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id="toc-Dynamic_theory_of_tides" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dynamic_theory_of_tides"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Dynamic theory of tides </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dynamic_theory_of_tides-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Laplace's_tidal_equations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Laplace's_tidal_equations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Laplace's tidal equations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Laplace's_tidal_equations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-On_the_figure_of_the_Earth" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#On_the_figure_of_the_Earth"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 On the figure of the Earth </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-On_the_figure_of_the_Earth-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle On the figure of the Earth subsection </button> <ul id="toc-On_the_figure_of_the_Earth-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Spherical_harmonics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Spherical_harmonics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Spherical harmonics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Spherical_harmonics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Potential_theory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Potential_theory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Potential theory </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Potential_theory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Planetary_and_lunar_inequalities" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Planetary_and_lunar_inequalities"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Planetary and lunar inequalities </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Planetary_and_lunar_inequalities-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Planetary and lunar inequalities subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Planetary_and_lunar_inequalities-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Jupiter–Saturn_great_inequality" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Jupiter–Saturn_great_inequality"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Jupiter–Saturn great inequality </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Jupiter–Saturn_great_inequality-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Books" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Books"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Books </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Books-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Optics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Optics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Optics </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Optics-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Optics subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Optics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Influence_of_gravity_on_light" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Influence_of_gravity_on_light"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Influence of gravity on light </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Influence_of_gravity_on_light-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Arcueil" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Arcueil"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Arcueil </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Arcueil-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Analytic_theory_of_probabilities" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Analytic_theory_of_probabilities"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Analytic theory of probabilities </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Analytic_theory_of_probabilities-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Analytic theory of probabilities subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Analytic_theory_of_probabilities-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Inductive_probability" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Inductive_probability"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.1 Inductive probability </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Inductive_probability-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Probability-generating_function" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Probability-generating_function"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.2 Probability-generating function </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Probability-generating_function-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Least_squares_and_central_limit_theorem" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Least_squares_and_central_limit_theorem"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.3 Least squares and central limit theorem </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Least_squares_and_central_limit_theorem-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Laplace's_demon" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Laplace's_demon"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Laplace's demon </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Laplace's_demon-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Laplace_transforms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Laplace_transforms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Laplace transforms </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Laplace_transforms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_discoveries_and_accomplishments" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_discoveries_and_accomplishments"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 Other discoveries and accomplishments </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Other_discoveries_and_accomplishments-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Other discoveries and accomplishments subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Other_discoveries_and_accomplishments-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Mathematics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mathematics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.1 Mathematics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mathematics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Surface_tension" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Surface_tension"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.2 Surface tension </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Surface_tension-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Speed_of_sound" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Speed_of_sound"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.3 Speed of sound </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Speed_of_sound-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Politics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Politics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 Politics </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Politics-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Politics subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Politics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Minister_of_the_Interior" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Minister_of_the_Interior"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12.1 Minister of the Interior </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Minister_of_the_Interior-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-From_Bonaparte_to_the_Bourbons" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#From_Bonaparte_to_the_Bourbons"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12.2 From Bonaparte to the Bourbons </div> </a> <ul id="toc-From_Bonaparte_to_the_Bourbons-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Political_philosophy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Political_philosophy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12.3 Political philosophy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Political_philosophy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Death" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Death"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 Death </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Death-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Religious_opinions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Religious_opinions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14 Religious opinions </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Religious_opinions-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Religious opinions subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Religious_opinions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-I_had_no_need_of_that_hypothesis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#I_had_no_need_of_that_hypothesis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14.1 I had no need of that hypothesis </div> </a> <ul id="toc-I_had_no_need_of_that_hypothesis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Views_on_God" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Views_on_God"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14.2 Views on God </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Views_on_God-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Excommunication_of_a_comet" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Excommunication_of_a_comet"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14.3 Excommunication of a comet </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Excommunication_of_a_comet-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Honors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Honors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 15 Honors </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Honors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Quotations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Quotations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 16 Quotations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Quotations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-List_of_works" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#List_of_works"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 17 List of works </div> </a> <ul id="toc-List_of_works-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 18 Bibliography </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Bibliography subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-English_translations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#English_translations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 18.1 English translations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-English_translations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 19 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 20 References </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle References subsection </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 20.1 Citations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-General_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#General_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 20.2 General sources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-General_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 21 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Pierre-Simon Laplace</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 102 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-102" aria-hidden="true" > 102 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ady mw-list-item"><a href="https://ady.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%81,_%D0%9F%D1%8C%D0%B5%D1%80-%D0%A1%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Лаплас, Пьер-Симон – Adyghe" lang="ady" hreflang="ady" data-title="Лаплас, Пьер-Симон" data-language-autonym="Адыгабзэ" data-language-local-name="Adyghe" class="interlanguage-link-target">Адыгабзэ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre-Simon_Laplace" title="Pierre-Simon Laplace – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Pierre-Simon Laplace" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D9%8A%D9%8A%D8%B1_%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%A8%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B3" title="بيير لابلاس – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="بيير لابلاس" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre-Simon_de_Laplace" title="Pierre-Simon de Laplace – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Pierre-Simon de Laplace" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aragonés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre-Simon_Laplace" title="Pierre-Simon Laplace – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Pierre-Simon Laplace" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyer_Simon_Laplas" title="Pyer Simon Laplas – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Pyer Simon Laplas" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%DB%8C%D8%A6%D8%B1_%D8%B3%DB%8C%D9%85%D9%88%D9%86_%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%BE%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B3" title="پیئر سیمون لاپلاس – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="پیئر سیمون لاپلاس" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B0_%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%81_%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B8" title="পিয়ের সিমোঁ লাপ্লাস – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="পিয়ের সিমোঁ লাপ্লাস" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre-Simon_Laplace" title="Pierre-Simon Laplace – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Pierre-Simon Laplace" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%8C%D0%B5%D1%80-%D0%A1%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%BD_%D0%9B%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%81" title="Пьер-Симон Лаплас – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Пьер-Симон Лаплас" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target">Башҡортса</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%E2%80%99%D0%B5%D1%80-%D0%A1%D1%96%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%BD_%D0%9B%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%81" title="П’ер-Сімон Лаплас – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="П’ер-Сімон Лаплас" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%E2%80%99%D0%B5%D1%80-%D0%A1%D1%8B%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%BD_%D0%9B%D1%8F%D0%BF%D0%BB%D1%8F%D1%81" title="П’ер-Сымон Ляпляс – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="П’ер-Сымон Ляпляс" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8" title="साइमन लाप्लास – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="साइमन लाप्लास" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target">भोजपुरी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B8%D0%B5%D1%80-%D0%A1%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%BD_%D0%9B%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%81" title="Пиер-Симон Лаплас – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Пиер-Симон Лаплас" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre-Simon_Laplace" title="Pierre-Simon Laplace – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Pierre-Simon Laplace" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bxr mw-list-item"><a href="https://bxr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%8C%D0%B5%D1%80-%D0%A1%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%BD_%D0%9B%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%81" title="Пьер-Симон Лаплас – Russia Buriat" lang="bxr" hreflang="bxr" data-title="Пьер-Симон Лаплас" data-language-autonym="Буряад" data-language-local-name="Russia Buriat" class="interlanguage-link-target">Буряад</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre-Simon_Laplace" title="Pierre-Simon Laplace – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Pierre-Simon Laplace" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre-Simon_Laplace" title="Pierre-Simon Laplace – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Pierre-Simon Laplace" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre-Simon_Laplace" title="Pierre-Simon Laplace – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Pierre-Simon Laplace" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre-Simon_Laplace" title="Pierre-Simon Laplace – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Pierre-Simon Laplace" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre-Simon_Laplace" title="Pierre-Simon Laplace – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Pierre-Simon Laplace" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A0%CE%B9%CE%B5%CF%81-%CE%A3%CE%B9%CE%BC%CF%8C%CE%BD_%CE%BD%CF%84%CE%B5_%CE%9B%CE%B1%CF%80%CE%BB%CE%AC%CF%82" title="Πιερ-Σιμόν ντε Λαπλάς – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Πιερ-Σιμόν ντε Λαπλάς" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre-Simon_Laplace" title="Pierre-Simon Laplace – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Pierre-Simon Laplace" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre-Simon_Laplace" title="Pierre-Simon Laplace – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Pierre-Simon Laplace" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre-Simon_Laplace" title="Pierre-Simon Laplace – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Pierre-Simon Laplace" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%DB%8C%D8%B1_%D8%B3%DB%8C%D9%85%D9%88%D9%86_%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%BE%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B3" title="پیر سیمون لاپلاس – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="پیر سیمون لاپلاس" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre-Simon_de_Laplace" title="Pierre-Simon de Laplace – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Pierre-Simon de Laplace" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre-Simon_Laplace" title="Pierre-Simon Laplace – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Pierre-Simon Laplace" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Simon_Laplace" title="Pierre Simon Laplace – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Pierre Simon Laplace" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Simon_Laplace" title="Pierre Simon Laplace – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Pierre Simon Laplace" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xal mw-list-item"><a href="https://xal.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%8C%D0%B5%D1%80-%D0%A1%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%BD_%D0%9B%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%81" title="Пьер-Симон Лаплас – Kalmyk" lang="xal" hreflang="xal" data-title="Пьер-Симон Лаплас" data-language-autonym="Хальмг" data-language-local-name="Kalmyk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Хальмг</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%94%BC%EC%97%90%EB%A5%B4%EC%8B%9C%EB%AA%BD_%EB%93%9C_%EB%9D%BC%ED%94%8C%EB%9D%BC%EC%8A%A4_%ED%9B%84%EC%9E%91" title="피에르시몽 드 라플라스 후작 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="피에르시몽 드 라플라스 후작" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8A%D5%AB%D5%A5%D5%BC_%D5%8D%D5%AB%D5%B4%D5%B8%D5%B6_%D4%BC%D5%A1%D5%BA%D5%AC%D5%A1%D5%BD" title="Պիեռ Սիմոն Լապլաս – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Պիեռ Սիմոն Լապլաս" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B0_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%82_%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8" title="पियेर सिमों लाप्लास – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="पियेर सिमों लाप्लास" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre-Simon_Laplace" title="Pierre-Simon Laplace – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Pierre-Simon Laplace" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre-Simon_Laplace" title="Pierre-Simon Laplace – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Pierre-Simon Laplace" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre-Simon_de_Laplace" title="Pierre-Simon de Laplace – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Pierre-Simon de Laplace" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre-Simon_Laplace" title="Pierre-Simon Laplace – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Pierre-Simon Laplace" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre-Simon_Laplace" title="Pierre-Simon Laplace – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Pierre-Simon Laplace" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Simon_Laplace" title="Pierre Simon Laplace – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Pierre Simon Laplace" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A4%D7%99%D7%99%D7%A8-%D7%A1%D7%99%D7%9E%D7%95%D7%9F_%D7%9C%D7%A4%D7%9C%D7%A1" title="פייר-סימון לפלס – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="פייר-סימון לפלס" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre-Simon_Laplace" title="Pierre-Simon Laplace – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Pierre-Simon Laplace" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Jawa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kbp mw-list-item"><a href="https://kbp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre-Simon_de_Laplace" title="Pierre-Simon de Laplace – Kabiye" lang="kbp" hreflang="kbp" data-title="Pierre-Simon de Laplace" data-language-autonym="Kabɩyɛ" data-language-local-name="Kabiye" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kabɩyɛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%AA%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%AF%E0%B2%B0%E0%B3%86_%E0%B2%B8%E0%B3%88%E0%B2%AE%E0%B2%A8%E0%B3%8D_%E0%B2%B2%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%AF%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%AA%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B2%E0%B3%87%E0%B2%B8%E0%B3%8D" title="ಪಿಯರೆ ಸೈಮನ್ ಲ್ಯಾಪ್ಲೇಸ್ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಪಿಯರೆ ಸೈಮನ್ ಲ್ಯಾಪ್ಲೇಸ್" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target">ಕನ್ನಡ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9E%E1%83%98%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0_%E1%83%A1%E1%83%98%E1%83%9B%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9C_%E1%83%9A%E1%83%90%E1%83%9E%E1%83%9A%E1%83%90%E1%83%A1%E1%83%98" title="პიერ სიმონ ლაპლასი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="პიერ სიმონ ლაპლასი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%8C%D0%B5%D1%80-%D0%A1%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%BD_%D0%9B%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%81" title="Пьер-Симон Лаплас – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Пьер-Симон Лаплас" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre-Simon_Laplace" title="Pierre-Simon Laplace – Cornish" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="Pierre-Simon Laplace" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="Cornish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kernowek</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre-Simon_Laplace" title="Pierre-Simon Laplace – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Pierre-Simon Laplace" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kreyòl ayisyen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre-Simon_de_Laplace" title="Pierre-Simon de Laplace – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Pierre-Simon de Laplace" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kriyòl gwiyannen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%8C%D0%B5%D1%80-%D0%A1%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%BD_%D0%9B%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%81" title="Пьер-Симон Лаплас – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Пьер-Симон Лаплас" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petrus_Simon_de_Laplace" title="Petrus Simon de Laplace – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Petrus Simon de Laplace" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pj%C4%93rs_Simons_Laplass" title="Pjērs Simons Laplass – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Pjērs Simons Laplass" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre-Simon_Laplace" title="Pierre-Simon Laplace – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Pierre-Simon Laplace" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lëtzebuergesch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pjeras_Simonas_Laplasas" title="Pjeras Simonas Laplasas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Pjeras Simonas Laplasas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lij mw-list-item"><a href="https://lij.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Simon_Laplace" title="Pierre Simon Laplace – Ligurian" lang="lij" hreflang="lij" data-title="Pierre Simon Laplace" data-language-autonym="Ligure" data-language-local-name="Ligurian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ligure</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre-Simon_Laplace" title="Pierre-Simon Laplace – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Pierre-Simon Laplace" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Limburgs</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre-Simon_de_Laplace" title="Pierre-Simon de Laplace – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Pierre-Simon de Laplace" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%98%D0%B5%D1%80_%D0%A1%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%BD_%D0%9B%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%81" title="Пјер Симон Лаплас – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Пјер Симон Лаплас" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre-Simon_de_Laplace" title="Pierre-Simon de Laplace – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Pierre-Simon de Laplace" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malagasy</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%AA%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%86_%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%88%E0%B4%AE%E0%B5%BA_%E0%B4%B2%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%AA%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B2%E0%B5%87%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D" title="പിയറെ സൈമൺ ലാപ്ലേസ് – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="പിയറെ സൈമൺ ലാപ്ലേസ്" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%8F%E0%A4%B0-%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8" title="पिएर-सिमोन लाप्लास – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="पिएर-सिमोन लाप्लास" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9E%E1%83%98%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0-%E1%83%A1%E1%83%98%E1%83%9B%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9C_%E1%83%9A%E1%83%90%E1%83%9E%E1%83%9A%E1%83%90%E1%83%A1%E1%83%98" title="პიერ-სიმონ ლაპლასი – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="პიერ-სიმონ ლაპლასი" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">მარგალური</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D9%8A%D9%8A%D8%B1_%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%A8%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B3" title="بيير لابلاس – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="بيير لابلاس" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre-Simon_Laplace" title="Pierre-Simon Laplace – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Pierre-Simon Laplace" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl mw-list-item"><a href="https://mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre-Simon_Laplace" title="Pierre-Simon Laplace – Mirandese" lang="mwl" hreflang="mwl" data-title="Pierre-Simon Laplace" data-language-autonym="Mirandés" data-language-local-name="Mirandese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Mirandés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre-Simon_Laplace" title="Pierre-Simon Laplace – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Pierre-Simon Laplace" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%87-%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%82_%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D" title="पियरे-सिमों लाप्लास् – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="पियरे-सिमों लाप्लास्" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाल भाषा</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%94%E3%82%A8%E3%83%BC%E3%83%AB%EF%BC%9D%E3%82%B7%E3%83%A2%E3%83%B3%E3%83%BB%E3%83%A9%E3%83%97%E3%83%A9%E3%82%B9" title="ピエール＝シモン・ラプラス – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ピエール＝シモン・ラプラス" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre-Simon_Laplace" title="Pierre-Simon Laplace – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Pierre-Simon Laplace" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre-Simon_Laplace" title="Pierre-Simon Laplace – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Pierre-Simon Laplace" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre-Simon_de_Laplace" title="Pierre-Simon de Laplace – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Pierre-Simon de Laplace" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laplas_Pyer_Simon" title="Laplas Pyer Simon – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Laplas Pyer Simon" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%AA%E0%A9%80%E0%A8%B0%E0%A9%87_%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%AE%E0%A9%8B%E0%A8%A8_%E0%A8%B2%E0%A9%88%E0%A8%AA%E0%A8%B2%E0%A9%87%E0%A8%B8" title="ਪੀਰੇ ਸਿਮੋਨ ਲੈਪਲੇਸ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਪੀਰੇ ਸਿਮੋਨ ਲੈਪਲੇਸ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%DB%8C%DB%8C%D8%B1_%D8%B3%DB%8C%D9%85%D9%88%D9%86_%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%BE%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B3" title="پییر سیمون لاپلاس – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="پییر سیمون لاپلاس" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Simon_de_Laplace" title="Pierre Simon de Laplace – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Pierre Simon de Laplace" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Piemontèis</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Simon_de_Laplace" title="Pierre Simon de Laplace – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Pierre Simon de Laplace" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre-Simon_de_Laplace" title="Pierre-Simon de Laplace – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Pierre-Simon de Laplace" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre-Simon_de_Laplace" title="Pierre-Simon de Laplace – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Pierre-Simon de Laplace" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%81,_%D0%9F%D1%8C%D0%B5%D1%80-%D0%A1%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Лаплас, Пьер-Симон – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Лаплас, Пьер-Симон" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa mw-list-item"><a href="https://sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B0_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%82_%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8" title="पियर सिमों लाप्लास – Sanskrit" lang="sa" hreflang="sa" data-title="पियर सिमों लाप्लास" data-language-autonym="संस्कृतम्" data-language-local-name="Sanskrit" class="interlanguage-link-target">संस्कृतम्</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre-Simon_Laplace" title="Pierre-Simon Laplace – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Pierre-Simon Laplace" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target">Scots</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Simon_Laplace" title="Pierre Simon Laplace – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Pierre Simon Laplace" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre-Simon_Laplace" title="Pierre-Simon Laplace – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Pierre-Simon Laplace" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sicilianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre-Simon_Laplace" title="Pierre-Simon Laplace – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Pierre-Simon Laplace" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Simone_de_Laplace" title="Pierre Simone de Laplace – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Pierre Simone de Laplace" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre-Simon_Laplace" title="Pierre-Simon Laplace – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Pierre-Simon Laplace" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%98%D0%B5%D1%80_%D0%A1%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%BD_%D0%9B%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%81" title="Пјер Симон Лаплас – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Пјер Симон Лаплас" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre-Simon_Laplace" title="Pierre-Simon Laplace – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Pierre-Simon Laplace" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre-Simon_Laplace" title="Pierre-Simon Laplace – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Pierre-Simon Laplace" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre-Simon_de_Laplace" title="Pierre-Simon de Laplace – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Pierre-Simon de Laplace" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre-Simon_Laplace" title="Pierre-Simon Laplace – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Pierre-Simon Laplace" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8B%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%87%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%81" title="பியர் சிமோன் இலப்லாசு – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="பியர் சிமோன் இலப்லாசு" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%AA%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%AF%E0%B0%B0%E0%B1%8D_%E0%B0%B8%E0%B1%88%E0%B0%AE%E0%B0%A8%E0%B1%8D_%E0%B0%B2%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%AA%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B2%E0%B1%87%E0%B0%B8%E0%B1%8D" title="పియర్ సైమన్ లాప్లేస్ – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="పియర్ సైమన్ లాప్లేస్" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target">తెలుగు</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%B5%E0%B9%81%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%8C-%E0%B8%8B%E0%B8%B5%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%87_%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%AA" title="ปีแยร์-ซีมง ลาปลัส – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ปีแยร์-ซีมง ลาปลัส" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre-Simon_Laplace" title="Pierre-Simon Laplace – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Pierre-Simon Laplace" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%27%D1%94%D1%80-%D0%A1%D1%96%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%BD_%D0%9B%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%81" title="П'єр-Сімон Лаплас – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="П'єр-Сімон Лаплас" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D8%A6%DB%8C%D8%B1_%D8%B3%DB%8C%D9%85%D9%88%DA%BA_%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%BE%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B3" title="پئیر سیموں لاپلاس – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="پئیر سیموں لاپلاس" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre-Simon_Laplace" title="Pierre-Simon Laplace – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Pierre-Simon Laplace" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre-Simon_Laplace" title="Pierre-Simon Laplace – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Pierre-Simon Laplace" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target">Winaray</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%9A%AE%E5%9F%83%E5%B0%94-%E8%A5%BF%E8%92%99%C2%B7%E6%8B%89%E6%99%AE%E6%8B%89%E6%96%AF" title="皮埃尔-西蒙·拉普拉斯 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="皮埃尔-西蒙·拉普拉斯" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%8B%89%E6%99%AE%E6%8B%89%E6%96%AF" title="拉普拉斯 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="拉普拉斯" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a 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div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Laplace" redirects here. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Laplace_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Laplace (disambiguation)">Laplace (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox biography vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:125%;"><div class="fn">Pierre-Simon Laplace</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Laplace,_Pierre-Simon,_marquis_de.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Laplace%2C_Pierre-Simon%2C_marquis_de.jpg/225px-Laplace%2C_Pierre-Simon%2C_marquis_de.jpg" decoding="async" width="225" height="264" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/39/Laplace%2C_Pierre-Simon%2C_marquis_de.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="256" data-file-height="300" /></a><div class="infobox-caption">Pierre-Simon Laplace as chancellor of the <a href="/wiki/Senate" title="Senate">Senate</a> under the <a href="/wiki/First_French_Empire" title="First French Empire">First French Empire</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Born</th><td class="infobox-data">(1749-03-23)23 March 1749 <div style="display:inline" class="birthplace"><a href="/wiki/Beaumont-en-Auge" title="Beaumont-en-Auge">Beaumont-en-Auge</a>, Normandy, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_France" title="Kingdom of France">Kingdom of France</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Died</th><td class="infobox-data">5 March 1827(1827-03-05) (aged 77) <div style="display:inline" class="deathplace"><a href="/wiki/Paris" title="Paris">Paris</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bourbon_Restoration_in_France" title="Bourbon Restoration in France">Kingdom of France</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Alma mater</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/University_of_Caen" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Caen">University of Caen</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Known for</th><td class="infobox-data"><div class="collapsible-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align: left;"> <div style="line-height: 1.6em; font-weight: bold;"><div> </div></div> <ul class="mw-collapsible-content" style="margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0; line-height: inherit; list-style: none; margin-left: 0;"><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0">Work in <a href="/wiki/Celestial_mechanics" title="Celestial mechanics">celestial mechanics</a> Predicting the existence of <a href="/wiki/Black_holes" class="mw-redirect" title="Black holes">black holes</a><a href="#cite_note-HE73p364-1">[1]</a> <a href="/wiki/Bayesian_inference" title="Bayesian inference">Bayesian inference</a> <a href="/wiki/Bayesian_probability" title="Bayesian probability">Bayesian probability</a> <a href="/wiki/Laplace%27s_equation" title="Laplace's equation">Laplace's equation</a> <a href="/wiki/Laplace_operator" title="Laplace operator">Laplacian</a> <a href="/wiki/Laplace_transform" title="Laplace transform">Laplace transform</a> <a href="/wiki/Inverse_Laplace_transform" title="Inverse Laplace transform">Inverse Laplace transform</a> <a href="/wiki/Laplace_distribution" title="Laplace distribution">Laplace distribution</a> <a href="/wiki/Laplace%27s_demon" title="Laplace's demon">Laplace's demon</a> <a href="/wiki/Young%E2%80%93Laplace_equation" title="Young–Laplace equation">Young–Laplace equation</a> <a href="/wiki/Laplace_number" title="Laplace number">Laplace number</a> <a href="/wiki/Laplace_limit" title="Laplace limit">Laplace limit</a> <a href="/wiki/Laplace_invariant" title="Laplace invariant">Laplace invariant</a> <a href="/wiki/Laplace_principle_(large_deviations_theory)" title="Laplace principle (large deviations theory)">Laplace principle</a> <a href="/wiki/Principle_of_indifference" title="Principle of indifference">Laplace's principle of insufficient reason</a> <a href="/wiki/Laplace%27s_method" title="Laplace's method">Laplace's method</a> <a href="/wiki/Laplace_force" class="mw-redirect" title="Laplace force">Laplace force</a> <a href="/wiki/Laplace_filter" class="mw-redirect" title="Laplace filter">Laplace filter</a> <a href="/wiki/Laplace_functional" title="Laplace functional">Laplace functional</a> <a href="/wiki/Laplacian_matrix" title="Laplacian matrix">Laplacian matrix</a> <a href="/wiki/Variance_gamma_process" title="Variance gamma process">Laplace motion</a> <a href="/wiki/Laplace_plane" title="Laplace plane">Laplace plane</a> <a href="/wiki/Laplace_pressure" title="Laplace pressure">Laplace pressure</a> <a href="/wiki/Laplace_resonance" class="mw-redirect" title="Laplace resonance">Laplace resonance</a> <a href="/wiki/Spherical_harmonics" title="Spherical harmonics">Laplace's spherical harmonics</a> <a href="/wiki/Additive_smoothing" title="Additive smoothing">Laplace smoothing</a> <a href="/wiki/Laplace_expansion" title="Laplace expansion">Laplace expansion</a> <a href="/wiki/Laplace_expansion_(potential)" title="Laplace expansion (potential)">Laplace expansion</a> <a href="/wiki/Rule_of_succession" title="Rule of succession">Laplace-Bayes estimator</a> <a href="/wiki/Laplace%E2%80%93Stieltjes_transform" title="Laplace–Stieltjes transform">Laplace–Stieltjes transform</a> <a href="/wiki/Laplace%E2%80%93Runge%E2%80%93Lenz_vector" title="Laplace–Runge–Lenz vector">Laplace–Runge–Lenz vector</a> <a href="/wiki/Nebular_hypothesis" title="Nebular hypothesis">Nebular hypothesis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546">Scientific career</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Fields</th><td class="infobox-data category"><a href="/wiki/Astronomy" title="Astronomy">Astronomy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mathematics" title="Mathematics">Mathematics</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Institutions</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/%C3%89cole_Militaire" class="mw-redirect" title="École Militaire">École Militaire</a> (1769–1776)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Academic advisors</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Jean_d%27Alembert" class="mw-redirect" title="Jean d'Alembert">Jean d'Alembert</a> <a href="/wiki/Christophe_Gadbled" title="Christophe Gadbled">Christophe Gadbled</a> Pierre Le Canu</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Notable students</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Sim%C3%A9on_Denis_Poisson" title="Siméon Denis Poisson">Siméon Denis Poisson</a> <a href="/wiki/Napoleon" title="Napoleon">Napoleon Bonaparte</a></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122; background:#eee;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Minister_of_the_Interior_(France)" title="Minister of the Interior (France)">Minister of the Interior</a></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="border-bottom:none">In office 12 November 1799 – 25 December 1799</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Prime Minister</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Napoleon_Bonaparte" class="mw-redirect" title="Napoleon Bonaparte">Napoleon Bonaparte</a> (as <a href="/wiki/French_Consulate" title="French Consulate">First Consul</a>)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Preceded by</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Nicolas_Marie_Quinette" title="Nicolas Marie Quinette">Nicolas Marie Quinette</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Succeeded by</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Lucien_Bonaparte" title="Lucien Bonaparte">Lucien Bonaparte</a></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-below" style="border-top: 1px solid right;"><div></div></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header">Signature</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><a href="/wiki/File:Pierre-Simon_Laplace_signature.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Pierre-Simon_Laplace_signature.svg/150px-Pierre-Simon_Laplace_signature.svg.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="54" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Pierre-Simon_Laplace_signature.svg/225px-Pierre-Simon_Laplace_signature.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Pierre-Simon_Laplace_signature.svg/300px-Pierre-Simon_Laplace_signature.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="585" data-file-height="211" /></a></td></tr></tbody></table> Pierre-Simon, Marquis de Laplace (<a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/ləˈplɑːs/</a>; <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1177148991">.mw-parser-output .IPA-label-small{font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .references .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .infobox .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .navbox .IPA-label-small{font-size:100%}</style>French: <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/French" title="Help:IPA/French">[pjɛʁ simɔ̃ laplas]</a>; 23 March 1749 – 5 March 1827) was a French <a href="/wiki/Scholar" title="Scholar">scholar</a> whose work was important to the development of <a href="/wiki/Engineering" title="Engineering">engineering</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mathematics" title="Mathematics">mathematics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Statistics" title="Statistics">statistics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">physics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Astronomy" title="Astronomy">astronomy</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophy</a>. He summarized and extended the work of his predecessors in his five-volume <a href="/wiki/Trait%C3%A9_de_m%C3%A9canique_c%C3%A9leste" title="Traité de mécanique céleste">Mécanique céleste</a> (Celestial Mechanics) (1799–1825). This work translated the geometric study of <a href="/wiki/Classical_mechanics" title="Classical mechanics">classical mechanics</a> to one based on <a href="/wiki/Calculus" title="Calculus">calculus</a>, opening up a broader range of problems. In statistics, the <a href="/wiki/Bayesian_probability" title="Bayesian probability">Bayesian interpretation</a> of probability was developed mainly by Laplace.<a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a> Laplace formulated <a href="/wiki/Laplace%27s_equation" title="Laplace's equation">Laplace's equation</a>, and pioneered the <a href="/wiki/Laplace_transform" title="Laplace transform">Laplace transform</a> which appears in many branches of <a href="/wiki/Mathematical_physics" title="Mathematical physics">mathematical physics</a>, a field that he took a leading role in forming. The <a href="/wiki/Laplace_operator" title="Laplace operator">Laplacian differential operator</a>, widely used in mathematics, is also named after him. He restated and developed the <a href="/wiki/Nebular_hypothesis" title="Nebular hypothesis">nebular hypothesis</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Origin_of_the_Solar_System" class="mw-redirect" title="Origin of the Solar System">origin of the Solar System</a> and was one of the first scientists to suggest an idea similar to that of a <a href="/wiki/Black_hole" title="Black hole">black hole</a>,<a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a> with <a href="/wiki/Stephen_Hawking" title="Stephen Hawking">Stephen Hawking</a> stating that "Laplace essentially predicted the existence of black holes".<a href="#cite_note-HE73p364-1">[1]</a> Laplace is regarded as one of the greatest scientists of all time. Sometimes referred to as the French <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Newton</a> or Newton of France, he has been described as possessing a phenomenal natural mathematical faculty superior to that of almost all of his contemporaries.<a href="#cite_note-eb1911-4">[4]</a> He was Napoleon's examiner when <a href="/wiki/Napoleon" title="Napoleon">Napoleon</a> graduated from the <a href="/wiki/%C3%89cole_Militaire" class="mw-redirect" title="École Militaire">École Militaire</a> in Paris in 1785.<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a> Laplace became a count of the <a href="/wiki/First_French_Empire" title="First French Empire">Empire</a> in 1806 and was named a <a href="/wiki/Marquess" title="Marquess">marquis</a> in 1817, after the <a href="/wiki/Bourbon_Restoration_in_France" title="Bourbon Restoration in France">Bourbon Restoration</a>. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_years">Early years</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Pierre-Simon_Laplace&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Early years">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pierre-Simon_de_Laplace_by_Johann_Ernst_Heinsius_(1775).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Pierre-Simon_de_Laplace_by_Johann_Ernst_Heinsius_%281775%29.jpg/220px-Pierre-Simon_de_Laplace_by_Johann_Ernst_Heinsius_%281775%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="281" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Pierre-Simon_de_Laplace_by_Johann_Ernst_Heinsius_%281775%29.jpg/330px-Pierre-Simon_de_Laplace_by_Johann_Ernst_Heinsius_%281775%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Pierre-Simon_de_Laplace_by_Johann_Ernst_Heinsius_%281775%29.jpg/440px-Pierre-Simon_de_Laplace_by_Johann_Ernst_Heinsius_%281775%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="661" data-file-height="844" /></a><figcaption>Portrait of Pierre-Simon Laplace by <a href="/wiki/Johann_Ernst_Heinsius" title="Johann Ernst Heinsius">Johann Ernst Heinsius</a> (1775)</figcaption></figure> Some details of Laplace's life are not known, as records of it were burned in 1925 with the family <a href="/wiki/Ch%C3%A2teau" title="Château">château</a> in <a href="/wiki/Saint_Julien_de_Mailloc" class="mw-redirect" title="Saint Julien de Mailloc">Saint Julien de Mailloc</a>, near <a href="/wiki/Lisieux" title="Lisieux">Lisieux</a>, the home of his great-great-grandson the Comte de Colbert-Laplace. Others had been destroyed earlier, when his house at <a href="/wiki/Arcueil" title="Arcueil">Arcueil</a> near Paris was looted in 1871.<a href="#cite_note-Pearson-6">[6]</a> Laplace was born in <a href="/wiki/Beaumont-en-Auge" title="Beaumont-en-Auge">Beaumont-en-Auge</a>, Normandy on 23 March 1749, a village four miles west of <a href="/wiki/Pont-l%27%C3%89v%C3%AAque,_Calvados" title="Pont-l'Évêque, Calvados">Pont l'Évêque</a>. According to <a href="/wiki/W._W._Rouse_Ball" title="W. W. Rouse Ball">W. W. Rouse Ball</a>,<a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> his father, Pierre de Laplace, owned and farmed the small estates of Maarquis. His great-uncle, Maitre Oliver de Laplace, had held the title of Chirurgien Royal. It would seem that from a pupil he became an usher in the school at Beaumont; but, having procured a letter of introduction to <a href="/wiki/Jean_le_Rond_d%27Alembert" title="Jean le Rond d'Alembert">d'Alembert</a>, he went to Paris to advance his fortune. However, <a href="/wiki/Karl_Pearson" title="Karl Pearson">Karl Pearson</a><a href="#cite_note-Pearson-6">[6]</a> is scathing about the inaccuracies in Rouse Ball's account and states: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">Indeed <a href="/wiki/Caen" title="Caen">Caen</a> was probably in Laplace's day the most intellectually active of all the towns of Normandy. It was here that Laplace was educated and was provisionally a professor. It was here he wrote his first paper published in the Mélanges of the Royal Society of Turin, Tome iv. 1766–1769, at least two years before he went at 22 or 23 to Paris in 1771. Thus before he was 20 he was in touch with <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Louis_Lagrange" class="mw-redirect" title="Joseph Louis Lagrange">Lagrange</a> in <a href="/wiki/Turin" title="Turin">Turin</a>. He did not go to Paris a raw self-taught country lad with only a peasant background! In 1765 at the age of sixteen Laplace left the "School of the Duke of Orleans" in Beaumont and went to the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Caen" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Caen">University of Caen</a>, where he appears to have studied for five years and was a member of the Sphinx. The <a href="/wiki/%C3%89cole_Militaire" class="mw-redirect" title="École Militaire">École Militaire</a> of Beaumont did not replace the old school until 1776.</blockquote> His parents, Pierre Laplace and Marie-Anne Sochon, were from comfortable families. The Laplace family was involved in agriculture until at least 1750, but Pierre Laplace senior was also a <a href="/wiki/Cider" title="Cider">cider</a> merchant and <a href="/wiki/Syndic" title="Syndic">syndic</a> of the town of Beaumont. Pierre Simon Laplace attended a school in the village run at a <a href="/wiki/Benedictine" class="mw-redirect" title="Benedictine">Benedictine</a> <a href="/wiki/Priory" title="Priory">priory</a>, his father intending that he be ordained in the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Church" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Catholic Church">Roman Catholic Church</a>. At sixteen, to further his father's intention, he was sent to the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Caen" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Caen">University of Caen</a> to read theology.<a href="#cite_note-mactutor-8">[8]</a> At the university, he was mentored by two enthusiastic teachers of mathematics, <a href="/wiki/Christophe_Gadbled" title="Christophe Gadbled">Christophe Gadbled</a> and Pierre Le Canu, who awoke his zeal for the subject. Here Laplace's brilliance as a mathematician was quickly recognised and while still at Caen he wrote a memoir Sur le Calcul integral aux differences infiniment petites et aux differences finies. This provided the first correspondence between Laplace and Lagrange. Lagrange was the senior by thirteen years, and had recently founded in his native city <a href="/wiki/Turin" title="Turin">Turin</a> a journal named Miscellanea Taurinensia, in which many of his early works were printed and it was in the fourth volume of this series that Laplace's paper appeared. About this time, recognising that he had no vocation for the priesthood, he resolved to become a professional mathematician. Some sources state that he then broke with the church and became an atheist.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Laplace did not graduate in theology but left for Paris with a letter of introduction from Le Canu to <a href="/wiki/Jean_le_Rond_d%27Alembert" title="Jean le Rond d'Alembert">Jean le Rond d'Alembert</a> who at that time was supreme in scientific circles.<a href="#cite_note-mactutor-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a> According to his great-great-grandson,<a href="#cite_note-Pearson-6">[6]</a> d'Alembert received him rather poorly, and to get rid of him gave him a thick mathematics book, saying to come back when he had read it. When Laplace came back a few days later, d'Alembert was even less friendly and did not hide his opinion that it was impossible that Laplace could have read and understood the book. But upon questioning him, he realised that it was true, and from that time he took Laplace under his care. Another account is that Laplace solved overnight a problem that d'Alembert set him for submission the following week, then solved a harder problem the following night. D'Alembert was impressed and recommended him for a teaching place in the <a href="/wiki/%C3%89cole_Militaire" class="mw-redirect" title="École Militaire">École Militaire</a>.<a href="#cite_note-gillsipie3n4-10">[10]</a> With a secure income and undemanding teaching, Laplace now threw himself into original research and for the next seventeen years, 1771–1787, he produced much of his original work in astronomy.<a href="#cite_note-ball-11">[11]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Calorimeter_of_Lavoisier_and_La_Place_plate_xi_the_s1784m49j_3f462600t_dl_full_size.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Calorimeter_of_Lavoisier_and_La_Place_plate_xi_the_s1784m49j_3f462600t_dl_full_size.jpg/220px-Calorimeter_of_Lavoisier_and_La_Place_plate_xi_the_s1784m49j_3f462600t_dl_full_size.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="283" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Calorimeter_of_Lavoisier_and_La_Place_plate_xi_the_s1784m49j_3f462600t_dl_full_size.jpg/330px-Calorimeter_of_Lavoisier_and_La_Place_plate_xi_the_s1784m49j_3f462600t_dl_full_size.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Calorimeter_of_Lavoisier_and_La_Place_plate_xi_the_s1784m49j_3f462600t_dl_full_size.jpg/440px-Calorimeter_of_Lavoisier_and_La_Place_plate_xi_the_s1784m49j_3f462600t_dl_full_size.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5336" data-file-height="6866" /></a><figcaption>The Calorimeter of Lavoisier and La Place, Encyclopaedia Londinensis, 1801</figcaption></figure> From 1780 to 1784, Laplace and French chemist <a href="/wiki/Antoine_Lavoisier" title="Antoine Lavoisier">Antoine Lavoisier</a> collaborated on several experimental investigations, designing their own equipment for the task.<a href="#cite_note-ACS1999-12">[12]</a> In 1783 they published their joint paper, Memoir on Heat, in which they discussed the kinetic theory of molecular motion.<a href="#cite_note-Golinski-13">[13]</a> In their experiments they measured the <a href="/wiki/Specific_heat" class="mw-redirect" title="Specific heat">specific heat</a> of various bodies, and the expansion of metals with increasing temperature. They also measured the boiling points of <a href="/wiki/Ethanol" title="Ethanol">ethanol</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ethyl_ether" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethyl ether">ether</a> under pressure. Laplace further impressed the <a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Condorcet" title="Marquis de Condorcet">Marquis de Condorcet</a>, and already by 1771 Laplace felt entitled to membership in the <a href="/wiki/French_Academy_of_Sciences" title="French Academy of Sciences">French Academy of Sciences</a>. However, that year admission went to <a href="/wiki/Alexandre-Th%C3%A9ophile_Vandermonde" title="Alexandre-Théophile Vandermonde">Alexandre-Théophile Vandermonde</a> and in 1772 to Jacques Antoine Joseph Cousin. Laplace was disgruntled, and early in 1773 d'Alembert wrote to <a href="/wiki/Lagrange" class="mw-redirect" title="Lagrange">Lagrange</a> in Berlin to ask if a position could be found for Laplace there. However, Condorcet became permanent secretary of the Académie in February and Laplace was elected associate member on 31 March, at age 24.<a href="#cite_note-gillsipie5-14">[14]</a> In 1773 Laplace read his paper on the invariability of planetary motion in front of the Academy des Sciences. That March he was elected to the academy, a place where he conducted the majority of his science.<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a> On 15 March 1788,<a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-Pearson-6">[6]</a> at the age of thirty-nine, Laplace married Marie-Charlotte de Courty de Romanges, an eighteen-year-old girl from a "good" family in <a href="/wiki/Besan%C3%A7on" title="Besançon">Besançon</a>.<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a> The wedding was celebrated at <a href="/wiki/Saint-Sulpice,_Paris" title="Saint-Sulpice, Paris">Saint-Sulpice, Paris</a>. The couple had a son, Charles-Émile (1789–1874), and a daughter, Sophie-Suzanne (1792–1813).<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Analysis,_probability,_and_astronomical_stability">Analysis, probability, and astronomical stability</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Pierre-Simon_Laplace&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Analysis, probability, and astronomical stability">edit</a>]</div> Laplace's early published work in 1771 started with <a href="/wiki/Differential_equations" class="mw-redirect" title="Differential equations">differential equations</a> and <a href="/wiki/Finite_differences" class="mw-redirect" title="Finite differences">finite differences</a> but he was already starting to think about the mathematical and philosophical concepts of probability and statistics.<a href="#cite_note-gillispiech2-20">[20]</a> However, before his election to the Académie in 1773, he had already drafted two papers that would establish his reputation. The first, Mémoire sur la probabilité des causes par les événements was ultimately published in 1774 while the second paper, published in 1776, further elaborated his statistical thinking and also began his systematic work on <a href="/wiki/Celestial_mechanics" title="Celestial mechanics">celestial mechanics</a> and the stability of the <a href="/wiki/Solar_System" title="Solar System">Solar System</a>. The two disciplines would always be interlinked in his mind. "Laplace took probability as an instrument for repairing defects in knowledge."<a href="#cite_note-gillispie14n15-21">[21]</a> Laplace's work on probability and statistics is discussed below with his mature work on the analytic theory of probabilities. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Stability_of_the_Solar_System">Stability of the Solar System</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Pierre-Simon_Laplace&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Stability of the Solar System">edit</a>]</div> Sir <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a> had published his <a href="/wiki/Philosophi%C3%A6_Naturalis_Principia_Mathematica" title="Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica">Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica</a> in 1687 in which he gave a derivation of <a href="/wiki/Kepler%27s_laws" class="mw-redirect" title="Kepler's laws">Kepler's laws</a>, which describe the motion of the planets, from his <a href="/wiki/Newton%27s_laws_of_motion" title="Newton's laws of motion">laws of motion</a> and his <a href="/wiki/Newton%27s_law_of_universal_gravitation" title="Newton's law of universal gravitation">law of universal gravitation</a>. However, though Newton had privately developed the methods of calculus, all his published work used cumbersome geometric reasoning, unsuitable to account for the more subtle higher-order effects of interactions between the planets. Newton himself had doubted the possibility of a mathematical solution to the whole, even concluding that periodic <a href="/wiki/Miracle" title="Miracle">divine intervention</a> was necessary to guarantee the stability of the Solar System. Dispensing with the hypothesis of divine intervention would be a major activity of Laplace's scientific life.<a href="#cite_note-eb2001-22">[22]</a> It is now generally regarded that Laplace's methods on their own, though vital to the development of the theory, are not sufficiently <a href="/wiki/Accuracy_and_precision" title="Accuracy and precision">precise</a> to demonstrate the <a href="/wiki/Stability_of_the_Solar_System" title="Stability of the Solar System">stability of the Solar System</a>; today the Solar System is understood to be generally <a href="/wiki/Chaos_theory" title="Chaos theory">chaotic</a> at fine scales, although currently fairly stable on coarse scale.<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a>: 83, 93  One particular problem from <a href="/wiki/Observational_astronomy" title="Observational astronomy">observational astronomy</a> was the apparent instability whereby Jupiter's orbit appeared to be shrinking while that of Saturn was expanding. The problem had been tackled by <a href="/wiki/Leonhard_Euler" title="Leonhard Euler">Leonhard Euler</a> in 1748, and <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Louis_Lagrange" class="mw-redirect" title="Joseph Louis Lagrange">Joseph Louis Lagrange</a> in 1763, but without success.<a href="#cite_note-whittakerb-24">[24]</a> In 1776, Laplace published a memoir in which he first explored the possible influences of a purported <a href="/wiki/Luminiferous_ether" class="mw-redirect" title="Luminiferous ether">luminiferous ether</a> or of a law of gravitation that did not act instantaneously. He ultimately returned to an intellectual investment in Newtonian gravity.<a href="#cite_note-gillispie29to35-25">[25]</a> Euler and Lagrange had made a practical approximation by ignoring small terms in the equations of motion. Laplace noted that though the terms themselves were small, when <a href="/wiki/Integral" title="Integral">integrated</a> over time they could become important. Laplace carried his analysis into the higher-order terms, up to and including the <a href="/wiki/Cubic_function" title="Cubic function">cubic</a>. Using this more exact analysis, Laplace concluded that any two planets and the Sun must be in mutual equilibrium and thereby launched his work on the stability of the Solar System.<a href="#cite_note-gillispie35n36-26">[26]</a> <a href="/wiki/Gerald_James_Whitrow" title="Gerald James Whitrow">Gerald James Whitrow</a> described the achievement as "the most important advance in physical astronomy since Newton".<a href="#cite_note-eb2001-22">[22]</a> Laplace had a wide knowledge of all sciences and dominated all discussions in the Académie.<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a> Laplace seems to have regarded analysis merely as a means of attacking physical problems, though the ability with which he invented the necessary analysis is almost phenomenal. As long as his results were true he took but little trouble to explain the steps by which he arrived at them; he never studied elegance or symmetry in his processes, and it was sufficient for him if he could by any means solve the particular question he was discussing.<a href="#cite_note-ball-11">[11]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Tidal_dynamics">Tidal dynamics</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Pierre-Simon_Laplace&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Tidal dynamics">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_tides" title="Theory of tides">Theory of tides</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Dynamic_theory_of_tides">Dynamic theory of tides</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Pierre-Simon_Laplace&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Dynamic theory of tides">edit</a>]</div> While <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Newton</a> explained the tides by describing the tide-generating forces and <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Bernoulli" title="Daniel Bernoulli">Bernoulli</a> gave a description of the static reaction of the waters on Earth to the tidal potential, the dynamic theory of tides, developed by Laplace in 1775,<a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a> describes the ocean's real reaction to <a href="/wiki/Tidal_force" title="Tidal force">tidal forces</a>.<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a> Laplace's theory of ocean tides took into account <a href="/wiki/Friction" title="Friction">friction</a>, <a href="/wiki/Resonance" title="Resonance">resonance</a> and natural periods of ocean basins. It predicted the large <a href="/wiki/Amphidromic" class="mw-redirect" title="Amphidromic">amphidromic</a> systems in the world's ocean basins and explains the oceanic tides that are actually observed.<a href="#cite_note-pearsonhighered.com-30">[30]</a><a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a> The equilibrium theory, based on the gravitational gradient from the Sun and Moon but ignoring the Earth's rotation, the effects of continents, and other important effects, could not explain the real ocean tides.<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a><a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a><a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a><a href="#cite_note-pearsonhighered.com-30">[30]</a><a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a><a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a><a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a><a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Newton%27s_three-body_diagram.PNG" class="mw-file-description" title="Newton's three-body model"><img alt="Newton's three-body model" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Newton%27s_three-body_diagram.PNG/400px-Newton%27s_three-body_diagram.PNG" decoding="async" width="400" height="252" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/79/Newton%27s_three-body_diagram.PNG 1.5x" data-file-width="471" data-file-height="297" /></a><figcaption>Newton's three-body model</figcaption></figure> Since measurements have confirmed the theory, many things have possible explanations now, like how the tides interact with deep sea ridges and chains of seamounts give rise to deep eddies that transport nutrients from the deep to the surface.<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> The equilibrium tide theory calculates the height of the tide wave of less than half a meter, while the dynamic theory explains why tides are up to 15 meters.<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a> Satellite observations confirm the accuracy of the dynamic theory, and the tides worldwide are now measured to within a few centimeters.<a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a><a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a> Measurements from the <a href="/wiki/CHAMP_(satellite)" title="CHAMP (satellite)">CHAMP</a> satellite closely match the models based on the <a href="/wiki/TOPEX" class="mw-redirect" title="TOPEX">TOPEX</a> data.<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a><a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a><a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a> Accurate models of tides worldwide are essential for research since the variations due to tides must be removed from measurements when calculating gravity and changes in sea levels.<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Laplace's_tidal_equations">Laplace's tidal equations</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Pierre-Simon_Laplace&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Laplace's tidal equations">edit</a>]</div> <table border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" style="float:right;"> <tbody><tr align="center"> <td><figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tideforcenw.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Tideforcenw.jpg/150px-Tideforcenw.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Tideforcenw.jpg/225px-Tideforcenw.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Tideforcenw.jpg/300px-Tideforcenw.jpg 2x" data-file-width="360" data-file-height="359" /></a><figcaption> A. Lunar gravitational potential: this depicts the Moon directly over 30° N (or 30° S) viewed from above the Northern Hemisphere.</figcaption></figure> </td> <td><figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tideforcese.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Tideforcese.jpg/150px-Tideforcese.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Tideforcese.jpg/225px-Tideforcese.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Tideforcese.jpg/300px-Tideforcese.jpg 2x" data-file-width="360" data-file-height="359" /></a><figcaption> B. This view shows same potential from 180° from view A. Viewed from above the Northern Hemisphere. Red up, blue down.</figcaption></figure> </td></tr></tbody></table> In 1776, Laplace formulated a single set of linear <a href="/wiki/Partial_differential_equation" title="Partial differential equation">partial differential equations</a>, for tidal flow described as a <a href="/wiki/Barotropic" class="mw-redirect" title="Barotropic">barotropic</a> two-dimensional sheet flow. <a href="/wiki/Coriolis_effect" class="mw-redirect" title="Coriolis effect">Coriolis effects</a> are introduced as well as lateral forcing by gravity. Laplace obtained these equations by simplifying the <a href="/wiki/Fluid_dynamic" class="mw-redirect" title="Fluid dynamic">fluid dynamic</a> equations. But they can also be derived from energy integrals via <a href="/wiki/Lagrange%27s_equation" class="mw-redirect" title="Lagrange's equation">Lagrange's equation</a>. For a fluid sheet of <a href="/wiki/Average" title="Average">average</a> thickness D, the vertical tidal elevation ζ, as well as the horizontal velocity components u and v (in the <a href="/wiki/Latitude" title="Latitude">latitude</a> φ and <a href="/wiki/Longitude" title="Longitude">longitude</a> λ directions, respectively) satisfy Laplace's tidal equations:<a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a> <dl><dd><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}{\frac {\partial \zeta }{\partial t}}&+{\frac {1}{a\cos(\varphi )}}\left[{\frac {\partial }{\partial \lambda }}(uD)+{\frac {\partial }{\partial \varphi }}\left(vD\cos(\varphi )\right)\right]=0,\\[2ex]{\frac {\partial u}{\partial t}}&-v\left(2\Omega \sin(\varphi )\right)+{\frac {1}{a\cos(\varphi )}}{\frac {\partial }{\partial \lambda }}\left(g\zeta +U\right)=0\qquad {\text{and}}\\[2ex]{\frac {\partial v}{\partial t}}&+u\left(2\Omega \sin(\varphi )\right)+{\frac {1}{a}}{\frac {\partial }{\partial \varphi }}\left(g\zeta +U\right)=0,\end{aligned}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtable columnalign="right left right left right left right left right left right left" rowspacing="1.16em 1.16em 0.3em" columnspacing="0em 2em 0em 2em 0em 2em 0em 2em 0em 2em 0em" displaystyle="true"> <mtr> <mtd> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mi mathvariant="normal">∂</mi> <mi>ζ</mi> </mrow> <mrow> <mi mathvariant="normal">∂</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> </mtd> <mtd> <mi></mi> <mo>+</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mn>1</mn> <mrow> <mi>a</mi> <mi>cos</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>φ</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mrow> <mo>[</mo> <mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mi mathvariant="normal">∂</mi> <mrow> <mi mathvariant="normal">∂</mi> <mi>λ</mi> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>u</mi> <mi>D</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>+</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mi mathvariant="normal">∂</mi> <mrow> <mi mathvariant="normal">∂</mi> <mi>φ</mi> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mrow> <mo>(</mo> <mrow> <mi>v</mi> <mi>D</mi> <mi>cos</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>φ</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mrow> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> </mrow> <mo>]</mo> </mrow> <mo>=</mo> <mn>0</mn> <mo>,</mo> </mtd> </mtr> <mtr> <mtd> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mi mathvariant="normal">∂</mi> <mi>u</mi> </mrow> <mrow> <mi mathvariant="normal">∂</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> </mtd> <mtd> <mi></mi> <mo>−</mo> <mi>v</mi> <mrow> <mo>(</mo> <mrow> <mn>2</mn> <mi mathvariant="normal">Ω</mi> <mi>sin</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>φ</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mrow> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mn>1</mn> <mrow> <mi>a</mi> <mi>cos</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>φ</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mi mathvariant="normal">∂</mi> <mrow> <mi mathvariant="normal">∂</mi> <mi>λ</mi> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mrow> <mo>(</mo> <mrow> <mi>g</mi> <mi>ζ</mi> <mo>+</mo> <mi>U</mi> </mrow> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> <mo>=</mo> <mn>0</mn> <mspace width="2em" /> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>and</mtext> </mrow> </mtd> </mtr> <mtr> <mtd> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mi mathvariant="normal">∂</mi> <mi>v</mi> </mrow> <mrow> <mi mathvariant="normal">∂</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> </mtd> <mtd> <mi></mi> <mo>+</mo> <mi>u</mi> <mrow> <mo>(</mo> <mrow> <mn>2</mn> <mi mathvariant="normal">Ω</mi> <mi>sin</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>φ</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mrow> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mn>1</mn> <mi>a</mi> </mfrac> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mi mathvariant="normal">∂</mi> <mrow> <mi mathvariant="normal">∂</mi> <mi>φ</mi> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mrow> <mo>(</mo> <mrow> <mi>g</mi> <mi>ζ</mi> <mo>+</mo> <mi>U</mi> </mrow> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> <mo>=</mo> <mn>0</mn> <mo>,</mo> </mtd> </mtr> </mtable> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}{\frac {\partial \zeta }{\partial t}}&+{\frac {1}{a\cos(\varphi )}}\left[{\frac {\partial }{\partial \lambda }}(uD)+{\frac {\partial }{\partial \varphi }}\left(vD\cos(\varphi )\right)\right]=0,\\[2ex]{\frac {\partial u}{\partial t}}&-v\left(2\Omega \sin(\varphi )\right)+{\frac {1}{a\cos(\varphi )}}{\frac {\partial }{\partial \lambda }}\left(g\zeta +U\right)=0\qquad {\text{and}}\\[2ex]{\frac {\partial v}{\partial t}}&+u\left(2\Omega \sin(\varphi )\right)+{\frac {1}{a}}{\frac {\partial }{\partial \varphi }}\left(g\zeta +U\right)=0,\end{aligned}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/601d1e09a0888770e6a0fbdd06f9376f2b9403b5" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -10.838ex; width:56.74ex; height:22.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}{\frac {\partial \zeta }{\partial t}}&+{\frac {1}{a\cos(\varphi )}}\left[{\frac {\partial }{\partial \lambda }}(uD)+{\frac {\partial }{\partial \varphi }}\left(vD\cos(\varphi )\right)\right]=0,\\[2ex]{\frac {\partial u}{\partial t}}&-v\left(2\Omega \sin(\varphi )\right)+{\frac {1}{a\cos(\varphi )}}{\frac {\partial }{\partial \lambda }}\left(g\zeta +U\right)=0\qquad {\text{and}}\\[2ex]{\frac {\partial v}{\partial t}}&+u\left(2\Omega \sin(\varphi )\right)+{\frac {1}{a}}{\frac {\partial }{\partial \varphi }}\left(g\zeta +U\right)=0,\end{aligned}}}"></dd></dl> where Ω is the <a href="/wiki/Angular_frequency" title="Angular frequency">angular frequency</a> of the planet's rotation, g is the planet's gravitational acceleration at the mean ocean surface, a is the planetary radius, and U is the external gravitational tidal-forcing <a href="/wiki/Potential" title="Potential">potential</a>. <a href="/wiki/William_Thomson,_1st_Baron_Kelvin" class="mw-redirect" title="William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin">William Thomson (Lord Kelvin)</a> rewrote Laplace's momentum terms using the <a href="/wiki/Curl_(mathematics)" title="Curl (mathematics)">curl</a> to find an equation for <a href="/wiki/Vorticity" title="Vorticity">vorticity</a>. Under certain conditions this can be further rewritten as a conservation of vorticity. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="On_the_figure_of_the_Earth">On the figure of the Earth</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Pierre-Simon_Laplace&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: On the figure of the Earth">edit</a>]</div> During the years 1784–1787 he published some papers of exceptional power. Prominent among these is one read in 1783, reprinted as Part II of Théorie du Mouvement et de la figure elliptique des planètes in 1784, and in the third volume of the Mécanique céleste. In this work, Laplace completely determined the attraction of a <a href="/wiki/Spheroid" title="Spheroid">spheroid</a> on a particle outside it. This is memorable for the introduction into analysis of <a href="/wiki/Spherical_harmonics" title="Spherical harmonics">spherical harmonics</a> or Laplace's coefficients, and also for the development of the use of what we would now call the <a href="/wiki/Gravitational_potential" title="Gravitational potential">gravitational potential</a> in <a href="/wiki/Celestial_mechanics" title="Celestial mechanics">celestial mechanics</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Spherical_harmonics">Spherical harmonics</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Pierre-Simon_Laplace&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Spherical harmonics">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Frame"><a href="/wiki/File:Rotating_spherical_harmonics.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/12/Rotating_spherical_harmonics.gif" decoding="async" width="445" height="445" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="445" data-file-height="445" /></a><figcaption>Spherical harmonics.</figcaption></figure> In 1783, in a paper sent to the Académie, <a href="/wiki/Adrien-Marie_Legendre" title="Adrien-Marie Legendre">Adrien-Marie Legendre</a> had introduced what are now known as <a href="/wiki/Associated_Legendre_function" class="mw-redirect" title="Associated Legendre function">associated Legendre functions</a>.<a href="#cite_note-ball-11">[11]</a> If two points in a <a href="/wiki/Plane_(mathematics)" title="Plane (mathematics)">plane</a> have <a href="/wiki/Polar_coordinates" class="mw-redirect" title="Polar coordinates">polar coordinates</a> (r, θ) and (r ', θ'), where r ' ≥ r, then, by elementary manipulation, the reciprocal of the distance between the points, d, can be written as: <dl><dd><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\frac {1}{d}}={\frac {1}{r'}}\left[1-2\cos(\theta '-\theta ){\frac {r}{r'}}+\left({\frac {r}{r'}}\right)^{2}\right]^{-{\tfrac {1}{2}}}.}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mn>1</mn> <mi>d</mi> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mn>1</mn> <msup> <mi>r</mi> <mo>′</mo> </msup> </mfrac> </mrow> <msup> <mrow> <mo>[</mo> <mrow> <mn>1</mn> <mo>−</mo> <mn>2</mn> <mi>cos</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <msup> <mi>θ</mi> <mo>′</mo> </msup> <mo>−</mo> <mi>θ</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mi>r</mi> <msup> <mi>r</mi> <mo>′</mo> </msup> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> <msup> <mrow> <mo>(</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mi>r</mi> <msup> <mi>r</mi> <mo>′</mo> </msup> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> <mo>]</mo> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>−</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="false" scriptlevel="0"> <mfrac> <mn>1</mn> <mn>2</mn> </mfrac> </mstyle> </mrow> </mrow> </msup> <mo>.</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\frac {1}{d}}={\frac {1}{r'}}\left[1-2\cos(\theta '-\theta ){\frac {r}{r'}}+\left({\frac {r}{r'}}\right)^{2}\right]^{-{\tfrac {1}{2}}}.}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/4ea54b1c6f95725f7ff719799b85635a92b103d4" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.505ex; width:41.979ex; height:7.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\frac {1}{d}}={\frac {1}{r'}}\left[1-2\cos(\theta '-\theta ){\frac {r}{r'}}+\left({\frac {r}{r'}}\right)^{2}\right]^{-{\tfrac {1}{2}}}.}"></dd></dl> This expression can be <a href="/wiki/Power_series" title="Power series">expanded in powers</a> of r/r ' using <a href="/wiki/Negative_binomial_theorem" class="mw-redirect" title="Negative binomial theorem">Newton's generalised binomial theorem</a> to give: <dl><dd><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\frac {1}{d}}={\frac {1}{r'}}\sum _{k=0}^{\infty }P_{k}^{0}(\cos(\theta '-\theta ))\left({\frac {r}{r'}}\right)^{k}.}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mn>1</mn> <mi>d</mi> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mn>1</mn> <msup> <mi>r</mi> <mo>′</mo> </msup> </mfrac> </mrow> <munderover> <mo>∑</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>k</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mn>0</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">∞</mi> </mrow> </munderover> <msubsup> <mi>P</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>k</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>0</mn> </mrow> </msubsup> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>cos</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <msup> <mi>θ</mi> <mo>′</mo> </msup> <mo>−</mo> <mi>θ</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <msup> <mrow> <mo>(</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mi>r</mi> <msup> <mi>r</mi> <mo>′</mo> </msup> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>k</mi> </mrow> </msup> <mo>.</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\frac {1}{d}}={\frac {1}{r'}}\sum _{k=0}^{\infty }P_{k}^{0}(\cos(\theta '-\theta ))\left({\frac {r}{r'}}\right)^{k}.}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/adee43fba2d97e864571a46e18f161cfbd7eb78e" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -3.171ex; width:34.241ex; height:7.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\frac {1}{d}}={\frac {1}{r'}}\sum _{k=0}^{\infty }P_{k}^{0}(\cos(\theta '-\theta ))\left({\frac {r}{r'}}\right)^{k}.}"></dd></dl> The <a href="/wiki/Sequence" title="Sequence">sequence</a> of functions P0k(cos φ) is the set of so-called "associated Legendre functions" and their usefulness arises from the fact that every <a href="/wiki/Function_(mathematics)" title="Function (mathematics)">function</a> of the points on a circle can be expanded as a <a href="/wiki/Series_(mathematics)" title="Series (mathematics)">series</a> of them.<a href="#cite_note-ball-11">[11]</a> Laplace, with scant regard for credit to Legendre, made the non-trivial extension of the result to <a href="/wiki/Three-dimensional_space" title="Three-dimensional space">three dimensions</a> to yield a more general set of functions, the <a href="/wiki/Spherical_harmonics" title="Spherical harmonics">spherical harmonics</a> or Laplace coefficients. The latter term is not in common use now.<a href="#cite_note-ball-11">[11]</a> : p. 340ff  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Potential_theory">Potential theory</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Pierre-Simon_Laplace&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Potential theory">edit</a>]</div> This paper is also remarkable for the development of the idea of the <a href="/wiki/Scalar_potential" title="Scalar potential">scalar potential</a>.<a href="#cite_note-ball-11">[11]</a> The gravitational <a href="/wiki/Force_(physics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Force (physics)">force</a> acting on a body is, in modern language, a <a href="/wiki/Vector_(geometry)" class="mw-redirect" title="Vector (geometry)">vector</a>, having magnitude and direction. A potential function is a <a href="/wiki/Scalar_(physics)" title="Scalar (physics)">scalar</a> function that defines how the vectors will behave. A scalar function is computationally and conceptually easier to deal with than a vector function. <a href="/wiki/Alexis_Clairaut" title="Alexis Clairaut">Alexis Clairaut</a> had first suggested the idea in 1743 while working on a similar problem though he was using Newtonian-type geometric reasoning. Laplace described Clairaut's work as being "in the class of the most beautiful mathematical productions".<a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a> However, Rouse Ball alleges that the idea "was appropriated from <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Louis_Lagrange" class="mw-redirect" title="Joseph Louis Lagrange">Joseph Louis Lagrange</a>, who had used it in his memoirs of 1773, 1777 and 1780".<a href="#cite_note-ball-11">[11]</a> The term "potential" itself was due to <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Bernoulli" title="Daniel Bernoulli">Daniel Bernoulli</a>, who introduced it in his 1738 memoire Hydrodynamica. However, according to Rouse Ball, the term "potential function" was not actually used (to refer to a function V of the coordinates of space in Laplace's sense) until <a href="/wiki/George_Green_(mathematician)" title="George Green (mathematician)">George Green</a>'s 1828 <a href="/wiki/An_Essay_on_the_Application_of_Mathematical_Analysis_to_the_Theories_of_Electricity_and_Magnetism" title="An Essay on the Application of Mathematical Analysis to the Theories of Electricity and Magnetism">An Essay on the Application of Mathematical Analysis to the Theories of Electricity and Magnetism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Ball-50">[50]</a><a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a> Laplace applied the language of calculus to the potential function and showed that it always satisfies the <a href="/wiki/Differential_equation" title="Differential equation">differential equation</a>:<a href="#cite_note-ball-11">[11]</a> <dl><dd><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \nabla ^{2}V={\partial ^{2}V \over \partial x^{2}}+{\partial ^{2}V \over \partial y^{2}}+{\partial ^{2}V \over \partial z^{2}}=0.}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msup> <mi mathvariant="normal">∇</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mi>V</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <msup> <mi mathvariant="normal">∂</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mi>V</mi> </mrow> <mrow> <mi mathvariant="normal">∂</mi> <msup> <mi>x</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <msup> <mi mathvariant="normal">∂</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mi>V</mi> </mrow> <mrow> <mi mathvariant="normal">∂</mi> <msup> <mi>y</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <msup> <mi mathvariant="normal">∂</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mi>V</mi> </mrow> <mrow> <mi mathvariant="normal">∂</mi> <msup> <mi>z</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>=</mo> <mn>0.</mn> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \nabla ^{2}V={\partial ^{2}V \over \partial x^{2}}+{\partial ^{2}V \over \partial y^{2}}+{\partial ^{2}V \over \partial z^{2}}=0.}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/4803bc5dd68f9b47f54cf3a4ca277a8e3d09e54b" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.505ex; width:33.527ex; height:6.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \nabla ^{2}V={\partial ^{2}V \over \partial x^{2}}+{\partial ^{2}V \over \partial y^{2}}+{\partial ^{2}V \over \partial z^{2}}=0.}"></dd></dl> An analogous result for the <a href="/wiki/Velocity_potential" title="Velocity potential">velocity potential</a> of a fluid had been obtained some years previously by <a href="/wiki/Leonhard_Euler" title="Leonhard Euler">Leonhard Euler</a>.<a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a><a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a> Laplace's subsequent work on gravitational attraction was based on this result. The quantity ∇2V has been termed the concentration of V and its value at any point indicates the "excess" of the value of V there over its mean value in the neighbourhood of the point.<a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a> <a href="/wiki/Laplace%27s_equation" title="Laplace's equation">Laplace's equation</a>, a special case of <a href="/wiki/Poisson%27s_equation" title="Poisson's equation">Poisson's equation</a>, appears ubiquitously in mathematical physics. The concept of a potential occurs in <a href="/wiki/Fluid_dynamics" title="Fluid dynamics">fluid dynamics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetism" title="Electromagnetism">electromagnetism</a> and other areas. Rouse Ball speculated that it might be seen as "the outward sign" of one of the <a href="/wiki/A_priori_and_a_posteriori" title="A priori and a posteriori">a priori</a> forms in <a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant#Kant's_theory_of_perception" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant's theory of perception</a>.<a href="#cite_note-ball-11">[11]</a> The spherical harmonics turn out to be critical to practical solutions of Laplace's equation. Laplace's equation in <a href="/wiki/Spherical_coordinates" class="mw-redirect" title="Spherical coordinates">spherical coordinates</a>, such as are used for mapping the sky, can be simplified, using the method of <a href="/wiki/Separation_of_variables" title="Separation of variables">separation of variables</a> into a radial part, depending solely on distance from the centre point, and an angular or spherical part. The solution to the spherical part of the equation can be expressed as a series of Laplace's spherical harmonics, simplifying practical computation. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Planetary_and_lunar_inequalities">Planetary and lunar inequalities</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Pierre-Simon_Laplace&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Planetary and lunar inequalities">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Delambre-3.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Delambre-3.jpg/170px-Delambre-3.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="248" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Delambre-3.jpg/255px-Delambre-3.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Delambre-3.jpg/340px-Delambre-3.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3329" data-file-height="4857" /></a><figcaption>Title page of an 1817 copy of <a href="/wiki/Jean_Baptiste_Joseph_Delambre" title="Jean Baptiste Joseph Delambre">Delambre's</a> "Tables écliptiques des satellites de Jupiter," which references Laplace's contributions in its title.</figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Delambre-7.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Delambre-7.jpg/180px-Delambre-7.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="253" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Delambre-7.jpg/271px-Delambre-7.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Delambre-7.jpg/360px-Delambre-7.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3764" data-file-height="5284" /></a><figcaption>Tables in an 1817 copy of <a href="/wiki/Jean_Baptiste_Joseph_Delambre" title="Jean Baptiste Joseph Delambre">Delambre's</a> "Tables écliptiques des satellites de Jupiter" – these calculations were influenced by Laplace's previous discoveries.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Jupiter–Saturn_great_inequality">Jupiter–Saturn great inequality</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Pierre-Simon_Laplace&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Jupiter–Saturn great inequality">edit</a>]</div> Laplace presented a memoir on planetary inequalities in three sections, in 1784, 1785, and 1786. This dealt mainly with the identification and explanation of the <a href="/wiki/Perturbation_(astronomy)" title="Perturbation (astronomy)">perturbations</a> now known as the "great Jupiter–Saturn inequality". Laplace solved a longstanding problem in the study and prediction of the movements of these planets. He showed by general considerations, first, that the mutual action of two planets could never cause large changes in the eccentricities and inclinations of their orbits; but then, even more importantly, that peculiarities arose in the Jupiter–Saturn system because of the near approach to commensurability of the mean motions of Jupiter and Saturn.<a href="#cite_note-eb1911-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-Arago1874-55">[55]</a> In this context commensurability means that the ratio of the two planets' mean motions is very nearly equal to a ratio between a pair of small whole numbers. Two periods of Saturn's orbit around the Sun almost equal five of Jupiter's. The corresponding difference between multiples of the mean motions, (2nJ − 5nS), corresponds to a period of nearly 900 years, and it occurs as a small divisor in the integration of a very small perturbing force with this same period. As a result, the integrated perturbations with this period are disproportionately large, about 0.8° degrees of arc in orbital longitude for Saturn and about 0.3° for Jupiter. Further developments of these theorems on planetary motion were given in his two memoirs of 1788 and 1789, but with the aid of Laplace's discoveries, the tables of the motions of Jupiter and Saturn could at last be made much more accurate. It was on the basis of Laplace's theory that <a href="/wiki/Jean_Baptiste_Joseph_Delambre" title="Jean Baptiste Joseph Delambre">Delambre</a> computed his astronomical tables.<a href="#cite_note-ball-11">[11]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Books">Books</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Pierre-Simon_Laplace&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Books">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output 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{\textbf {F}}={\frac {d\mathbf {p} }{dt}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext mathvariant="bold">F</mtext> </mrow> </mrow> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mi>d</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">p</mi> </mrow> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>d</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\textbf {F}}={\frac {d\mathbf {p} }{dt}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/c2ad0a6d6780c3abc5247abd82bd8a2249d56ff3" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.005ex; width:8.318ex; height:5.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\textbf {F}}={\frac {d\mathbf {p} }{dt}}}"><div class="sidebar-caption" style="font-size:90%;padding:0.6em 0;font-style:italic;"><a href="/wiki/Second_law_of_motion" class="mw-redirect" title="Second law of motion">Second law of motion</a></div></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="font-weight: bold; display:block;margin-bottom:1.0em;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_classical_mechanics" title="History of classical mechanics">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_classical_mechanics" title="Timeline of classical mechanics">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_textbooks_on_classical_mechanics_and_quantum_mechanics" title="List of textbooks on classical mechanics and quantum mechanics">Textbooks</a></li></ul> </div></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-bottom: 1px solid black;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Branches</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist" style="padding-top:0.35em;"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Applied_mechanics" title="Applied mechanics">Applied</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celestial_mechanics" title="Celestial mechanics">Celestial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continuum_mechanics" title="Continuum mechanics">Continuum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_dynamics" class="mw-redirect" title="Analytical dynamics">Dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_field_theory" title="Classical field theory">Field theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kinematics" title="Kinematics">Kinematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kinetics_(physics)" title="Kinetics (physics)">Kinetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statics" title="Statics">Statics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statistical_mechanics" title="Statistical mechanics">Statistical mechanics</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-bottom: 1px solid black;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Fundamentals</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist" style="padding-top:0.35em;"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acceleration" title="Acceleration">Acceleration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angular_momentum" title="Angular momentum">Angular momentum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Couple_(mechanics)" title="Couple (mechanics)">Couple</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D%27Alembert%27s_principle" title="D'Alembert's principle">D'Alembert's principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy" title="Energy">Energy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kinetic_energy#Newtonian_kinetic_energy" title="Kinetic energy">kinetic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Potential_energy" title="Potential energy">potential</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Force" title="Force">Force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frame_of_reference" title="Frame of reference">Frame of reference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inertial_frame_of_reference" title="Inertial frame of reference">Inertial frame of reference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impulse_(physics)" title="Impulse (physics)">Impulse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inertia" title="Inertia">Inertia</a> / <a href="/wiki/Moment_of_inertia" title="Moment of inertia">Moment of inertia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass" title="Mass">Mass</a></li> <li> <a href="/wiki/Mechanical_power_(physics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mechanical power (physics)">Mechanical power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Work_(physics)" title="Work (physics)">Mechanical work</a></li> <li> <a href="/wiki/Moment_(physics)" title="Moment (physics)">Moment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Momentum" title="Momentum">Momentum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space" title="Space">Space</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speed" title="Speed">Speed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time" title="Time">Time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Torque" title="Torque">Torque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Velocity" title="Velocity">Velocity</a></li> <li><a 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mechanics</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Routhian_mechanics" title="Routhian mechanics">Routhian mechanics</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Hamilton%E2%80%93Jacobi_equation" title="Hamilton–Jacobi equation">Hamilton–Jacobi equation</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Appell%27s_equation_of_motion" title="Appell's equation of motion">Appell's equation of motion</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Koopman%E2%80%93von_Neumann_classical_mechanics" title="Koopman–von Neumann classical mechanics">Koopman–von Neumann mechanics</a></li></ul></div></div></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-bottom: 1px solid black;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Core topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist" style="padding-top:0.35em;"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Damping" title="Damping">Damping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Displacement_(geometry)" title="Displacement (geometry)">Displacement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equations_of_motion" title="Equations of motion">Equations of motion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euler%27s_laws_of_motion" title="Euler's laws of motion">Euler's laws of motion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fictitious_force" title="Fictitious force">Fictitious force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friction" title="Friction">Friction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harmonic_oscillator" title="Harmonic oscillator">Harmonic oscillator</a></li></ul> </div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inertial_frame_of_reference" title="Inertial frame of reference">Inertial</a> / <a href="/wiki/Non-inertial_reference_frame" title="Non-inertial reference frame">Non-inertial reference frame</a></li></ul> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Motion" title="Motion">Motion</a> (<a href="/wiki/Linear_motion" title="Linear motion">linear</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newton%27s_law_of_universal_gravitation" title="Newton's law of universal 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href="/wiki/Template:Classical_mechanics" title="Template:Classical mechanics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Classical_mechanics" title="Template talk:Classical mechanics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Classical_mechanics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Classical mechanics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> Laplace now set himself the task to write a work which should "offer a complete solution of the great mechanical problem presented by the Solar System, and bring theory to coincide so closely with observation that empirical equations should no longer find a place in astronomical tables."<a href="#cite_note-eb1911-4">[4]</a> The result is embodied in the Exposition du système du monde and the Mécanique céleste.<a href="#cite_note-ball-11">[11]</a> The former was published in 1796, and gives a general explanation of the phenomena, but omits all details. It contains a summary of the history of astronomy. This summary procured for its author the honour of admission to the forty of the French Academy and is commonly esteemed one of the masterpieces of French literature, though it is not altogether reliable for the later periods of which it treats.<a href="#cite_note-ball-11">[11]</a> Laplace developed the <a href="/wiki/Nebular_hypothesis" title="Nebular hypothesis">nebular hypothesis</a> of the formation of the Solar System, first suggested by <a href="/wiki/Emanuel_Swedenborg" title="Emanuel Swedenborg">Emanuel Swedenborg</a> and expanded by <a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a>. This hypothesis remains the most widely accepted model in the study of the origin of planetary systems. According to Laplace's description of the hypothesis, the Solar System evolved from a globular mass of <a href="/wiki/Incandescence" class="mw-redirect" title="Incandescence">incandescent</a> gas rotating around an axis through its <a href="/wiki/Centre_of_mass" class="mw-redirect" title="Centre of mass">centre of mass</a>. As it cooled, this mass contracted, and successive rings broke off from its outer edge. These rings in their turn cooled, and finally condensed into the planets, while the Sun represented the central core which was still left. On this view, Laplace predicted that the more distant planets would be older than those nearer the Sun.<a href="#cite_note-ball-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-ebsolar-56">[56]</a> As mentioned, the idea of the nebular hypothesis had been outlined by <a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a> in 1755,<a href="#cite_note-ebsolar-56">[56]</a> who had also suggested "meteoric aggregations" and <a href="/wiki/Tidal_friction" class="mw-redirect" title="Tidal friction">tidal friction</a> as causes affecting the formation of the Solar System. Laplace was probably aware of this, but, like many writers of his time, he generally did not reference the work of others.<a href="#cite_note-Pearson-6">[6]</a> Laplace's analytical discussion of the Solar System is given in his Mécanique céleste published in five volumes. The first two volumes, published in 1799, contain methods for calculating the motions of the planets, determining their figures, and resolving tidal problems.<a href="#cite_note-eb1911-4">[4]</a> The third and fourth volumes, published in 1802 and 1805, contain applications of these methods, and several astronomical tables. The fifth volume, published in 1825, is mainly historical, but it gives as appendices the results of Laplace's latest researches. The Mécanique céleste contains numerous of Laplace's own investigations but many results are appropriated from other writers with little or no acknowledgement. The volume's conclusions, which are described by historians as the organised result of a century of work by other writers as well as Laplace, are presented by Laplace if they were his discoveries alone.<a href="#cite_note-ball-11">[11]</a> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Laplace-33.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="First pages to Exposition du Système du Monde (1799)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Laplace-33.jpg/150px-Laplace-33.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="106" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Laplace-33.jpg/225px-Laplace-33.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Laplace-33.jpg/300px-Laplace-33.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5456" data-file-height="3853" /></a><figcaption>First pages to Exposition du Système du Monde (1799)</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Biot" title="Jean-Baptiste Biot">Jean-Baptiste Biot</a>, who assisted Laplace in revising it for the press, says that Laplace himself was frequently unable to recover the details in the chain of reasoning, and, if satisfied that the conclusions were correct, he was content to insert the phrase, "Il est aisé à voir que..." ("It is easy to see that..."). The Mécanique céleste is not only the translation of Newton's <a href="/wiki/Philosophi%C3%A6_Naturalis_Principia_Mathematica" title="Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica">Principia Mathematica</a> into the language of <a href="/wiki/Differential_calculus" title="Differential calculus">differential calculus</a>, but it completes parts of which Newton had been unable to fill in the details. The work was carried forward in a more finely tuned form in <a href="/wiki/F%C3%A9lix_Tisserand" title="Félix Tisserand">Félix Tisserand</a>'s Traité de mécanique céleste (1889–1896), but Laplace's treatise remains a standard authority.<a href="#cite_note-ball-11">[11]</a> In the years 1784–1787, Laplace produced some memoirs of exceptional power. The significant among these was one issued in 1784, and reprinted in the third volume of the Mécanique céleste.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] In this work he completely determined the attraction of a spheroid on a particle outside it. This is known for the introduction into analysis of the potential, a useful mathematical concept of broad applicability to the physical sciences. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Optics">Optics</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Pierre-Simon_Laplace&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Optics">edit</a>]</div> Laplace was a supporter of the <a href="/wiki/Corpuscle_theory_of_light" class="mw-redirect" title="Corpuscle theory of light">corpuscle theory of light</a> of Newton. In the fourth edition of Mécanique Céleste, Laplace assumed that short-ranged molecular forces were responsible for refraction of the corpuscles of light.<a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a> Laplace and <a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne-Louis_Malus" title="Étienne-Louis Malus">Étienne-Louis Malus</a> also showed that <a href="/wiki/Huygens_principle_of_double_refraction" title="Huygens principle of double refraction">Huygens principle of double refraction</a> could be recovered from the <a href="/wiki/Principle_of_least_action" class="mw-redirect" title="Principle of least action">principle of least action</a> on light particles.<a href="#cite_note-:0-58">[58]</a> However in 1815, <a href="/wiki/Augustin-Jean_Fresnel" title="Augustin-Jean Fresnel">Augustin-Jean Fresnel</a> presented a new a wave theory for diffraction to a commission of the French Academy with the help of <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Arago" title="François Arago">François Arago</a>. Laplace was one of the commission members and they ultimately awarded a prize to Fresnel for his new approach.<a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a>: I.108  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Influence_of_gravity_on_light">Influence of gravity on light</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Pierre-Simon_Laplace&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Influence of gravity on light">edit</a>]</div> Using corpuscular theory, Laplace also came close to propounding the concept of the <a href="/wiki/Black_hole" title="Black hole">black hole</a>. He suggested that gravity could influence light and that there could be massive stars whose gravity is so great that not even light could escape from their surface (see <a href="/wiki/Escape_velocity" title="Escape velocity">escape velocity</a>).<a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a><a href="#cite_note-HE73p364-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a><a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a> However, this insight was so far ahead of its time that it played no role in the history of scientific development.<a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Arcueil">Arcueil</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Pierre-Simon_Laplace&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Arcueil">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Laplace_house_Arcueil.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/df/Laplace_house_Arcueil.jpg/220px-Laplace_house_Arcueil.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="154" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/df/Laplace_house_Arcueil.jpg/330px-Laplace_house_Arcueil.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/df/Laplace_house_Arcueil.jpg/440px-Laplace_house_Arcueil.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="448" /></a><figcaption>Laplace's house at <a href="/wiki/Arcueil" title="Arcueil">Arcueil</a> to the south of Paris.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Society_of_Arcueil" title="Society of Arcueil">Society of Arcueil</a></div> In 1806, Laplace bought a house in <a href="/wiki/Arcueil" title="Arcueil">Arcueil</a>, then a village and not yet absorbed into the Paris <a href="/wiki/Conurbation" title="Conurbation">conurbation</a>. The chemist <a href="/wiki/Claude_Louis_Berthollet" title="Claude Louis Berthollet">Claude Louis Berthollet</a> was a neighbour – their gardens were not separated<a href="#cite_note-Fourier-64">[64]</a> – and the pair formed the nucleus of an informal scientific circle, latterly known as the Society of Arcueil. Because of their closeness to <a href="/wiki/Napoleon" title="Napoleon">Napoleon</a>, Laplace and Berthollet effectively controlled advancement in the scientific establishment and admission to the more prestigious offices. The Society built up a complex pyramid of <a href="/wiki/Patronage" title="Patronage">patronage</a>.<a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a> In 1806, Laplace was also elected a foreign member of the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Swedish_Academy_of_Sciences" title="Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences">Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Analytic_theory_of_probabilities">Analytic theory of probabilities</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Pierre-Simon_Laplace&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Analytic theory of probabilities">edit</a>]</div> In 1812, Laplace issued his Théorie analytique des probabilités in which he laid down many fundamental results in statistics. The first half of this treatise was concerned with probability methods and problems, the second half with statistical methods and applications. Laplace's proofs are not always rigorous according to the standards of a later day, and his perspective slides back and forth between the Bayesian and non-Bayesian views with an ease that makes some of his investigations difficult to follow, but his conclusions remain basically sound even in those few situations where his analysis goes astray.<a href="#cite_note-stigler-66">[66]</a> In 1819, he published a popular account of his work on probability. This book bears the same relation to the Théorie des probabilités that the Système du monde does to the Mécanique céleste.<a href="#cite_note-ball-11">[11]</a> In its emphasis on the analytical importance of probabilistic problems, especially in the context of the "approximation of formula functions of large numbers," Laplace's work goes beyond the contemporary view which almost exclusively considered aspects of practical applicability.<a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a> Laplace's Théorie analytique remained the most influential book of mathematical probability theory to the end of the 19th century. The general relevance for statistics of Laplacian error theory was appreciated only by the end of the 19th century. However, it influenced the further development of a largely analytically oriented probability theory. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Inductive_probability">Inductive probability</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Pierre-Simon_Laplace&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Inductive probability">edit</a>]</div> In his Essai philosophique sur les probabilités (1814), Laplace set out a mathematical system of <a href="/wiki/Induction_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Induction (philosophy)">inductive reasoning</a> based on <a href="/wiki/Probability" title="Probability">probability</a>, which we would today recognise as <a href="/wiki/Bayesian_probability" title="Bayesian probability">Bayesian</a>. He begins the text with a series of principles of probability, the first seven being: <ol><li>Probability is the ratio of the "favored events" to the total possible events.</li> <li>The first principle assumes equal probabilities for all events. When this is not true, we must first determine the probabilities of each event. Then, the probability is the sum of the probabilities of all possible favoured events.</li> <li>For independent events, the probability of the occurrence of all is the probability of each multiplied together.</li> <li>When two events A and B depend on each other, the probability of compound event is the probability of A multiplied by the probability that, given A, B will occur.</li> <li>The probability that A will occur, given that B has occurred, is the probability of A and B occurring divided by the probability of B.</li> <li>Three corollaries are given for the sixth principle, which amount to Bayesian rule. Where event Ai ∈ {A1, A2, ... An} exhausts the list of possible causes for event B, Pr(B) = Pr(A1, A2, ..., An). Then <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \Pr(A_{i}\mid B)=\Pr(A_{i}){\frac {\Pr(B\mid A_{i})}{\sum _{j}\Pr(A_{j})\Pr(B\mid A_{j})}}.}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mo movablelimits="true" form="prefix">Pr</mo> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <msub> <mi>A</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>i</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>∣</mo> <mi>B</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>=</mo> <mo movablelimits="true" form="prefix">Pr</mo> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <msub> <mi>A</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>i</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mo movablelimits="true" form="prefix">Pr</mo> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>B</mi> <mo>∣</mo> <msub> <mi>A</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>i</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mrow> <mrow> <munder> <mo>∑</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>j</mi> </mrow> </munder> <mo movablelimits="true" form="prefix">Pr</mo> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <msub> <mi>A</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>j</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo movablelimits="true" form="prefix">Pr</mo> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>B</mi> <mo>∣</mo> <msub> <mi>A</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>j</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>.</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \Pr(A_{i}\mid B)=\Pr(A_{i}){\frac {\Pr(B\mid A_{i})}{\sum _{j}\Pr(A_{j})\Pr(B\mid A_{j})}}.}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/d8371ed52640f8890c09a9a29af377eb07f038f4" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -3.005ex; width:43.728ex; height:6.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \Pr(A_{i}\mid B)=\Pr(A_{i}){\frac {\Pr(B\mid A_{i})}{\sum _{j}\Pr(A_{j})\Pr(B\mid A_{j})}}.}"></li> <li>The probability of a future event C is the sum of the products of the probability of each causes Bi drawn from the event observed A, by the probability that, this cause existing, the future event will occur. Symbolically, <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \Pr(C|A)=\sum _{i}\Pr(C|B_{i})\Pr(B_{i}|A).}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mo movablelimits="true" form="prefix">Pr</mo> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>C</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">|</mo> </mrow> <mi>A</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>=</mo> <munder> <mo>∑</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>i</mi> </mrow> </munder> <mo movablelimits="true" form="prefix">Pr</mo> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>C</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">|</mo> </mrow> <msub> <mi>B</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>i</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo movablelimits="true" form="prefix">Pr</mo> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <msub> <mi>B</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>i</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">|</mo> </mrow> <mi>A</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>.</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \Pr(C|A)=\sum _{i}\Pr(C|B_{i})\Pr(B_{i}|A).}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/86083e198ac88af939b1ae91aabd11cba4108a17" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -3.005ex; width:34.873ex; height:5.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \Pr(C|A)=\sum _{i}\Pr(C|B_{i})\Pr(B_{i}|A).}"></li></ol> One well-known formula arising from his system is the <a href="/wiki/Rule_of_succession" title="Rule of succession">rule of succession</a>, given as principle seven. Suppose that some trial has only two possible outcomes, labelled "success" and "failure". Under the assumption that little or nothing is known a priori about the relative plausibilities of the outcomes, Laplace derived a formula for the probability that the next trial will be a success. <dl><dd><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \Pr({\text{next outcome is success}})={\frac {s+1}{n+2}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mo movablelimits="true" form="prefix">Pr</mo> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>next outcome is success</mtext> </mrow> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mi>s</mi> <mo>+</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mo>+</mo> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \Pr({\text{next outcome is success}})={\frac {s+1}{n+2}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/1e3856403c911c852611d8b05587069f6a13bb3a" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.005ex; width:37.059ex; height:5.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \Pr({\text{next outcome is success}})={\frac {s+1}{n+2}}}"></dd></dl> where s is the number of previously observed successes and n is the total number of observed trials. It is still used as an estimator for the probability of an event if we know the event space, but have only a small number of samples. The rule of succession has been subject to much criticism, partly due to the example which Laplace chose to illustrate it. He calculated that the probability that the sun will rise tomorrow, given that it has never failed to in the past, was <dl><dd><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \Pr({\text{sun will rise tomorrow}})={\frac {d+1}{d+2}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mo movablelimits="true" form="prefix">Pr</mo> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>sun will rise tomorrow</mtext> </mrow> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mi>d</mi> <mo>+</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>d</mi> <mo>+</mo> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \Pr({\text{sun will rise tomorrow}})={\frac {d+1}{d+2}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/84753337a8a4abe75fe3c125e35a4ee182a4dcce" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.171ex; width:35.655ex; height:5.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \Pr({\text{sun will rise tomorrow}})={\frac {d+1}{d+2}}}"></dd></dl> where d is the number of times the sun has risen in the past. This result has been derided as absurd, and some authors have concluded that all applications of the Rule of Succession are absurd by extension. However, Laplace was fully aware of the absurdity of the result; immediately following the example, he wrote, "But this number [i.e., the probability that the sun will rise tomorrow] is far greater for him who, seeing in the totality of phenomena the principle regulating the days and seasons, realizes that nothing at the present moment can arrest the course of it."<a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Probability-generating_function">Probability-generating function</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Pierre-Simon_Laplace&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Probability-generating function">edit</a>]</div> The method of estimating the ratio of the number of favourable cases to the whole number of possible cases had been previously indicated by Laplace in a paper written in 1779. It consists of treating the successive values of any <a href="/wiki/Function_(mathematics)" title="Function (mathematics)">function</a> as the coefficients in the expansion of another function, with reference to a different variable.<a href="#cite_note-eb1911-4">[4]</a> The latter is therefore called the <a href="/wiki/Probability-generating_function" title="Probability-generating function">probability-generating function</a> of the former.<a href="#cite_note-eb1911-4">[4]</a> Laplace then shows how, by means of <a href="/wiki/Interpolation" title="Interpolation">interpolation</a>, these coefficients may be determined from the generating function. Next he attacks the converse problem, and from the coefficients he finds the generating function; this is effected by the solution of a <a href="/wiki/Finite_difference_equation" class="mw-redirect" title="Finite difference equation">finite difference equation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-ball-11">[11]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Least_squares_and_central_limit_theorem">Least squares and central limit theorem</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Pierre-Simon_Laplace&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Least squares and central limit theorem">edit</a>]</div> The fourth chapter of this treatise includes an exposition of the <a href="/wiki/Method_of_least_squares" class="mw-redirect" title="Method of least squares">method of least squares</a>, a remarkable testimony to Laplace's command over the processes of analysis. In 1805 <a href="/wiki/Adrien-Marie_Legendre" title="Adrien-Marie Legendre">Legendre</a> had published the method of least squares, making no attempt to tie it to the theory of probability. In 1809 <a href="/wiki/Carl_Friedrich_Gauss" title="Carl Friedrich Gauss">Gauss</a> had derived the normal distribution from the principle that the arithmetic mean of observations gives the most probable value for the quantity measured; then, turning this argument back upon itself, he showed that, if the errors of observation are normally distributed, the least squares estimates give the most probable values for the coefficients in regression situations. These two works seem to have spurred Laplace to complete work toward a treatise on probability he had contemplated as early as 1783.<a href="#cite_note-stigler-66">[66]</a> In two important papers in 1810 and 1811, Laplace first developed the <a href="/wiki/Characteristic_function_(probability_theory)" title="Characteristic function (probability theory)">characteristic function</a> as a tool for large-sample theory and proved the first general <a href="/wiki/Central_limit_theorem" title="Central limit theorem">central limit theorem</a>. Then in a supplement to his 1810 paper written after he had seen Gauss's work, he showed that the central limit theorem provided a Bayesian justification for least squares: if one were combining observations, each one of which was itself the mean of a large number of independent observations, then the least squares estimates would not only maximise the likelihood function, considered as a posterior distribution, but also minimise the expected posterior error, all this without any assumption as to the error distribution or a circular appeal to the principle of the arithmetic mean.<a href="#cite_note-stigler-66">[66]</a> In 1811 Laplace took a different non-Bayesian tack. Considering a linear regression problem, he restricted his attention to linear unbiased estimators of the linear coefficients. After showing that members of this class were approximately normally distributed if the number of observations was large, he argued that least squares provided the "best" linear estimators. Here it is "best" in the sense that it minimised the asymptotic variance and thus both minimised the expected absolute value of the error, and maximised the probability that the estimate would lie in any symmetric interval about the unknown coefficient, no matter what the error distribution. His derivation included the joint limiting distribution of the least squares estimators of two parameters.<a href="#cite_note-stigler-66">[66]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Laplace's_demon">Laplace's demon</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Pierre-Simon_Laplace&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Laplace's demon">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Laplace%27s_demon" title="Laplace's demon">Laplace's demon</a></div> In 1814, Laplace published what may have been the first scientific articulation of <a href="/wiki/Causal_determinism" class="mw-redirect" title="Causal determinism">causal determinism</a>:<a href="#cite_note-Hawking-69">[69]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"> We may regard the present state of the universe as the effect of its past and the cause of its future. An intellect which at a certain moment would know all forces that set nature in motion, and all positions of all items of which nature is composed, if this intellect were also vast enough to submit these data to analysis, it would embrace in a single formula the movements of the greatest bodies of the universe and those of the tiniest atom; for such an intellect nothing would be uncertain and the future just like the past would be the present to it.<div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Pierre Simon Laplace, <a href="/wiki/A_Philosophical_Essay_on_Probabilities" title="A Philosophical Essay on Probabilities">A Philosophical Essay on Probabilities</a><a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a></cite></div></blockquote> This intellect is often referred to as Laplace's demon (in the same vein as <a href="/wiki/Maxwell%27s_demon" title="Maxwell's demon">Maxwell's demon</a>) and sometimes Laplace's Superman (after <a href="/wiki/Hans_Reichenbach" title="Hans Reichenbach">Hans Reichenbach</a>). Laplace, himself, did not use the word "demon", which was a later embellishment. As translated into English above, he simply referred to: "Une intelligence ... Rien ne serait incertain pour elle, et l'avenir comme le passé, serait présent à ses yeux." Even though Laplace is generally credited with having first formulated the concept of causal determinism, in a philosophical context the idea was actually widespread at the time, and can be found as early as 1756 in <a href="/wiki/Maupertuis" class="mw-redirect" title="Maupertuis">Maupertuis</a>' 'Sur la Divination'.<a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a> As well, <a href="/wiki/Jesuits" title="Jesuits">Jesuit</a> scientist <a href="/wiki/Roger_Joseph_Boscovich" title="Roger Joseph Boscovich">Boscovich</a> first proposed a version of scientific determinism very similar to Laplace's in his 1758 book Theoria philosophiae naturalis.<a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Laplace_transforms">Laplace transforms</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Pierre-Simon_Laplace&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Laplace transforms">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Laplace_transform#History" title="Laplace transform">Laplace transform § History</a></div> As early as 1744, <a href="/wiki/Euler" class="mw-redirect" title="Euler">Euler</a>, followed by <a href="/wiki/Lagrange" class="mw-redirect" title="Lagrange">Lagrange</a>, had started looking for solutions of <a href="/wiki/Differential_equation" title="Differential equation">differential equations</a> in the form:<a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a> <dl><dd><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle z=\int X(x)e^{ax}\,dx{\text{ and }}z=\int X(x)x^{a}\,dx.}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>z</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mo>∫</mo> <mi>X</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>x</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <msup> <mi>e</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>a</mi> <mi>x</mi> </mrow> </msup> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <mi>d</mi> <mi>x</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext> and </mtext> </mrow> <mi>z</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mo>∫</mo> <mi>X</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>x</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <msup> <mi>x</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>a</mi> </mrow> </msup> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <mi>d</mi> <mi>x</mi> <mo>.</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle z=\int X(x)e^{ax}\,dx{\text{ and }}z=\int X(x)x^{a}\,dx.}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/634c6383b783b3efc5aacc519ed05032568131b8" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.338ex; width:40.751ex; height:5.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle z=\int X(x)e^{ax}\,dx{\text{ and }}z=\int X(x)x^{a}\,dx.}"></dd></dl> The Laplace transform has the form: <dl><dd><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle F(s)=\int f(t)e^{-st}\,dt}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>F</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>s</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>=</mo> <mo>∫</mo> <mi>f</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>t</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <msup> <mi>e</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>−</mo> <mi>s</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <mi>d</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle F(s)=\int f(t)e^{-st}\,dt}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/c6329984e90ebc867da25500cbfbe79397ceb512" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.338ex; width:20.649ex; height:5.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle F(s)=\int f(t)e^{-st}\,dt}"></dd></dl> This integral operator transforms a function of time (<math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle t}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>t</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle t}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/65658b7b223af9e1acc877d848888ecdb4466560" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:0.84ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle t}">) into a function of a complex variable (<math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle s}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>s</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle s}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/01d131dfd7673938b947072a13a9744fe997e632" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.09ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle s}">), usually interpreted as <a href="/wiki/Complex_frequency" class="mw-redirect" title="Complex frequency">complex frequency</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Other_discoveries_and_accomplishments">Other discoveries and accomplishments</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Pierre-Simon_Laplace&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Other discoveries and accomplishments">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mathematics">Mathematics</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Pierre-Simon_Laplace&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Mathematics">edit</a>]</div> Among the other discoveries of Laplace in pure and applied mathematics are: <ul><li>Discussion, contemporaneously with <a href="/wiki/Alexandre-Th%C3%A9ophile_Vandermonde" title="Alexandre-Théophile Vandermonde">Alexandre-Théophile Vandermonde</a>, of the general theory of <a href="/wiki/Determinant" title="Determinant">determinants</a>, (1772);<a href="#cite_note-ball-11">[11]</a></li> <li>Proof that every equation of an odd degree must have at least one <a href="/wiki/Real_number" title="Real number">real</a> <a href="/wiki/Quadratic_function" title="Quadratic function">quadratic</a> factor[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify">clarification needed</a>];<a href="#cite_note-ball-11">[11]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laplace%27s_method" title="Laplace's method">Laplace's method</a> for approximating integrals</li> <li>Solution of the <a href="/wiki/Linear_partial_differential_equation" class="mw-redirect" title="Linear partial differential equation">linear partial differential equation</a> of the second order;<a href="#cite_note-ball-11">[11]</a></li> <li>He was the first to consider the difficult problems involved in equations of mixed differences, and to prove that the solution of an equation in finite differences of the first degree and the second order might always be obtained in the form of a <a href="/wiki/Continued_fraction" title="Continued fraction">continued fraction</a>;<a href="#cite_note-eb1911-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-ball-11">[11]</a></li> <li>In his theory of probabilities: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/De_Moivre%E2%80%93Laplace_theorem" title="De Moivre–Laplace theorem">de Moivre–Laplace theorem</a> that approximates binomial distribution with a normal distribution</li> <li>Evaluation of several common <a href="/wiki/Definite_integral" class="mw-redirect" title="Definite integral">definite integrals</a>;<a href="#cite_note-ball-11">[11]</a></li> <li>General proof of the <a href="/wiki/Lagrange_reversion_theorem" title="Lagrange reversion theorem">Lagrange reversion theorem</a>.<a href="#cite_note-ball-11">[11]</a></li></ul></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Surface_tension">Surface tension</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Pierre-Simon_Laplace&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Surface tension">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Young%E2%80%93Laplace_equation#History" title="Young–Laplace equation">Young–Laplace equation § History</a></div> Laplace built upon the qualitative work of <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Young_(scientist)" title="Thomas Young (scientist)">Thomas Young</a> to develop the theory of <a href="/wiki/Capillary_action" title="Capillary action">capillary action</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Young%E2%80%93Laplace_equation" title="Young–Laplace equation">Young–Laplace equation</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Speed_of_sound">Speed of sound</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Pierre-Simon_Laplace&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Speed of sound">edit</a>]</div> Laplace in 1816 was the first to point out that the <a href="/wiki/Speed_of_sound" title="Speed of sound">speed of sound</a> in air depends on the <a href="/wiki/Heat_capacity_ratio" title="Heat capacity ratio">heat capacity ratio</a>. Newton's original theory gave too low a value, because it does not take account of the <a href="/wiki/Adiabatic_process" title="Adiabatic process">adiabatic</a> <a href="/wiki/Gas_compression" class="mw-redirect" title="Gas compression">compression</a> of the air which results in a local rise in temperature and <a href="/wiki/Pressure" title="Pressure">pressure</a>. Laplace's investigations in practical physics were confined to those carried on by him jointly with <a href="/wiki/Lavoisier" class="mw-redirect" title="Lavoisier">Lavoisier</a> in the years 1782 to 1784 on the <a href="/wiki/Specific_heat" class="mw-redirect" title="Specific heat">specific heat</a> of various bodies.<a href="#cite_note-ball-11">[11]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Politics">Politics</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Pierre-Simon_Laplace&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Politics">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Minister_of_the_Interior">Minister of the Interior</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Pierre-Simon_Laplace&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Minister of the Interior">edit</a>]</div> In his early years, Laplace was careful never to become involved in politics, or indeed in life outside the Académie des sciences. He prudently withdrew from Paris during the most violent part of the Revolution.<a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a> In November 1799, immediately after seizing power in the coup of <a href="/wiki/18_Brumaire" class="mw-redirect" title="18 Brumaire">18 Brumaire</a>, Napoleon appointed Laplace to the post of <a href="/wiki/Minister_of_the_Interior_(France)" title="Minister of the Interior (France)">Minister of the Interior</a>.<a href="#cite_note-eb1911-4">[4]</a> The appointment, however, lasted only six weeks, after which <a href="/wiki/Lucien_Bonaparte" title="Lucien Bonaparte">Lucien Bonaparte</a>, Napoleon's brother, was given the post.<a href="#cite_note-eb1911-4">[4]</a> Evidently, once Napoleon's grip on power was secure, there was no need for a prestigious but inexperienced scientist in the government.<a href="#cite_note-GGp333-75">[75]</a> Napoleon later (in his Mémoires de Sainte Hélène) wrote of Laplace's dismissal as follows:<a href="#cite_note-ball-11">[11]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"> Geometrician of the first rank, Laplace was not long in showing himself a worse than average administrator; from his first actions in office we recognized our mistake. Laplace did not consider any question from the right angle: he sought subtleties everywhere, conceived only problems, and finally carried the spirit of "infinitesimals" into the administration. </blockquote> Grattan-Guinness, however, describes these remarks as "tendentious", since there seems to be no doubt that Laplace "was only appointed as a short-term figurehead, a place-holder while Napoleon consolidated power".<a href="#cite_note-GGp333-75">[75]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="From_Bonaparte_to_the_Bourbons">From Bonaparte to the Bourbons</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Pierre-Simon_Laplace&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: From Bonaparte to the Bourbons">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pierre-Simon-Laplace_(1749-1827).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Pierre-Simon-Laplace_%281749-1827%29.jpg/170px-Pierre-Simon-Laplace_%281749-1827%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="204" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/91/Pierre-Simon-Laplace_%281749-1827%29.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="250" data-file-height="300" /></a><figcaption>Laplace.</figcaption></figure> Although Laplace was removed from office, it was desirable to retain his allegiance. He was accordingly raised to the senate, and to the third volume of the Mécanique céleste he prefixed a note that of all the truths therein contained the most precious to the author was the declaration he thus made of his devotion towards the peacemaker of Europe.<a href="#cite_note-eb1911-4">[4]</a> In copies sold after the <a href="/wiki/Bourbon_Restoration_in_France" title="Bourbon Restoration in France">Bourbon Restoration</a> this was struck out. (Pearson points out that the censor would not have allowed it anyway.) In 1814 it was evident that the empire was falling; Laplace hastened to tender his services to the <a href="/wiki/Bourbons" class="mw-redirect" title="Bourbons">Bourbons</a>, and in 1817 during the <a href="/wiki/Bourbon_Restoration_in_France" title="Bourbon Restoration in France">Restoration</a> he was rewarded with the title of <a href="/wiki/Marquis" class="mw-redirect" title="Marquis">marquis</a>. According to Rouse Ball, the contempt that his more honest colleagues felt for his conduct in the matter may be read in the pages of <a href="/wiki/Paul_Louis_Courier" title="Paul Louis Courier">Paul Louis Courier</a>. His knowledge was useful on the numerous scientific commissions on which he served, and, says Rouse Ball, probably accounts for the manner in which his political insincerity was overlooked.<a href="#cite_note-ball-11">[11]</a> Roger Hahn in his 2005 biography disputes this portrayal of Laplace as an opportunist and turncoat, pointing out that, like many in France, he had followed the debacle of Napoleon's Russian campaign with serious misgivings. The Laplaces, whose only daughter Sophie had died in childbirth in September 1813, were in fear for the safety of their son Émile, who was on the eastern front with the emperor. Napoleon had originally come to power promising stability, but it was clear that he had overextended himself, putting the nation at peril. It was at this point that Laplace's loyalty began to weaken. Although he still had easy access to Napoleon, his personal relations with the emperor cooled considerably. As a grieving father, he was particularly cut to the quick by Napoleon's insensitivity in an exchange related by <a href="/wiki/Jean-Antoine_Chaptal" title="Jean-Antoine Chaptal">Jean-Antoine Chaptal</a>: "On his return from the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Leipzig" title="Battle of Leipzig">rout in Leipzig</a>, he [Napoleon] accosted Mr Laplace: 'Oh! I see that you have grown thin—Sire, I have lost my daughter—Oh! that's not a reason for losing weight. You are a mathematician; put this event in an equation, and you will find that it adds up to zero.'"<a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Political_philosophy">Political philosophy</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Pierre-Simon_Laplace&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Political philosophy">edit</a>]</div> In the second edition (1814) of the Essai philosophique, Laplace added some revealing comments on politics and <a href="/wiki/Governance" title="Governance">governance</a>. Since it is, he says, "the practice of the eternal principles of reason, justice and humanity that produce and preserve societies, there is a great advantage to adhere to these principles, and a great inadvisability to deviate from them".<a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a><a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a> Noting "the depths of misery into which peoples have been cast" when ambitious leaders disregard these principles, Laplace makes a veiled criticism of Napoleon's conduct: "Every time a great power intoxicated by the love of conquest aspires to universal domination, the sense of liberty among the unjustly threatened nations breeds a coalition to which it always succumbs." Laplace argues that "in the midst of the multiple causes that direct and restrain various states, natural limits" operate, within which it is "important for the stability as well as the prosperity of empires to remain". States that transgress these limits cannot avoid being "reverted" to them, "just as is the case when the waters of the seas whose floor has been lifted by violent tempests sink back to their level by the action of gravity".<a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a><a href="#cite_note-Hahnp185-80">[80]</a> About the political upheavals he had witnessed, Laplace formulated a set of principles derived from physics to favour evolutionary over revolutionary change: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">Let us apply to the political and moral sciences the method founded upon observation and calculation, which has served us so well in the natural sciences. Let us not offer fruitless and often injurious resistance to the inevitable benefits derived from the progress of enlightenment; but let us change our institutions and the usages that we have for a long time adopted only with extreme caution. We know from past experience the drawbacks they can cause, but we are unaware of the extent of ills that change may produce. In the face of this ignorance, the theory of probability instructs us to avoid all change, especially to avoid sudden changes which in the moral as well as the physical world never occur without a considerable loss of vital force.<a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a></blockquote> In these lines, Laplace expressed the views he had arrived at after experiencing the Revolution and the Empire. He believed that the stability of nature, as revealed through scientific findings, provided the model that best helped to preserve the human species. "Such views," Hahn comments, "were also of a piece with his steadfast character."<a href="#cite_note-Hahnp185-80">[80]</a> In the Essai philosophique, Laplace also illustrates the potential of probabilities in political studies by applying the law of large numbers to justify the candidates’ integer-valued ranks used in the <a href="/wiki/Borda_count" title="Borda count">Borda method of voting</a>, with which the new members of the Academy of Sciences were elected. Laplace’s verbal argument is so rigorous that it can easily be converted into a formal proof.<a href="#cite_note-Black1958-82">[82]</a><a href="#cite_note-Tangian2020-83">[83]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Death">Death</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Pierre-Simon_Laplace&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Death">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tomb_of_Pierre-Simon_Laplace.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Tomb_of_Pierre-Simon_Laplace.JPG/220px-Tomb_of_Pierre-Simon_Laplace.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Tomb_of_Pierre-Simon_Laplace.JPG/330px-Tomb_of_Pierre-Simon_Laplace.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Tomb_of_Pierre-Simon_Laplace.JPG/440px-Tomb_of_Pierre-Simon_Laplace.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="1600" /></a><figcaption>Tomb of Pierre-Simon Laplace</figcaption></figure> Laplace died in Paris on 5 March 1827, which was the same day <a href="/wiki/Alessandro_Volta" title="Alessandro Volta">Alessandro Volta</a> died. His brain was removed by his physician, <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Magendie" title="François Magendie">François Magendie</a>, and kept for many years, eventually being displayed in a roving anatomical museum in Britain. It was reportedly smaller than the average brain.<a href="#cite_note-Pearson-6">[6]</a> Laplace was buried at <a href="/wiki/P%C3%A8re_Lachaise" class="mw-redirect" title="Père Lachaise">Père Lachaise</a> in Paris but in 1888 his remains were moved to <a href="/wiki/Saint_Julien_de_Mailloc" class="mw-redirect" title="Saint Julien de Mailloc">Saint Julien de Mailloc</a> in the canton of Orbec and reinterred on the family estate.<a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a> The tomb is situated on a hill overlooking the village of St Julien de Mailloc, Normandy, France. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Religious_opinions">Religious opinions</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Pierre-Simon_Laplace&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Religious opinions">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="I_had_no_need_of_that_hypothesis">I had no need of that hypothesis</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Pierre-Simon_Laplace&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: I had no need of that hypothesis">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/God_of_the_gaps" title="God of the gaps">God of the gaps</a></div> A frequently cited but potentially <a href="/wiki/Apocryphal" class="mw-redirect" title="Apocryphal">apocryphal</a> interaction between Laplace and Napoleon purportedly concerns the existence of God. Although the conversation in question did occur, the exact words Laplace used and his intended meaning are not known. A typical version is provided by Rouse Ball:<a href="#cite_note-ball-11">[11]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">Laplace went in state to Napoleon to present a copy of his work, and the following account of the interview is well authenticated, and so characteristic of all the parties concerned that I quote it in full. Someone had told Napoleon that the book contained no mention of the name of God; Napoleon, who was fond of putting embarrassing questions, received it with the remark, 'M. Laplace, they tell me you have written this large book on the system of the universe, and have never even mentioned its Creator.' Laplace, who, though the most supple of politicians, was as stiff as a martyr on every point of his philosophy, drew himself up and answered bluntly, Je n'avais pas besoin de cette hypothèse-là. ("I had no need of that hypothesis.") Napoleon, greatly amused, told this reply to <a href="/wiki/Lagrange" class="mw-redirect" title="Lagrange">Lagrange</a>, who exclaimed, Ah! c'est une belle hypothèse; ça explique beaucoup de choses. ("Ah, it is a fine hypothesis; it explains many things.")</blockquote> An earlier report, although without the mention of Laplace's name, is found in Antommarchi's <a href="/wiki/The_Last_Moments_of_Napoleon" title="The Last Moments of Napoleon">The Last Moments of Napoleon</a> (1825):<a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">Je m'entretenais avec L ..... je le félicitais d'un ouvrage qu'il venait de publier et lui demandais comment le nom de Dieu, qui se reproduisait sans cesse sous la plume de Lagrange, ne s'était pas présenté une seule fois sous la sienne. C'est, me répondit-il, que je n'ai pas eu besoin de cette hypothèse. ("While speaking with L ..... I congratulated him on a work which he had just published and asked him how the name of God, which appeared endlessly in the works of Lagrange, didn't occur even once in his. He replied that he had no need of that hypothesis.")</blockquote> In 1884, however, the astronomer <a href="/wiki/Herv%C3%A9_Faye" title="Hervé Faye">Hervé Faye</a><a href="#cite_note-Faye-86">[86]</a><a href="#cite_note-Pasquier-87">[87]</a> affirmed that this account of Laplace's exchange with Napoleon presented a "strangely transformed" (étrangement transformée) or garbled version of what had actually happened. It was not God that Laplace had treated as a hypothesis, but merely his intervention at a determinate point: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">In fact Laplace never said that. Here, I believe, is what truly happened. Newton, believing that the <a href="/wiki/Secular_phenomena" class="mw-redirect" title="Secular phenomena">secular</a> perturbations which he had sketched out in his theory would in the long run end up destroying the Solar System, says somewhere that God was obliged to intervene from time to time to remedy the evil and somehow keep the system working properly. This, however, was a pure supposition suggested to Newton by an incomplete view of the conditions of the stability of our little world. Science was not yet advanced enough at that time to bring these conditions into full view. But Laplace, who had discovered them by a deep analysis, would have replied to the <a href="/wiki/First_Consul" class="mw-redirect" title="First Consul">First Consul</a> that Newton had wrongly invoked the intervention of God to adjust from time to time the machine of the world (la machine du monde) and that he, Laplace, had no need of such an assumption. It was not God, therefore, that Laplace treated as a hypothesis, but his intervention in a certain place.</blockquote> Laplace's younger colleague, the astronomer <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Arago" title="François Arago">François Arago</a>, who gave his eulogy before the French Academy in 1827,<a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a> told Faye of an attempt by Laplace to keep the garbled version of his interaction with Napoleon out of circulation. Faye writes:<a href="#cite_note-Faye-86">[86]</a><a href="#cite_note-Pasquier-87">[87]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">I have it on the authority of M. Arago that Laplace, warned shortly before his death that that anecdote was about to be published in a biographical collection, had requested him [Arago] to demand its deletion by the publisher. It was necessary to either explain or delete it, and the second way was the easiest. But, unfortunately, it was neither deleted nor explained.</blockquote> The Swiss-American historian of mathematics <a href="/wiki/Florian_Cajori" title="Florian Cajori">Florian Cajori</a> appears to have been unaware of Faye's research, but in 1893 he came to a similar conclusion.<a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a> <a href="/wiki/Stephen_Hawking" title="Stephen Hawking">Stephen Hawking</a> said in 1999,<a href="#cite_note-Hawking-69">[69]</a> "I don't think that Laplace was claiming that God does not exist. It's just that he doesn't intervene, to break the laws of Science." The only eyewitness account of Laplace's interaction with Napoleon is from the entry for 8 August 1802 in the diary of the British astronomer Sir <a href="/wiki/William_Herschel" title="William Herschel">William Herschel</a>:<a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">The first Consul then asked a few questions relating to Astronomy and the construction of the heavens to which I made such answers as seemed to give him great satisfaction. He also addressed himself to Mr Laplace on the same subject, and held a considerable argument with him in which he differed from that eminent mathematician. The difference was occasioned by an exclamation of the first Consul, who asked in a tone of exclamation or admiration (when we were speaking of the extent of the sidereal heavens): 'And who is the author of all this!' Mons. De la Place wished to shew that a chain of natural causes would account for the construction and preservation of the wonderful system. This the first Consul rather opposed. Much may be said on the subject; by joining the arguments of both we shall be led to 'Nature and nature's God'.</blockquote> Since this makes no mention of Laplace's saying, "I had no need of that hypothesis," <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Johnson_(journalist)" title="Daniel Johnson (journalist)">Daniel Johnson</a><a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a> argues that "Laplace never used the words attributed to him." Arago's testimony, however, appears to imply that he did, only not in reference to the existence of God. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Views_on_God">Views on God</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Pierre-Simon_Laplace&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Views on God">edit</a>]</div> Raised a Catholic, Laplace appears in adult life to have inclined to <a href="/wiki/Deism" title="Deism">deism</a> (presumably his considered position, since it is the only one found in his writings). However, some of his contemporaries thought he was an <a href="/wiki/Atheist" class="mw-redirect" title="Atheist">atheist</a>, while a number of recent scholars have described him as <a href="/wiki/Agnostic" class="mw-redirect" title="Agnostic">agnostic</a>. Faye thought that Laplace "did not profess atheism",<a href="#cite_note-Faye-86">[86]</a> but Napoleon, on <a href="/wiki/Saint_Helena" title="Saint Helena">Saint Helena</a>, told General <a href="/wiki/Gaspard_Gourgaud" title="Gaspard Gourgaud">Gaspard Gourgaud</a>, "I often asked Laplace what he thought of God. He owned that he was an atheist."<a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a> Roger Hahn, in his biography of Laplace, mentions a dinner party at which "the geologist <a href="/wiki/Jean-%C3%89tienne_Guettard" title="Jean-Étienne Guettard">Jean-Étienne Guettard</a> was staggered by Laplace's bold denunciation of the existence of God". It appeared to Guettard that Laplace's atheism "was supported by a thoroughgoing <a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">materialism</a>".<a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a> But the chemist <a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Dumas" title="Jean-Baptiste Dumas">Jean-Baptiste Dumas</a>, who knew Laplace well in the 1820s, wrote that Laplace "provided materialists with their specious arguments, without sharing their convictions".<a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a><a href="#cite_note-Kneller-95">[95]</a> Hahn states: "Nowhere in his writings, either public or private, does Laplace deny God's existence."<a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a> Expressions occur in his private letters that appear inconsistent with atheism.<a href="#cite_note-eb1911-4">[4]</a> On 17 June 1809, for instance, he wrote to his son, "Je prie Dieu qu'il veille sur tes jours. Aie-Le toujours présent à ta pensée, ainsi que ton père et ta mère [I pray that God watches over your days. Let Him be always present to your mind, as also your father and your mother]."<a href="#cite_note-Pasquier-87">[87]</a><a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a> Ian S. Glass, quoting Herschel's account of the celebrated exchange with Napoleon, writes that Laplace was "evidently a deist like Herschel".<a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a> In Exposition du système du monde, Laplace quotes Newton's assertion that "the wondrous disposition of the Sun, the planets and the comets, can only be the work of an all-powerful and intelligent Being".<a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a> This, says Laplace, is a "thought in which he [Newton] would be even more confirmed, if he had known what we have shown, namely that the conditions of the arrangement of the planets and their satellites are precisely those which ensure its stability".<a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a> By showing that the "remarkable" arrangement of the planets could be entirely explained by the laws of motion, Laplace had eliminated the need for the "supreme intelligence" to intervene, as Newton had "made" it do.<a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a> Laplace cites with approval Leibniz's criticism of Newton's invocation of divine intervention to restore order to the Solar System: "This is to have very narrow ideas about the wisdom and the power of God."<a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a> He evidently shared Leibniz's astonishment at Newton's belief "that God has made his machine so badly that unless he affects it by some extraordinary means, the watch will very soon cease to go".<a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a> In a group of manuscripts, preserved in relative secrecy in a black envelope in the library of the Académie des sciences and published for the first time by Hahn, Laplace mounted a deist critique of Christianity. It is, he writes, the "first and most infallible of principles ... to reject miraculous facts as untrue".<a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a> As for the doctrine of <a href="/wiki/Transubstantiation" title="Transubstantiation">transubstantiation</a>, it "offends at the same time reason, experience, the testimony of all our senses, the eternal laws of nature, and the sublime ideas that we ought to form of the Supreme Being". It is the sheerest absurdity to suppose that "the sovereign lawgiver of the universe would suspend the laws that he has established, and which he seems to have maintained invariably".<a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a> Laplace also ridiculed the use of probability in theology. Even following Pascal's reasoning presented in <a href="/wiki/Pascal%27s_wager" title="Pascal's wager">Pascal's wager</a>, it is not worth making a bet, for the hope of profit – equal to the product of the value of the testimonies (infinitely small) and the value of the happiness they promise (which is significant but finite) – must necessarily be infinitely small.<a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a> In old age, Laplace remained curious about the question of God<a href="#cite_note-Hahnp202-107">[107]</a> and frequently discussed Christianity with the Swiss astronomer Jean-Frédéric-Théodore Maurice.<a href="#cite_note-108">[108]</a> He told Maurice that "Christianity is quite a beautiful thing" and praised its civilising influence. Maurice thought that the basis of Laplace's beliefs was, little by little, being modified, but that he held fast to his conviction that the invariability of the laws of nature did not permit of supernatural events.<a href="#cite_note-Hahnp202-107">[107]</a> After Laplace's death, <a href="/wiki/Sim%C3%A9on_Denis_Poisson" title="Siméon Denis Poisson">Poisson</a> told Maurice, "You know that I do not share your [religious] opinions, but my conscience forces me to recount something that will surely please you." When Poisson had complimented Laplace about his "brilliant discoveries", the dying man had fixed him with a pensive look and replied, "Ah! We chase after phantoms [chimères]."<a href="#cite_note-109">[109]</a> These were his last words, interpreted by Maurice as a realisation of the ultimate "<a href="/wiki/Vanitas" title="Vanitas">vanity</a>" of earthly pursuits.<a href="#cite_note-Hahnp204-110">[110]</a> Laplace received the <a href="/wiki/Last_rites" title="Last rites">last rites</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Cur%C3%A9" class="mw-redirect" title="Curé">curé</a> of the Missions Étrangères (in whose parish he was to be buried)<a href="#cite_note-Kneller-95">[95]</a> and the curé of Arcueil.<a href="#cite_note-Hahnp204-110">[110]</a> According to his biographer, Roger Hahn, it is "not credible" that Laplace "had a proper Catholic end", and he "remained a skeptic" to the very end of his life.<a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a> Laplace in his last years has been described as an agnostic.<a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a><a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a><a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Excommunication_of_a_comet">Excommunication of a comet</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Pierre-Simon_Laplace&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Excommunication of a comet">edit</a>]</div> In 1470 the <a href="/wiki/Renaissance_humanism" title="Renaissance humanism">humanist</a> scholar <a href="/wiki/Bartolomeo_Platina" title="Bartolomeo Platina">Bartolomeo Platina</a> wrote<a href="#cite_note-115">[115]</a> that <a href="/wiki/Pope_Callixtus_III" title="Pope Callixtus III">Pope Callixtus III</a> had asked for prayers for deliverance from the Turks during a 1456 appearance of <a href="/wiki/Halley%27s_Comet" title="Halley's Comet">Halley's Comet</a>. Platina's account does not accord with Church records, which do not mention the comet. Laplace is alleged to have embellished the story by claiming the Pope had "<a href="/wiki/Excommunication" title="Excommunication">excommunicated</a>" Halley's comet.<a href="#cite_note-116">[116]</a> What Laplace actually said, in Exposition du système du monde (1796), was that the Pope had ordered the comet to be "<a href="/wiki/Exorcism" title="Exorcism">exorcised</a>" (conjuré). It was Arago, in Des Comètes en général (1832), who first spoke of an excommunication.<a href="#cite_note-117">[117]</a><a href="#cite_note-118">[118]</a><a href="#cite_note-119">[119]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Honors">Honors</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Pierre-Simon_Laplace&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Honors">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>Correspondent of the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Netherlands_Academy_of_Arts_and_Sciences" title="Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences">Royal Institute of the Netherlands</a> in 1809.<a href="#cite_note-120">[120]</a></li> <li>Foreign Honorary Member of the <a href="/wiki/American_Academy_of_Arts_and_Sciences" title="American Academy of Arts and Sciences">American Academy of Arts and Sciences</a> in 1822.<a href="#cite_note-AAAS-121">[121]</a></li> <li>The asteroid <a href="/wiki/4628_Laplace" class="mw-redirect" title="4628 Laplace">4628 Laplace</a> is named for Laplace.<a href="#cite_note-122">[122]</a></li> <li>A spur of the <a href="/wiki/Montes_Jura" title="Montes Jura">Montes Jura</a> on the Moon is known as <a href="/wiki/Promontorium_Laplace" title="Promontorium Laplace">Promontorium Laplace</a>.</li> <li>His name is one of the <a href="/wiki/List_of_the_72_names_on_the_Eiffel_Tower" title="List of the 72 names on the Eiffel Tower">72 names inscribed on the Eiffel Tower</a>.</li> <li>The tentative working name of the <a href="/wiki/European_Space_Agency" title="European Space Agency">European Space Agency</a> <a href="/wiki/Europa_Jupiter_System_Mission" class="mw-redirect" title="Europa Jupiter System Mission">Europa Jupiter System Mission</a> is the "Laplace" <a href="/wiki/Space_probe" class="mw-redirect" title="Space probe">space probe</a>.</li> <li>A train station in the <a href="/wiki/RER_B" title="RER B">RER B</a> in <a href="/wiki/Arcueil" title="Arcueil">Arcueil</a> bears his name.</li> <li>A street in Verkhnetemernitsky (near <a href="/wiki/Rostov-on-Don" title="Rostov-on-Don">Rostov-on-Don</a>, <a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</a>).</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Institute_of_Electrical_and_Electronics_Engineers" title="Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers">Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers</a> (IEEE) <a href="/wiki/IEEE_Signal_Processing_Society" title="IEEE Signal Processing Society">Signal Processing Society</a>'s Early Career Technical Achievement Award is named in his honor.<a href="#cite_note-123">[123]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Quotations">Quotations</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Pierre-Simon_Laplace&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Quotations">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>I had no need of that hypothesis. ("Je n'avais pas besoin de cette hypothèse-là", allegedly as a reply to <a href="/wiki/Napoleon_I_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Napoleon I of France">Napoleon</a>, who had asked why he hadn't mentioned God in his book on <a href="/wiki/Astronomy" title="Astronomy">astronomy</a>.)<a href="#cite_note-ball-11">[11]</a></li> <li>It is therefore obvious that ... (Frequently used in the Celestial Mechanics when he had proved something and mislaid the proof, or found it clumsy. Notorious as a signal for something true, but hard to prove.)</li> <li>If we seek a cause wherever we perceive symmetry, it is not that we regard a symmetrical event as less possible than the others, but, since this event ought to be the effect of a regular cause or that of chance, the first of these suppositions is more probable than the second.<a href="#cite_note-124">[124]</a></li> <li>The more extraordinary the event, the greater the need of its being supported by strong proofs.<a href="#cite_note-125">[125]</a></li> <li>"We are so far from knowing all the agents of nature and their diverse modes of action that it would not be philosophical to deny phenomena solely because they are inexplicable in the actual state of our knowledge. But we ought to examine them with an attention all the more scrupulous as it appears more difficult to admit them."<a href="#cite_note-126">[126]</a> <ul><li>This is restated in <a href="/wiki/Theodore_Flournoy" class="mw-redirect" title="Theodore Flournoy">Theodore Flournoy</a>'s work From India to the Planet Mars as the Principle of Laplace or, "The weight of the evidence should be proportioned to the strangeness of the facts."<a href="#cite_note-127">[127]</a></li> <li>Most often repeated as "The weight of evidence for an extraordinary claim must be proportioned to its strangeness." (see also: <a href="/wiki/Sagan_standard" class="mw-redirect" title="Sagan standard">Sagan standard</a>)</li></ul></li> <li>This simplicity of ratios will not appear astonishing if we consider that all the effects of nature are only mathematical results of a small number of immutable laws.<a href="#cite_note-128">[128]</a></li> <li>Infinitely varied in her effects, nature is only simple in her causes.<a href="#cite_note-129">[129]</a></li> <li>What we know is little, and what we are ignorant of is immense. (Fourier comments: "This was at least the meaning of his last words, which were articulated with difficulty.")<a href="#cite_note-Fourier-64">[64]</a></li> <li>One sees in this essay that the theory of probabilities is basically only common sense reduced to a calculus. It makes one estimate accurately what right-minded people feel by a sort of instinct, often without being able to give a reason for it.<a href="#cite_note-130">[130]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="List_of_works">List of works</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Pierre-Simon_Laplace&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: List of works">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gutenberg.beic.it/webclient/DeliveryManager?pid=12217993">Traité de mécanique céleste</a> (in French). Vol. 1. Paris: Charles Crapelet. 1799.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Trait%C3%A9+de+m%C3%A9canique+c%C3%A9leste&rft.place=Paris&rft.pub=Charles+Crapelet&rft.date=1799&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgutenberg.beic.it%2Fwebclient%2FDeliveryManager%3Fpid%3D12217993&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APierre-Simon+Laplace" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gutenberg.beic.it/webclient/DeliveryManager?pid=12219220">Traité de mécanique céleste</a> (in French). Vol. 2. Paris: Charles Crapelet. 1799.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Trait%C3%A9+de+m%C3%A9canique+c%C3%A9leste&rft.place=Paris&rft.pub=Charles+Crapelet&rft.date=1799&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgutenberg.beic.it%2Fwebclient%2FDeliveryManager%3Fpid%3D12219220&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APierre-Simon+Laplace" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gutenberg.beic.it/webclient/DeliveryManager?pid=12220405">Traité de mécanique céleste</a> (in French). Vol. 3. Paris: Charles Crapelet. 1802.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Trait%C3%A9+de+m%C3%A9canique+c%C3%A9leste&rft.place=Paris&rft.pub=Charles+Crapelet&rft.date=1802&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgutenberg.beic.it%2Fwebclient%2FDeliveryManager%3Fpid%3D12220405&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APierre-Simon+Laplace" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gutenberg.beic.it/webclient/DeliveryManager?pid=12221428">Traité de mécanique céleste</a> (in French). Vol. 4. Paris: Charles Crapelet. 1805.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Trait%C3%A9+de+m%C3%A9canique+c%C3%A9leste&rft.place=Paris&rft.pub=Charles+Crapelet&rft.date=1805&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgutenberg.beic.it%2Fwebclient%2FDeliveryManager%3Fpid%3D12221428&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APierre-Simon+Laplace" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gutenberg.beic.it/webclient/DeliveryManager?pid=12222637">Traité de mécanique céleste</a> (in French). Vol. 5. Paris: Charles Louis Étienne Bachelier. 1852.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Trait%C3%A9+de+m%C3%A9canique+c%C3%A9leste&rft.place=Paris&rft.pub=Charles+Louis+%C3%89tienne+Bachelier&rft.date=1852&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgutenberg.beic.it%2Fwebclient%2FDeliveryManager%3Fpid%3D12222637&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APierre-Simon+Laplace" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gutenberg.beic.it/webclient/DeliveryManager?pid=12414013">Précis de l'histoire de l'astronomie</a> (in Italian). Milano: Angelo Stanislao Brambilla. 1823.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Pr%C3%A9cis+de+l%27histoire+de+l%27astronomie&rft.place=Milano&rft.pub=Angelo+Stanislao+Brambilla&rft.date=1823&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgutenberg.beic.it%2Fwebclient%2FDeliveryManager%3Fpid%3D12414013&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APierre-Simon+Laplace" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gutenberg.beic.it/webclient/DeliveryManager?pid=3903942">Exposition du système du monde</a> (in French). Paris: Charles Louis Étienne Bachelier. 1824.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Exposition+du+syst%C3%A8me+du+monde&rft.place=Paris&rft.pub=Charles+Louis+%C3%89tienne+Bachelier&rft.date=1824&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgutenberg.beic.it%2Fwebclient%2FDeliveryManager%3Fpid%3D3903942&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APierre-Simon+Laplace" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Laplace-1.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Volumes 1-5 of Pierre-Simon Laplace's "Traité de mécanique céleste" (1799)"><img alt="Volumes 1-5 of Pierre-Simon Laplace's "Traité de mécanique céleste" (1799)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Laplace-1.jpg/86px-Laplace-1.jpg" decoding="async" width="86" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Laplace-1.jpg/128px-Laplace-1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Laplace-1.jpg/171px-Laplace-1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3297" data-file-height="4619" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Volumes 1-5 of Pierre-Simon Laplace's "<a href="/wiki/Trait%C3%A9_de_m%C3%A9canique_c%C3%A9leste" title="Traité de mécanique céleste">Traité de mécanique céleste</a>" (1799)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Laplace-2.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Title page to Volume I of "Traité de mécanique céleste" (1799)"><img alt="Title page to Volume I of "Traité de mécanique céleste" (1799)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Laplace-2.jpg/87px-Laplace-2.jpg" decoding="async" width="87" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Laplace-2.jpg/131px-Laplace-2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Laplace-2.jpg/174px-Laplace-2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3131" data-file-height="4313" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Title page to Volume I of "<a href="/wiki/Trait%C3%A9_de_m%C3%A9canique_c%C3%A9leste" title="Traité de mécanique céleste">Traité de mécanique céleste</a>" (1799)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Laplace-3.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Table of contents to Volume I of "Traité de mécanique céleste" (1799)"><img alt="Table of contents to Volume I of "Traité de mécanique céleste" (1799)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Laplace-3.jpg/84px-Laplace-3.jpg" decoding="async" width="84" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Laplace-3.jpg/127px-Laplace-3.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Laplace-3.jpg/169px-Laplace-3.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3324" data-file-height="4723" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Table of contents to Volume I of "<a href="/wiki/Trait%C3%A9_de_m%C3%A9canique_c%C3%A9leste" title="Traité de mécanique céleste">Traité de mécanique céleste</a>" (1799)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Laplace-4.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="First page of Volume I of "Traité de mécanique céleste" (1799)"><img alt="First page of Volume I of "Traité de mécanique céleste" (1799)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Laplace-4.jpg/78px-Laplace-4.jpg" decoding="async" width="78" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Laplace-4.jpg/117px-Laplace-4.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Laplace-4.jpg/156px-Laplace-4.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3095" data-file-height="4752" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">First page of Volume I of "<a href="/wiki/Trait%C3%A9_de_m%C3%A9canique_c%C3%A9leste" title="Traité de mécanique céleste">Traité de mécanique céleste</a>" (1799)</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Pierre-Simon_Laplace&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Bibliography">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://gallica.bnf.fr/Search?ArianeWireIndex=index&lang=EN&q=oeuvres+completes+de+laplace&p=1&f_creator=Laplace%2C+Pierre+Simon+de+%281749-1827%29">Œuvres complètes de Laplace</a>, 14 vol. (1878–1912), Paris: Gauthier-Villars (copy from <a href="/wiki/Gallica" class="mw-redirect" title="Gallica">Gallica</a> in French)</li> <li>Théorie du movement et de la figure elliptique des planètes (1784) Paris (not in Œuvres complètes)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/prcisdelhistoir00laplgoog">Précis de l'histoire de l'astronomie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alphonse_Rebi%C3%A8re" title="Alphonse Rebière">Alphonse Rebière</a>, Mathématiques et mathématiciens, 3rd edition Paris, Nony & Cie, 1898.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="English_translations">English translations</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Pierre-Simon_Laplace&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: English translations">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Laplace-12.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Volumes 1 and 2 of "System of the World" (1809)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Laplace-12.jpg/170px-Laplace-12.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="246" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Laplace-12.jpg/255px-Laplace-12.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Laplace-12.jpg/339px-Laplace-12.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2818" data-file-height="4082" /></a><figcaption>Volumes 1 and 2 of "System of the World" (1809)</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Nathaniel_Bowditch" title="Nathaniel Bowditch">Bowditch, N.</a> (trans.) (1829–1839) Mécanique céleste, 4 vols, Boston <ul><li>New edition by Reprint Services <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7812-2022-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-7812-2022-X">0-7812-2022-X</a></li></ul></li> <li>– [1829–1839] (1966–1969) Celestial Mechanics, 5 vols, including the original French</li> <li>Pound, J. (trans.) (1809) The System of the World, 2 vols, London: Richard Phillips</li> <li>_ The System of the World (v.1)</li> <li>_ The System of the World (v.2)</li> <li>– [1809] (2007) The System of the World, vol.1, Kessinger, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-4326-5367-9" title="Special:BookSources/1-4326-5367-9">1-4326-5367-9</a></li> <li>Toplis, J. (trans.) (1814) A treatise upon analytical mechanics Nottingham: H. Barnett</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLaplace2007" class="citation book cs1">Laplace, Pierre Simon Marquis De (2007) [1902]. A Philosophical Essay on Probabilities. Translated by Truscott, F.W. & Emory, F.L. Cosimo. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-60206-328-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-60206-328-0"><bdi>978-1-60206-328-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Philosophical+Essay+on+Probabilities&rft.pub=Cosimo&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1-60206-328-0&rft.aulast=Laplace&rft.aufirst=Pierre+Simon+Marquis+De&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APierre-Simon+Laplace" class="Z3988">, translated from the French 6th ed. (1840) <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/philosophicaless00lapliala">A Philosophical Essay on Probabilities (1902)</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Internet_Archive" title="Internet Archive">Internet Archive</a></li></ul></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDaleLaplace1995" class="citation book cs1">Dale, Andrew I.; Laplace, Pierre-Simon (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archive.org/details/philosophicaless00lapliala">Philosophical Essay on Probabilities</a>. Sources in the History of Mathematics and Physical Sciences. Vol. 13. Translated by Andrew I. Dale. Springer. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-1-4612-4184-3">10.1007/978-1-4612-4184-3</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/2027%2Fcoo1.ark%3A%2F13960%2Ft3126f008">2027/coo1.ark:/13960/t3126f008</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4612-8689-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4612-8689-9"><bdi>978-1-4612-8689-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Philosophical+Essay+on+Probabilities&rft.series=Sources+in+the+History+of+Mathematics+and+Physical+Sciences&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=1995&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F2027%2Fcoo1.ark%3A%2F13960%2Ft3126f008&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-1-4612-4184-3&rft.isbn=978-1-4612-8689-9&rft.aulast=Dale&rft.aufirst=Andrew+I.&rft.au=Laplace%2C+Pierre-Simon&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fphilosophicaless00lapliala&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APierre-Simon+Laplace" class="Z3988">, translated from the French 5th ed. (1825)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Pierre-Simon_Laplace&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_metre" title="History of the metre">History of the metre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laplace%E2%80%93Bayes_estimator" class="mw-redirect" title="Laplace–Bayes estimator">Laplace–Bayes estimator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ratio_estimator" title="Ratio estimator">Ratio estimator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seconds_pendulum" title="Seconds pendulum">Seconds pendulum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_things_named_after_Pierre-Simon_Laplace" title="List of things named after Pierre-Simon Laplace">List of things named after Pierre-Simon Laplace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pascal%27s_wager" title="Pascal's wager">Pascal's wager</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Pierre-Simon_Laplace&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Pierre-Simon_Laplace&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Citations">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-HE73p364-1">^ <a href="#cite_ref-HE73p364_1-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-HE73p364_1-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-HE73p364_1-2">c</a> <a href="/wiki/S.W._Hawking" class="mw-redirect" title="S.W. Hawking">S.W. Hawking</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=George_F.R._Ellis&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="George F.R. Ellis (page does not exist)">George F.R. Ellis</a>, <a href="/wiki/The_Large_Scale_Structure_of_Space-Time" class="mw-redirect" title="The Large Scale Structure of Space-Time">The Large Scale Structure of Space-Time</a>, Cambridge University Press, 1973, p. 364. </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> Stigler, Stephen M. (1986). The History of Statistics: The Measurement of Uncertainty before 1900. Harvard University Press, Chapter 3. </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMontgomeryOrchistonWhittingham2009" class="citation journal cs1">Montgomery, Colin; Orchiston, Wayne; Whittingham, Ian (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciengine.com/JAHH/doi/10.3724/SP.J.1440-2807.2009.02.01;JSESSIONID=cca4504f-bcd6-490a-ad9b-bfa868ab7e30">"Michell, Laplace and the Origin of the Black Hole Concept"</a>. Journal of Astronomical History and Heritage. 12 (2): 90–96. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3724%2FSP.J.1440-2807.2009.02.01">10.3724/SP.J.1440-2807.2009.02.01</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1440-2807">1440-2807</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:55890996">55890996</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Astronomical+History+and+Heritage&rft.atitle=Michell%2C+Laplace+and+the+Origin+of+the+Black+Hole+Concept&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=90-96&rft.date=2009&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A55890996%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1440-2807&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3724%2FSP.J.1440-2807.2009.02.01&rft.aulast=Montgomery&rft.aufirst=Colin&rft.au=Orchiston%2C+Wayne&rft.au=Whittingham%2C+Ian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciengine.com%2FJAHH%2Fdoi%2F10.3724%2FSP.J.1440-2807.2009.02.01%3BJSESSIONID%3Dcca4504f-bcd6-490a-ad9b-bfa868ab7e30&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APierre-Simon+Laplace" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-eb1911-4">^ <a href="#cite_ref-eb1911_4-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-eb1911_4-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-eb1911_4-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-eb1911_4-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-eb1911_4-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-eb1911_4-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-eb1911_4-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-eb1911_4-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-eb1911_4-8">i</a> <a href="#cite_ref-eb1911_4-9">j</a> <a href="#cite_ref-eb1911_4-10">k</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClerke1911" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Agnes_Mary_Clerke" title="Agnes Mary Clerke">Clerke, Agnes Mary</a> (1911). <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Laplace,_Pierre_Simon">"Laplace, Pierre Simon" </a>. <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition">Encyclopædia Britannica</a>. Vol. 16 (11th ed.). pp. 200–202.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Laplace%2C+Pierre+Simon&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.pages=200-202&rft.edition=11th&rft.date=1911&rft.aulast=Clerke&rft.aufirst=Agnes+Mary&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APierre-Simon+Laplace" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHankins2006" class="citation journal cs1">Hankins, Thomas L. (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1063%2F1.2364251">"Pierre Simon Laplace, 1749–1827: A Determined Scientist (Book review)"</a>. Physics Today. 59 (9): 62–64. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1063%2F1.2364251">10.1063/1.2364251</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physics+Today&rft.atitle=Pierre+Simon+Laplace%2C+1749%E2%80%931827%3A+A+Determined+Scientist+%28Book+review%29&rft.volume=59&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=62-64&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1063%2F1.2364251&rft.aulast=Hankins&rft.aufirst=Thomas+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1063%252F1.2364251&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APierre-Simon+Laplace" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Pearson-6">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Pearson_6-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pearson_6-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pearson_6-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pearson_6-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pearson_6-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pearson_6-5">f</a> "Laplace, being Extracts from Lectures delivered by <a href="/wiki/Karl_Pearson" title="Karl Pearson">Karl Pearson</a>", <a href="/wiki/Biometrika" title="Biometrika">Biometrika</a>, vol. 21, December 1929, pp. 202–216. </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a> <a href="/wiki/W.W._Rouse_Ball" class="mw-redirect" title="W.W. Rouse Ball">W.W. Rouse Ball</a> A Short Account of the History of Mathematics, 4th edition, 1908. </li> <li id="cite_note-mactutor-8">^ <a href="#cite_ref-mactutor_8-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-mactutor_8-1">b</a> *<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFO'ConnorRobertson" class="citation cs2">O'Connor, John J.; <a href="/wiki/Edmund_F._Robertson" title="Edmund F. Robertson">Robertson, Edmund F.</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://mathshistory.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Laplace.html">"Pierre-Simon Laplace"</a>, <a href="/wiki/MacTutor_History_of_Mathematics_Archive" title="MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive">MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive</a>, <a href="/wiki/University_of_St_Andrews" title="University of St Andrews">University of St Andrews</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Pierre-Simon+Laplace&rft.btitle=MacTutor+History+of+Mathematics+Archive&rft.pub=University+of+St+Andrews&rft.aulast=O%27Connor&rft.aufirst=John+J.&rft.au=Robertson%2C+Edmund+F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmathshistory.st-andrews.ac.uk%2FBiographies%2FLaplace.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APierre-Simon+Laplace" class="Z3988">. Retrieved 25 August 2007 </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a> Edmund Whittaker (Vol. 33, No. 303 (Feb. 1949), pp. 1–12), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/discover/10.2307/3608408?uid=2474910407&uid=3738256&uid=2134&uid=2474910417&uid=2474910407&uid=2&uid=70&uid=3&uid=60&sid=21104214965391">"Laplace"</a>, The Mathematical Gazette. </li> <li id="cite_note-gillsipie3n4-10"><a href="#cite_ref-gillsipie3n4_10-0">^</a> Gillispie (1997), pp. 3–4 </li> <li id="cite_note-ball-11">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ball_11-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ball_11-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ball_11-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ball_11-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ball_11-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ball_11-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ball_11-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ball_11-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ball_11-8">i</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ball_11-9">j</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ball_11-10">k</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ball_11-11">l</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ball_11-12">m</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ball_11-13">n</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ball_11-14">o</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ball_11-15">p</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ball_11-16">q</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ball_11-17">r</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ball_11-18">s</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ball_11-19">t</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ball_11-20">u</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ball_11-21">v</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ball_11-22">w</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ball_11-23">x</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ball_11-24">y</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ball_11-25">z</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ball_11-26">aa</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ball_11-27">ab</a> Rouse Ball (1908). </li> <li id="cite_note-ACS1999-12"><a href="#cite_ref-ACS1999_12-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.acs.org/content/acs/en/education/whatischemistry/landmarks/lavoisier.html">"The Chemical Revolution of Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier International Historic Chemical Landmark"</a>. American Chemical Society. 8 June 1999.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=American+Chemical+Society&rft.atitle=The+Chemical+Revolution+of+Antoine-Laurent+Lavoisier+International+Historic+Chemical+Landmark&rft.date=1999-06-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.acs.org%2Fcontent%2Facs%2Fen%2Feducation%2Fwhatischemistry%2Flandmarks%2Flavoisier.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APierre-Simon+Laplace" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Golinski-13"><a href="#cite_ref-Golinski_13-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGolinski1983" class="citation journal cs1">Golinski, Jan V. (June 1983). "Antoine Laurent Lavoisier, Pierre Simon, Marquis de Laplace, Henry Guerlac". Isis. 74 (2): 288–289. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F353288">10.1086/353288</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Isis&rft.atitle=Antoine+Laurent+Lavoisier%2C+Pierre+Simon%2C+Marquis+de+Laplace%2C+Henry+Guerlac&rft.volume=74&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=288-289&rft.date=1983-06&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F353288&rft.aulast=Golinski&rft.aufirst=Jan+V.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APierre-Simon+Laplace" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-gillsipie5-14"><a href="#cite_ref-gillsipie5_14-0">^</a> Gillispie (1997), p. 5 </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://sites.google.com/a/wisc.edu/ils202fall11/home/student-wikis/group5/">"Effects of the Scientific Community on Laplace"</a> Retrieved on 10 January 2018 </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a> Hahn (2005), p. 99. However, Gillispie (1997), p. 67, gives the month of the marriage as May. </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a> Hahn (2005), pp. 99–100 </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a> Gillispie (1997), p. 67 </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a> Hahn (2005), p. 101 </li> <li id="cite_note-gillispiech2-20"><a href="#cite_ref-gillispiech2_20-0">^</a> Gillispie (1989), pp. 7–12 </li> <li id="cite_note-gillispie14n15-21"><a href="#cite_ref-gillispie14n15_21-0">^</a> Gillispie (1989). pp. 14–15 </li> <li id="cite_note-eb2001-22">^ <a href="#cite_ref-eb2001_22-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-eb2001_22-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFWhitrow2001">Whitrow (2001)</a> harvp error: no target: CITEREFWhitrow2001 (<a href="/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCellettiPerozzi2007" class="citation book cs1">Celletti, A. & Perozzi, E. (2007). Celestial Mechanics: The waltz of the planets. Berlin, DE: Springer. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006cmwp.book.....C">2006cmwp.book.....C</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-387-30777-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-387-30777-0"><bdi>978-0-387-30777-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Celestial+Mechanics%3A+The+waltz+of+the+planets&rft.place=Berlin%2C+DE&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2006cmwp.book.....C&rft.isbn=978-0-387-30777-0&rft.aulast=Celletti&rft.aufirst=A.&rft.au=Perozzi%2C+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APierre-Simon+Laplace" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-whittakerb-24"><a href="#cite_ref-whittakerb_24-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWhittaker1949b">Whittaker (1949b)</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-gillispie29to35-25"><a href="#cite_ref-gillispie29to35_25-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGillispie1989">Gillispie (1989)</a>, pp. 29–35 harvp error: no target: CITEREFGillispie1989 (<a href="/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-gillispie35n36-26"><a href="#cite_ref-gillispie35n36_26-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGillispie1989">Gillispie (1989)</a>, pp. 35–36 harvp error: no target: CITEREFGillispie1989 (<a href="/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Laplace.html">"Laplace"</a>. biographies. 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Ludwig Boltzmann, The Man Who Trusted Atoms. Oxford University Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ludwigboltzmannm0000cerc/page/55">55</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-850154-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-850154-1"><bdi>978-0-19-850154-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+2%3A+Physics+before+Boltzmann&rft.btitle=Ludwig+Boltzmann%2C+The+Man+Who+Trusted+Atoms&rft.pages=55&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-19-850154-1&rft.aulast=Cercignani&rft.aufirst=Carlo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fludwigboltzmannm0000cerc%2Fpage%2F55&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APierre-Simon+Laplace" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Ivor_Grattan-Guinness" title="Ivor Grattan-Guinness">Grattan-Guinness</a>, in Gillispie (1997), p. 260 </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a> Crosland (2006), p. 30 </li> <li id="cite_note-GGp333-75">^ <a href="#cite_ref-GGp333_75-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-GGp333_75-1">b</a> Grattan-Guinness (2005), p. 333 </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a> Hahn (2005), p. 191 </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a> Laplace, A Philosophical Essay, New York, 1902, p. 62. (Translation in this paragraph of article is from Hahn.) </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a> Hahn (2005), p. 184 </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a> Laplace, A Philosophical Essay, New York, 1902, p. 63. (Translation in this paragraph of article is from Hahn.) </li> <li id="cite_note-Hahnp185-80">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hahnp185_80-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hahnp185_80-1">b</a> Hahn (2005), p. 185 </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a> Laplace, A Philosophical Essay, New York, 1902, pp. 107–108. (Translation in this paragraph of article is from Hahn.) </li> <li id="cite_note-Black1958-82"><a href="#cite_ref-Black1958_82-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlack1987" class="citation book cs1">Black, Duncan (1987) [1958]. The Theory of Committees and Elections. 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Cham, Switzerland: Springer. pp. 132ff. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-030-39691-6">10.1007/978-3-030-39691-6</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-030-39690-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-030-39690-9"><bdi>978-3-030-39690-9</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:216190330">216190330</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Analytical+Theory+of+Democracy.+Vols.+1+and+2&rft.place=Cham%2C+Switzerland&rft.series=Studies+in+Choice+and+Welfare&rft.pages=132ff&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2020&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A216190330%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-3-030-39691-6&rft.isbn=978-3-030-39690-9&rft.aulast=Tangian&rft.aufirst=Andranik&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APierre-Simon+Laplace" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a> Gillispie (1997), p. 278 </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a> p. 282, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=88xZAAAAcAAJ">Mémoires du docteur F. Antommarchi, ou les derniers momens de Napoléon</a>, vol. 1, 1825, Paris: Barrois L'Ainé </li> <li id="cite_note-Faye-86">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Faye_86-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Faye_86-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Faye_86-2">c</a> Faye, Hervé (1884), Sur l'origine du monde: théories cosmogoniques des anciens et des modernes. Paris: Gauthier-Villars, pp. 109–111 </li> <li id="cite_note-Pasquier-87">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Pasquier_87-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pasquier_87-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pasquier_87-2">c</a> Pasquier, Ernest (1898). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.persee.fr/web/revues/home/prescript/article/phlou_0776-5541_1898_num_5_18_1596">"Les hypothèses cosmogoniques (suite)"</a>. Revue néo-scholastique, 5o année, No 18, pp. 124–125, footnote 1. </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a> Arago, François (1827), Laplace: Eulogy before the French Academy, translated by Prof. Baden Powell, Smithsonian Report, 1874 </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a> Cajori, Florian (1893), A History of Mathematics. Fifth edition (1991), reprinted by the <a href="/wiki/American_Mathematical_Society" title="American Mathematical Society">American Mathematical Society</a>, 1999, p. 262. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8218-2102-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-8218-2102-4">0-8218-2102-4</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a> William Herschel's diary of his trip to Paris, as quoted on p. 310 of The Herschel Chronicle, Constance A. Lubbock, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2013, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-107-65001-1" title="Special:BookSources/1-107-65001-1">1-107-65001-1</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a> Johnson, Daniel (18 June 2007), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.commentarymagazine.com/2007/06/18/the-hypothetical-atheist">"The Hypothetical Atheist"</a>, <a href="/wiki/Commentary_(magazine)" title="Commentary (magazine)">Commentary</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a> Talks of Napoleon at St. Helena with General Baron Gourgaud, translated by Elizabeth Wormely Latimer. Chicago: A.C. McClurg & Co., 1903, p. 276. </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a> Hahn (2005), p. 67. </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a> Dumas, Jean-Baptiste (1885). Discours et éloges académiques, Vol. II. Paris: Gauthier-Villars, p. 255. </li> <li id="cite_note-Kneller-95">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kneller_95-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kneller_95-1">b</a> Kneller, Karl Alois. Christianity and the Leaders of Modern Science: A Contribution to the History of Culture in the Nineteenth Century, translated from the second German edition by T.M. Kettle. London: B. Herder, 1911, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ebooksread.com/authors-eng/karl-alois-kneller/christianity-and-the-leaders-of-modern-science-a-contribution-to-the-history-of-hci/page-6-christianity-and-the-leaders-of-modern-science-a-contribution-to-the-history-of-hci.shtml">pp. 73–74</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a> Hahn (1981), p. 95. </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a> Œuvres de Laplace. Paris: Gauthier-Villars, 1878, Vol. I, pp. v–vi. </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a> Glass, Ian S. (2006). Revolutionaries of the Cosmos: The Astrophysicists. Cambridge University Press, p. 108. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-857099-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-857099-6">0-19-857099-6</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a> <a href="/wiki/General_Scholium" title="General Scholium">General Scholium</a>, from the end of Book III of the Principia; first appeared in the second edition, 1713. </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a> Laplace, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/expositiondusys05laplgoog">Exposition du système du monde</a>, 6th edition. Brussels, 1827, pp. 522–523. </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a> Laplace, Exposition, 1827, p. 523. </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a> Leibniz to <a href="/wiki/Antonio_Schinella_Conti" title="Antonio Schinella Conti">Conti</a>, Nov. or Dec. 1715, in H.G. Alexander, ed., The Leibniz–Clarke Correspondence (Manchester University Press, 1956), Appendix B. 1: "Leibniz and Newton to Conti", p. 185 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7190-0669-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-7190-0669-4">0-7190-0669-4</a>; cited in Laplace, Exposition, 1827, p. 524. </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a> Leibniz to Conti, 1715, in Alexander, ed., 1956, p. 185. </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a> Hahn (2005), p. 220. </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a> Hahn (2005), p. 223. </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJacques_Attali2004" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Attali" title="Jacques Attali">Jacques Attali</a> (2004), Pascal, Warszawa, p. 368</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Pascal&rft.place=Warszawa&rft.pages=368&rft.date=2004&rft.au=Jacques+Attali&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APierre-Simon+Laplace" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Citation" title="Template:Citation">citation</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-Hahnp202-107">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hahnp202_107-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hahnp202_107-1">b</a> Hahn (2005), p. 202. </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a> Hahn (2005), pp. 202, 233. </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Augustus_De_Morgan" title="Augustus De Morgan">De Morgan, Augustus</a> (1872). A budget of paradoxes, Longmans, Green, and co, London, p. 3. Compare <a href="/wiki/Edmund_Burke" title="Edmund Burke">Edmund Burke</a>'s famous remark, occasioned by a parliamentary candidate's sudden death, about "what shadows we are, and what shadows we pursue". </li> <li id="cite_note-Hahnp204-110">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hahnp204_110-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hahnp204_110-1">b</a> Hahn (2005), p. 204. </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoger_Hahn2005" class="citation book cs1">Roger Hahn (2005). Pierre Simon Laplace, 1749–1827: A Determined Scientist. Harvard University Press. p. 204. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-01892-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-01892-1"><bdi>978-0-674-01892-1</bdi></a>. <q>The Catholic newspaper La Quotidienne [The Daily] announced that Laplace had died in the arms of two curés (priests), implying that he had a proper Catholic end, but this is not credible. To the end, he remained a skeptic, wedded to his deterministic creed and to an uncompromised ethos derived from his vast scientific experience.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Pierre+Simon+Laplace%2C+1749%E2%80%931827%3A+A+Determined+Scientist&rft.pages=204&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-674-01892-1&rft.au=Roger+Hahn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APierre-Simon+Laplace" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-112"><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoger_Hahn2005" class="citation book cs1">Roger Hahn (2005). Pierre Simon Laplace, 1749–1827: A Determined Scientist. Harvard University Press. p. 202. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-01892-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-01892-1"><bdi>978-0-674-01892-1</bdi></a>. <q>Publicly, Laplace maintained his agnostic beliefs, and even in his old age continued to be skeptical about any function God might play in a deterministic universe.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Pierre+Simon+Laplace%2C+1749%E2%80%931827%3A+A+Determined+Scientist&rft.pages=202&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-674-01892-1&rft.au=Roger+Hahn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APierre-Simon+Laplace" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-113"><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMorris_Kline1986" class="citation book cs1">Morris Kline (1986). Mathematics and the Search for Knowledge. Oxford University Press. p. 214. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-504230-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-504230-6"><bdi>978-0-19-504230-6</bdi></a>. <q>Lagrange and Laplace, though of Catholic parentage, were agnostics.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mathematics+and+the+Search+for+Knowledge&rft.pages=214&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=978-0-19-504230-6&rft.au=Morris+Kline&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APierre-Simon+Laplace" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-114"><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEdward_KasnerJames_NewmanJames_Roy_Newman2001" class="citation book cs1">Edward Kasner; James Newman; James Roy Newman (2001). Mathematics and the Imagination. Courier Dover Publications. p. 253. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-486-41703-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-486-41703-5"><bdi>978-0-486-41703-5</bdi></a>. <q>Modern physics, indeed all of modern science, is as humble as Lagrange, and as agnostic as Laplace.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mathematics+and+the+Imagination&rft.pages=253&rft.pub=Courier+Dover+Publications&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-486-41703-5&rft.au=Edward+Kasner&rft.au=James+Newman&rft.au=James+Roy+Newman&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APierre-Simon+Laplace" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-115"><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFE._Emerson1910" class="citation book cs1">E. Emerson (1910). 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Nature. 110 (2748): 50. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1922Natur.110....6B">1922Natur.110....6B</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F110006b0">10.1038/110006b0</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4099834">4099834</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Essai+philosophique+sur+les+probabilit%C3%A9s&rft.volume=110&rft.issue=2748&rft.pages=50&rft.date=1814&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A4099834%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F110006b0&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1922Natur.110....6B&rft.aulast=Laplace&rft.aufirst=Pierre+Simon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DrDUJAAAAIAAJ%26pg%3DPA50&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APierre-Simon+Laplace" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-127"><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFlournoy1899" class="citation book cs1">Flournoy, Théodore (1899). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6xdk111WDScC&q=laplace&pg=PA344">Des Indes à la planète Mars: étude sur un cas de somnambulisme avec glossolalie</a>. Slatkine. pp. 344–345. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-05-100499-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-05-100499-2"><bdi>978-2-05-100499-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Des+Indes+%C3%A0+la+plan%C3%A8te+Mars%3A+%C3%A9tude+sur+un+cas+de+somnambulisme+avec+glossolalie&rft.pages=344-345&rft.pub=Slatkine&rft.date=1899&rft.isbn=978-2-05-100499-2&rft.aulast=Flournoy&rft.aufirst=Th%C3%A9odore&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D6xdk111WDScC%26q%3Dlaplace%26pg%3DPA344&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APierre-Simon+Laplace" class="Z3988">*<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFlournoy2007" class="citation book cs1">Flournoy, Théodore (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Vnog3NS5aY4C&pg=PA369">From India to the Planet Mars: A Study of a Case of Somnambulism</a>. Daniel D. Vermilye, trans. Cosimo, Inc. pp. 369–370. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-60206-357-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-60206-357-0"><bdi>978-1-60206-357-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+India+to+the+Planet+Mars%3A+A+Study+of+a+Case+of+Somnambulism&rft.pages=369-370&rft.pub=Cosimo%2C+Inc.&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1-60206-357-0&rft.aulast=Flournoy&rft.aufirst=Th%C3%A9odore&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DVnog3NS5aY4C%26pg%3DPA369&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APierre-Simon+Laplace" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-128"><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a> Laplace, A Philosophical Essay on Probability, New York, 1902, p. 177. </li> <li id="cite_note-129"><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a> Laplace, The System of the World, Dublin, 1830, p. 91. </li> <li id="cite_note-130"><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMillerGelman" class="citation web cs1">Miller, Joshua B; Gelman, Andrew. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.stat.columbia.edu/~gelman/research/unpublished/laplace16.pdf">"Laplace's theories of cognitive illusions, heuristics, and biases∗"</a> (PDF). Columbia University. unpublished. Retrieved 17 January 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Columbia+University&rft.atitle=Laplace%27s+theories+of+cognitive+illusions%2C+heuristics%2C+and+biases%E2%88%97&rft.aulast=Miller&rft.aufirst=Joshua+B&rft.au=Gelman%2C+Andrew&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.stat.columbia.edu%2F~gelman%2Fresearch%2Funpublished%2Flaplace16.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APierre-Simon+Laplace" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="General_sources">General sources</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Pierre-Simon_Laplace&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: General sources">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAndoyer,_H.1922" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Andoyer, H. 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Paris Payot. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1922osdl.book.....A">1922osdl.book.....A</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Paris&rft.atitle=L%27%C5%93uvre+scientifique+de+Laplace&rft.date=1922&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1922osdl.book.....A&rft.au=Andoyer%2C+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Floeuvrescientifi00andouoft&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APierre-Simon+Laplace" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBigourdan,_G.1931" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Bigourdan, G. (1931). "La jeunesse de P.-S. Laplace". 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Revue d'Histoire des Sciences et de Leurs Applications (in French). 62: 43–70. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3406%2Frhs.1989.4134">10.3406/rhs.1989.4134</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Revue+d%27Histoire+des+Sciences+et+de+Leurs+Applications&rft.atitle=La+th%C3%A9orie+de+la+capillarit%C3%A9+selon+Laplace%3A+math%C3%A9matisation+superficielle+ou+%C3%A9tendue&rft.volume=62&rft.pages=43-70&rft.date=1989&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3406%2Frhs.1989.4134&rft.au=Dhombres%2C+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APierre-Simon+Laplace" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDuveen,_D.Hahn,_R.1957" class="citation journal cs1">Duveen, D. & Hahn, R. (1957). "Laplace's succession to Bézout's post of Examinateur des élèves de l'artillerie". Isis. 48 (4): 416–427. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F348608">10.1086/348608</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143451316">143451316</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Isis&rft.atitle=Laplace%27s+succession+to+B%C3%A9zout%27s+post+of+Examinateur+des+%C3%A9l%C3%A8ves+de+l%27artillerie&rft.volume=48&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=416-427&rft.date=1957&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F348608&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A143451316%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.au=Duveen%2C+D.&rft.au=Hahn%2C+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APierre-Simon+Laplace" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFinn,_B._S.1964" class="citation journal cs1">Finn, B. S. (1964). "Laplace and the speed of sound". Isis. 55: 7–19. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F349791">10.1086/349791</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:20127770">20127770</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Isis&rft.atitle=Laplace+and+the+speed+of+sound&rft.volume=55&rft.pages=7-19&rft.date=1964&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F349791&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A20127770%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.au=Finn%2C+B.+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APierre-Simon+Laplace" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFourier,_J._B._J.1829" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Fourier" title="Joseph Fourier">Fourier, J. B. J.</a> (1829). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130724030237/http://www.academie-sciences.fr/activite/archive/dossiers/Fourier/Fourier_pdf/Mem1829_p81_102.pdf">"Éloge historique de M. le Marquis de Laplace"</a> (PDF). Mémoires de l'Académie Royale des Sciences (in French). 10: lxxxi–cii. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.academie-sciences.fr/activite/archive/dossiers/Fourier/Fourier_pdf/Mem1829_p81_102.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 24 July 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=M%C3%A9moires+de+l%27Acad%C3%A9mie+Royale+des+Sciences&rft.atitle=%C3%89loge+historique+de+M.+le+Marquis+de+Laplace&rft.volume=10&rft.pages=lxxxi-cii&rft.date=1829&rft.au=Fourier%2C+J.+B.+J.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.academie-sciences.fr%2Factivite%2Farchive%2Fdossiers%2FFourier%2FFourier_pdf%2FMem1829_p81_102.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APierre-Simon+Laplace" class="Z3988">, delivered 15 June 1829, published in 1831.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGillispie,_C._C.1972" class="citation journal cs1">Gillispie, C. C. (1972). "Probability and politics: Laplace, Condorcet, and Turgot". Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society. 116 (1): 1–20.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+American+Philosophical+Society&rft.atitle=Probability+and+politics%3A+Laplace%2C+Condorcet%2C+and+Turgot&rft.volume=116&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=1-20&rft.date=1972&rft.au=Gillispie%2C+C.+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APierre-Simon+Laplace" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGillispie1997" class="citation book cs1">Gillispie, Charles (1997). Pierre-Simon Laplace, 1749–1827 : a life in exact science. Princeton, N.J: Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-691-01185-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-691-01185-0"><bdi>0-691-01185-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/36656386">36656386</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Pierre-Simon+Laplace%2C+1749%E2%80%931827+%3A+a+life+in+exact+science&rft.place=Princeton%2C+N.J&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1997&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F36656386&rft.isbn=0-691-01185-0&rft.aulast=Gillispie&rft.aufirst=Charles&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APierre-Simon+Laplace" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ivor_Grattan-Guinness" title="Ivor Grattan-Guinness">Grattan-Guinness, I.</a>, 2005, "'Exposition du système du monde' and 'Traité de mécanique céleste'" in his Landmark Writings in Western Mathematics. Elsevier: 242–57.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Gribbin" title="John Gribbin">Gribbin, John</a>. The Scientists: A History of Science Told Through the Lives of Its Greatest Inventors. New York, Random House, 2002. p. 299.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHahn,_R.1955" class="citation journal cs1">Hahn, R. (1955). "Laplace's religious views". Archives Internationales d'Histoire des Sciences. 8: 38–40.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Archives+Internationales+d%27Histoire+des+Sciences&rft.atitle=Laplace%27s+religious+views&rft.volume=8&rft.pages=38-40&rft.date=1955&rft.au=Hahn%2C+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APierre-Simon+Laplace" class="Z3988"></li> <li>– (1981) "Laplace and the Vanishing Role of God in the Physical Universe", in Woolf, Henry, ed., The Analytic Spirit: Essays in the History of Science. 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Berkeley: Office for History of Science and Technology, University of California, Berkeley. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-918102-07-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-918102-07-2"><bdi>978-0-918102-07-2</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/8877709">8877709</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Calendar+of+the+correspondence+of+Pierre+Simon+Laplace&rft.place=Berkeley&rft.pub=Office+for+History+of+Science+and+Technology%2C+University+of+California%2C+Berkeley&rft.date=1982&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F8877709&rft.isbn=978-0-918102-07-2&rft.aulast=Hahn&rft.aufirst=Roger&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APierre-Simon+Laplace" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHahn1994" class="citation book cs1">Hahn, Roger (1994). The new calendar of the correspondence of Pierre Simon Laplace. Berkeley, CA: Office for History of Science and Technology, University of California at Berkeley. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-918102-20-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-918102-20-1"><bdi>978-0-918102-20-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/31967034">31967034</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+new+calendar+of+the+correspondence+of+Pierre+Simon+Laplace&rft.place=Berkeley%2C+CA&rft.pub=Office+for+History+of+Science+and+Technology%2C+University+of+California+at+Berkeley&rft.date=1994&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F31967034&rft.isbn=978-0-918102-20-1&rft.aulast=Hahn&rft.aufirst=Roger&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APierre-Simon+Laplace" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHahn2005" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Hahn, Roger (2005). Pierre Simon Laplace, 1749-1827 : a determined scientist (in Italian). Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-01892-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-01892-1"><bdi>978-0-674-01892-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/58457459">58457459</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Pierre+Simon+Laplace%2C+1749-1827+%3A+a+determined+scientist&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+Mass&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F58457459&rft.isbn=978-0-674-01892-1&rft.aulast=Hahn&rft.aufirst=Roger&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APierre-Simon+Laplace" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIsrael,_Werner1987" class="citation book cs1">Israel, Werner (1987). "Dark stars: the evolution of an idea". In Hawking, Stephen W.; Israel, Werner (eds.). 300 Years of Gravitation. Cambridge University Press. pp. 199–276.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Dark+stars%3A+the+evolution+of+an+idea&rft.btitle=300+Years+of+Gravitation&rft.pages=199-276&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1987&rft.au=Israel%2C+Werner&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APierre-Simon+Laplace" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFO'ConnorRobertson" class="citation cs2">O'Connor, John J.; <a href="/wiki/Edmund_F._Robertson" title="Edmund F. 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(1992). "A remark on the converse of Laplace's theorem". Journal of Soviet Mathematics. 59 (4): 976–979. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fbf01099128">10.1007/bf01099128</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:121149198">121149198</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Soviet+Mathematics&rft.atitle=A+remark+on+the+converse+of+Laplace%27s+theorem&rft.volume=59&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=976-979&rft.date=1992&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fbf01099128&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A121149198%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.au=Nikulin%2C+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APierre-Simon+Laplace" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W._W._Rouse_Ball" title="W. W. 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University of Chicago Press: 234–254. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1978Isis...69..234S">1978Isis...69..234S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F352006">10.1086/352006</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0021-1753">0021-1753</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143831269">143831269</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Isis&rft.atitle=Laplace%27s+Early+Work%3A+Chronology+and+Citations&rft.volume=69&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=234-254&rft.date=1978&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F352006&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A143831269%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0021-1753&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1978Isis...69..234S&rft.aulast=Stigler&rft.aufirst=Stephen+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APierre-Simon+Laplace" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerald_James_Whitrow" title="Gerald James Whitrow">Whitrow, G. J.</a> (2001) "Laplace, Pierre-Simon, marquis de", <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica" title="Encyclopædia Britannica">Encyclopædia Britannica</a>, Deluxe CDROM edition</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWhittaker,_E._T.1949a" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/E._T._Whittaker" title="E. T. Whittaker">Whittaker, E. T.</a> (1949a). "Laplace". Mathematical Gazette. 33 (303): 1–12. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3608408">10.2307/3608408</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3608408">3608408</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:250442315">250442315</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Mathematical+Gazette&rft.atitle=Laplace&rft.volume=33&rft.issue=303&rft.pages=1-12&rft.date=1949&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A250442315%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3608408%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F3608408&rft.au=Whittaker%2C+E.+T.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APierre-Simon+Laplace" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWhittaker1949b" class="citation journal cs1">Whittaker, Edmund (1949b). "Laplace". American Mathematical Monthly. 56 (6): 369–372. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2306273">10.2307/2306273</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2306273">2306273</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Mathematical+Monthly&rft.atitle=Laplace&rft.volume=56&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=369-372&rft.date=1949&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2306273&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2306273%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Whittaker&rft.aufirst=Edmund&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APierre-Simon+Laplace" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilson,_C.1985" class="citation journal cs1">Wilson, C. (1985). "The Great Inequality of Jupiter and Saturn: from Kepler to Laplace". Archive for History of Exact Sciences. 33 (1–3): 15–290. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1985AHES...33...15W">1985AHES...33...15W</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF00328048">10.1007/BF00328048</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:121751666">121751666</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Archive+for+History+of+Exact+Sciences&rft.atitle=The+Great+Inequality+of+Jupiter+and+Saturn%3A+from+Kepler+to+Laplace&rft.volume=33&rft.issue=1%E2%80%933&rft.pages=15-290&rft.date=1985&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A121751666%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2FBF00328048&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1985AHES...33...15W&rft.au=Wilson%2C+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APierre-Simon+Laplace" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYoung,_T.1821" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Young_(scientist)" title="Thomas Young (scientist)">Young, T.</a> (1821). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/elementaryillus00laplgoog">Elementary Illustrations of the Celestial Mechanics of Laplace: Part the First, Comprehending the First Book</a>. London, England: John Murray – via <a href="/wiki/Internet_Archive" title="Internet Archive">Internet Archive</a>. <q>laplace.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Elementary+Illustrations+of+the+Celestial+Mechanics+of+Laplace%3A+Part+the+First%2C+Comprehending+the+First+Book&rft.place=London%2C+England&rft.pub=John+Murray&rft.date=1821&rft.au=Young%2C+T.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Felementaryillus00laplgoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APierre-Simon+Laplace" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Pierre-Simon_Laplace&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid 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data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><a href="/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a> has original works by or about: <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Author:Pierre-Simon_Laplace" class="extiw" title="s:Author:Pierre-Simon Laplace">Pierre-Simon Laplace</a></div></div> </div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://scienceworld.wolfram.com/biography/Laplace.html">"Laplace, Pierre (1749–1827)"</a>. Eric Weisstein's World of Scientific Biography. <a href="/wiki/Wolfram_Research" title="Wolfram Research">Wolfram Research</a>. Retrieved 24 August 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Eric+Weisstein%27s+World+of+Scientific+Biography&rft.atitle=Laplace%2C+Pierre+%281749%E2%80%931827%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fscienceworld.wolfram.com%2Fbiography%2FLaplace.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APierre-Simon+Laplace" class="Z3988"></li> <li>"<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Laplace.html">Pierre-Simon Laplace</a>" in the <a href="/wiki/MacTutor_History_of_Mathematics_archive" class="mw-redirect" title="MacTutor History of Mathematics archive">MacTutor History of Mathematics archive</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/history/Extras/Laplace_mechanique_celeste.html">"Bowditch's English translation of Laplace's preface"</a>. Mécanique Céleste. The MacTutor History of Mathematics archive. Retrieved 4 September 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=M%C3%A9canique+C%C3%A9leste&rft.atitle=Bowditch%27s+English+translation+of+Laplace%27s+preface&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk%2Fhistory%2FExtras%2FLaplace_mechanique_celeste.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APierre-Simon+Laplace" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oac.cdlib.org/findaid/ark:/13030/kt8q2nf3g7/">Guide to the Pierre Simon Laplace Papers</a> at <a href="/wiki/The_Bancroft_Library" class="mw-redirect" title="The Bancroft Library">The Bancroft Library</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://mathgenealogy.org/id.php?id=108295">Pierre-Simon Laplace</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Mathematics_Genealogy_Project" title="Mathematics Genealogy Project">Mathematics Genealogy Project</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cs.xu.edu/math/Sources/Laplace/index.html">English translation</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121227004253/http://www.cs.xu.edu/math/Sources/Laplace/index.html">Archived</a> 27 December 2012 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> of a large part of Laplace's work in probability and statistics, provided by <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cs.xu.edu/math/Sources/index.html">Richard Pulskamp</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121029123640/http://www.cs.xu.edu/math/Sources/index.html">Archived</a> 29 October 2012 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130513142304/http://portail.mathdoc.fr/cgi-bin/oetoc?id=OE_LAPLACE__7">Pierre-Simon Laplace – Œuvres complètes</a> (last 7 volumes only) Gallica-Math</li> <li>"Sur le mouvement d'un corps qui tombe d'une grande hauteur" (Laplace 1803), online and analysed on <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bibnum.education.fr/physique/mecanique/sur-le-mouvement-d-un-corps-qui-tombe-d-une-grande-hauteur">BibNum</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150402143731/https://www.bibnum.education.fr/physique/mecanique/sur-le-mouvement-d-un-corps-qui-tombe-d-une-grande-hauteur">Archived</a> 2 April 2015 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (English).</li></ul> <table class="wikitable succession-box noprint" style="margin:0.5em auto; font-size:small;clear:both;"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="3" style="border-top: 5px solid #ccccff;">Political offices </th></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <td style="width:30%;" rowspan="1">Preceded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Nicolas_Marie_Quinette" title="Nicolas Marie Quinette">Nicolas Marie Quinette</a></div> </td> <td style="width: 40%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1"> <a href="/wiki/Minister_of_the_Interior_(France)" title="Minister of the Interior (France)">Minister of the Interior</a> 12 November 1799 – 25 December 1799 </td> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1">Succeeded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Lucien_Bonaparte" title="Lucien Bonaparte">Lucien Bonaparte</a></div> </td></tr> </tbody></table> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output 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style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:French_Consulate" title="Template:French Consulate"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:French_Consulate" title="Template talk:French Consulate"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:French_Consulate" title="Special:EditPage/Template:French Consulate"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="French_Consulate_(10_November_1799_–_18_May_1804)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/French_Consulate" title="French Consulate">French Consulate</a> (10 November 1799 – 18 May 1804)</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Provisional consuls</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Napoleon" title="Napoleon">Napoleon Bonaparte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emmanuel_Joseph_Siey%C3%A8s" title="Emmanuel Joseph Sieyès">Emmanuel Joseph Sieyès</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Ducos" title="Roger Ducos">Roger Ducos</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="3" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/File:Bonaparte_Premier_consul.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Bonaparte_Premier_consul.jpg/100px-Bonaparte_Premier_consul.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Bonaparte_Premier_consul.jpg/150px-Bonaparte_Premier_consul.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Bonaparte_Premier_consul.jpg/200px-Bonaparte_Premier_consul.jpg 2x" data-file-width="526" data-file-height="760" /></a> Bonaparte First Consul</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Consuls</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Napoleon" title="Napoleon">Napoleon Bonaparte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Jacques_R%C3%A9gis_de_Cambac%C3%A9r%C3%A8s" class="mw-redirect" title="Jean Jacques Régis de Cambacérès">Jean Jacques Régis de Cambacérès</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles-Fran%C3%A7ois_Lebrun,_duc_de_Plaisance" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles-François Lebrun, duc de Plaisance">Charles-François Lebrun, duc de Plaisance</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ministers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Foreign Affairs</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charles-Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Reinhard" title="Charles-Frédéric Reinhard">Charles-Frédéric Reinhard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Maurice_de_Talleyrand-P%C3%A9rigord" title="Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord">Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Justice</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Jacques_R%C3%A9gis_de_Cambac%C3%A9r%C3%A8s" class="mw-redirect" title="Jean Jacques Régis de Cambacérès">Jean Jacques Régis de Cambacérès</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Joseph_Abrial" title="André Joseph Abrial">André Joseph Abrial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claude_Ambroise_R%C3%A9gnier" title="Claude Ambroise Régnier">Claude Ambroise Régnier</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">War</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Louis-Alexandre_Berthier" title="Louis-Alexandre Berthier">Louis-Alexandre Berthier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lazare_Carnot" title="Lazare Carnot">Lazare Carnot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis-Alexandre_Berthier" title="Louis-Alexandre Berthier">Louis-Alexandre Berthier</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Finance</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Martin-Michel-Charles_Gaudin" class="mw-redirect" title="Martin-Michel-Charles Gaudin">Martin-Michel-Charles Gaudin</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Police</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Fouch%C3%A9" title="Joseph Fouché">Joseph Fouché</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Interior</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Pierre-Simon Laplace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucien_Bonaparte" title="Lucien Bonaparte">Lucien Bonaparte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Antoine_Chaptal" title="Jean-Antoine Chaptal">Jean-Antoine Chaptal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Navy and Colonies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marc-Antoine_Bourdon_de_Vatry" title="Marc-Antoine Bourdon de Vatry">Marc-Antoine Bourdon de Vatry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre-Alexandre-Laurent_Forfait" title="Pierre-Alexandre-Laurent Forfait">Pierre-Alexandre-Laurent Forfait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denis_Decr%C3%A8s" title="Denis Decrès">Denis Decrès</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Secretary of State</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Hugues-Bernard_Maret,_duc_de_Bassano" title="Hugues-Bernard Maret, duc de Bassano">Hugues-Bernard Maret, duc de Bassano</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Treasury</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Barb%C3%A9-Marbois" title="François Barbé-Marbois">François Barbé-Marbois</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">War Administration</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Jean_Fran%C3%A7ois_Aim%C3%A9_Dejean" title="Jean François Aimé Dejean">Jean François Aimé Dejean</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li>Preceded by <a href="/wiki/French_Directory" title="French Directory">French Directory</a></li> <li>Followed by <a href="/wiki/First_Cabinet_of_Napoleon_I" title="First Cabinet of Napoleon I">First Cabinet of Napoleon I</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Académie_française_seat_8" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Acad%C3%A9mie_fran%C3%A7aise_Seat_8" title="Template:Académie française Seat 8"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Acad%C3%A9mie_fran%C3%A7aise_Seat_8" title="Template talk:Académie française Seat 8"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Acad%C3%A9mie_fran%C3%A7aise_Seat_8" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Académie française Seat 8"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Académie_française_seat_8" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Acad%C3%A9mie_fran%C3%A7aise" class="mw-redirect" title="Académie française">Académie française</a> <a href="/wiki/List_of_members_of_the_Acad%C3%A9mie_fran%C3%A7aise" title="List of members of the Académie française">seat 8</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Claude_de_Malleville" title="Claude de Malleville">Claude de Malleville</a> (1634)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Ballesdens" title="Jean Ballesdens">Jean Ballesdens</a> (1648)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/G%C3%A9raud_de_Cordemoy" title="Géraud de Cordemoy">Géraud de Cordemoy</a> (1675)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Louis_Bergeret" title="Jean-Louis Bergeret">Jean-Louis Bergeret</a> (1684)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles-Ir%C3%A9n%C3%A9e_Castel_de_Saint-Pierre" title="Charles-Irénée Castel de Saint-Pierre">Charles-Irénée Castel de Saint-Pierre</a> (1694)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Louis_Maupertuis" title="Pierre Louis Maupertuis">Pierre Louis Maupertuis</a> (1743)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Lefranc,_Marquis_de_Pompignan" title="Jean-Jacques Lefranc, Marquis de Pompignan">Jean-Jacques Lefranc, Marquis de Pompignan</a> (1759)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Sifrein_Maury" title="Jean-Sifrein Maury">Jean-Sifrein Maury</a> (1784)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michel-Louis-%C3%89tienne_Regnaud_de_Saint-Jean_d%27Ang%C3%A9ly" title="Michel-Louis-Étienne Regnaud de Saint-Jean d'Angély">Michel-Louis-Étienne Regnaud de Saint-Jean d'Angély</a> (1803)</li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Pierre-Simon Laplace</a> (1816)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Paul_Royer-Collard" title="Pierre Paul Royer-Collard">Pierre Paul Royer-Collard</a> (1827)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_de_R%C3%A9musat" title="Charles de Rémusat">Charles de Rémusat</a> (1846)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jules_Simon" title="Jules Simon">Jules Simon</a> (1875)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adrien_Albert_Marie_de_Mun" title="Adrien Albert Marie de Mun">Adrien Albert Marie de Mun</a> (1897)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred-Henri-Marie_Baudrillart" class="mw-redirect" title="Alfred-Henri-Marie Baudrillart">Alfred-Henri-Marie Baudrillart</a> (1918)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Octave_Aubry" title="Octave Aubry">Octave Aubry</a> (1946)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89douard_Herriot" title="Édouard Herriot">Édouard Herriot</a> (1946)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Rostand" title="Jean Rostand">Jean Rostand</a> (1959)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michel_D%C3%A9on" title="Michel Déon">Michel Déon</a> (1978)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Rondeau" title="Daniel Rondeau">Daniel Rondeau</a> (2019)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1130092004">.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-bordered{padding:0 2em;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;justify-content:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-unbordered{padding:0 1.7em;margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{margin:0 1em 0 0.5em;flex:0 0 auto;min-height:24px}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;flex:0 1 auto;padding:0.15em 0;column-gap:1em;align-items:baseline;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content-related{margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-item{display:inline-block;margin:0.15em 0.2em;min-height:24px;line-height:24px}@media screen and (max-width:768px){.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;flex-flow:column wrap;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{text-align:center;flex:0;padding-left:0.5em;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;align-items:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;align-items:center;flex:0;column-gap:1em;border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;margin:0 auto;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content-related{border-top:none;margin:0;list-style:none}}.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.sister-bar{margin-top:-1px}</style><div class="portal-bar noprint metadata noviewer portal-bar-bordered" role="navigation" aria-label="Portals"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents/Portals" title="Wikipedia:Contents/Portals">Portals</a>:<ul class="portal-bar-content"><li class="portal-bar-item"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/69/P_vip.svg/19px-P_vip.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/69/P_vip.svg/28px-P_vip.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/69/P_vip.svg/37px-P_vip.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1911" data-file-height="1944" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Biography" title="Portal:Biography">Biography</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/21px-Flag_of_France.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/32px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/42px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:France" title="Portal:France">France</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><a href="/wiki/File:Nuvola_apps_kcmsystem.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Nuvola_apps_kcmsystem.svg/19px-Nuvola_apps_kcmsystem.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Nuvola_apps_kcmsystem.svg/29px-Nuvola_apps_kcmsystem.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Nuvola_apps_kcmsystem.svg/38px-Nuvola_apps_kcmsystem.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Engineering" title="Portal:Engineering">Engineering</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><a href="/wiki/File:Nuvola_apps_edu_mathematics_blue-p.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Nuvola_apps_edu_mathematics_blue-p.svg/19px-Nuvola_apps_edu_mathematics_blue-p.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Nuvola_apps_edu_mathematics_blue-p.svg/29px-Nuvola_apps_edu_mathematics_blue-p.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Nuvola_apps_edu_mathematics_blue-p.svg/38px-Nuvola_apps_edu_mathematics_blue-p.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Mathematics" title="Portal:Mathematics">Mathematics</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><a href="/wiki/File:Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg/17px-Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg.png" decoding="async" width="17" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg/26px-Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg/34px-Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="530" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Physics" title="Portal:Physics">Physics</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Crab_Nebula.jpg/19px-Crab_Nebula.jpg" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Crab_Nebula.jpg/29px-Crab_Nebula.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Crab_Nebula.jpg/38px-Crab_Nebula.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3864" data-file-height="3864" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Astronomy" title="Portal:Astronomy">Astronomy</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><a href="/wiki/File:He1523a.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/He1523a.jpg/16px-He1523a.jpg" decoding="async" width="16" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/He1523a.jpg/25px-He1523a.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/He1523a.jpg/33px-He1523a.jpg 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="207" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Stars" title="Portal:Stars">Stars</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Earth-moon.jpg/21px-Earth-moon.jpg" decoding="async" width="21" height="17" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Earth-moon.jpg/32px-Earth-moon.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Earth-moon.jpg/42px-Earth-moon.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="2400" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Outer_space" title="Portal:Outer space">Outer space</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><a href="/wiki/File:Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg/19px-Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg/29px-Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg.png 1.5x, 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rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://catalogo.bne.es/uhtbin/authoritybrowse.cgi?action=display&authority_id=XX961601">Spain</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.bnportugal.gov.pt/aut/catbnp/1763064">Portugal</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://data.bibliotheken.nl/id/thes/p070029121">Netherlands</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://authority.bibsys.no/authority/rest/authorities/html/90325609">Norway</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kopkatalogs.lv/F?func=direct&local_base=lnc10&doc_number=000060603&P_CON_LNG=ENG">Latvia</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://katalog.nsk.hr/F/?func=direct&doc_number=000451375&local_base=nsk10">Croatia</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bncatalogo.cl/F?func=direct&local_base=red10&doc_number=000209799">Chile</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.nlg.gr/cgi-bin/koha/opac-authoritiesdetail.pl?authid=138921">Greece</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lod.nl.go.kr/resource/KAC200903670">Korea</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://libris.kb.se/75kmnclr1117k5x">Sweden</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dbn.bn.org.pl/descriptor-details/9810645944205606">Poland</a></li><li><a class="external text" href="https://wikidata-externalid-url.toolforge.org/?p=8034&url_prefix=https://opac.vatlib.it/auth/detail/&id=495/122103">Vatican</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007264243305171">Israel</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://urn.fi/URN:NBN:fi:au:finaf:000145362">Finland</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cantic.bnc.cat/registre/981058514387806706">Catalonia</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://opac.kbr.be/LIBRARY/doc/AUTHORITY/14066080">Belgium</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Academics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ci.nii.ac.jp/author/DA00541168?l=en">CiNii</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.mathgenealogy.org/id.php?id=108295">Mathematics Genealogy Project</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://zbmath.org/authors/?q=ai:laplace.pierre-simon">zbMATH</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://mathscinet.ams.org/mathscinet/MRAuthorID/110255">MathSciNet</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://trove.nla.gov.au/people/1094682">Trove</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.deutsche-biographie.de/pnd118726536.html?language=en">Deutsche Biographie</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.deutsche-digitale-bibliothek.de/person/gnd/118726536">DDB</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.idref.fr/026965704">IdRef</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://snaccooperative.org/ark:/99166/w6bz69tb">SNAC</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img 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[\"CITEREFDuveen,_D.Hahn,_R.1957\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFE._Emerson1910\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEdward_KasnerJames_NewmanJames_Roy_Newman2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEuler1757\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFinn,_B._S.1964\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFloor_Anthoni\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFlournoy1899\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFlournoy2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFourier,_J._B._J.1829\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFox1974\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGillispie,_C._C.1972\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGillispie1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGolinski1983\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGrattan-Guinness,_I.2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGreen,_G.1828\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHagen1910\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHahn,_R.1955\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHahn1982\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHahn1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHahn2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHankins2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHautalaKellyThompson2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHawking1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHawkingEllis1973\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIsrael,_Werner1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJacques_Attali2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKline1972\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLaplace1814\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLaplace2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMaxwell1881\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMillerGelman\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMontgomeryOrchistonWhittingham2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMorris_Kline1986\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNikulin,_M.1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRoger_Hahn2005\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFSchmadel,_L.D.2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStein1911\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStigler1975\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStigler1978\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTangian2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWhittaker,_E._T.1949a\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWhittaker1949b\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWhittaker1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilson,_C.1985\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYoung,_T.1821\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFvan_Strien2014\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"=\"] = 1,\n [\"Académie française Seat 8\"] = 1,\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Birth date\"] = 1,\n [\"Blockquote\"] = 9,\n [\"Citation\"] = 1,\n [\"Citation needed\"] = 2,\n [\"Cite Catholic Encyclopedia\"] = 2,\n [\"Cite EB1911\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 36,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 25,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 28,\n [\"Clarify\"] = 1,\n [\"Classical mechanics\"] = 1,\n [\"Collapsible list\"] = 1,\n [\"Commons category\"] = 1,\n [\"DEFAULTSORT:Laplace, Pierre Simon\"] = 1,\n [\"Dead link\"] = 1,\n [\"Death date and age\"] = 1,\n [\"EngvarB\"] = 1,\n [\"French Consulate\"] = 1,\n [\"Harvp\"] = 4,\n [\"IPA\"] = 1,\n [\"IPAc-en\"] = 1,\n [\"ISBN\"] = 2,\n [\"Infobox officeholder\"] = 1,\n [\"Infobox scientist\"] = 1,\n [\"Internet Archive\"] = 1,\n [\"Isbn\"] = 6,\n [\"MacTutor Biography\"] = 2,\n [\"Main\"] = 5,\n [\"MathGenealogy\"] = 1,\n [\"Nowrap\"] = 3,\n [\"Portal bar\"] = 1,\n [\"Redirect\"] = 1,\n [\"Refbegin\"] = 1,\n [\"Refend\"] = 1,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"Rp\"] = 3,\n [\"S-end\"] = 1,\n [\"S-off\"] = 1,\n [\"S-start\"] = 1,\n [\"See also\"] = 1,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Succession box\"] = 1,\n [\"Use dmy dates\"] = 1,\n [\"Webarchive\"] = 6,\n [\"Wikiquote\"] = 1,\n [\"Wikisource author\"] = 1,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\n","limitreport-profile":[["?","440","28.2"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction","240","15.4"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getExpandedArgument","100","6.4"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::gsub","60","3.8"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getAllExpandedArguments","60","3.8"],["\u003Cmw.lua:694\u003E","60","3.8"],["dataWrapper \u003Cmw.lua:672\u003E","60","3.8"],["chunk \u003CModule:String\u003E","40","2.6"],["build_id_list \u003CModule:Citation/CS1/Identifiers:1591\u003E","40","2.6"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getExpensiveData","40","2.6"],["[others]","420","26.9"]]},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.main-6df7948d6c-s4vqx","timestamp":"20241127201612","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Pierre-Simon Laplace","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pierre-Simon_Laplace","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q44481","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q44481","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2002-01-29T02:01:40Z","dateModified":"2024-11-25T08:04:56Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/3\/39\/Laplace%2C_Pierre-Simon%2C_marquis_de.jpg","headline":"French mathematician and astronomer (1749-1827)"}</script> </body> </html>