rft.aufirst=Keith&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARhetoric" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-RadMoo-77">^ <a href="#cite_ref-RadMoo_77-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-RadMoo_77-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRadhakrishnanMoore1957" class="citation book cs1">Radhakrishnan, Sarvepalli; Moore, Charles A. (1957). A Source Book in Indian Philosophy. Princeton University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Source+Book+in+Indian+Philosophy&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1957&rft.aulast=Radhakrishnan&rft.aufirst=Sarvepalli&rft.au=Moore%2C+Charles+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARhetoric" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZimmer2008" class="citation book cs1">Zimmer, Heinrich (2008). Philosophies of India. London: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-46232-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-46232-7"><bdi>978-0-415-46232-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Philosophies+of+India&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-415-46232-7&rft.aulast=Zimmer&rft.aufirst=Heinrich&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARhetoric" class="Z3988">[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSinha1990" class="citation book cs1">Sinha, Nandalal (31 December 1990). The Nyaya Sutras of Gotama. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publ. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/81-208-0748-0" title="Special:BookSources/81-208-0748-0"><bdi>81-208-0748-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Nyaya+Sutras+of+Gotama&rft.place=Delhi&rft.pub=Motilal+Banarsidass+Publ.&rft.date=1990-12-31&rft.isbn=81-208-0748-0&rft.aulast=Sinha&rft.aufirst=Nandalal&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARhetoric" class="Z3988">[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFManuwald2007" class="citation book cs1">Manuwald, Gesine (2007). "Relevance of Demosthenes and Atticism". Cicero, Philippics 3–9. Vol. 1. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter. pp. 129ff.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Relevance+of+Demosthenes+and+Atticism&rft.btitle=Cicero%2C+Philippics+3%E2%80%939&rft.place=Berlin&rft.pages=129ff&rft.pub=Walter+de+Gruyter&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Manuwald&rft.aufirst=Gesine&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARhetoric" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://courses.lumenlearning.com/atd-herkimer-westerncivilization/chapter/petrarch/">"Petrarch | Western Civilization"</a>. courses.lumenlearning.com. Retrieved 10 April 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=courses.lumenlearning.com&rft.atitle=Petrarch+%7C+Western+Civilization&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcourses.lumenlearning.com%2Fatd-herkimer-westerncivilization%2Fchapter%2Fpetrarch%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARhetoric" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCicero" class="citation book cs1">Cicero. De Inventione. I.35.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=De+Inventione&rft.pages=I.35&rft.au=Cicero&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARhetoric" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAugustine_of_Hippo" class="citation book cs1">Augustine of Hippo. De doctrina Christiana. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.intratext.com/IXT/ENG0137/__P3I.HTM">IV.2</a>. <q>Cum ergo sit in medio posita facultas eloquii, quae ad persuadenda seu prava seu recta valet plurimum, cur non bonorum studio comparatur, ut militet veritati, si eam mali ad obtinendas perversas vanasque causas in usus iniquitatis et erroris usurpant?</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=De+doctrina+Christiana&rft.pages=IV.2&rft.au=Augustine+of+Hippo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARhetoric" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJerome_of_Stridon1893" class="citation book cs1">Jerome of Stridon (1893) [384]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/3001022.htm">"To Eustochium, on the preservation of Virginity"</a>. In Schaff, Philip; Wace, Henry (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/selectlibraryofn06scha">Letters of St. Jerome</a>. Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, Second Series. Vol. VI. Translated by Fremantle, W.H.; Lewis, G.; Martley, W.G. Buffalo, N.Y.: Christian Literature Publishing Co. §29.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=To+Eustochium%2C+on+the+preservation+of+Virginity&rft.btitle=Letters+of+St.+Jerome&rft.place=Buffalo%2C+N.Y.&rft.series=Nicene+and+Post-Nicene+Fathers%2C+Second+Series&rft.pages=%C2%A729&rft.pub=Christian+Literature+Publishing+Co.&rft.date=1893&rft.au=Jerome+of+Stridon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.newadvent.org%2Ffathers%2F3001022.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARhetoric" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBizzellHerzberg2001" class="citation book cs1">Bizzell, Patricia; Herzberg, Bruce (2001). The Rhetorical Tradition: Readings from Classical Times to the Present (2nd ed.). Boston: Bedford / St. Martins. p. 486.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Rhetorical+Tradition%3A+Readings+from+Classical+Times+to+the+Present&rft.place=Boston&rft.pages=486&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Bedford+%2F+St.+Martins&rft.date=2001&rft.aulast=Bizzell&rft.aufirst=Patricia&rft.au=Herzberg%2C+Bruce&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARhetoric" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcLuhan2009" class="citation book cs1">McLuhan, Marshall (2009) [1943]. The Classical Trivium: The Place of Thomas Nashe in the Learning of His Time. Gingko Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-58423-235-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-58423-235-3"><bdi>978-1-58423-235-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Classical+Trivium%3A+The+Place+of+Thomas+Nashe+in+the+Learning+of+His+Time&rft.pub=Gingko+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1-58423-235-3&rft.aulast=McLuhan&rft.aufirst=Marshall&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARhetoric" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOng1999" class="citation book cs1">Ong, Walter J. (1999). "Humanism". Faith and Contexts. Vol. 4. Scholars Press. pp. 69–91.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Humanism&rft.btitle=Faith+and+Contexts&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E69-%3C%2Fspan%3E91&rft.pub=Scholars+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.aulast=Ong&rft.aufirst=Walter+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARhetoric" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaldwin1944" class="citation book cs1">Baldwin, T.W. (1944). William Shakspere's Small Latine and Lesse Greeke. University of Illinois Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=William+Shakspere%27s+Small+Latine+and+Lesse+Greeke&rft.pub=University+of+Illinois+Press&rft.date=1944&rft.aulast=Baldwin&rft.aufirst=T.W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARhetoric" class="Z3988"> (2 vols.) </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIves_Carpenter1898" class="citation journal cs1">Ives Carpenter, Frederic (1898). "Leonard Cox and the First English Rhetoric". Modern Language Notes. 13 (5): 146–47. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2917751">10.2307/2917751</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2917751">2917751</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Modern+Language+Notes&rft.atitle=Leonard+Cox+and+the+First+English+Rhetoric&rft.volume=13&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E146-%3C%2Fspan%3E47&rft.date=1898&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2917751&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2917751%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Ives+Carpenter&rft.aufirst=Frederic&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARhetoric" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOng2004" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Walter_J._Ong" title="Walter J. Ong">Ong, Walter J.</a> (2004) [1958]. Ramus, Method, and the Decay of Dialogue: From the Art of Discourse to the Art of Reason. University of Chicago Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ramus%2C+Method%2C+and+the+Decay+of+Dialogue%3A+From+the+Art+of+Discourse+to+the+Art+of+Reason&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=Ong&rft.aufirst=Walter+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARhetoric" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a> See <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFumaroli1980" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Marc_Fumaroli" title="Marc Fumaroli">Fumaroli, Marc</a> (1980), Age de l'Éloquence</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Age+de+l%27%C3%89loquence&rft.date=1980&rft.aulast=Fumaroli&rft.aufirst=Marc&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARhetoric" class="Z3988">. For an extensive presentation of the intricate political and religious debates concerning rhetoric in France and Italy at the time. </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline;"><ul style="display:inline;"><li style="margin-bottom:.5em; display:block;;display:inline; margin:0;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOng1958" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Walter_J._Ong" title="Walter J. Ong">Ong, Walter J.</a> (1958). Ramus and Talon Inventory. Harvard University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ramus+and+Talon+Inventory&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1958&rft.aulast=Ong&rft.aufirst=Walter+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARhetoric" class="Z3988"></li><li style="margin-bottom:.5em; display:block;;margin-top:.5em;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFreedman1999" class="citation book cs1">Freedman, Joseph S. (1999). Philosophy and the Art Europe, 1500–1700: Teaching and Texts at Schools and Universities. Ashgate.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Philosophy+and+the+Art+Europe%2C+1500%E2%80%931700%3A+Teaching+and+Texts+at+Schools+and+Universities&rft.pub=Ashgate&rft.date=1999&rft.aulast=Freedman&rft.aufirst=Joseph+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARhetoric" class="Z3988"></li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMilton1935" class="citation book cs1">Milton, John (1935) [1672]. Artis Logicae Plenior Institutio: Ad Petri Rami Methodum Concinnata. The Works of John Milton. Vol. XI. Translated by Gilbert, Allan H. New York.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Artis+Logicae+Plenior+Institutio%3A+Ad+Petri+Rami+Methodum+Concinnata&rft.place=New+York&rft.series=The+Works+of+John+Milton&rft.date=1935&rft.aulast=Milton&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARhetoric" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPavur2005" class="citation book cs1">Pavur, Claude Nicholas, ed. (2005). The Ratio studiorum: The Official Plan for Jesuit Education. 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Project Muse: 431–454. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1525%2Frh.1998.16.4.431">10.1525/rh.1998.16.4.431</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0734-8584">0734-8584</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Rhetorica&rft.atitle=Short+Reviews&rft.volume=16&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E431-%3C%2Fspan%3E454&rft.date=1998&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1525%2Frh.1998.16.4.431&rft.issn=0734-8584&rft.aulast=Garrett&rft.aufirst=Mary&rft.au=Sharon-Zisser%2C+Shirley&rft.au=Swearingen%2C+C.+Jan&rft.au=Schiappa%2C+Edward&rft.au=Lares%2C+Jameela&rft.au=Skretkowicz%2C+Victor&rft.au=Abbott%2C+Don+Paul&rft.au=Bator%2C+Paul&rft.au=Miller%2C+Thomas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARhetoric" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-140"><a href="#cite_ref-140">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1">"Beyond Bias, Binary, and Border: Mapping out the Future of Comparative Rhetoric". Rhetoric Society Quarterly. 43 (3). 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Rhetoric+Society+Quarterly&rft.atitle=Beyond+Bias%2C+Binary%2C+and+Border%3A+Mapping+out+the+Future+of+Comparative+Rhetoric&rft.volume=43&rft.issue=3&rft.date=2013&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARhetoric" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-MaoWang-141">^ <a href="#cite_ref-MaoWang_141-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-MaoWang_141-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMaoWang2015" class="citation journal cs1">Mao, LuMing; Wang, Bo (2015). "Manifesting a Future for Comparative Rhetoric". Rhetoric Review. 34 (3): 239–274. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F07350198.2015.1040105">10.1080/07350198.2015.1040105</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:142944901">142944901</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Rhetoric+Review&rft.atitle=Manifesting+a+Future+for+Comparative+Rhetoric&rft.volume=34&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E239-%3C%2Fspan%3E274&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F07350198.2015.1040105&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A142944901%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Mao&rft.aufirst=LuMing&rft.au=Wang%2C+Bo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARhetoric" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-142"><a href="#cite_ref-142">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDubremetz2018" class="citation journal cs1">Dubremetz, Marie (May 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3389%2Ffdigh.2018.00010">"Rhetorical Figure Detection: Chiasmus, Epanaphora, Epiphora"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Frontiers_in_Digital_Humanities" class="mw-redirect" title="Frontiers in Digital Humanities">Frontiers in Digital Humanities</a>. 5. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3389%2Ffdigh.2018.00010">10.3389/fdigh.2018.00010</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Frontiers+in+Digital+Humanities&rft.atitle=Rhetorical+Figure+Detection%3A+Chiasmus%2C+Epanaphora%2C+Epiphora&rft.volume=5&rft.date=2018-05&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3389%2Ffdigh.2018.00010&rft.aulast=Dubremetz&rft.aufirst=Marie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.3389%252Ffdigh.2018.00010&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARhetoric" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-143"><a href="#cite_ref-143">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMadotto2020" class="citation arxiv cs1">Madotto, Marie (August 2020). "Language Models as Few-Shot Learner for Task-Oriented Dialogue Systems". <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/2008.06239">2008.06239</a> [<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/archive/cs.CL">cs.CL</a>].</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=preprint&rft.jtitle=arXiv&rft.atitle=Language+Models+as+Few-Shot+Learner+for+Task-Oriented+Dialogue+Systems&rft.date=2020-08&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F2008.06239&rft.aulast=Madotto&rft.aufirst=Marie&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARhetoric" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources">Sources</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Rhetoric&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Sources">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> Primary sources The locus classicus for Greek and Latin primary texts on rhetoric is the <a href="/wiki/Loeb_Classical_Library" title="Loeb Classical Library">Loeb Classical Library</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University_Press" title="Harvard University Press">Harvard University Press</a>, published with an English translation on the facing page. <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAristotle1926" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> (1926) [<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 322 BCE]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Aristot.+Rh.+1.1.1">Rhetoric</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rhetoric&rft.date=1926&rft.au=Aristotle&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.perseus.tufts.edu%2Fhopper%2Ftext%3Fdoc%3DAristot.%2BRh.%2B1.1.1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARhetoric" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCicero1902" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a> (1902) [55 BCE]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Cic.+de+Orat.+1.1">De Oratore</a> (in Latin).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=De+Oratore&rft.date=1902&rft.au=Cicero&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.perseus.tufts.edu%2Fhopper%2Ftext%3Fdoc%3DCic.%2Bde%2BOrat.%2B1.1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARhetoric" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCicero1984" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a> (1984) [84 BCE]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thelatinlibrary.com/cicero/inventione.shtml">De Inventione</a> (in Latin).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=De+Inventione&rft.date=1984&rft.au=Cicero&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thelatinlibrary.com%2Fcicero%2Finventione.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARhetoric" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDemosthenes1939" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Demosthenes" title="Demosthenes">Demosthenes</a> (1939) [<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 322 BCE]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Dem.+21+1">Orations</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Orations&rft.date=1939&rft.au=Demosthenes&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.perseus.tufts.edu%2Fhopper%2Ftext%3Fdoc%3DDem.%2B21%2B1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARhetoric" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFdisputed1999" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium" title="Rhetorica ad Herennium">disputed</a> (1999) [<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 86 BCE]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20050227094426/http://dobc.unipv.it/scrineum/wight/herm1.htm">Rhetorica ad Herennium</a> (in Latin). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dobc.unipv.it/scrineum/wight/herm1.htm">the original</a> on 27 February 2005.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rhetorica+ad+Herennium&rft.date=1999&rft.au=disputed&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdobc.unipv.it%2Fscrineum%2Fwight%2Fherm1.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARhetoric" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIsocrates1980" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Isocrates" title="Isocrates">Isocrates</a> (1980) [<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 392 BCE]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Isoc.+13+1">Against the Sophists</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Against+the+Sophists&rft.date=1980&rft.au=Isocrates&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.perseus.tufts.edu%2Fhopper%2Ftext%3Fdoc%3DIsoc.%2B13%2B1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARhetoric" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPeacham1593" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Henry_Peacham_(born_1546)" title="Henry Peacham (born 1546)">Peacham, Henry</a> (1593). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.03.0096">The Garden of Eloquence</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Garden+of+Eloquence&rft.date=1593&rft.aulast=Peacham&rft.aufirst=Henry&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.perseus.tufts.edu%2Fhopper%2Ftext%3Fdoc%3DPerseus%253Atext%253A1999.03.0096&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARhetoric" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPuttenham1589" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/George_Puttenham" title="George Puttenham">Puttenham, George</a> (1589). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/16420">The Arte of English Poesie</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Arte+of+English+Poesie&rft.date=1589&rft.aulast=Puttenham&rft.aufirst=George&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.gutenberg.org%2Febooks%2F16420&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARhetoric" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFQuintilian1868" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Quintilian" title="Quintilian">Quintilian</a> (1868) [<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 95 CE]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Quintilian/Institutio_Oratoria/home.html">Institutio oratoria</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Institutio+oratoria&rft.date=1868&rft.au=Quintilian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpenelope.uchicago.edu%2FThayer%2FE%2FRoman%2FTexts%2FQuintilian%2FInstitutio_Oratoria%2Fhome.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARhetoric" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSusenbrotusc._1540" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Johannes_Susenbrotus" class="mw-redirect" title="Johannes Susenbrotus">Susenbrotus, Johannes</a> (c. 1540). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://visualiseur.bnf.fr/Visualiseur?Destination=Gallica&O=NUMM-83897">Epitome troporum</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Epitome+troporum&rft.aulast=Susenbrotus&rft.aufirst=Johannes&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fvisualiseur.bnf.fr%2FVisualiseur%3FDestination%3DGallica%26O%3DNUMM-83897&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARhetoric" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilson1553" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Wilson_(rhetorician)" title="Thomas Wilson (rhetorician)">Wilson, Thomas</a> (1553). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060830092739/http://darkwing.uoregon.edu/~rbear/arte/arte.htm">The Arte of Rhetorique</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://darkwing.uoregon.edu/~rbear/arte/arte.htm">the original</a> on 30 August 2006.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Arte+of+Rhetorique&rft.date=1553&rft.aulast=Wilson&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdarkwing.uoregon.edu%2F~rbear%2Farte%2Farte.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARhetoric" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> Secondary sources <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFde_Rommilly1992" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jacqueline_de_Romilly" title="Jacqueline de Romilly">de Rommilly, Jacqueline</a> (1992) [1988]. The Great Sophists in Periclean Athens. Clarendon Press/Oxford University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Great+Sophists+in+Periclean+Athens&rft.pub=Clarendon+Press%2FOxford+University+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.aulast=de+Rommilly&rft.aufirst=Jacqueline&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARhetoric" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDuffyJacobi1993" class="citation book cs1">Duffy, Bernard K.; Jacobi, Martin (1993). The Politics of Rhetoric: Richard Weaver and the Conservative Tradition. Westport, Conn.: <a href="/wiki/Greenwood_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="Greenwood Press">Greenwood Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-313-25713-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-313-25713-2"><bdi>0-313-25713-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Politics+of+Rhetoric%3A+Richard+Weaver+and+the+Conservative+Tradition&rft.place=Westport%2C+Conn.&rft.pub=Greenwood+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=0-313-25713-2&rft.aulast=Duffy&rft.aufirst=Bernard+K.&rft.au=Jacobi%2C+Martin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARhetoric" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJardine1975" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Lisa_Jardine" title="Lisa Jardine">Jardine, Lisa</a> (1975). Francis Bacon: Discovery and the Art of Discourse. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Francis+Bacon%3A+Discovery+and+the+Art+of+Discourse&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1975&rft.aulast=Jardine&rft.aufirst=Lisa&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARhetoric" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLarson2012" class="citation book cs1">Larson, Charles U. (2012). Persuasion Reception and Responsibility (Twelfth ed.). Wadsworth Cengage Learning.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Persuasion+Reception+and+Responsibility&rft.edition=Twelfth&rft.pub=Wadsworth+Cengage+Learning&rft.date=2012&rft.aulast=Larson&rft.aufirst=Charles+U.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARhetoric" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRorty1996" class="citation book cs1">Rorty, Amelie Oksenberg (1996). Aristotle's Rhetoric. Los Angeles, Calif.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Aristotle%27s+Rhetoric&rft.place=Los+Angeles%2C+Calif.&rft.date=1996&rft.aulast=Rorty&rft.aufirst=Amelie+Oksenberg&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARhetoric" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoss2013" class="citation book cs1">Ross, Jill (2013). "The Dazzling Sword of Language: Masculinity and Persuasion in Classical and Medieval Rhetoric". In Ross, Jill; Conklin-Akbari, Suzanne (eds.). The Ends of the Body: Identity and Community in Medieval Culture (1st ed.). <a href="/wiki/Toronto" title="Toronto">Toronto</a>, <a href="/wiki/Buffalo,_New_York" title="Buffalo, New York">Buffalo</a>, and <a href="/wiki/London" title="London">London</a>: <a href="/wiki/University_of_Toronto_Press" title="University of Toronto Press">University of Toronto Press</a>. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Y3tKu7qc8NMC&pg=PA153">153</a>–174. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3138%2F9781442661387">10.3138/9781442661387</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4426-6138-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4426-6138-7"><bdi>978-1-4426-6138-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.3138/9781442661387.11">10.3138/9781442661387.11</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Dazzling+Sword+of+Language%3A+Masculinity+and+Persuasion+in+Classical+and+Medieval+Rhetoric&rft.btitle=The+Ends+of+the+Body%3A+Identity+and+Community+in+Medieval+Culture&rft.place=Toronto%2C+Buffalo%2C+and+London&rft.pages=153-174&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=University+of+Toronto+Press&rft.date=2013&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F10.3138%2F9781442661387.11%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3138%2F9781442661387&rft.isbn=978-1-4426-6138-7&rft.aulast=Ross&rft.aufirst=Jill&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARhetoric" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSafire2004" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/William_Safire" title="William Safire">Safire, William</a> (2004). Lend Me Your Ears: Great Speeches in History. W. W. Norton & Company. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-393-05931-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-393-05931-1"><bdi>978-0-393-05931-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lend+Me+Your+Ears%3A+Great+Speeches+in+History&rft.pub=W.+W.+Norton+%26+Company&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-393-05931-1&rft.aulast=Safire&rft.aufirst=William&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARhetoric" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFvan_Bühren1998" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ralf_van_B%C3%BChren" title="Ralf van Bühren">van Bühren, Ralf</a> (1998). Die Werke der Barmherzigkeit in der Kunst des 12.–18. Jahrhunderts. Zum Wandel eines Bildmotivs vor dem Hintergrund neuzeitlicher Rhetorikrezeption. Studien zur Kunstgeschichte. Vol. 115. Hildesheim / Zürich / New York: Verlag Georg Olms. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-487-10319-2" title="Special:BookSources/3-487-10319-2"><bdi>3-487-10319-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Die+Werke+der+Barmherzigkeit+in+der+Kunst+des+12.%E2%80%9318.+Jahrhunderts.+Zum+Wandel+eines+Bildmotivs+vor+dem+Hintergrund+neuzeitlicher+Rhetorikrezeption&rft.place=Hildesheim+%2F+Z%C3%BCrich+%2F+New+York&rft.series=Studien+zur+Kunstgeschichte&rft.pub=Verlag+Georg+Olms&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=3-487-10319-2&rft.aulast=van+B%C3%BChren&rft.aufirst=Ralf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARhetoric" class="Z3988">.</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Rhetoric&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAndresen2010" class="citation book cs1">Andresen, Volker (2010). Speak Well in Public: 10 Steps to Succeed. CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4563-1026-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4563-1026-4"><bdi>978-1-4563-1026-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Speak+Well+in+Public%3A+10+Steps+to+Succeed&rft.pub=CreateSpace+Independent+Publishing+Platform&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-4563-1026-4&rft.aulast=Andresen&rft.aufirst=Volker&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARhetoric" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFConnorsEdeLunsford1984" class="citation book cs1">Connors, Robert; Ede, Lisa S.; Lunsford, Andrea, eds. (1984). Essays on Classical Rhetoric and Modern Discourse. Festschrift in Honor of Edward P. J. Corbett. Carbondale, Ill.: <a href="/wiki/Southern_Illinois_University_Press" title="Southern Illinois University Press">Southern Illinois University Press</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Essays+on+Classical+Rhetoric+and+Modern+Discourse&rft.place=Carbondale%2C+Ill.&rft.series=Festschrift+in+Honor+of+Edward+P.+J.+Corbett&rft.pub=Southern+Illinois+University+Press&rft.date=1984&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARhetoric" class="Z3988"></li> <li class="mw-empty-elt"></li> <li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1041539562">.mw-parser-output .citation{word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}</style><a href="/wiki/Leonard_Cox" title="Leonard Cox">Cox, Leonard</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gutenberg.org/ebooks/25612">The Art or Crafte of Rhetoryke</a> at <a href="/wiki/Project_Gutenberg" title="Project Gutenberg">Project Gutenberg</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDuffyLeeman2005" class="citation book cs1">Duffy, Bernard K.; Leeman, Richard, eds. (2005). American Voices: An Encyclopedia of Contemporary Orators. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-313-32790-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-313-32790-4"><bdi>0-313-32790-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=American+Voices%3A+An+Encyclopedia+of+Contemporary+Orators&rft.place=Westport%2C+Conn.&rft.pub=Greenwood&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=0-313-32790-4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARhetoric" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFarnsworth2010" class="citation book cs1">Farnsworth, Ward (2010). Farnsworth's Classical English Rhetoric. David R. Godine. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-56792-552-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-56792-552-4"><bdi>978-1-56792-552-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Farnsworth%27s+Classical+English+Rhetoric&rft.pub=David+R.+Godine&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-56792-552-4&rft.aulast=Farnsworth&rft.aufirst=Ward&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARhetoric" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGarver1995" class="citation book cs1">Garver, Eugene (1995). Aristotle's Rhetoric: On Art of Character. Chicago: <a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago_Press" title="University of Chicago Press">University of Chicago Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-28425-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-28425-5"><bdi>978-0-226-28425-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Aristotle%27s+Rhetoric%3A+On+Art+of+Character&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-226-28425-5&rft.aulast=Garver&rft.aufirst=Eugene&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARhetoric" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGunderson2009" class="citation book cs1">Gunderson, Erik (2009). The Cambridge Companion to Ancient Rhetoric. Cambridge, U.K.: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Companion+to+Ancient+Rhetoric&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+U.K.&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.aulast=Gunderson&rft.aufirst=Erik&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARhetoric" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHowell1971" class="citation book cs1">Howell, Wilbur Samuel (1971). Eighteenth-Century British Logic and Rhetoric. Princeton, N.J.: <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University_Press" title="Princeton University Press">Princeton University Press</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Eighteenth-Century+British+Logic+and+Rhetoric&rft.place=Princeton%2C+N.J.&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1971&rft.aulast=Howell&rft.aufirst=Wilbur+Samuel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARhetoric" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJansinski2001" class="citation book cs1">Jansinski, James (2001). Sourcebook on Rhetoric. <a href="/wiki/SAGE_Publications" class="mw-redirect" title="SAGE Publications">SAGE Publications</a>, Inc.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sourcebook+on+Rhetoric&rft.pub=SAGE+Publications%2C+Inc.&rft.date=2001&rft.aulast=Jansinski&rft.aufirst=James&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARhetoric" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJebb1911" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Jebb, Richard Claverhouse (1911). <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Rhetoric">"Rhetoric" </a>. <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition">Encyclopædia Britannica</a>. Vol. 22 (11th ed.). pp. 233–237.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Rhetoric&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E233-%3C%2Fspan%3E237&rft.edition=11th&rft.date=1911&rft.aulast=Jebb&rft.aufirst=Richard+Claverhouse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARhetoric" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKuypers2014" class="citation book cs1">Kuypers, Jim A., ed. (2014). Purpose, Practice, and Pedagogy in Rhetorical Criticism. Lanham, Md.: <a href="/wiki/Lexington_Books" class="mw-redirect" title="Lexington Books">Lexington Books</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7391-8018-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7391-8018-1"><bdi>978-0-7391-8018-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Purpose%2C+Practice%2C+and+Pedagogy+in+Rhetorical+Criticism&rft.place=Lanham%2C+Md.&rft.pub=Lexington+Books&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0-7391-8018-1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARhetoric" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMacDonald2017" class="citation book cs1">MacDonald, Michael, ed. (2017). The Oxford Handbook of Rhetorical Studies. Oxford Handbooks. New York: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Handbook+of+Rhetorical+Studies&rft.place=New+York&rft.series=Oxford+Handbooks&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2017&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARhetoric" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMateus2018" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Mateus, Samuel (2018). Introdução à Retórica no Séc. XXI (in Portuguese). Covilhã: Livros Labcom. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-989-654-438-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-989-654-438-6"><bdi>978-989-654-438-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introdu%C3%A7%C3%A3o+%C3%A0+Ret%C3%B3rica+no+S%C3%A9c.+XXI&rft.place=Covilh%C3%A3&rft.pub=Livros+Labcom&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-989-654-438-6&rft.aulast=Mateus&rft.aufirst=Samuel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARhetoric" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNewall" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-unfit">Newall, Paul. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20051118202303/http://www.galilean-library.org/int21.html">"An introduction to Rhetoric and Rhetorical Figures"</a>. The Galilean Library. Archived from the original on 18 November 2005.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Galilean+Library&rft.atitle=An+introduction+to+Rhetoric+and+Rhetorical+Figures&rft.aulast=Newall&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.galilean-library.org%2Fint21.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARhetoric" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPernot2005" class="citation book cs1">Pernot, Laurent (2005). Rhetoric in Antiquity. Washington, D.C.: Catholic Univ. of America Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rhetoric+in+Antiquity&rft.place=Washington%2C+D.C.&rft.pub=Catholic+Univ.+of+America+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Pernot&rft.aufirst=Laurent&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARhetoric" class="Z3988"></li> <li class="mw-empty-elt"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562">Rainolde (or Rainholde), Richard. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gutenberg.org/ebooks/26056">A booke called the Foundacion of Rhetorike</a> at <a href="/wiki/Project_Gutenberg" title="Project Gutenberg">Project Gutenberg</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRorty1996" class="citation book cs1">Rorty, Amélie Oksenberg, ed. (1996). Essays on Aristotle's Rhetoric. Berkeley, Calif.: <a href="/wiki/University_of_California_Press" title="University of California Press">University of California Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-20228-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-20228-3"><bdi>978-0-520-20228-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Essays+on+Aristotle%27s+Rhetoric&rft.place=Berkeley%2C+Calif.&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-520-20228-3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARhetoric" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSloane2001" class="citation book cs1">Sloane, Thomas O. (2001). Encyclopedia of Rhetoric. Oxford: Oxford University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Rhetoric&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.aulast=Sloane&rft.aufirst=Thomas+O.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARhetoric" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSteel2006" class="citation book cs1">Steel, Catherine (2006). Roman Oratory. Greece & Rome New Surveys in the Classics. Vol. 36. Cambridge, U.K.: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Roman+Oratory&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+U.K.&rft.series=Greece+%26+Rome+New+Surveys+in+the+Classics&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Steel&rft.aufirst=Catherine&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARhetoric" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVickers1998" class="citation book cs1">Vickers, Brian (1998). In Defence of Rhetoric. Oxford: <a href="/wiki/Clarendon_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="Clarendon Press">Clarendon Press</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=In+Defence+of+Rhetoric&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Clarendon+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.aulast=Vickers&rft.aufirst=Brian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARhetoric" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVickers2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Brian_Vickers_(academic)" class="mw-redirect" title="Brian Vickers (academic)">Vickers, Brian</a> (2003) [1997]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=PtE47BvHZCwC&pg=PA101">"Rhetoric"</a>. In Corns, Thomas N. (ed.). Cambridge Companion to English Poetry. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-42309-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-42309-0"><bdi>978-0-521-42309-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Rhetoric&rft.btitle=Cambridge+Companion+to+English+Poetry&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-521-42309-0&rft.aulast=Vickers&rft.aufirst=Brian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DPtE47BvHZCwC%26pg%3DPA101&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARhetoric" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Rhetoric&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 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href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Rhetoric&library=OLBP">Online books</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Rhetoric">Resources in your library</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Rhetoric&library=0CHOOSE0">Resources in other libraries</a></li> </ul></div></div> </div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.americanrhetoric.com/">"American Rhetoric: The Power of Oratory in the United States"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=American+Rhetoric%3A+The+Power+of+Oratory+in+the+United+States&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.americanrhetoric.com%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARhetoric" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Rhetoric_and_Composition" class="extiw" title="b:Rhetoric and Composition">Wikibooks: Rhetoric and Composition</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p004y263">"Rhetoric"</a>. BBC Radio 4: In Our Time. 2004.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=BBC+Radio+4%3A+In+Our+Time&rft.atitle=Rhetoric&rft.date=2004&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.co.uk%2Fprogrammes%2Fp004y263&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARhetoric" class="Z3988"></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Speaker_Icon.svg/15px-Speaker_Icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Speaker_Icon.svg/23px-Speaker_Icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Speaker_Icon.svg/30px-Speaker_Icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="500" /> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://librivox.org/search?title=Rhetoric&author=&reader=&keywords=&genre_id=0&status=all&project_type=either&recorded_language=&sort_order=catalog_date&search_page=1&search_form=advanced">Rhetoric</a> public domain audiobook at <a href="/wiki/LibriVox" title="LibriVox">LibriVox</a></li></ul> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output 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href="/wiki/Antagonist" title="Antagonist">Antagonist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archenemy" title="Archenemy">Archenemy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Character_arc" title="Character arc">Character arc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Character_flaw" title="Character flaw">Character flaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Characterization" title="Characterization">Characterization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confidant" title="Confidant">Confidant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deuteragonist" title="Deuteragonist">Deuteragonist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/False_protagonist" title="False protagonist">False protagonist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Focal_character" title="Focal character">Focal character</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foil_(narrative)" title="Foil (narrative)">Foil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gothic_double" title="Gothic double">Gothic double</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamartia" title="Hamartia">Hamartia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hero" title="Hero">Hero</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antihero" title="Antihero">Anti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byronic_hero" title="Byronic hero">Byronic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tragic_hero" title="Tragic hero">Tragic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narration" title="Narration">Narrator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protagonist" title="Protagonist">Protagonist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stock_character" title="Stock character">Stock character</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Straight_man" title="Straight man">Straight man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supporting_character" title="Supporting character">Supporting character</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Title_character" title="Title character">Title character</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tritagonist" title="Tritagonist">Tritagonist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Villain" title="Villain">Villain</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plot_(narrative)" title="Plot (narrative)">Plot</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ab_ovo" title="Ab ovo">Ab ovo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Action_(narrative)" title="Action (narrative)">Action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Backstory" title="Backstory">Backstory</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Origin_story" title="Origin story">Origin story</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chekhov%27s_gun" title="Chekhov's gun">Chekhov's gun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clich%C3%A9" title="Cliché">Cliché</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cliffhanger" title="Cliffhanger">Cliffhanger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_(narrative)" title="Conflict (narrative)">Conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deus_ex_machina" title="Deus ex machina">Deus ex machina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dialogue_in_writing" title="Dialogue in writing">Dialogue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dramatic_structure" class="mw-redirect" title="Dramatic structure">Dramatic structure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eucatastrophe" title="Eucatastrophe">Eucatastrophe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreshadowing" title="Foreshadowing">Foreshadowing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flashback_(narrative)" title="Flashback (narrative)">Flashback</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flashforward" title="Flashforward">Flashforward</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frame_story" title="Frame story">Frame story</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/In_medias_res" title="In medias res">In medias res</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kish%C5%8Dtenketsu" title="Kishōtenketsu">Kishōtenketsu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MacGuffin" title="MacGuffin">MacGuffin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pace_(narrative)" title="Pace (narrative)">Pace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plot_device" title="Plot device">Plot device</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plot_twist" title="Plot twist">Plot twist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poetic_justice" title="Poetic justice">Poetic justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_herring" title="Red herring">Red herring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reveal_(narrative)" title="Reveal (narrative)">Reveal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-insertion" title="Self-insertion">Self-insertion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaggy_dog_story" title="Shaggy dog story">Shaggy dog story</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stereotype" title="Stereotype">Stereotype</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Story_arc" title="Story arc">Story arc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Story_within_a_story" title="Story within a story">Story within a story</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subplot" title="Subplot">Subplot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suspense" title="Suspense">Suspense</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trope_(literature)" title="Trope (literature)">Trope</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Setting_(narrative)" title="Setting (narrative)">Setting</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alternate_history" title="Alternate history">Alternate history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Backstory" title="Backstory">Backstory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crossover_(fiction)" title="Crossover (fiction)">Crossover</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dream_world_(plot_device)" title="Dream world (plot device)">Dreamworld</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dystopia" title="Dystopia">Dystopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fictional_location" title="Fictional location">Fictional location</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fictional_city" class="mw-redirect" title="Fictional city">city</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fictional_country" title="Fictional country">country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fictional_universe" title="Fictional universe">universe</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Parallel_universes_in_fiction" title="Parallel universes in fiction">parallel</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utopia" title="Utopia">Utopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Worldbuilding" title="Worldbuilding">Worldbuilding</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Theme_(narrative)" title="Theme (narrative)">Theme</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Irony" title="Irony">Irony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leitmotif" title="Leitmotif">Leitmotif</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphor" title="Metaphor">Metaphor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral" title="Moral">Moral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_development" title="Moral development">Moral development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Motif_(narrative)" title="Motif (narrative)">Motif</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deal_with_the_Devil" title="Deal with the Devil">Deal with the Devil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Good_and_evil" title="Good and evil">Conflict between good and evil</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-fulfilling_prophecy" title="Self-fulfilling prophecy">Self-fulfilling prophecy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time_travel" title="Time travel">Time travel</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Writing_style" title="Writing style">Style</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allegory" title="Allegory">Allegory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bathos" title="Bathos">Bathos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comic_relief" title="Comic relief">Comic relief</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diction" title="Diction">Diction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Figure_of_speech" title="Figure of speech">Figure of speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imagery" title="Imagery">Imagery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mode_(literature)" title="Mode (literature)">Mode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mood_(literature)" title="Mood (literature)">Mood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narration" title="Narration">Narration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_narrative_techniques" title="List of narrative techniques">Narrative techniques</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Narrative_hook" title="Narrative hook">Hook</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Show,_don%27t_tell" title="Show, don't tell">Show, don't tell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stylistic_device" title="Stylistic device">Stylistic device</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suspension_of_disbelief" title="Suspension of disbelief">Suspension of disbelief</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbolism_(arts)" class="mw-redirect" title="Symbolism (arts)">Symbolism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tone_(literature)" title="Tone (literature)">Tone</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Dramatic_structure" class="mw-redirect" title="Dramatic structure">Structure</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Act_(drama)" title="Act (drama)">Act</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dramatic_structure" class="mw-redirect" title="Dramatic structure">Act structure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three-act_structure" title="Three-act structure">Three-act structure</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freytag%27s_Pyramid" class="mw-redirect" title="Freytag's Pyramid">Freytag's Pyramid</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Exposition_(narrative)" title="Exposition (narrative)">Exposition</a>/<a href="/wiki/Protasis" title="Protasis">Protasis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epitasis" title="Epitasis">Rising action/Epitasis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climax_(narrative)" title="Climax (narrative)">Climax</a>/<a href="/wiki/Peripeteia" title="Peripeteia">Peripeteia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catastasis" title="Catastasis">Falling action/Catastasis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catastrophe_(drama)" title="Catastrophe (drama)">Denouement/Catastrophe</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narrative_structure" class="mw-redirect" title="Narrative structure">Linear narrative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonlinear_narrative" title="Nonlinear narrative">Nonlinear narrative</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_nonlinear_narrative_films" title="List of nonlinear narrative films">films</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_nonlinear_narrative_television_series" title="List of nonlinear narrative television series">television series</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Premise_(narrative)" title="Premise (narrative)">Premise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Types_of_fiction_with_multiple_endings" title="Types of fiction with multiple endings">Types of fiction with multiple endings</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_narrative_forms" title="List of narrative forms">Form</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Drama" title="Drama">Drama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fabliau" title="Fabliau">Fabliau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flash_fiction" title="Flash fiction">Flash fiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folklore" title="Folklore">Folklore</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fable" title="Fable">Fable</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fairy_tale" title="Fairy tale">Fairy tale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legend" title="Legend">Legend</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myth" title="Myth">Myth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tall_tale" title="Tall tale">Tall tale</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gamebook" title="Gamebook">Gamebook</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narrative_art" title="Narrative art">Narrative art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narrative_poetry" title="Narrative poetry">Narrative poetry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Epic_poetry" title="Epic poetry">Epic poetry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Novel" title="Novel">Novel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Novella" title="Novella">Novella</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parable" title="Parable">Parable</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Short_story" title="Short story">Short story</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vignette_(literature)" title="Vignette (literature)">Vignette</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Literary_genre" title="Literary genre">Genre</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_writing_genres" title="List of writing genres">List</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fiction" title="Fiction">Fiction</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Action_fiction" title="Action fiction">Action fiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adventure_fiction" title="Adventure fiction">Adventure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comic_novel" title="Comic novel">Comic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_fiction" title="Crime fiction">Crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Docufiction" title="Docufiction">Docu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistolary_novel" title="Epistolary novel">Epistolary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ergodic_literature" title="Ergodic literature">Ergodic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erotic_literature" title="Erotic literature">Erotic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_fiction" title="Historical fiction">Historical</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_fiction" title="Western fiction">Western</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mystery_fiction" title="Mystery fiction">Mystery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nautical_fiction" title="Nautical fiction">Nautical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paranoid_fiction" title="Paranoid fiction">Paranoid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_fiction" title="Philosophical fiction">Philosophical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Picaresque_novel" title="Picaresque novel">Picaresque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_fiction" title="Political fiction">Political</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pop_culture_fiction" title="Pop culture fiction">Pop culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_fiction" title="Psychological fiction">Psychological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inspirational_fiction" title="Inspirational fiction">Religious</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rogue_literature" title="Rogue literature">Rogue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romance_novel" title="Romance novel">Romance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chivalric_romance" title="Chivalric romance">Chivalric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romance_(prose_fiction)" title="Romance (prose fiction)">Prose</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saga" title="Saga">Saga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satire" title="Satire">Satire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speculative_fiction" title="Speculative fiction">Speculative fiction</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fantasy" title="Fantasy">Fantasy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gothic_fiction" title="Gothic fiction">Gothic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Gothic" title="Southern Gothic">Southern</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horror_fiction" title="Horror fiction">Horror</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magic_realism" class="mw-redirect" title="Magic realism">Magic realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_fiction" title="Science fiction">Science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hard_science_fiction" title="Hard science fiction">Hard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utopian_and_dystopian_fiction" title="Utopian and dystopian fiction">Utopian and dystopian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_underwater_science_fiction_works" title="List of underwater science fiction works">Underwater</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superhero_fiction" title="Superhero fiction">Superhero</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theological_fiction" title="Theological fiction">Theological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thriller_(genre)" title="Thriller (genre)">Thriller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_fiction" title="Urban fiction">Urban</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonfiction" class="mw-redirect" title="Nonfiction">Nonfiction</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Autobiography" title="Autobiography">Autobiography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biography" title="Biography">Biography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-fiction_novel" title="Non-fiction novel">Novel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creative_nonfiction" title="Creative nonfiction">Creative</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Narration" title="Narration">Narration</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diegesis" title="Diegesis">Diegesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First-person_narrative" title="First-person narrative">First-person</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second-person_narrative" class="mw-redirect" title="Second-person narrative">Second-person</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third-person_narrative" class="mw-redirect" title="Third-person narrative">Third-person</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Third-person_omniscient_narrative" class="mw-redirect" title="Third-person omniscient narrative">Third-person omniscient narrative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narration#Subjective_or_objective" title="Narration">Subjectivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unreliable_narrator" title="Unreliable narrator">Unreliable narrator</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiperspectivity" title="Multiperspectivity">Multiple narrators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stream_of_consciousness" title="Stream of consciousness">Stream of consciousness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stream_of_unconsciousness" title="Stream of unconsciousness">Stream of unconsciousness</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Grammatical_tense" title="Grammatical tense">Tense</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Past_tense" title="Past tense">Past</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Present_tense" title="Present tense">Present</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Future_tense" title="Future tense">Future</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dominant_narrative" title="Dominant narrative">Dominant narrative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fiction_writing" title="Fiction writing">Fiction writing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Continuity_(fiction)" title="Continuity (fiction)">Continuity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Canon_(fiction)" title="Canon (fiction)">Canon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reboot_(fiction)" title="Reboot (fiction)">Reboot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retroactive_continuity" title="Retroactive continuity">Retcon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parallel_novel" title="Parallel novel">Parallel novel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prequel" title="Prequel">Prequel</a> / <a href="/wiki/Sequel" title="Sequel">Sequel</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genre" title="Genre">Genre</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_genres" title="List of genres">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literary_criticism" title="Literary criticism">Literary science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literary_theory" title="Literary theory">Literary theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narrative_identity" title="Narrative identity">Narrative identity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narrative_paradigm" title="Narrative paradigm">Narrative paradigm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narrative_therapy" title="Narrative therapy">Narrative therapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narratology" title="Narratology">Narratology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Metafiction" title="Metafiction">Metafiction</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_narrative" title="Political narrative">Political narrative</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Rhetoric</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_rhetorical_terms" title="Glossary of rhetorical terms">Glossary</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Screenwriting" title="Screenwriting">Screenwriting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Works_series" title="Template:Works series">Series of works</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Storytelling" title="Storytelling">Storytelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tellability" title="Tellability">Tellability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verisimilitude_(fiction)" title="Verisimilitude (fiction)">Verisimilitude</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Humanities54" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Humanities" title="Template:Humanities"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Humanities" title="Template talk:Humanities"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Humanities" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Humanities"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Humanities54" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Humanities" title="Humanities">Humanities</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Disciplines</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;height:2.5em;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthropology" title="Anthropology">Anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archaeology" title="Archaeology">Archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classics" title="Classics">Classical studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History" title="History">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_arts#Literary_arts" title="The arts">Language arts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Literature" title="Literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poetry" title="Poetry">Poetry</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Rhetoric</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law" title="Law">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Performing_arts" title="Performing arts">Performing arts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dance" title="Dance">Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Musicology" title="Musicology">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theatre" title="Theatre">Theatre</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_studies" title="Religious studies">Religious studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visual_arts" title="Visual arts">Visual arts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Filmmaking" title="Filmmaking">Filmmaking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Painting" title="Painting">Painting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sculpture" title="Sculpture">Sculpture</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Interdisciplinary_fields24" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Interdisciplinary fields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Digital_humanities" title="Digital humanities">Digital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_humanities" title="Environmental humanities">Environmental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_humanities" title="Health humanities">Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_humanities" title="Medical humanities">Medical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_humanities" title="Public humanities">Public</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Themes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abductive_reasoning" title="Abductive reasoning">Abductive reasoning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">Aesthetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antipositivism" title="Antipositivism">Antipositivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_arts" title="The arts">The arts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beauty" title="Beauty">Beauty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belles-lettres" title="Belles-lettres">Belles-lettres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bildung" title="Bildung">Bildung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creativity" title="Creativity">Creativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">Critical theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism" title="Criticism">Criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_literacy" title="Cultural literacy">Cultural literacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture" title="Culture">Culture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/High_culture" title="High culture">High</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Popular_culture" title="Popular culture">Pop</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_knowledge" title="General knowledge">General knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermeneutics" title="Hermeneutics">Hermeneutics</a></li> <li> <a href="/wiki/Historicism" title="Historicism">Historicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historism" title="Historism">Historism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_condition" title="Human condition">Human condition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanitas" title="Humanitas">Humanitas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_arts_education" title="Liberal arts education">Liberal arts education</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Trivium" title="Trivium">Trivium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quadrivium" title="Quadrivium">Quadrivium</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">Ontology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_character" title="Moral character">Moral character</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-realization" title="Self-realization">Self-realization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-reflection" title="Self-reflection">Self-reflection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wisdom" title="Wisdom">Wisdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Work_of_art" title="Work of art">Work of art</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Journals</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;font-style:italic;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Journal_of_Archaeology" title="American Journal of Archaeology">American Journal of Archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daedalus_(journal)" title="Daedalus (journal)">Daedalus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Humanities" title="History of Humanities">History of Humanities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanitas_(journal)" title="Humanitas (journal)">Humanitas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanities_and_Social_Sciences_Communications" title="Humanities and Social Sciences Communications">Humanities and Social Sciences Communications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Controversial_Ideas" title="Journal of Controversial Ideas">Journal of Controversial Ideas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_the_Royal_Asiatic_Society" title="Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society">Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonardo_(journal)" title="Leonardo (journal)">Leonardo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nova_Religio" title="Nova Religio">Nova Religio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revue_des_%C3%89tudes_Arm%C3%A9niennes" title="Revue des Études Arméniennes">Revue des Études Arméniennes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teaching_Philosophy" title="Teaching Philosophy">Teaching Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_humanities_journals" title="List of humanities journals">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Academia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arts_and_Humanities_Research_Council" title="Arts and Humanities Research Council">Arts and Humanities Research Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_science" title="Human science">Human science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geisteswissenschaft" title="Geisteswissenschaft">Geisteswissenschaft</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanities,_arts,_and_social_sciences" title="Humanities, arts, and social sciences">Humanities, arts, and social sciences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Master_of_Humanities" title="Master of Humanities">Master of Humanities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moscow_University_for_the_Humanities" title="Moscow University for the Humanities">Moscow University for the Humanities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Endowment_for_the_Humanities" title="National Endowment for the Humanities">National Endowment for the Humanities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Humanities_Medal" title="National Humanities Medal">National Humanities Medal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antihumanism" title="Antihumanism">Antihumanism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philistinism" title="Philistinism">Philistinism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Popular_culture#Criticism" title="Popular culture">Criticism of mass culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Educational_essentialism" title="Educational essentialism">Educational essentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanities_in_the_United_States" title="Humanities in the United States">Humanities in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_people_considered_a_founder_in_a_humanities_field" title="List of people considered a founder in a humanities field">List of people considered a founder in a humanities field</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_the_humanities" title="Outline of the humanities">Outline of the humanities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_humanism" title="Renaissance humanism">Renaissance humanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_school#Studia_Humanitatis" title="Latin school">Studia Humanitatis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Communication_studies358" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Communication_studies" title="Template:Communication studies"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Communication_studies" title="Template talk:Communication studies"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Communication_studies" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Communication studies"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Communication_studies358" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Communication_studies" title="Communication studies">Communication studies</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_communication_studies" title="History of communication studies">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_communication" title="Outline of communication">Outline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Topics and terminology</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biocommunication_(science)" title="Biocommunication (science)">Biocommunication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Broadcasting" title="Broadcasting">Broadcasting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communication" title="Communication">Communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer-mediated_communication" title="Computer-mediated communication">Computer-mediated communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conversation" title="Conversation">Conversation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_communication" title="History of communication">History of communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information" title="Information">Information</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intercultural_communication" title="Intercultural communication">Intercultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interpersonal_communication" title="Interpersonal communication">Interpersonal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intrapersonal_communication" title="Intrapersonal communication">Intrapersonal </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Journalism" title="Journalism">Journalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literacy" title="Literacy">Literacy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reading" title="Reading">Reading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Writing" title="Writing">Writing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_media" title="Mass media">Mass media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meaning_(philosophy_of_language)" class="mw-redirect" title="Meaning (philosophy of language)">Meaning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_(communication)" title="Media (communication)">Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_ecology" title="Media ecology">Media ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meta-communication" title="Meta-communication">Meta-communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Models_of_communication" title="Models of communication">Models of communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_media" title="New media">New media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonverbal_communication" title="Nonverbal communication">Nonverbal communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonviolent_communication" class="mw-redirect" title="Nonviolent communication">Nonviolent communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propaganda" title="Propaganda">Propaganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_relations" title="Public relations">Public relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speech" title="Speech">Speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbol" title="Symbol">Symbol</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_symbols" title="List of symbols">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications" title="Telecommunications">Telecommunications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Text_and_conversation_theory" title="Text and conversation theory">Text and conversation theory</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="3" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/File:Encoding_communication.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Encoding communication"><img alt="Encoding communication" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Encoding_communication.jpg/120px-Encoding_communication.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="104" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Encoding_communication.jpg/180px-Encoding_communication.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Encoding_communication.jpg/240px-Encoding_communication.jpg 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="345" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Subfields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Closed-loop_communication" title="Closed-loop communication">Closed-loop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communication_design" title="Communication design">Communication design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communication_theory" title="Communication theory">Communication theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communicology" title="Communicology">Communicology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crisis_communication" title="Crisis communication">Crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_communication" title="Climate communication">Climate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross-cultural_communication" title="Cross-cultural communication">Cross-cultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Development_communication" title="Development communication">Developmental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discourse_analysis" title="Discourse analysis">Discourse analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_communication" title="Environmental communication">Environmental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Study_of_global_communication" title="Study of global communication">Global</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_communication" title="Health communication">Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_communication" title="International communication">International</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_communication" title="Mass communication">Mass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_studies" title="Media studies">Media studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mediated_cross-border_communication" title="Mediated cross-border communication">Mediated cross-border</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organizational_communication" title="Organizational communication">Organizational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_communication" title="Political communication">Political</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Risk_communication" title="Risk communication">Risk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_communication" title="Science communication">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technical_communication" title="Technical communication">Technical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visual_communication" title="Visual communication">Visual</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Scholars</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theodor_W._Adorno" title="Theodor W. Adorno">Adorno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roland_Barthes" title="Roland Barthes">Barthes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gregory_Bateson" title="Gregory Bateson">Bateson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Benjamin" title="Walter Benjamin">Benjamin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Burke" title="Kenneth Burke">Burke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manuel_Castells" title="Manuel Castells">Castells</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noam_Chomsky" title="Noam Chomsky">Chomsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_T._Craig" title="Robert T. Craig">Craig</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Ellul" title="Jacques Ellul">Ellul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Fisher_(professor)" title="Walter Fisher (professor)">Fisher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vil%C3%A9m_Flusser" title="Vilém Flusser">Flusser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Ortega_y_Gasset" title="José Ortega y Gasset">Gasset</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Gerbner" title="George Gerbner">Gerbner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erving_Goffman" title="Erving Goffman">Goffman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Habermas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Horkheimer" title="Max Horkheimer">Horkheimer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aldous_Huxley" title="Aldous Huxley">Huxley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harold_Innis" title="Harold Innis">Innis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Jakobson" title="Roman Jakobson">Jakobson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irving_Janis" title="Irving Janis">Janis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wendell_Johnson" title="Wendell Johnson">Johnson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D._Lawrence_Kincaid" title="D. Lawrence Kincaid">Kincaid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Lippmann" title="Walter Lippmann">Lippman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niklas_Luhmann" title="Niklas Luhmann">Luhmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Marcuse" title="Herbert Marcuse">Marcuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marshall_McLuhan" title="Marshall McLuhan">McLuhan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Herbert_Mead" title="George Herbert Mead">Mead</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nick_Morgan" title="Nick Morgan">Morgan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_J._Ong" title="Walter J. Ong">Ong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vance_Packard" title="Vance Packard">Packard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Sanders_Peirce" title="Charles Sanders Peirce">Peirce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neil_Postman" title="Neil Postman">Postman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nora_C._Quebral" title="Nora C. Quebral">Quebral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/I._A._Richards" title="I. A. Richards">Richards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Everett_Rogers" title="Everett Rogers">Rogers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilbur_Schramm" title="Wilbur Schramm">Schramm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claude_Shannon" title="Claude Shannon">Shannon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_W._Tankard_Jr." title="James W. Tankard Jr.">Tankard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deborah_Tannen" title="Deborah Tannen">Tannen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Wertheimer" title="Max Wertheimer">Wertheimer</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Communication_studies" title="Category:Communication studies">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Philosophical_logic116" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Philosophical_logic" title="Template:Philosophical logic"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Philosophical_logic" title="Template talk:Philosophical logic"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophical_logic" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophical logic"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Philosophical_logic116" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_logic" title="Philosophical logic">Philosophical logic</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Critical_thinking" title="Critical thinking">Critical thinking</a> and <a href="/wiki/Informal_logic" title="Informal logic">informal logic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_analysis" title="Philosophical analysis">Analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ambiguity" title="Ambiguity">Ambiguity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument" title="Argument">Argument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belief" title="Belief">Belief</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bias" title="Bias">Bias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Credibility" title="Credibility">Credibility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dialectic" title="Dialectic">Dialectic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antithesis" title="Antithesis">Antithesis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Socratic_method" title="Socratic method">Socratic method</a>, <a href="/wiki/Unity_of_opposites" title="Unity of opposites">Unity of opposites</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evidence" title="Evidence">Evidence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Explanation" title="Explanation">Explanation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Explanatory_power" title="Explanatory power">Explanatory power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fact" title="Fact">Fact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fallacy" title="Fallacy">Fallacy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_fallacies" title="List of fallacies">List of fallacies</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypothesis" title="Hypothesis">Hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inquiry" title="Inquiry">Inquiry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opinion" title="Opinion">Opinion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occam%27s_razor" title="Occam's razor">Parsimony (Occam's razor)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Premise" title="Premise">Premise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propaganda" title="Propaganda">Propaganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prudence" title="Prudence">Prudence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reason" title="Reason">Reasoning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relevance" title="Relevance">Relevance</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Rhetoric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rigour" title="Rigour">Rigor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory" title="Theory">Theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vagueness" title="Vagueness">Vagueness</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Deductive_reasoning" title="Deductive reasoning">Theories of deduction</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constructivism_(philosophy_of_mathematics)" title="Constructivism (philosophy of mathematics)">Constructivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dialetheism" title="Dialetheism">Dialetheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fictionalism" title="Fictionalism">Fictionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finitism" title="Finitism">Finitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formalism_(mathematics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Formalism (mathematics)">Formalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intuitionism" title="Intuitionism">Intuitionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logical_atomism" title="Logical atomism">Logical atomism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logicism" title="Logicism">Logicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nominalism" title="Nominalism">Nominalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Platonic_realism" class="mw-redirect" title="Platonic realism">Platonic realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">Pragmatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">Realism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Philosophy_of_language338" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Philosophy_of_language" title="Template:Philosophy of language"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Philosophy_of_language" title="Template talk:Philosophy of language"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy_of_language" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy of language"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Philosophy_of_language338" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_language" title="Philosophy of language">Philosophy of language</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><a href="/wiki/Index_of_language_articles" title="Index of language articles">Index of language articles</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophers_of_language" title="List of philosophers of language">Philosophers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gorgias" title="Gorgias">Gorgias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cratylus" title="Cratylus">Cratylus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eubulides" title="Eubulides">Eubulides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diodorus_Cronus" title="Diodorus Cronus">Diodorus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chrysippus" title="Chrysippus">Chrysippus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhuang_Zhou" title="Zhuang Zhou">Zhuangzi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xunzi_(philosopher)" title="Xunzi (philosopher)">Xunzi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Averroes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Khaldun" title="Ibn Khaldun">Ibn Khaldun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Hobbes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Wilkins" title="John Wilkins">Wilkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antoine_Arnauld" title="Antoine Arnauld">Arnauld</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claude_Lancelot" title="Claude Lancelot">Lancelot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Leibniz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Berkeley" title="George Berkeley">Berkeley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_Herder" title="Johann Gottfried Herder">Herder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_von_Humboldt" title="Wilhelm von Humboldt">von Humboldt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fritz_Mauthner" title="Fritz Mauthner">Mauthner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Ric%C5%93ur" title="Paul Ricœur">Ricœur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_de_Saussure" title="Ferdinand de Saussure">de Saussure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gottlob_Frege" title="Gottlob Frege">Frege</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franz_Boas" title="Franz Boas">Boas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Tillich" title="Paul Tillich">Tillich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Sapir" title="Edward Sapir">Sapir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonard_Bloomfield" title="Leonard Bloomfield">Bloomfield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henri_Bergson" title="Henri Bergson">Bergson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lev_Vygotsky" title="Lev Vygotsky">Vygotsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Wittgenstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Carnap" title="Rudolf Carnap">Carnap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Derrida" title="Jacques Derrida">Derrida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Lee_Whorf" title="Benjamin Lee Whorf">Whorf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._L._Austin" title="J. L. Austin">Austin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noam_Chomsky" title="Noam Chomsky">Chomsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans-Georg_Gadamer" title="Hans-Georg Gadamer">Gadamer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saul_Kripke" title="Saul Kripke">Kripke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A._J._Ayer" title="A. J. Ayer">Ayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G._E._M._Anscombe" title="G. E. M. Anscombe">Anscombe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jaakko_Hintikka" title="Jaakko Hintikka">Hintikka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Dummett" title="Michael Dummett">Dummett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_Davidson_(philosopher)" title="Donald Davidson (philosopher)">Davidson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Grice" title="Paul Grice">Grice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_Ryle" title="Gilbert Ryle">Ryle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P._F._Strawson" title="P. F. Strawson">Strawson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willard_Van_Orman_Quine" title="Willard Van Orman Quine">Quine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hilary_Putnam" title="Hilary Putnam">Putnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Lewis_(philosopher)" title="David Lewis (philosopher)">Lewis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Searle" title="John Searle">Searle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Watzlawick" title="Paul Watzlawick">Watzlawick</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Theories_of_language" title="Category:Theories of language">Theories</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Causal_theory_of_reference" title="Causal theory of reference">Causal theory of reference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contrastivism" title="Contrastivism">Contrast theory of meaning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contrastivism" title="Contrastivism">Contrastivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conventionalism" title="Conventionalism">Conventionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cratylism" title="Cratylism">Cratylism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deconstruction" title="Deconstruction">Deconstruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Descriptivist_theory_of_names" title="Descriptivist theory of names">Descriptivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Direct_reference_theory" title="Direct reference theory">Direct reference theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dramatism" title="Dramatism">Dramatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dynamic_semantics" title="Dynamic semantics">Dynamic semantics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expressivism" title="Expressivism">Expressivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inquisitive_semantics" title="Inquisitive semantics">Inquisitive semantics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_determinism" title="Linguistic determinism">Linguistic determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mediated_reference_theory" title="Mediated reference theory">Mediated reference theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nominalism" title="Nominalism">Nominalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-cognitivism" title="Non-cognitivism">Non-cognitivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phallogocentrism" title="Phallogocentrism">Phallogocentrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relevance_theory" title="Relevance theory">Relevance theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semantic_externalism" title="Semantic externalism">Semantic externalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semantic_holism" title="Semantic holism">Semantic holism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Situation_semantics" title="Situation semantics">Situation semantics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism" title="Structuralism">Structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supposition_theory" title="Supposition theory">Supposition theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbiosism" title="Symbiosism">Symbiosism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theological_noncognitivism" title="Theological noncognitivism">Theological noncognitivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_descriptions" title="Theory of descriptions">Theory of descriptions</a> (<a href="/wiki/Definite_description" title="Definite description">Definite description</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_language" title="Theory of language">Theory of language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unilalianism" title="Unilalianism">Unilalianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verificationism" title="Verificationism">Verification theory</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ambiguity" title="Ambiguity">Ambiguity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cant_(language)" title="Cant (language)">Cant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Class_(philosophy)" title="Class (philosophy)">Class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concept" title="Concept">Concept</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Categorization" class="mw-redirect" title="Categorization">Categories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_resemblance" title="Family resemblance">Family resemblance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intension" title="Intension">Intension</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language" title="Language">Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_relativity" title="Linguistic relativity">Linguistic relativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logical_form" title="Logical form">Logical form</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mental_representation" title="Mental representation">Mental representation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metalanguage" title="Metalanguage">Metalanguage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modality_(natural_language)" class="mw-redirect" title="Modality (natural language)">Modality (natural language)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presupposition" title="Presupposition">Presupposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principle_of_compositionality" title="Principle of compositionality">Principle of compositionality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Property_(philosophy)" title="Property (philosophy)">Property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proposition" title="Proposition">Proposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sense_and_reference" title="Sense and reference">Sense and reference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sentence_(linguistics)" title="Sentence (linguistics)">Sentence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Set_(mathematics)" title="Set (mathematics)">Set</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sign_(semiotics)" title="Sign (semiotics)">Sign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speech_act" title="Speech act">Speech act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statement_(logic)" title="Statement (logic)">Statement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbol" title="Symbol">Symbol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Truth-bearer" title="Truth-bearer">Truth-bearer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Use%E2%80%93mention_distinction" title="Use–mention distinction">Use–mention distinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_philosophy_of_language_articles" title="Index of philosophy of language articles">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cratylus_(dialogue)" title="Cratylus (dialogue)">Cratylus</a> (n.d.)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Port-Royal_Grammar" title="Port-Royal Grammar">Port-Royal Grammar</a> (1660)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/De_Arte_Combinatoria" title="De Arte Combinatoria">De Arte Combinatoria</a> (1666)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/An_Essay_Towards_a_Real_Character,_and_a_Philosophical_Language" title="An Essay Towards a Real Character, and a Philosophical Language">An Essay Towards a Real Character, and a Philosophical Language</a> (1668)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alciphron_(book)" title="Alciphron (book)">Alciphron</a> (1732)</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/On_Denoting" title="On Denoting">On Denoting</a>" (1905)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tractatus_Logico-Philosophicus" title="Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus">Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus</a> (1921)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language,_Truth,_and_Logic" title="Language, Truth, and Logic">Language, Truth, and Logic</a> (1936)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Two_Dogmas_of_Empiricism" title="Two Dogmas of Empiricism">Two Dogmas of Empiricism</a> (1951)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_Investigations" title="Philosophical Investigations">Philosophical Investigations</a> (1953)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Of_Grammatology" title="Of Grammatology">Of Grammatology</a> (1967)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naming_and_Necessity" title="Naming and Necessity">Naming and Necessity</a> (1980)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wittgenstein_on_Rules_and_Private_Language" title="Wittgenstein on Rules and Private Language">Wittgenstein on Rules and Private Language</a> (1982)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limited_Inc" title="Limited Inc">Limited Inc</a> (1988)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related articles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">Analytic philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_information" title="Philosophy of information">Philosophy of information</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_logic" title="Philosophical logic">Philosophical logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">Linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatics" title="Pragmatics">Pragmatics</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Rhetoric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Names" title="School of Names">School of Names</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semantics_(natural_language)" class="mw-redirect" title="Semantics (natural 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