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href="#Aromatic_allylic_alcohols"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Aromatic allylic alcohols</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Aromatic_allylic_alcohols-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Barbiturates" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Barbiturates"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Barbiturates</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Barbiturates-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Benzodiazepines" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Benzodiazepines"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Benzodiazepines</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Benzodiazepines-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bromides" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bromides"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Bromides</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bromides-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Carbamates" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Carbamates"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6</span> <span>Carbamates</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Carbamates-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Carboxamides" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Carboxamides"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.7</span> <span>Carboxamides</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Carboxamides-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fatty_acids" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fatty_acids"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.8</span> <span>Fatty acids</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fatty_acids-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fructose_derivatives" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fructose_derivatives"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.9</span> <span>Fructose derivatives</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fructose_derivatives-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gabapentinoids" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gabapentinoids"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.10</span> <span>Gabapentinoids</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gabapentinoids-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hydantoins" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hydantoins"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.11</span> <span>Hydantoins</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hydantoins-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Oxazolidinediones" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Oxazolidinediones"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.12</span> <span>Oxazolidinediones</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Oxazolidinediones-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Propionates" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Propionates"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.13</span> <span>Propionates</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Propionates-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pyrimidinediones" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pyrimidinediones"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.14</span> <span>Pyrimidinediones</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pyrimidinediones-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pyrrolidines" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pyrrolidines"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.15</span> <span>Pyrrolidines</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pyrrolidines-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Succinimides" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Succinimides"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.16</span> <span>Succinimides</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Succinimides-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sulfonamides" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sulfonamides"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.17</span> <span>Sulfonamides</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sulfonamides-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Triazines" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Triazines"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.18</span> <span>Triazines</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Triazines-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ureas" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ureas"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.19</span> <span>Ureas</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ureas-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Valproylamides" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Valproylamides"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.20</span> <span>Valproylamides</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Valproylamides-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.21</span> <span>Other</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-A_Non-pharmaceutical_anticonvulsants" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#A_Non-pharmaceutical_anticonvulsants"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>A Non-pharmaceutical anticonvulsants</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-A_Non-pharmaceutical_anticonvulsants-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Treatment_guidelines" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Treatment_guidelines"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Treatment guidelines</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Treatment_guidelines-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>History</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle History subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Marketing_approval_history" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Marketing_approval_history"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Marketing approval history</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Marketing_approval_history-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pregnancy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pregnancy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Pregnancy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pregnancy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Research" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Research"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Research</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Research-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Anticonvulsant</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 36 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-36" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">36 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%B6%D8%A7%D8%AF_%D8%A7%D8%AE%D8%AA%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AC" title="مضاد اختلاج – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="مضاد اختلاج" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antiepil%C3%A8ptic" title="Antiepilèptic – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Antiepilèptic" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antikonvulzivum" title="Antikonvulzivum – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Antikonvulzivum" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antikonvulsivum" title="Antikonvulsivum – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Antikonvulsivum" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%91%CE%BD%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%B5%CF%80%CE%B9%CE%BB%CE%B7%CF%80%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%BA%CF%8C_%CF%86%CE%AC%CF%81%CE%BC%CE%B1%CE%BA%CE%BF" title="Αντιεπιληπτικό φάρμακο – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Αντιεπιληπτικό φάρμακο" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antiepil%C3%A9ptico" title="Antiepiléptico – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Antiepiléptico" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antiepileptiko" title="Antiepileptiko – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Antiepileptiko" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%88%DB%8C_%D8%B6%D8%AF_%D8%AA%D8%B4%D9%86%D8%AC" title="داروی ضد تشنج – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="داروی ضد تشنج" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti%C3%A9pileptique" title="Antiépileptique – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Antiépileptique" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Druga%C3%AD_frith-bhaoth-thonnacha" title="Drugaí frith-bhaoth-thonnacha – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Drugaí frith-bhaoth-thonnacha" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%95%AD%EA%B2%BD%EB%A0%A8%EC%A0%9C" title="항경련제 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="항경련제" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%80%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D6%81%D5%B6%D6%81%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B4%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%AB%D5%B6_%D5%A4%D5%A5%D5%B2%D5%A5%D6%80" title="Հակացնցումային դեղեր – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Հակացնցումային դեղեր" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antikonvulzivi" title="Antikonvulzivi – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Antikonvulzivi" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antikejang" title="Antikejang – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Antikejang" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anticonvulsivante" title="Anticonvulsivante – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Anticonvulsivante" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%AA%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%A4%D7%95%D7%AA_%D7%90%D7%A0%D7%98%D7%99-%D7%90%D7%A4%D7%99%D7%9C%D7%A4%D7%98%D7%99%D7%95%D7%AA" title="תרופות אנטי-אפילפטיות – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="תרופות אנטי-אפילפטיות" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anticonvulsivum" title="Anticonvulsivum – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Anticonvulsivum" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antiepileptikum" title="Antiepileptikum – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Antiepileptikum" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B2%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%B2" title="Антиконвулзив – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Антиконвулзив" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-epileptica" title="Anti-epileptica – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Anti-epileptica" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%8A%97%E3%81%A6%E3%82%93%E3%81%8B%E3%82%93%E8%96%AC" title="抗てんかん薬 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="抗てんかん薬" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antiepileptikum" title="Antiepileptikum – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Antiepileptikum" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leki_przeciwpadaczkowe" title="Leki przeciwpadaczkowe – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Leki przeciwpadaczkowe" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anticonvulsivo" title="Anticonvulsivo – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Anticonvulsivo" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antiepileptic" title="Antiepileptic – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Antiepileptic" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%BE%D1%8D%D0%BF%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BF%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%8B" title="Противоэпилептические препараты – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Противоэпилептические препараты" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anticonvulsant" title="Anticonvulsant – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Anticonvulsant" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antiepileptik" title="Antiepileptik – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Antiepileptik" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B5%D0%BF%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BF%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA" title="Антиепилептик – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Антиепилептик" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antiepileptik" title="Antiepileptik – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Antiepileptik" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antiepileptika" title="Antiepileptika – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Antiepileptika" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a 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dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Class of medications</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background-color: #ddbbee">Anticonvulsant</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader"><i><a href="/wiki/Drug_class" title="Drug class">Drug class</a></i></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background: #e8e8e8;">Class identifiers</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Synonym" title="Synonym">Synonyms</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Antiepileptic drugs, antiseizure drugs</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Use</th><td class="infobox-data">Epilepsy</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Anatomical_Therapeutic_Chemical_Classification_System" title="Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical Classification System">ATC code</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/ATC_code_N03" title="ATC code N03">N03</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Biological_target" title="Biological target">Biological target</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Brain</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background: #e8e8e8;">Legal status</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-below" style="background: #e8e8e8; text-align: center"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q576618" class="extiw" title="d:Q576618">In Wikidata</a></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Anticonvulsants</b> (also known as <b>antiepileptic drugs</b>, <b>antiseizure drugs</b>, or <b>anti-seizure medications</b> (<b>ASM</b>)) are a diverse group of <a href="/wiki/Pharmacological" class="mw-redirect" title="Pharmacological">pharmacological</a> agents used in the treatment of <a href="/wiki/Epilepsy" title="Epilepsy">epileptic</a> <a href="/wiki/Seizure" title="Seizure">seizures</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Al-Otaibi_pp._321–344_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Al-Otaibi_pp._321–344-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Anticonvulsants are also increasingly being used in the treatment of <a href="/wiki/Bipolar_disorder" title="Bipolar disorder">bipolar disorder</a><sup id="cite_ref-Joshi_Bow_Agius_2019_pp._595–603_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Joshi_Bow_Agius_2019_pp._595–603-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Borderline_personality_disorder" title="Borderline personality disorder">borderline personality disorder</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> since many seem to act as <a href="/wiki/Mood_stabilizers" class="mw-redirect" title="Mood stabilizers">mood stabilizers</a>, and for the treatment of <a href="/wiki/Neuropathic_pain" title="Neuropathic pain">neuropathic pain</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Anticonvulsants suppress the excessive rapid firing of <a href="/wiki/Neuron" title="Neuron">neurons</a> during seizures.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Anticonvulsants also prevent the spread of the seizure within the brain.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Conventional antiepileptic drugs may block <a href="/wiki/Sodium_channel" title="Sodium channel">sodium channels</a> or enhance γ-aminobutyric acid (<a href="/wiki/GABA" title="GABA">GABA</a>) function. Several antiepileptic drugs have multiple or uncertain mechanisms of action.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Next to the <a href="/wiki/Voltage_gated_sodium_channels" class="mw-redirect" title="Voltage gated sodium channels">voltage-gated sodium channels</a> and components of the GABA system, their targets include <a href="/wiki/GABAA_receptor" title="GABAA receptor">GABA<sub>A</sub> receptors</a>, the <a href="/wiki/GABA_transporter_type_1" title="GABA transporter type 1">GABA transporter type 1</a>, and <a href="/wiki/GABA_transaminase" class="mw-redirect" title="GABA transaminase">GABA transaminase</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-rogawski_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rogawski-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Additional targets include voltage-gated <a href="/wiki/Calcium_channels" class="mw-redirect" title="Calcium channels">calcium channels</a>, <a href="/wiki/SV2A" title="SV2A">SV2A</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Voltage-gated_calcium_channel#α2δ_Subunit" title="Voltage-gated calcium channel">α2δ</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By blocking sodium or calcium channels, antiepileptic drugs reduce the release of excitatory <a href="/wiki/Glutamate_(neurotransmitter)" title="Glutamate (neurotransmitter)">glutamate</a>, whose release is considered to be elevated in epilepsy, but also that of GABA.<sup id="cite_ref-Kammerer2011_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kammerer2011-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is probably a side effect or even the actual mechanism of action for some antiepileptic drugs, since GABA can itself, directly or indirectly, act proconvulsively.<sup id="cite_ref-Kammerer2011_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kammerer2011-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another potential target of antiepileptic drugs is the <a href="/wiki/Peroxisome_proliferator-activated_receptor_alpha" title="Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha">peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid23724059_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid23724059-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pmid23206503_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid23206503-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Porta2009_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Porta2009-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pmid11716839_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid11716839-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pmid4085542_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid4085542-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pmid2288480_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid2288480-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pmid16934763_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid16934763-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some anticonvulsants have shown antiepileptogenic effects in animal models of epilepsy.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> That is, they either prevent the development of epilepsy or can halt or reverse the progression of epilepsy. However, no drug has been shown in human trials to prevent <a href="/wiki/Epileptogenesis" title="Epileptogenesis">epileptogenesis</a> (the development of epilepsy in an individual at risk, such as after a <a href="/wiki/Traumatic_brain_injury" title="Traumatic brain injury">head injury</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-pmid17998971_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid17998971-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Many anticonvulsants can cause birth defects in the unborn child if taken while pregnant.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Terminology">Terminology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anticonvulsant&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Terminology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Anticonvulsants are more accurately called antiepileptic drugs (AEDs) because not every epileptic seizure involves <a href="/wiki/Convulsion" title="Convulsion">convulsion</a>, and vice versa, not every convulsion is caused by an epileptic seizure.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They are also often referred to as antiseizure drugs because they provide symptomatic treatment only and have not been demonstrated to alter the course of epilepsy.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Approval">Approval</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anticonvulsant&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Approval"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The usual method of achieving approval for a drug is to show it is effective when compared against <a href="/wiki/Placebo" title="Placebo">placebo</a>, or that it is more effective than an existing drug. In monotherapy (where only one drug is taken) it is considered unethical by most to conduct a trial with placebo on a new drug of uncertain efficacy. This is because untreated epilepsy leaves the patient at significant risk of death. Therefore, almost all new epilepsy drugs are initially approved only as adjunctive (add-on) therapies. Patients whose epilepsy is uncontrolled by their medication (i.e., it is refractory to treatment) are selected to see if supplementing the medication with the new drug leads to an improvement in seizure control. Any reduction in the frequency of seizures is compared against a placebo.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid17998971_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid17998971-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The lack of superiority over existing treatment, combined with lacking placebo-controlled trials, means that few modern drugs have earned <a href="/wiki/Food_and_Drug_Administration" title="Food and Drug Administration">FDA</a> approval as initial monotherapy. In contrast, Europe only requires equivalence to existing treatments and has approved many more. Despite their lack of FDA approval, the <a href="/wiki/American_Academy_of_Neurology" title="American Academy of Neurology">American Academy of Neurology</a> and the <a href="/wiki/American_Epilepsy_Society" title="American Epilepsy Society">American Epilepsy Society</a> still recommend a number of these new drugs as initial monotherapy.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid17998971_21-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid17998971-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Drugs">Drugs</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anticonvulsant&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Drugs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the following list, the dates in parentheses are the earliest approved use of the drug. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Aldehydes">Aldehydes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anticonvulsant&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Aldehydes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Aldehyde" title="Aldehyde">Aldehyde</a></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paraldehyde" title="Paraldehyde">Paraldehyde</a> (1882). One of the earliest anticonvulsants. It is still used to treat <a href="/wiki/Status_epilepticus" title="Status epilepticus">status epilepticus</a>, particularly where there are no <a href="/wiki/Resuscitation" title="Resuscitation">resuscitation</a> facilities.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Aromatic_allylic_alcohols">Aromatic allylic alcohols</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anticonvulsant&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Aromatic allylic alcohols"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stiripentol" title="Stiripentol">Stiripentol</a> (2007). Indicated for the treatment of <a href="/wiki/Severe_myoclonic_epilepsy_of_infancy" class="mw-redirect" title="Severe myoclonic epilepsy of infancy">Dravet syndrome</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid23018548_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid23018548-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-EMA_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EMA-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Diacomit_EPAR_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Diacomit_EPAR-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Diacomit_FDA_label_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Diacomit_FDA_label-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Barbiturates">Barbiturates</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anticonvulsant&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Barbiturates"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Barbiturate" title="Barbiturate">Barbiturate</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Barbiturate" title="Barbiturate">Barbiturates</a> are <a href="/wiki/Medication" title="Medication">drugs</a> that act as <a href="/wiki/Central_nervous_system" title="Central nervous system">central nervous system</a> (CNS) <a href="/wiki/Depressant" title="Depressant">depressants</a>, and by virtue of this they produce a wide spectrum of effects, from mild <a href="/wiki/Sedation" title="Sedation">sedation</a> to <a href="/wiki/Anesthesia" title="Anesthesia">anesthesia</a>. The following are <a href="/wiki/ATC_code_N03" title="ATC code N03">classified</a> as anticonvulsants:<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Phenobarbital" title="Phenobarbital">Phenobarbital</a> (1912). See also the related drug <a href="/wiki/Primidone" title="Primidone">primidone</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methylphenobarbital" title="Methylphenobarbital">Methylphenobarbital</a> (1935). Known as mephobarbital in the US. No longer marketed in the UK.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbexaclone" title="Barbexaclone">Barbexaclone</a> (1982). Only available in some European countries.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Benzodiazepines">Benzodiazepines</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anticonvulsant&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Benzodiazepines"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Benzodiazepine" title="Benzodiazepine">Benzodiazepine</a></div> <p>The benzodiazepines are a class of <a href="/wiki/Medication" title="Medication">drugs</a> with <a href="/wiki/Hypnotic" title="Hypnotic">hypnotic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anxiolytic" title="Anxiolytic">anxiolytic</a>, anticonvulsive, <a href="/wiki/Amnesia" title="Amnesia">amnestic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Muscle_relaxant" title="Muscle relaxant">muscle relaxant</a> properties. Benzodiazepines act as a central nervous system depressant. The relative strength of each of these properties in any given benzodiazepine varies greatly and influences the indications for which it is prescribed. Long-term use can be problematic due to the development of <a href="/wiki/Drug_tolerance" title="Drug tolerance">tolerance</a> to the anticonvulsant effects and <a href="/wiki/Substance_use_disorder" title="Substance use disorder">dependency</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Of many drugs in this class, only a few are used to treat epilepsy: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Clobazam" title="Clobazam">Clobazam</a> (1979). Notably, used on a short-term basis around menstruation in women with <a href="/wiki/Catamenial_epilepsy" title="Catamenial epilepsy">catamenial epilepsy</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clonazepam" title="Clonazepam">Clonazepam</a> (1974).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clorazepate" title="Clorazepate">Clorazepate</a> (1972).</li></ul> <p>The following benzodiazepines are used to treat <a href="/wiki/Status_epilepticus" title="Status epilepticus">status epilepticus</a>: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diazepam" title="Diazepam">Diazepam</a> (1963). Can be given rectally by trained care-givers.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Midazolam" title="Midazolam">Midazolam</a> (N/A). Increasingly being used as an alternative to diazepam. This water-soluble drug is squirted into the side of the mouth but not swallowed. It is rapidly absorbed by the <a href="/wiki/Buccal_mucosa" class="mw-redirect" title="Buccal mucosa">buccal mucosa</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lorazepam" title="Lorazepam">Lorazepam</a> (1972). Given by injection in hospital.</li></ul> <p><a href="/wiki/Nitrazepam" title="Nitrazepam">Nitrazepam</a>, <a href="/wiki/Temazepam" title="Temazepam">temazepam</a>, and especially <a href="/wiki/Nimetazepam" title="Nimetazepam">nimetazepam</a> are powerful anticonvulsant agents, however their use is rare due to an increased incidence of side effects and strong <a href="/wiki/Sedative" title="Sedative">sedative</a> and motor-impairing properties. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bromides">Bromides</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anticonvulsant&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Bromides"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Bromide" title="Bromide">Bromide</a></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Potassium_bromide" title="Potassium bromide">Potassium bromide</a> (1857). The earliest effective treatment for epilepsy. There would not be a better drug until phenobarbital in 1912. It is still used as an anticonvulsant for dogs and cats but is no longer used in humans.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Carbamates">Carbamates</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anticonvulsant&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Carbamates"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Carbamate" title="Carbamate">Carbamate</a></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Felbamate" title="Felbamate">Felbamate</a> (1993). This effective anticonvulsant has had its usage severely restricted due to rare but life-threatening side effects.<sup id="cite_ref-Sankar_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sankar-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pmid10331676_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid10331676-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-MedlinePlus_Felbamate_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MedlinePlus_Felbamate-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cenobamate" title="Cenobamate">Cenobamate</a> (2019).</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Carboxamides">Carboxamides</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anticonvulsant&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Carboxamides"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Carbamazepine_3D.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Carbamazepine_3D.png/220px-Carbamazepine_3D.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="178" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Carbamazepine_3D.png/330px-Carbamazepine_3D.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Carbamazepine_3D.png/440px-Carbamazepine_3D.png 2x" data-file-width="920" data-file-height="746" /></a><figcaption>Carbamazepine</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Carboxamide" class="mw-redirect" title="Carboxamide">Carboxamide</a></div> <p>The following are carboxamides: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carbamazepine" title="Carbamazepine">Carbamazepine</a> (1963). A popular anticonvulsant that is available in generic formulations.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxcarbazepine" title="Oxcarbazepine">Oxcarbazepine</a> (1990). A derivative of carbamazepine that has similar efficacy and is better tolerated and is also available generically.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eslicarbazepine_acetate" title="Eslicarbazepine acetate">Eslicarbazepine acetate</a> (2009).</li> <li>Photoswitchable analogues of carbamazepine (2024) are research compounds developed to control its pharmacological activity locally and on demand using light, with the purpose to reduce adverse systemic effects.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One of these compounds (carbadiazocine, based on a bridged <a href="/wiki/Azobenzene" title="Azobenzene">azobenzene</a>) has been shown to produce analgesia with noninvasive illumination in a rat model of <a href="/wiki/Neuropathic_pain" title="Neuropathic pain">neuropathic pain</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fatty_acids">Fatty acids</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anticonvulsant&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Fatty acids"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Fatty_acid" title="Fatty acid">Fatty acid</a></div> <p>The following are fatty-acids: </p> <ul><li>The <a href="/wiki/Valproic_acid" class="mw-redirect" title="Valproic acid">valproates</a> — <a href="/wiki/Valproic_acid" class="mw-redirect" title="Valproic acid">valproic acid</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sodium_valproate" class="mw-redirect" title="Sodium valproate">sodium valproate</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Divalproex_sodium" class="mw-redirect" title="Divalproex sodium">divalproex sodium</a> (1967).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vigabatrin" title="Vigabatrin">Vigabatrin</a> (1989).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progabide" title="Progabide">Progabide</a> (1987).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiagabine" title="Tiagabine">Tiagabine</a> (1996).</li></ul> <p><i>Vigabatrin and progabide are also analogs of GABA.</i> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fructose_derivatives">Fructose derivatives</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anticonvulsant&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Fructose derivatives"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Fructose" title="Fructose">Fructose</a></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Topiramate" title="Topiramate">Topiramate</a> (1995).</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Gabapentinoids">Gabapentinoids</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anticonvulsant&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Gabapentinoids"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Gabapentinoid" title="Gabapentinoid">Gabapentinoid</a></div> <div class="skin-invert-image"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:312px;max-width:312px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:144px;max-width:144px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:133px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Phenibut_and_analogues.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="GABA analogues" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Phenibut_and_analogues.png/142px-Phenibut_and_analogues.png" decoding="async" width="142" height="133" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Phenibut_and_analogues.png/213px-Phenibut_and_analogues.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Phenibut_and_analogues.png/284px-Phenibut_and_analogues.png 2x" data-file-width="3200" data-file-height="3000" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/GABA" title="GABA">GABA</a> analogues</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:164px;max-width:164px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:133px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Voltage_gated_calcium_channel.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Binding sites of pregabalin and the non-gabapentenoid ziconotide to the voltage-gated calcium channel complex." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Voltage_gated_calcium_channel.jpg/162px-Voltage_gated_calcium_channel.jpg" decoding="async" width="162" height="134" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Voltage_gated_calcium_channel.jpg/243px-Voltage_gated_calcium_channel.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Voltage_gated_calcium_channel.jpg/324px-Voltage_gated_calcium_channel.jpg 2x" data-file-width="914" data-file-height="755" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Voltage-gated_calcium_channel" title="Voltage-gated calcium channel">Voltage-gated calcium channel</a></div></div></div></div></div> </div> <p>Gabapentinoids are used in <a href="/wiki/Epilepsy" title="Epilepsy">epilepsy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Neuropathic_pain" title="Neuropathic pain">neuropathic pain</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fibromyalgia" title="Fibromyalgia">fibromyalgia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Restless_leg_syndrome" class="mw-redirect" title="Restless leg syndrome">restless leg syndrome</a>, <a href="/wiki/Opioid_withdrawal" title="Opioid withdrawal">opioid withdrawal</a> and <a href="/wiki/Generalized_anxiety_disorder" title="Generalized anxiety disorder">generalized anxiety disorder</a> (GAD). Gabapentinoids block <a href="/wiki/Voltage-gated_calcium_channel" title="Voltage-gated calcium channel">voltage-gated calcium channels</a>, mainly the <a href="/wiki/N-type_calcium_channel" title="N-type calcium channel">N-Type</a>, and <a href="/wiki/P-type_calcium_channel" title="P-type calcium channel">P/Q</a>-type calcium channels. The following are gabapentinoids: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pregabalin" title="Pregabalin">Pregabalin</a> (2004)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mirogabalin" title="Mirogabalin">Mirogabalin</a> (2019) (Japan only)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabapentin" title="Gabapentin">Gabapentin</a> (1993)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabapentin_enacarbil" title="Gabapentin enacarbil">Gabapentin enacarbil</a> (Horizant) (2011)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabapentin_extended_release" class="mw-redirect" title="Gabapentin extended release">Gabapentin extended release</a> (Gralise) (1996)</li></ul> <p>Gabapentinoids are analogs of GABA, but they do not act on GABA receptors. They have analgesic, anticonvulsant, and anxiolytic effects. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hydantoins">Hydantoins</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anticonvulsant&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Hydantoins"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Hydantoin" title="Hydantoin">Hydantoin</a></div> <p>The following are hydantoins: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ethotoin" title="Ethotoin">Ethotoin</a> (1957).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenytoin" title="Phenytoin">Phenytoin</a> (1938).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mephenytoin" title="Mephenytoin">Mephenytoin</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fosphenytoin" title="Fosphenytoin">Fosphenytoin</a> (1996).</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Oxazolidinediones">Oxazolidinediones</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anticonvulsant&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Oxazolidinediones"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/2,4-Oxazolidinedione" title="2,4-Oxazolidinedione">2,4-Oxazolidinedione</a></div> <p>The following are oxazolidinediones: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paramethadione" title="Paramethadione">Paramethadione</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trimethadione" title="Trimethadione">Trimethadione</a> (1946).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethadione" title="Ethadione">Ethadione</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Propionates">Propionates</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anticonvulsant&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Propionates"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Propionate" class="mw-redirect" title="Propionate">Propionate</a></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beclamide" title="Beclamide">Beclamide</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pyrimidinediones">Pyrimidinediones</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anticonvulsant&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Pyrimidinediones"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Pyrimidinedione" title="Pyrimidinedione">Pyrimidinedione</a></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Primidone" title="Primidone">Primidone</a> (1952).</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pyrrolidines">Pyrrolidines</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anticonvulsant&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Pyrrolidines"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Pyrrolidine" title="Pyrrolidine">Pyrrolidine</a></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brivaracetam" title="Brivaracetam">Brivaracetam</a> (2016).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etiracetam" title="Etiracetam">Etiracetam</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Levetiracetam" title="Levetiracetam">Levetiracetam</a> (1999).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seletracetam" title="Seletracetam">Seletracetam</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Succinimides">Succinimides</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anticonvulsant&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Succinimides"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Succinimide" title="Succinimide">Succinimide</a></div> <p>The following are succinimides: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ethosuximide" title="Ethosuximide">Ethosuximide</a> (1955).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phensuximide" title="Phensuximide">Phensuximide</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesuximide" title="Mesuximide">Mesuximide</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sulfonamides">Sulfonamides</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anticonvulsant&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Sulfonamides"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Sulfonamide_(medicine)" title="Sulfonamide (medicine)">Sulfonamide (medicine)</a></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acetazolamide" title="Acetazolamide">Acetazolamide</a> (1953).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sultiame" title="Sultiame">Sultiame</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methazolamide" title="Methazolamide">Methazolamide</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zonisamide" title="Zonisamide">Zonisamide</a> (2000).</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Triazines">Triazines</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anticonvulsant&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Triazines"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Triazine" title="Triazine">Triazine</a></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lamotrigine" title="Lamotrigine">Lamotrigine</a> (1990).</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ureas">Ureas</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anticonvulsant&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Ureas"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Urea" title="Urea">Urea</a></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pheneturide" title="Pheneturide">Pheneturide</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenacemide" title="Phenacemide">Phenacemide</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Valproylamides">Valproylamides</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anticonvulsant&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Valproylamides"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Amide" title="Amide">Amide</a></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Valpromide" title="Valpromide">Valpromide</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valnoctamide" title="Valnoctamide">Valnoctamide</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other">Other</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anticonvulsant&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Other"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Perampanel" title="Perampanel">Perampanel</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stiripentol" title="Stiripentol">Stiripentol</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Diacomit_EPAR_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Diacomit_EPAR-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyridoxine" title="Pyridoxine">Pyridoxine</a> (1939).</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="A_Non-pharmaceutical_anticonvulsants">A Non-pharmaceutical anticonvulsants</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anticonvulsant&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: A Non-pharmaceutical anticonvulsants"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Epilepsy#Management" title="Epilepsy">Epilepsy § Management</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Ketogenic_diet" title="Ketogenic diet">ketogenic diet</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vagus_nerve_stimulation" title="Vagus nerve stimulation">vagus nerve stimulation</a> are alternative treatments for epilepsy without the involvement of pharmaceuticals. The ketogenic diet consists of a high-fat, low-carbohydrate diet, and has shown good results in patients whose epilepsy has not responded to medications and who cannot receive surgery. The vagus nerve stimulator is a device that can be implanted into patients with epilepsy, especially that which <a href="/wiki/Focal_seizure" title="Focal seizure">originates from a specific part of the brain</a>. However, both of these treatment options can cause severe adverse effects. Additionally, while seizure frequency typically decreases, they often do not stop entirely.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Treatment_guidelines">Treatment guidelines</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anticonvulsant&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Treatment guidelines"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>According to guidelines by the <a href="/wiki/American_Academy_of_Neurology" title="American Academy of Neurology">American Academy of Neurology</a> and <a href="/wiki/American_Epilepsy_Society" title="American Epilepsy Society">American Epilepsy Society</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-aan&aes_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-aan&aes-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> mainly based on a major <a href="/wiki/Article_review" class="mw-redirect" title="Article review">article review</a> in 2004,<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> patients with newly diagnosed epilepsy who require treatment can be initiated on standard anticonvulsants such as <a href="/wiki/Carbamazepine" title="Carbamazepine">carbamazepine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Phenytoin" title="Phenytoin">phenytoin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Valproic_acid" class="mw-redirect" title="Valproic acid">valproic acid</a>/<a href="/wiki/Valproate_semisodium" class="mw-redirect" title="Valproate semisodium">valproate semisodium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Phenobarbital" title="Phenobarbital">phenobarbital</a>, or on the newer anticonvulsants <a href="/wiki/Gabapentin" title="Gabapentin">gabapentin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lamotrigine" title="Lamotrigine">lamotrigine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oxcarbazepine" title="Oxcarbazepine">oxcarbazepine</a> or <a href="/wiki/Topiramate" title="Topiramate">topiramate</a>. The choice of anticonvulsants depends on individual patient characteristics.<sup id="cite_ref-aan&aes_42-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-aan&aes-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Both newer and older drugs are generally equally effective in new onset epilepsy.<sup id="cite_ref-aan&aes_42-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-aan&aes-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The newer drugs tend to have fewer side effects.<sup id="cite_ref-aan&aes_42-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-aan&aes-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For newly diagnosed <a href="/wiki/Partial_seizures" class="mw-redirect" title="Partial seizures">partial</a> or <a href="/wiki/Mixed_seizures" class="mw-redirect" title="Mixed seizures">mixed seizures</a>, there is evidence for using gabapentin, lamotrigine, oxcarbazepine or topiramate as <a href="/wiki/Monotherapy" class="mw-redirect" title="Monotherapy">monotherapy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-aan&aes_42-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-aan&aes-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Lamotrigine" title="Lamotrigine">Lamotrigine</a> can be included in the options for children with newly diagnosed <a href="/wiki/Absence_seizures" class="mw-redirect" title="Absence seizures">absence seizures</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-aan&aes_42-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-aan&aes-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anticonvulsant&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The first anticonvulsant was <a href="/wiki/Bromide" title="Bromide">bromide</a>, suggested in 1857 by the British gynecologist <a href="/wiki/Charles_Locock" title="Charles Locock">Charles Locock</a> who used it to treat women with "hysterical epilepsy" (probably <i><a href="/wiki/Catamenial_epilepsy" title="Catamenial epilepsy">catamenial epilepsy</a></i>). Bromides are effective against epilepsy, and also cause <a href="/wiki/Erectile_dysfunction" title="Erectile dysfunction">impotence</a>, which is not related to its anti-epileptic effects. Bromide also suffered from the way it affected behaviour, introducing the idea of the "epileptic personality" which was actually a result of medication. <a href="/wiki/Phenobarbital" title="Phenobarbital">Phenobarbital</a> was first used in 1912 for both its sedative and antiepileptic properties. By the 1930s, the development of animal models in epilepsy research led to the development of <a href="/wiki/Phenytoin" title="Phenytoin">phenytoin</a> by <a href="/wiki/Tracy_Putnam" title="Tracy Putnam">Tracy Putnam</a> and <a href="/wiki/H._Houston_Merritt" title="H. Houston Merritt">H. Houston Merritt</a>, which had the distinct advantage of treating epileptic seizures with less sedation.<sup id="cite_ref-g470_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-g470-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the 1970s, a <a href="/wiki/National_Institutes_of_Health" title="National Institutes of Health">National Institutes of Health</a> initiative, the Anticonvulsant Screening Program, headed by J. Kiffin Penry, served as a mechanism for drawing the interest and abilities of pharmaceutical companies in the development of new anticonvulsant medications. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Marketing_approval_history">Marketing approval history</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anticonvulsant&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Marketing approval history"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The following table lists anticonvulsant drugs together with the date their marketing was approved in the US, UK and France. Data for the UK and France are incomplete. The <a href="/wiki/European_Medicines_Agency" title="European Medicines Agency">European Medicines Agency</a> approves drugs throughout the European Union. Some of the drugs are no longer marketed. </p> <table class="wikitable sortable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Drug</th> <th>Brand</th> <th>US</th> <th>UK</th> <th>France </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Acetazolamide" title="Acetazolamide">acetazolamide</a> </td> <td>Diamox </td> <td><span style="display:none">1953-07-27</span>27 July 1953<sup id="cite_ref-NDA_008943_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NDA_008943-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>1988<sup id="cite_ref-EpilepsyAction_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EpilepsyAction-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Brivaracetam" title="Brivaracetam">brivaracetam</a> </td> <td>Briviact </td> <td><span style="display:none">2016-02-18</span>18 February 2016<sup id="cite_ref-NDA_205836_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NDA_205836-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Carbamazepine" title="Carbamazepine">carbamazepine</a> </td> <td>Tegretol </td> <td><span style="display:none">1974-07-15</span>15 July 1974<sup id="cite_ref-NDA_016608_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NDA_016608-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Tegretol1978WJM_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tegretol1978WJM-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>1965<sup id="cite_ref-EpilepsyAction_46-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EpilepsyAction-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>1963<sup id="cite_ref-Loiseau_et_al_1999_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Loiseau_et_al_1999-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Cenobamate" title="Cenobamate">cenobamate</a> </td> <td>Xcopri </td> <td><span style="display:none">2019-11-21</span>21 November 2019 </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Clobazam" title="Clobazam">clobazam</a> </td> <td>Onfi/Frisium </td> <td><span style="display:none">2011-10-21</span>21 October 2011<sup id="cite_ref-NDA_202067_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NDA_202067-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>1979<sup id="cite_ref-EpilepsyAction_46-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EpilepsyAction-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Clonazepam" title="Clonazepam">clonazepam</a> </td> <td>Klonopin/Rivotril </td> <td><span style="display:none">1975-06-04</span>4 June 1975<sup id="cite_ref-NDA_017533_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NDA_017533-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>1974<sup id="cite_ref-EpilepsyAction_46-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EpilepsyAction-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Diazepam" title="Diazepam">diazepam</a> </td> <td>Valium </td> <td><span style="display:none">1963-11-15</span>15 November 1963<sup id="cite_ref-NDA_013263_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NDA_013263-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Divalproex_sodium" class="mw-redirect" title="Divalproex sodium">divalproex sodium</a> </td> <td>Depakote </td> <td><span style="display:none">1983-03-10</span>10 March 1983<sup id="cite_ref-NDA_018723_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NDA_018723-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Eslicarbazepine" class="mw-redirect" title="Eslicarbazepine">eslicarbazepine</a> </td> <td>Aptiom </td> <td><span style="display:none">2013-08-11</span>11 August 2013<sup id="cite_ref-NDA_022416_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NDA_022416-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Ethosuximide" title="Ethosuximide">ethosuximide</a> </td> <td>Zarontin </td> <td><span style="display:none">1960-11-02</span>2 November 1960<sup id="cite_ref-NDA_012380_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NDA_012380-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>1955<sup id="cite_ref-EpilepsyAction_46-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EpilepsyAction-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>1962<sup id="cite_ref-Loiseau_et_al_1999_51-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Loiseau_et_al_1999-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Ethotoin" title="Ethotoin">ethotoin</a> </td> <td>Peganone </td> <td><span style="display:none">1957-04-22</span>22 April 1957<sup id="cite_ref-NDA_010841_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NDA_010841-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Everolimus" title="Everolimus">everolimus</a> </td> <td>Afinitor/Votubia </td> <td><span style="display:none">2009-03-30</span>30 January 2009<sup id="cite_ref-NDA_022334_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NDA_022334-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Felbamate" title="Felbamate">felbamate</a> </td> <td>Felbatol </td> <td><span style="display:none">1993-07-29</span>29 July 1993<sup id="cite_ref-NDA_020189_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NDA_020189-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Fosphenytoin" title="Fosphenytoin">fosphenytoin</a> </td> <td>Cerebyx </td> <td><span style="display:none">1996-08-05</span>5 August 1996<sup id="cite_ref-NDA_020450_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NDA_020450-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Gabapentin" title="Gabapentin">gabapentin</a> </td> <td>Neurontin </td> <td><span style="display:none">1993-12-30</span>30 December 1993<sup id="cite_ref-NDA_020235_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NDA_020235-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td><span style="display:none">1993-05</span>May 1993<sup id="cite_ref-EpilepsyAction_46-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EpilepsyAction-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Loiseau_et_al_1999_51-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Loiseau_et_al_1999-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td><span style="display:none">1994-10</span>October 1994<sup id="cite_ref-Loiseau_et_al_1999_51-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Loiseau_et_al_1999-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Lacosamide" title="Lacosamide">lacosamide</a> </td> <td>Vimpat </td> <td><span style="display:none">2008-10-28</span>28 October 2008<sup id="cite_ref-NDA_022253_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NDA_022253-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Lamotrigine" title="Lamotrigine">lamotrigine</a> </td> <td>Lamictal </td> <td><span style="display:none">1994-12-27</span>27 December 1994<sup id="cite_ref-NDA_020241_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NDA_020241-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td><span style="display:none">1991-10</span>October 1991<sup id="cite_ref-EpilepsyAction_46-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EpilepsyAction-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Loiseau_et_al_1999_51-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Loiseau_et_al_1999-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td><span style="display:none">1995-05</span>May 1995<sup id="cite_ref-Loiseau_et_al_1999_51-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Loiseau_et_al_1999-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Levetiracetam" title="Levetiracetam">levetiracetam</a> </td> <td>Keppra </td> <td><span style="display:none">1999-11-30</span>30 November 1999<sup id="cite_ref-NDA_021035_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NDA_021035-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td><span style="display:none">2000-09-29</span>29 September 2000<sup id="cite_ref-EpilepsyAction_46-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EpilepsyAction-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-keppra_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-keppra-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td><span style="display:none">2000-09-29</span>29 September 2000<sup id="cite_ref-keppra_68-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-keppra-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Mephenytoin" title="Mephenytoin">mephenytoin</a> </td> <td>Mesantoin </td> <td><span style="display:none">1946-10-23</span>23 October 1946<sup id="cite_ref-NDA_006008_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NDA_006008-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Metharbital" title="Metharbital">metharbital</a> </td> <td>Gemonil </td> <td>1952<sup id="cite_ref-NDA_008322_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NDA_008322-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-renamed_from_0632060468_on_20081125071809_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-renamed_from_0632060468_on_20081125071809-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Methsuximide" class="mw-redirect" title="Methsuximide">methsuximide</a> </td> <td>Celontin </td> <td><span style="display:none">1957-02-08</span>8 February 1957<sup id="cite_ref-NDA_010596_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NDA_010596-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Methazolamide" title="Methazolamide">methazolamide</a> </td> <td>Neptazane </td> <td><span style="display:none">1959-01-26</span>26 January 1959<sup id="cite_ref-NDA_011721_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NDA_011721-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Oxcarbazepine" title="Oxcarbazepine">oxcarbazepine</a> </td> <td>Trileptal </td> <td><span style="display:none">2000-01-14</span>14 January 2000<sup id="cite_ref-NDA_021014_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NDA_021014-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>2000<sup id="cite_ref-EpilepsyAction_46-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EpilepsyAction-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Phenobarbital" title="Phenobarbital">phenobarbital</a> </td> <td>Luminal </td> <td>Unknown </td> <td>1912<sup id="cite_ref-EpilepsyAction_46-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EpilepsyAction-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>1920<sup id="cite_ref-Loiseau_et_al_1999_51-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Loiseau_et_al_1999-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Phenytoin" title="Phenytoin">phenytoin</a> </td> <td>Dilantin/Epanutin </td> <td>1938<sup id="cite_ref-Loiseau_et_al_1999_51-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Loiseau_et_al_1999-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-NDA_008762_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NDA_008762-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>1938<sup id="cite_ref-EpilepsyAction_46-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EpilepsyAction-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>1941<sup id="cite_ref-Loiseau_et_al_1999_51-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Loiseau_et_al_1999-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Piracetam" title="Piracetam">piracetam</a> </td> <td>Nootropil </td> <td>never approved </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Phensuximide" title="Phensuximide">phensuximide</a> </td> <td>Milontin </td> <td>1953<sup id="cite_ref-NDA_008855_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NDA_008855-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-isbn0824785495_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-isbn0824785495-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Pregabalin" title="Pregabalin">pregabalin</a> </td> <td>Lyrica </td> <td><span style="display:none">2004-12-30</span>30 December 2004<sup id="cite_ref-NDA_021446_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NDA_021446-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td><span style="display:none">2004-07-06</span>6 July 2004<sup id="cite_ref-EpilepsyAction_46-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EpilepsyAction-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-lyrica_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lyrica-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td><span style="display:none">2004-07-06</span>6 July 2004<sup id="cite_ref-lyrica_79-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lyrica-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Primidone" title="Primidone">primidone</a> </td> <td>Mysoline </td> <td><span style="display:none">1954-03-08</span>8 March 1954<sup id="cite_ref-NDA_009170_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NDA_009170-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>1952<sup id="cite_ref-EpilepsyAction_46-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EpilepsyAction-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>1953<sup id="cite_ref-Loiseau_et_al_1999_51-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Loiseau_et_al_1999-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Rufinamide" title="Rufinamide">rufinamide</a> </td> <td>Banzel/Inovelon </td> <td><span style="display:none">2008-11-14</span>14 November 2008<sup id="cite_ref-NDA_021911_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NDA_021911-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Sodium_valproate" class="mw-redirect" title="Sodium valproate">sodium valproate</a> </td> <td>Epilim </td> <td>Unknown </td> <td><span style="display:none">1977-12</span>December 1977<sup id="cite_ref-Loiseau_et_al_1999_51-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Loiseau_et_al_1999-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td><span style="display:none">1967-06</span>June 1967<sup id="cite_ref-Loiseau_et_al_1999_51-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Loiseau_et_al_1999-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Stiripentol" title="Stiripentol">stiripentol</a> </td> <td>Diacomit </td> <td><span style="display:none">2018-08-20</span>20 August 2018<sup id="cite_ref-NDA_206709_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NDA_206709-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td><span style="display:none">2007-01</span>January 2007<sup id="cite_ref-Diacomit_EPAR_29-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Diacomit_EPAR-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td><span style="display:none">2007-01</span>January 2007<sup id="cite_ref-Diacomit_EPAR_29-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Diacomit_EPAR-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Tiagabine" title="Tiagabine">tiagabine</a> </td> <td>Gabitril </td> <td><span style="display:none">1997-09-30</span>30 September 1997<sup id="cite_ref-NDA_020646_85-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NDA_020646-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-DrugPatentWatch_NDA020646_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DrugPatentWatch_NDA020646-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>1998<sup id="cite_ref-EpilepsyAction_46-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EpilepsyAction-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td><span style="display:none">1997-11</span>November 1997<sup id="cite_ref-Loiseau_et_al_1999_51-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Loiseau_et_al_1999-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Topiramate" title="Topiramate">topiramate</a> </td> <td>Topamax </td> <td><span style="display:none">1996-12-24</span>24 December 1996<sup id="cite_ref-NDA_020505_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NDA_020505-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>1995<sup id="cite_ref-EpilepsyAction_46-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EpilepsyAction-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Trimethadione" title="Trimethadione">trimethadione</a> </td> <td>Tridione </td> <td><span style="display:none">1946-01-25</span>25 January 1946<sup id="cite_ref-NDA_005856_88-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NDA_005856-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Valproic_acid" class="mw-redirect" title="Valproic acid">valproic acid</a> </td> <td>Depakene/Convulex </td> <td><span style="display:none">1978-02-28</span>28 February 1978<sup id="cite_ref-NDA_018081_89-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NDA_018081-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>1993<sup id="cite_ref-EpilepsyAction_46-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EpilepsyAction-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Vigabatrin" title="Vigabatrin">vigabatrin</a> </td> <td>Sabril </td> <td><span style="display:none">2009-08-21</span>21 August 2009<sup id="cite_ref-NDA_020427_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NDA_020427-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>1989<sup id="cite_ref-EpilepsyAction_46-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EpilepsyAction-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Zonisamide" title="Zonisamide">zonisamide</a> </td> <td>Zonegran </td> <td><span style="display:none">2000-03-27</span>27 March 2000<sup id="cite_ref-NDA_020789_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NDA_020789-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td><span style="display:none">2005-03-10</span>10 March 2005<sup id="cite_ref-EpilepsyAction_46-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EpilepsyAction-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-zonegran_92-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zonegran-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td><span style="display:none">2005-03-10</span>10 March 2005<sup id="cite_ref-zonegran_92-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zonegran-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Pregnancy">Pregnancy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anticonvulsant&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Pregnancy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Epilepsy_and_pregnancy" title="Epilepsy and pregnancy">Epilepsy and pregnancy</a></div> <p>Many of the commonly used <b>anticonvulsant/anti-seizure</b> medications (ASMs), such as valproate, phenytoin, carbamazepine, phenobarbitol, gabapentin have been reported to cause an increased risk of <a href="/wiki/Birth_defect" title="Birth defect">birth defects</a> including major congenital malformations such as neural tube defects.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_93-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The risk of birth defects associated with taking these medications while pregnant may be dependent on the dose and on the timing of gestation (how well developed the baby is).<sup id="cite_ref-:0_93-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While trying to conceive a child and during pregnancy, medical advice should be followed to optimize the management of the person's epilepsy in order to keep the person and the unborn baby safe from epileptic seizures and also ensure that the risk of birth defects due to <i>in utero</i> exposure of anticonvulsants is as low as possible. Use of anticonvulsant medications should be carefully monitored during use in pregnancy.<sup id="cite_ref-Harden_94-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Harden-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, since the first trimester is the most susceptible period for fetal development, planning a routine antiepileptic drug dose that is safer for the first trimester could be beneficial to prevent pregnancy complications.<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Valproic_acid" class="mw-redirect" title="Valproic acid">Valproic acid</a>, and its derivatives such as <a href="/wiki/Sodium_valproate" class="mw-redirect" title="Sodium valproate">sodium valproate</a> and <a href="/wiki/Divalproex_sodium" class="mw-redirect" title="Divalproex sodium">divalproex sodium</a>, causes <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_deficit" class="mw-redirect" title="Cognitive deficit">cognitive deficit</a> in the child, with an increased dose causing decreased <a href="/wiki/Intelligence_quotient" title="Intelligence quotient">intelligence quotient</a> and use is associated with adverse neurodevelopmental outcomes (cognitive and behavioral)  in children.<sup id="cite_ref-BromleyWeston2014_96-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BromleyWeston2014-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On the other hand, evidence is conflicting for <a href="/wiki/Carbamazepine" title="Carbamazepine">carbamazepine</a> regarding any increased risk of <a href="/wiki/Congenital_physical_anomalies" class="mw-redirect" title="Congenital physical anomalies">congenital physical anomalies</a> or <a href="/wiki/Neurodevelopmental_disorder" title="Neurodevelopmental disorder">neurodevelopmental disorders</a> by intrauterine exposure.<sup id="cite_ref-BromleyWeston2014_96-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BromleyWeston2014-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Similarly, children exposed <a href="/wiki/Lamotrigine" title="Lamotrigine">lamotrigine</a> or <a href="/wiki/Phenytoin" title="Phenytoin">phenytoin</a> in the womb do not seem to differ in their skills compared to those who were exposed to carbamazepine.<sup id="cite_ref-BromleyWeston2014_96-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BromleyWeston2014-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There is inadequate evidence to determine if newborns of women with epilepsy taking anticonvulsants have a substantially increased risk of <a href="/wiki/Hemorrhagic_disease_of_the_newborn" class="mw-redirect" title="Hemorrhagic disease of the newborn">hemorrhagic disease of the newborn</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Harden_94-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Harden-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There is little evidence to suggest that anticonvulsant/ASM exposure through breastmilk has clinical effects on newborns. The <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.clinicaltrials.gov/study/NCT01730170">Maternal Outcomes and Neurodevelopmental Effects of Antiepileptic Drugs (MONEAD)</a> study showed that most blood concentrations in breastfed infants of mothers taking carbamazepine, oxcarbazepine, valproate, levetiracetam, and topiramate were quite low, especially in relationship to the mother's level and what the fetal level would have been during pregnancy. (Note: valproic acid is NOT a recommended ASM for people with epilepsy who are considering having children.) <sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Infant exposure to newer ASMs (cenobamate, perampanel, brivaracetam, eslicarbazepine, rufinamide, levetiracetam, topiramate, gabapentin, oxcarbazepine, lamotrigine, and vigabatrin) via breastmilk was not associated with negative neurodevelopment (such as lower IQ and autism spectrum disorder) at 36 months.<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Several studies that followed children exposed to ASMs during pregnancy showed that a number of widely used ones (including lamotrigine and levetiracetam) carried a low risk of adverse neurodevelopmental outcomes (cognitive and behavioral) in children when compared to children born to mothers without epilepsy and children born to mothers taking other anti-seizure medications. Data from several pregnancy registries showed that children exposed to levetiracetam or lamotrigine during pregnancy had the lowest risk of developing major congenital malformations compared to those exposed to other ASMs. The risk of major congenital malformations for children exposed to these ASMs were within the range for children who were not exposed to any ASMs during pregnancy.<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>People with epilepsy <b>can</b> have healthy pregnancies and healthy babies. However, proper planning and care is essential to minimize the risk of congenital malformations or adverse neurocognitive outcomes for the fetus while maintaining seizure control for the pregnant person with epilepsy. If possible, when planning pregnancy, people with epilepsy should switch to ASMs with the lowest teratogenic risk for major congenital malformations as well as the least risk of adverse neurodevelopmental outcomes (e.g., lower IQ or autism spectrum disorder). They should also work with their healthcare providers to identify the lowest effective ASM dosage that will maintain their seizure control while regularly checking medication levels throughout pregnancy.<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Data from studies conducted on women taking antiepileptic drugs for non-epileptic reasons, including depression and bipolar disorder, show that if high doses of the drugs are taken during the first trimester of pregnancy then there is the potential of an increased risk of congenital malformations.<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Research">Research</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anticonvulsant&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Research"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The mechanism of how anticonvulsants cause birth defects is not entirely clear. During <a href="/wiki/Pregnancy" title="Pregnancy">pregnancy</a>, the metabolism of many anticonvulsants is affected. There may be an increase in the clearance and resultant decrease in the blood concentration of lamotrigine, phenytoin, and to a lesser extent carbamazepine, and possibly decreases the level of levetiracetam and the active oxcarbazepine metabolite, the monohydroxy derivative.<sup id="cite_ref-Harden_94-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Harden-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In animal models, several anticonvulsant drugs have been demonstrated to induce neuronal <a href="/wiki/Apoptosis" title="Apoptosis">apoptosis</a> in the developing brain.<sup id="cite_ref-Bittigau_103-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bittigau-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Manthey_104-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Manthey-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Katz_105-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Katz-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Kim_106-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kim-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Forcelli_107-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Forcelli-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anticonvulsant&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Al-Otaibi_pp._321–344-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Al-Otaibi_pp._321–344_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFAl-Otaibi2019" class="citation journal cs1">Al-Otaibi F (1 September 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2478%2Facph-2019-0023">"An overview of structurally diversified anticonvulsant agents"</a>. <i>Acta Pharmaceutica (Zagreb, Croatia)</i>. <b>69</b> (3). 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analogs for non-invasive neuroinhibition in vivo"</a>. <i>Angewandte Chemie International Edition</i>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fanie.202403636">10.1002/anie.202403636</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/2445%2F215169">2445/215169</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1433-7851">1433-7851</a>.</cite><span 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href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30760973">30760973</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Frontiers+in+Neuroscience&rft.atitle=Ketogenic+Diet+and+Epilepsy%3A+What+We+Know+So+Far&rft.volume=13&rft.pages=5&rft.date=2019&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6361831%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F30760973&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3389%2Ffnins.2019.00005&rft.aulast=D%27Andrea+Meira&rft.aufirst=Isabella&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6361831&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnticonvulsant" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="vagus" class="citation web cs1">Pruthi S. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.mayoclinic.org/tests-procedures/vagus-nerve-stimulation/about/pac-20384565">"Vagus nerve stimulation"</a>. <i>Mayo Clinic</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230720033902/https://www.mayoclinic.org/tests-procedures/vagus-nerve-stimulation/about/pac-20384565">Archived</a> from the original on 20 July 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 July</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Mayo+Clinic&rft.atitle=Vagus+nerve+stimulation&rft.aulast=Pruthi&rft.aufirst=Sandhya&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.mayoclinic.org%2Ftests-procedures%2Fvagus-nerve-stimulation%2Fabout%2Fpac-20384565&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnticonvulsant" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-aan&aes-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-aan&aes_42-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-aan&aes_42-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-aan&aes_42-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-aan&aes_42-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-aan&aes_42-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-aan&aes_42-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://aan.com/professionals/practice/pdfs/clinician_ep_onset_e.pdf">AAN Guideline Summary for Clinicians – Efficacy and Tolerability of the New Antiepileptic Drugs, I: Treatment of New Onset Epilepsy</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110224155853/http://aan.com/professionals/practice/pdfs/clinician_ep_onset_e.pdf">Archived</a> 24 February 2011 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Retrieved on 29 June 2010</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrenchKannerBautista2004" class="citation journal cs1">French JA, Kanner AM, Bautista J, et al. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 August</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Epilepsia&rft.atitle=Efficacy+and+tolerability+of+the+new+antiepileptic+drugs%2C+I%3A+Treatment+of+new-onset+epilepsy%3A+report+of+the+TTA+and+QSS+Subcommittees+of+the+American+Academy+of+Neurology+and+the+American+Epilepsy+Society&rft.volume=45&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=401-9&rft.date=2004-05&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F2027.42%2F65231&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A12259676%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15101821&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.0013-9580.2004.06204.x&rft.aulast=French&rft.aufirst=JA&rft.au=Kanner%2C+AM&rft.au=Bautista%2C+J&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdeepblue.lib.umich.edu%2Fbitstream%2F2027.42%2F65231%2F1%2Fj.0013-9580.2004.06204.x.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnticonvulsant" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-g470-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-g470_44-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEadieBladin2001" class="citation book cs1">Eadie M, Bladin P (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ZhNW0AJPAzgC"><i>A Disease Once Sacred: A History of the Medical Understanding of Epilepsy</i></a>. John Libbey. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-86196-607-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-86196-607-3"><bdi>978-0-86196-607-3</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 November</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Drugs%40FDA&rft.atitle=New+Drug+Application+%28NDA%29+008943&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.accessdata.fda.gov%2Fscripts%2Fcder%2Fdaf%2Findex.cfm%3Fevent%3Doverview.process%26ApplNo%3D008943&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnticonvulsant" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-EpilepsyAction-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-EpilepsyAction_46-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-EpilepsyAction_46-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-EpilepsyAction_46-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-EpilepsyAction_46-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-EpilepsyAction_46-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-EpilepsyAction_46-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-EpilepsyAction_46-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-EpilepsyAction_46-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-EpilepsyAction_46-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-EpilepsyAction_46-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-EpilepsyAction_46-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-EpilepsyAction_46-11"><sup><i><b>l</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-EpilepsyAction_46-12"><sup><i><b>m</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-EpilepsyAction_46-13"><sup><i><b>n</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-EpilepsyAction_46-14"><sup><i><b>o</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-EpilepsyAction_46-15"><sup><i><b>p</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-EpilepsyAction_46-16"><sup><i><b>q</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-EpilepsyAction_46-17"><sup><i><b>r</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.epilepsy.org.uk/info/drugslist.html">Epilepsy Action: Druglist.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110301212357/http://www.epilepsy.org.uk/info/drugslist.html">Archived</a> 1 March 2011 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Retrieved on 1 November 2007.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-NDA_205836-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-NDA_205836_47-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cder/daf/index.cfm?event=overview.process&ApplNo=205836">"New Drug Application (NDA) 205836"</a>. <i>Drugs@FDA</i>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 November</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=U.S.+Food+and+Drug+Administration+%28FDA%29&rft.atitle=Drug+Approval+Package%3A+Briviact+%28brivaracetam%29&rft.date=2016-03-30&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.accessdata.fda.gov%2Fdrugsatfda_docs%2Fnda%2F2016%2F205836-205837-205838-Briviact-TOC.cfm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnticonvulsant" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-NDA_016608-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-NDA_016608_49-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cder/daf/index.cfm?event=overview.process&ApplNo=016608">"New Drug Application (NDA) 016608"</a>. <i>Drugs@FDA</i>. U.S. <a href="/wiki/Food_and_Drug_Administration" title="Food and Drug Administration">Food and Drug Administration</a> (FDA). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201019045718/https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cder/daf/index.cfm?event=overview.process&ApplNo=016608">Archived</a> from the original on 19 October 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 November</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Drugs%40FDA&rft.atitle=New+Drug+Application+%28NDA%29+016608&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.accessdata.fda.gov%2Fscripts%2Fcder%2Fdaf%2Findex.cfm%3Fevent%3Doverview.process%26ApplNo%3D016608&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnticonvulsant" class="Z3988"></span> (Initial approval on 11 March 1968 was for trigeminal neuralgia.)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Tegretol1978WJM-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Tegretol1978WJM_50-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchain1978" class="citation journal cs1">Schain RJ (1 March 1978). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1238063">"Pediatrics—Epitomes of Progress: Carbamazepine (Tegretol) in the Treatment of Epilepsy"</a>. <i>Western Journal of Medicine</i>. <b>128</b> (3): 231–232. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1238063">1238063</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18748164">18748164</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Western+Journal+of+Medicine&rft.atitle=Pediatrics%E2%80%94Epitomes+of+Progress%3A+Carbamazepine+%28Tegretol%29+in+the+Treatment+of+Epilepsy&rft.volume=128&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=231-232&rft.date=1978-03-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1238063%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18748164&rft.aulast=Schain&rft.aufirst=Richard+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1238063&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnticonvulsant" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Loiseau_et_al_1999-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Loiseau_et_al_1999_51-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Loiseau_et_al_1999_51-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Loiseau_et_al_1999_51-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Loiseau_et_al_1999_51-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Loiseau_et_al_1999_51-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Loiseau_et_al_1999_51-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Loiseau_et_al_1999_51-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Loiseau_et_al_1999_51-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Loiseau_et_al_1999_51-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Loiseau_et_al_1999_51-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Loiseau_et_al_1999_51-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Loiseau_et_al_1999_51-11"><sup><i><b>l</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Loiseau_et_al_1999_51-12"><sup><i><b>m</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLoiseau1999" class="citation journal cs1">Loiseau PJ (June 1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1528-1157.1999.tb00925.x">"Clinical Experience with New Antiepileptic Drugs: Antiepileptic Drugs in Europe"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Epilepsia_(journal)" title="Epilepsia (journal)">Epilepsia</a></i>. <b>40</b> (Suppl 6): S3–8. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1528-1157.1999.tb00925.x">10.1111/j.1528-1157.1999.tb00925.x</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10530675">10530675</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:29638422">29638422</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Epilepsia&rft.atitle=Clinical+Experience+with+New+Antiepileptic+Drugs%3A+Antiepileptic+Drugs+in+Europe&rft.volume=40&rft.issue=Suppl+6&rft.pages=S3-8&rft.date=1999-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A29638422%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F10530675&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1528-1157.1999.tb00925.x&rft.aulast=Loiseau&rft.aufirst=Pierre+Jean-Marie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1111%252Fj.1528-1157.1999.tb00925.x&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnticonvulsant" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-NDA_202067-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-NDA_202067_52-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cder/daf/index.cfm?event=overview.process&ApplNo=202067">"New Drug Application (NDA) 202067"</a>. <i>Drugs@FDA</i>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 November</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=U.S.+Food+and+Drug+Administration+%28FDA%29&rft.atitle=Drug+Approval+Package%3A+Onfi+NDA+%23202067&rft.date=2013-08-20&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.accessdata.fda.gov%2Fdrugsatfda_docs%2Fnda%2F2011%2F202067Orig1s000TOC.cfm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnticonvulsant" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-NDA_017533-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-NDA_017533_54-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cder/daf/index.cfm?event=overview.process&ApplNo=017533">"New Drug Application (NDA) 017533"</a>. <i>Drugs@FDA</i>. 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U.S. <a href="/wiki/Food_and_Drug_Administration" title="Food and Drug Administration">Food and Drug Administration</a> (FDA). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201020134600/https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cder/daf/index.cfm?event=overview.process&ApplNo=022416">Archived</a> from the original on 20 October 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 November</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Drugs%40FDA&rft.atitle=New+Drug+Application+%28NDA%29+022416&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.accessdata.fda.gov%2Fscripts%2Fcder%2Fdaf%2Findex.cfm%3Fevent%3Doverview.process%26ApplNo%3D022416&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnticonvulsant" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/nda/2013/022416Orig1s000TOC.cfm">"Drug Approval Package: Brand Name (Generic Name) NDA #"</a>. <i>U.S. <a href="/wiki/Food_and_Drug_Administration" title="Food and Drug Administration">Food and Drug Administration</a> (FDA)</i>. 20 December 2013. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191122040059/https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/nda/2013/022416Orig1s000TOC.cfm">Archived</a> from the original on 22 November 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 November</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=U.S.+Food+and+Drug+Administration+%28FDA%29&rft.atitle=Drug+Approval+Package%3A+Brand+Name+%28Generic+Name%29+NDA+%23&rft.date=2013-12-20&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.accessdata.fda.gov%2Fdrugsatfda_docs%2Fnda%2F2013%2F022416Orig1s000TOC.cfm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnticonvulsant" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-NDA_012380-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-NDA_012380_59-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cder/daf/index.cfm?event=overview.process&ApplNo=012380">"New Drug Application (NDA) 012380"</a>. <i>Drugs@FDA</i>. U.S. <a href="/wiki/Food_and_Drug_Administration" title="Food and Drug Administration">Food and Drug Administration</a> (FDA). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171130231459/https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cder/daf/index.cfm?event=overview.process&ApplNo=012380">Archived</a> from the original on 30 November 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 November</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Drugs%40FDA&rft.atitle=New+Drug+Application+%28NDA%29+012380&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.accessdata.fda.gov%2Fscripts%2Fcder%2Fdaf%2Findex.cfm%3Fevent%3Doverview.process%26ApplNo%3D012380&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnticonvulsant" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-NDA_010841-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-NDA_010841_60-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cder/daf/index.cfm?event=overview.process&ApplNo=010841">"New Drug Application (NDA) 010841"</a>. <i>Drugs@FDA</i>. U.S. <a href="/wiki/Food_and_Drug_Administration" title="Food and Drug Administration">Food and Drug Administration</a> (FDA). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201019095022/https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cder/daf/index.cfm?event=overview.process&ApplNo=010841">Archived</a> from the original on 19 October 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 November</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Drugs%40FDA&rft.atitle=New+Drug+Application+%28NDA%29+010841&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.accessdata.fda.gov%2Fscripts%2Fcder%2Fdaf%2Findex.cfm%3Fevent%3Doverview.process%26ApplNo%3D010841&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnticonvulsant" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-NDA_022334-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-NDA_022334_61-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cder/daf/index.cfm?event=overview.process&ApplNo=022334">"New Drug Application (NDA) 022334"</a>. <i>Drugs@FDA</i>. U.S. <a href="/wiki/Food_and_Drug_Administration" title="Food and Drug Administration">Food and Drug Administration</a> (FDA). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201031140036/https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cder/daf/index.cfm?event=overview.process&ApplNo=022334">Archived</a> from the original on 31 October 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 November</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Drugs%40FDA&rft.atitle=New+Drug+Application+%28NDA%29+022334&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.accessdata.fda.gov%2Fscripts%2Fcder%2Fdaf%2Findex.cfm%3Fevent%3Doverview.process%26ApplNo%3D022334&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnticonvulsant" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-NDA_020189-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-NDA_020189_62-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cder/daf/index.cfm?event=overview.process&ApplNo=020189">"New Drug Application (NDA) 020189"</a>. <i>Drugs@FDA</i>. U.S. <a href="/wiki/Food_and_Drug_Administration" title="Food and Drug Administration">Food and Drug Administration</a> (FDA). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201021172553/https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cder/daf/index.cfm?event=overview.process&ApplNo=020189">Archived</a> from the original on 21 October 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 November</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Drugs%40FDA&rft.atitle=New+Drug+Application+%28NDA%29+020189&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.accessdata.fda.gov%2Fscripts%2Fcder%2Fdaf%2Findex.cfm%3Fevent%3Doverview.process%26ApplNo%3D020189&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnticonvulsant" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-NDA_020450-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-NDA_020450_63-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cder/daf/index.cfm?event=overview.process&ApplNo=020450">"New Drug Application (NDA) 020450"</a>. <i>Drugs@FDA</i>. U.S. <a href="/wiki/Food_and_Drug_Administration" title="Food and Drug Administration">Food and Drug Administration</a> (FDA). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201020182045/https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cder/daf/index.cfm?event=overview.process&ApplNo=020450">Archived</a> from the original on 20 October 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 November</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Drugs%40FDA&rft.atitle=New+Drug+Application+%28NDA%29+020450&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.accessdata.fda.gov%2Fscripts%2Fcder%2Fdaf%2Findex.cfm%3Fevent%3Doverview.process%26ApplNo%3D020450&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnticonvulsant" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-NDA_020235-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-NDA_020235_64-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cder/daf/index.cfm?event=overview.process&ApplNo=020235">"New Drug Application (NDA) 020235"</a>. <i>Drugs@FDA</i>. U.S. <a href="/wiki/Food_and_Drug_Administration" title="Food and Drug Administration">Food and Drug Administration</a> (FDA). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201019005440/https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cder/daf/index.cfm?event=overview.process&ApplNo=020235">Archived</a> from the original on 19 October 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 November</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Drugs%40FDA&rft.atitle=New+Drug+Application+%28NDA%29+020235&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.accessdata.fda.gov%2Fscripts%2Fcder%2Fdaf%2Findex.cfm%3Fevent%3Doverview.process%26ApplNo%3D020235&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnticonvulsant" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-NDA_022253-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-NDA_022253_65-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cder/daf/index.cfm?event=overview.process&ApplNo=022253">"New Drug Application (NDA) 022253"</a>. <i>Drugs@FDA</i>. U.S. <a href="/wiki/Food_and_Drug_Administration" title="Food and Drug Administration">Food and Drug Administration</a> (FDA). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201020110027/https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cder/daf/index.cfm?event=overview.process&ApplNo=022253">Archived</a> from the original on 20 October 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 November</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Drugs%40FDA&rft.atitle=New+Drug+Application+%28NDA%29+022253&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.accessdata.fda.gov%2Fscripts%2Fcder%2Fdaf%2Findex.cfm%3Fevent%3Doverview.process%26ApplNo%3D022253&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnticonvulsant" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-NDA_020241-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-NDA_020241_66-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cder/daf/index.cfm?event=overview.process&ApplNo=020241">"New Drug Application (NDA) 020241"</a>. <i>Drugs@FDA</i>. U.S. <a href="/wiki/Food_and_Drug_Administration" title="Food and Drug Administration">Food and Drug Administration</a> (FDA). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201024035351/https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cder/daf/index.cfm?event=overview.process&ApplNo=020241">Archived</a> from the original on 24 October 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 November</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Drugs%40FDA&rft.atitle=New+Drug+Application+%28NDA%29+020241&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.accessdata.fda.gov%2Fscripts%2Fcder%2Fdaf%2Findex.cfm%3Fevent%3Doverview.process%26ApplNo%3D020241&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnticonvulsant" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-NDA_021035-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-NDA_021035_67-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cder/daf/index.cfm?event=overview.process&ApplNo=021035">"New Drug Application (NDA) 021035"</a>. <i>Drugs@FDA</i>. U.S. <a href="/wiki/Food_and_Drug_Administration" title="Food and Drug Administration">Food and Drug Administration</a> (FDA). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201021171049/https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cder/daf/index.cfm?event=overview.process&ApplNo=021035">Archived</a> from the original on 21 October 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 November</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Drugs%40FDA&rft.atitle=New+Drug+Application+%28NDA%29+021035&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.accessdata.fda.gov%2Fscripts%2Fcder%2Fdaf%2Findex.cfm%3Fevent%3Doverview.process%26ApplNo%3D021035&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnticonvulsant" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-keppra-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-keppra_68-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-keppra_68-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.emea.europa.eu/humandocs/Humans/EPAR/keppra/keppra.htm">EPAR: Keppra.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090619081026/http://www.emea.europa.eu/humandocs/Humans/EPAR/keppra/keppra.htm">Archived</a> 19 June 2009 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Retrieved on 1 November 2007.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-NDA_006008-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-NDA_006008_69-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cder/daf/index.cfm?event=overview.process&ApplNo=006008">"New Drug Application (NDA) 006008"</a>. <i>Drugs@FDA</i>. U.S. <a href="/wiki/Food_and_Drug_Administration" title="Food and Drug Administration">Food and Drug Administration</a> (FDA). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201020185537/https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cder/daf/index.cfm?event=overview.process&ApplNo=006008">Archived</a> from the original on 20 October 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 November</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Drugs%40FDA&rft.atitle=New+Drug+Application+%28NDA%29+006008&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.accessdata.fda.gov%2Fscripts%2Fcder%2Fdaf%2Findex.cfm%3Fevent%3Doverview.process%26ApplNo%3D006008&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnticonvulsant" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-NDA_008322-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-NDA_008322_70-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cder/daf/index.cfm?event=overview.process&ApplNo=008322">"New Drug Application (NDA) 008322"</a>. <i>Drugs@FDA</i>. U.S. <a href="/wiki/Food_and_Drug_Administration" title="Food and Drug Administration">Food and Drug Administration</a> (FDA). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201019003157/https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cder/daf/index.cfm?event=overview.process&ApplNo=008322">Archived</a> from the original on 19 October 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 November</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Drugs%40FDA&rft.atitle=New+Drug+Application+%28NDA%29+008322&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.accessdata.fda.gov%2Fscripts%2Fcder%2Fdaf%2Findex.cfm%3Fevent%3Doverview.process%26ApplNo%3D008322&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnticonvulsant" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-renamed_from_0632060468_on_20081125071809-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-renamed_from_0632060468_on_20081125071809_71-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDodson,_W._EdwinGiuliano_AvanziniShorvon,_Simon_D.Fish,_David_R.2004" class="citation book cs1">Dodson, W. Edwin, Giuliano Avanzini, Shorvon, Simon D., Fish, David R., Emilio Perucca (2004). <i>The treatment of epilepsy</i>. Oxford: Blackwell Science. xxviii. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-632-06046-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-632-06046-7"><bdi>978-0-632-06046-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+treatment+of+epilepsy&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=xxviii&rft.pub=Blackwell+Science&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-632-06046-7&rft.au=Dodson%2C+W.+Edwin&rft.au=Giuliano+Avanzini&rft.au=Shorvon%2C+Simon+D.&rft.au=Fish%2C+David+R.&rft.au=Emilio+Perucca&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnticonvulsant" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-NDA_010596-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-NDA_010596_72-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cder/daf/index.cfm?event=overview.process&ApplNo=010596">"New Drug Application (NDA) 010596"</a>. <i>Drugs@FDA</i>. U.S. <a href="/wiki/Food_and_Drug_Administration" title="Food and Drug Administration">Food and Drug Administration</a> (FDA). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201019111530/https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cder/daf/index.cfm?event=overview.process&ApplNo=010596">Archived</a> from the original on 19 October 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 November</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Drugs%40FDA&rft.atitle=New+Drug+Application+%28NDA%29+010596&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.accessdata.fda.gov%2Fscripts%2Fcder%2Fdaf%2Findex.cfm%3Fevent%3Doverview.process%26ApplNo%3D010596&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnticonvulsant" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-NDA_011721-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-NDA_011721_73-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cder/daf/index.cfm?event=overview.process&ApplNo=011721">"New Drug Application (NDA) 011721"</a>. <i>Drugs@FDA</i>. U.S. <a href="/wiki/Food_and_Drug_Administration" title="Food and Drug Administration">Food and Drug Administration</a> (FDA). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201019013706/https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cder/daf/index.cfm?event=overview.process&ApplNo=011721">Archived</a> from the original on 19 October 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 November</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Drugs%40FDA&rft.atitle=New+Drug+Application+%28NDA%29+011721&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.accessdata.fda.gov%2Fscripts%2Fcder%2Fdaf%2Findex.cfm%3Fevent%3Doverview.process%26ApplNo%3D011721&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnticonvulsant" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-NDA_021014-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-NDA_021014_74-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cder/daf/index.cfm?event=overview.process&ApplNo=021014">"New Drug Application (NDA) 021014"</a>. <i>Drugs@FDA</i>. U.S. <a href="/wiki/Food_and_Drug_Administration" title="Food and Drug Administration">Food and Drug Administration</a> (FDA). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201019225416/https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cder/daf/index.cfm?event=overview.process&ApplNo=021014">Archived</a> from the original on 19 October 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 November</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Drugs%40FDA&rft.atitle=New+Drug+Application+%28NDA%29+021014&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.accessdata.fda.gov%2Fscripts%2Fcder%2Fdaf%2Findex.cfm%3Fevent%3Doverview.process%26ApplNo%3D021014&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnticonvulsant" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-NDA_008762-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-NDA_008762_75-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cder/daf/index.cfm?event=overview.process&ApplNo=008762">"New Drug Application (NDA) 008762"</a>. <i>Drugs@FDA</i>. U.S. <a href="/wiki/Food_and_Drug_Administration" title="Food and Drug Administration">Food and Drug Administration</a> (FDA). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201216113543/https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cder/daf/index.cfm?event=overview.process&ApplNo=008762">Archived</a> from the original on 16 December 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 November</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Drugs%40FDA&rft.atitle=New+Drug+Application+%28NDA%29+008762&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.accessdata.fda.gov%2Fscripts%2Fcder%2Fdaf%2Findex.cfm%3Fevent%3Doverview.process%26ApplNo%3D008762&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnticonvulsant" class="Z3988"></span> (Marketed in 1938, approved 1953)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-NDA_008855-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-NDA_008855_76-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cder/daf/index.cfm?event=overview.process&ApplNo=008855">"New Drug Application (NDA) 008855"</a>. <i>Drugs@FDA</i>. U.S. <a href="/wiki/Food_and_Drug_Administration" title="Food and Drug Administration">Food and Drug Administration</a> (FDA). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200726070022/https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cder/daf/index.cfm?event=overview.process&ApplNo=008855">Archived</a> from the original on 26 July 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 November</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Drugs%40FDA&rft.atitle=New+Drug+Application+%28NDA%29+008855&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.accessdata.fda.gov%2Fscripts%2Fcder%2Fdaf%2Findex.cfm%3Fevent%3Doverview.process%26ApplNo%3D008855&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnticonvulsant" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-isbn0824785495-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-isbn0824785495_77-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKutt,_HennResor,_Stanley_R.1992" class="citation book cs1">Kutt, Henn, Resor, Stanley R. (1992). <i>The Medical treatment of epilepsy</i>. New York: Dekker. p. 385. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8247-8549-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8247-8549-9"><bdi>978-0-8247-8549-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Medical+treatment+of+epilepsy&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=385&rft.pub=Dekker&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0-8247-8549-9&rft.au=Kutt%2C+Henn&rft.au=Resor%2C+Stanley+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnticonvulsant" class="Z3988"></span> (first usage)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-NDA_021446-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-NDA_021446_78-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cder/daf/index.cfm?event=overview.process&ApplNo=021446">"New Drug Application (NDA) 021446"</a>. <i>Drugs@FDA</i>. U.S. <a href="/wiki/Food_and_Drug_Administration" title="Food and Drug Administration">Food and Drug Administration</a> (FDA). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201020014353/https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cder/daf/index.cfm?event=overview.process&ApplNo=021446">Archived</a> from the original on 20 October 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 November</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Drugs%40FDA&rft.atitle=New+Drug+Application+%28NDA%29+021446&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.accessdata.fda.gov%2Fscripts%2Fcder%2Fdaf%2Findex.cfm%3Fevent%3Doverview.process%26ApplNo%3D021446&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnticonvulsant" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-lyrica-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-lyrica_79-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-lyrica_79-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.emea.europa.eu/humandocs/Humans/EPAR/lyrica/lyrica.htm">EPAR: Lyrica</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090621214027/http://www.emea.europa.eu/humandocs/Humans/EPAR/lyrica/lyrica.htm">Archived</a> 21 June 2009 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Retrieved on 1 November 2007.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-NDA_009170-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-NDA_009170_80-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cder/daf/index.cfm?event=overview.process&ApplNo=009170">"New Drug Application (NDA) 009170"</a>. <i>Drugs@FDA</i>. U.S. <a href="/wiki/Food_and_Drug_Administration" title="Food and Drug Administration">Food and Drug Administration</a> (FDA). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201024040212/https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cder/daf/index.cfm?event=overview.process&ApplNo=009170">Archived</a> from the original on 24 October 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 November</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Drugs%40FDA&rft.atitle=New+Drug+Application+%28NDA%29+009170&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.accessdata.fda.gov%2Fscripts%2Fcder%2Fdaf%2Findex.cfm%3Fevent%3Doverview.process%26ApplNo%3D009170&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnticonvulsant" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-NDA_021911-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-NDA_021911_81-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cder/daf/index.cfm?event=overview.process&ApplNo=021911">"New Drug Application (NDA) 021911"</a>. <i>Drugs@FDA</i>. U.S. <a href="/wiki/Food_and_Drug_Administration" title="Food and Drug Administration">Food and Drug Administration</a> (FDA). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201019205652/https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cder/daf/index.cfm?event=overview.process&ApplNo=021911">Archived</a> from the original on 19 October 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 November</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Drugs%40FDA&rft.atitle=New+Drug+Application+%28NDA%29+021911&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.accessdata.fda.gov%2Fscripts%2Fcder%2Fdaf%2Findex.cfm%3Fevent%3Doverview.process%26ApplNo%3D021911&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnticonvulsant" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/nda/2008/021911s000_TOC.cfm">"Drug Approval Package: Banzel (Rufinamide) NDA #021911"</a>. <i>U.S. <a href="/wiki/Food_and_Drug_Administration" title="Food and Drug Administration">Food and Drug Administration</a> (FDA)</i>. 30 May 2012. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191122035150/https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/nda/2008/021911s000_TOC.cfm">Archived</a> from the original on 22 November 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 November</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=U.S.+Food+and+Drug+Administration+%28FDA%29&rft.atitle=Drug+Approval+Package%3A+Banzel+%28Rufinamide%29+NDA+%23021911&rft.date=2012-05-30&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.accessdata.fda.gov%2Fdrugsatfda_docs%2Fnda%2F2008%2F021911s000_TOC.cfm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnticonvulsant" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-NDA_206709-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-NDA_206709_83-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cder/daf/index.cfm?event=overview.process&ApplNo=206709">"New Drug Application (NDA) 206709"</a>. <i>Drugs@FDA</i>. U.S. <a href="/wiki/Food_and_Drug_Administration" title="Food and Drug Administration">Food and Drug Administration</a> (FDA). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200726052816/https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cder/daf/index.cfm?event=overview.process&ApplNo=206709">Archived</a> from the original on 26 July 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 November</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Drugs%40FDA&rft.atitle=New+Drug+Application+%28NDA%29+206709&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.accessdata.fda.gov%2Fscripts%2Fcder%2Fdaf%2Findex.cfm%3Fevent%3Doverview.process%26ApplNo%3D206709&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnticonvulsant" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/nda/2018/206709Orig1s000,207223Orig1s000TOC.cfm">"Drug Approval Package: Diacomit (stiripentol)"</a>. <i>U.S. <a href="/wiki/Food_and_Drug_Administration" title="Food and Drug Administration">Food and Drug Administration</a> (FDA)</i>. 7 September 2018. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191122034549/https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/nda/2018/206709Orig1s000,207223Orig1s000TOC.cfm">Archived</a> from the original on 22 November 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 November</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=U.S.+Food+and+Drug+Administration+%28FDA%29&rft.atitle=Drug+Approval+Package%3A+Diacomit+%28stiripentol%29&rft.date=2018-09-07&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.accessdata.fda.gov%2Fdrugsatfda_docs%2Fnda%2F2018%2F206709Orig1s000%2C207223Orig1s000TOC.cfm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnticonvulsant" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-NDA_020646-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-NDA_020646_85-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cder/daf/index.cfm?event=overview.process&ApplNo=020646">"New Drug Application (NDA) 020646"</a>. <i>Drugs@FDA</i>. U.S. <a href="/wiki/Food_and_Drug_Administration" title="Food and Drug Administration">Food and Drug Administration</a> (FDA). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201216113439/https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cder/daf/index.cfm?event=overview.process&ApplNo=020646">Archived</a> from the original on 16 December 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 November</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Drugs%40FDA&rft.atitle=New+Drug+Application+%28NDA%29+020646&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.accessdata.fda.gov%2Fscripts%2Fcder%2Fdaf%2Findex.cfm%3Fevent%3Doverview.process%26ApplNo%3D020646&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnticonvulsant" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-DrugPatentWatch_NDA020646-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-DrugPatentWatch_NDA020646_86-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.drugpatentwatch.com/p/NDA/020646">"NDA: 020646"</a>. DrugPatentWatch. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210323210249/https://www.drugpatentwatch.com/p/NDA/020646">Archived</a> from the original on 23 March 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 May</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=NDA%3A+020646&rft.pub=DrugPatentWatch&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.drugpatentwatch.com%2Fp%2FNDA%2F020646&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnticonvulsant" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-NDA_020505-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-NDA_020505_87-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cder/daf/index.cfm?event=overview.process&ApplNo=020505">"New Drug Application (NDA) 020505"</a>. <i>Drugs@FDA</i>. U.S. <a href="/wiki/Food_and_Drug_Administration" title="Food and Drug Administration">Food and Drug Administration</a> (FDA). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201019065027/https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cder/daf/index.cfm?event=overview.process&ApplNo=020505">Archived</a> from the original on 19 October 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 November</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Drugs%40FDA&rft.atitle=New+Drug+Application+%28NDA%29+020505&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.accessdata.fda.gov%2Fscripts%2Fcder%2Fdaf%2Findex.cfm%3Fevent%3Doverview.process%26ApplNo%3D020505&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnticonvulsant" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-NDA_005856-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-NDA_005856_88-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cder/daf/index.cfm?event=overview.process&ApplNo=005856">"New Drug Application (NDA) 005856"</a>. <i>Drugs@FDA</i>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 November</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Drugs%40FDA&rft.atitle=New+Drug+Application+%28NDA%29+005856&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.accessdata.fda.gov%2Fscripts%2Fcder%2Fdaf%2Findex.cfm%3Fevent%3Doverview.process%26ApplNo%3D005856&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnticonvulsant" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-NDA_018081-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-NDA_018081_89-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cder/daf/index.cfm?event=overview.process&ApplNo=018081">"New Drug Application (NDA) 018081"</a>. <i>Drugs@FDA</i>. 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"Effects of lamotrigine alone and in combination with MK-801, phenobarbital, or phenytoin on cell death in the neonatal rat brain". <i>J Pharmacol Exp Ther</i>. <b>322</b> (2): 494–500. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1124%2Fjpet.107.123133">10.1124/jpet.107.123133</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17483293">17483293</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:12741109">12741109</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=J+Pharmacol+Exp+Ther&rft.atitle=Effects+of+lamotrigine+alone+and+in+combination+with+MK-801%2C+phenobarbital%2C+or+phenytoin+on+cell+death+in+the+neonatal+rat+brain&rft.volume=322&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=494-500&rft.date=2007-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A12741109%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17483293&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1124%2Fjpet.107.123133&rft.aulast=Katz&rft.aufirst=I&rft.au=Kim%2C+J&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnticonvulsant" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kim-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Kim_106-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKimKondratyevGale2007" class="citation journal cs1">Kim J, Kondratyev A, Gale K (October 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2789311">"Antiepileptic drug-induced neuronal cell death in the immature brain: effects of carbamazepine, topiramate, and levetiracetam as monotherapy versus polytherapy"</a>. <i>J Pharmacol Exp Ther</i>. <b>323</b> (1): 165–73. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1124%2Fjpet.107.126250">10.1124/jpet.107.126250</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2789311">2789311</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17636003">17636003</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=J+Pharmacol+Exp+Ther&rft.atitle=Antiepileptic+drug-induced+neuronal+cell+death+in+the+immature+brain%3A+effects+of+carbamazepine%2C+topiramate%2C+and+levetiracetam+as+monotherapy+versus+polytherapy&rft.volume=323&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=165-73&rft.date=2007-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2789311%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17636003&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1124%2Fjpet.107.126250&rft.aulast=Kim&rft.aufirst=J&rft.au=Kondratyev%2C+A&rft.au=Gale%2C+K&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2789311&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnticonvulsant" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Forcelli-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Forcelli_107-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFForcelliKim2011" class="citation journal cs1">Forcelli PA, Kim J, et al. (December 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3230752">"Pattern of antiepileptic drug-induced cell death in limbic regions of the neonatal rat brain"</a>. <i>Epilepsia</i>. <b>52</b> (12): e207–11. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1528-1167.2011.03297.x">10.1111/j.1528-1167.2011.03297.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3230752">3230752</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22050285">22050285</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Epilepsia&rft.atitle=Pattern+of+antiepileptic+drug-induced+cell+death+in+limbic+regions+of+the+neonatal+rat+brain&rft.volume=52&rft.issue=12&rft.pages=e207-11&rft.date=2011-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3230752%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F22050285&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1528-1167.2011.03297.x&rft.aulast=Forcelli&rft.aufirst=PA&rft.au=Kim%2C+J&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3230752&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnticonvulsant" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anticonvulsant&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Anti epileptic activity of novel substituted fluorothiazole derivatives by Devid Chutia, RGUHS</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anticonvulsant&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.neurotransmitter.net/epilepsy_drug_reference.html">Drug Reference for FDA Approved Epilepsy Drugs</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output 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navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Anticonvulsants" title="Template:Anticonvulsants"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Anticonvulsants" title="Template talk:Anticonvulsants"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Anticonvulsants" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Anticonvulsants"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Anticonvulsants_(N03)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Anticonvulsants</a> (<a href="/wiki/ATC_code_N03" title="ATC code N03">N03</a>)</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/GABAergic" title="GABAergic">GABAergics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/GABAA_receptor" title="GABAA receptor">GABA<sub>A</sub>R</a> <a href="/wiki/Allosteric_modulator" title="Allosteric modulator">PAMs</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Barbiturate" title="Barbiturate">Barbiturates</a>:</b> <a href="/wiki/Barbexaclone" title="Barbexaclone">Barbexaclone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metharbital" title="Metharbital">Metharbital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methylphenobarbital" title="Methylphenobarbital">Methylphenobarbital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pentobarbital" title="Pentobarbital">Pentobarbital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenobarbital" title="Phenobarbital">Phenobarbital</a><sup>#</sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primidone" title="Primidone">Primidone</a>; <b><a href="/wiki/Carbamate" title="Carbamate">Carbamates</a></b>: <a href="/wiki/Cenobamate" title="Cenobamate">Cenobamate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Felbamate" title="Felbamate">Felbamate</a>; <b><a href="/wiki/Benzodiazepine" title="Benzodiazepine">Benzodiazepines</a></b>: <a href="/wiki/Clobazam" title="Clobazam">Clobazam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clonazepam" title="Clonazepam">Clonazepam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clorazepate" title="Clorazepate">Clorazepate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diazepam" title="Diazepam">Diazepam</a><sup>#</sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lorazepam" title="Lorazepam">Lorazepam</a><sup>#</sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Midazolam" title="Midazolam">Midazolam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nimetazepam" title="Nimetazepam">Nimetazepam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nitrazepam" title="Nitrazepam">Nitrazepam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temazepam" title="Temazepam">Temazepam</a>; <b>Others:</b> <a href="/wiki/Bromide" title="Bromide">Bromide</a> (<a href="/wiki/Potassium_bromide" title="Potassium bromide">potassium bromide</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sodium_bromide" title="Sodium bromide">sodium bromide</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imepitoin" title="Imepitoin">Imepitoin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paraldehyde" title="Paraldehyde">Paraldehyde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stiripentol" title="Stiripentol">Stiripentol</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/GABA_transaminase_inhibitor" title="GABA transaminase inhibitor">GABA-T inhibitors</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Fatty_acid" title="Fatty acid">Fatty acids</a> (and related):</b> <a href="/wiki/Valproate" title="Valproate">Valproate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valpromide" title="Valpromide">Valpromide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valproate_pivoxil" title="Valproate pivoxil">Valproate pivoxil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vigabatrin" title="Vigabatrin">Vigabatrin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/GABA_receptor_agonist" title="GABA receptor agonist">GABAR agonists</a></b>: <a href="/wiki/Progabide" title="Progabide">Progabide</a>; <b><a href="/wiki/GABA_reuptake_inhibitor" title="GABA reuptake inhibitor">GAT-1 inhibitors</a>:</b> <a href="/wiki/Tiagabine" title="Tiagabine">Tiagabine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Channel_modulator" title="Channel modulator">Channel<br />modulators</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sodium_channel_blocker" title="Sodium channel blocker">Sodium blockers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Hydantoin" title="Hydantoin">Hydantoins</a>:</b> <a href="/wiki/Ethotoin" title="Ethotoin">Ethotoin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fosphenytoin" title="Fosphenytoin">Fosphenytoin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mephenytoin" title="Mephenytoin">Mephenytoin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenytoin" title="Phenytoin">Phenytoin</a><sup>#</sup>; <b><a href="/wiki/Acylurea" title="Acylurea">Ureides</a>:</b> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Acetylpheneturide&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Acetylpheneturide (page does not exist)">Acetylpheneturide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chlorphenacemide" title="Chlorphenacemide">Chlorphenacemide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenacemide" title="Phenacemide">Phenacemide</a><sup>‡</sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pheneturide" title="Pheneturide">Pheneturide</a>; <b><a href="/wiki/Fatty_acid" title="Fatty acid">Fatty acids</a>:</b> <a href="/wiki/Valproate" title="Valproate">Valproate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valpromide" title="Valpromide">Valpromide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valproate_pivoxil" title="Valproate pivoxil">Valproate pivoxil</a>; <b><a href="/wiki/Carboxamide" class="mw-redirect" title="Carboxamide">Carboxamides</a>:</b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbamazepine" title="Carbamazepine">Carbamazepine</a><sup>#</sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eslicarbazepine_acetate" title="Eslicarbazepine acetate">Eslicarbazepine acetate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxcarbazepine" title="Oxcarbazepine">Oxcarbazepine</a>; <b>Others:</b> <a href="/wiki/Lacosamide" title="Lacosamide">Lacosamide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lamotrigine" title="Lamotrigine">Lamotrigine</a><sup>#</sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rufinamide" title="Rufinamide">Rufinamide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Topiramate" title="Topiramate">Topiramate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zonisamide" title="Zonisamide">Zonisamide</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Calcium_channel_blocker" title="Calcium channel blocker">Calcium blockers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/2,4-Oxazolidinedione" title="2,4-Oxazolidinedione">Oxazolidinediones</a>:</b> <a href="/wiki/Ethadione" title="Ethadione">Ethadione</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paramethadione" title="Paramethadione">Paramethadione</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trimethadione" title="Trimethadione">Trimethadione</a>; <b><a href="/wiki/Succinimide" title="Succinimide">Succinimides</a></b>: <a href="/wiki/Ethosuximide" title="Ethosuximide">Ethosuximide</a><sup>#</sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesuximide" title="Mesuximide">Mesuximide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phensuximide" title="Phensuximide">Phensuximide</a>; <b><a href="/wiki/Gabapentinoid" title="Gabapentinoid">Gabapentinoids</a>:</b> <a href="/wiki/Gabapentin" title="Gabapentin">Gabapentin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pregabalin" title="Pregabalin">Pregabalin</a>; <b>Others:</b> <a href="/wiki/Imepitoin" title="Imepitoin">Imepitoin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lamotrigine" title="Lamotrigine">Lamotrigine</a><sup>#</sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Topiramate" title="Topiramate">Topiramate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zonisamide" title="Zonisamide">Zonisamide</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Potassium_channel_opener" title="Potassium channel opener">Potassium openers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Retigabine" title="Retigabine">Retigabine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Carbonic_anhydrase_inhibitor" title="Carbonic anhydrase inhibitor">CA inhibitors</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Sulfonamide_(medicine)#Anticonvulsant" title="Sulfonamide (medicine)">Sulfonamides</a>:</b> <a href="/wiki/Acetazolamide" title="Acetazolamide">Acetazolamide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethoxzolamide" title="Ethoxzolamide">Ethoxzolamide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sultiame" title="Sultiame">Sultiame</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Topiramate" title="Topiramate">Topiramate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zonisamide" title="Zonisamide">Zonisamide</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Albutoin" title="Albutoin">Albutoin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beclamide" title="Beclamide">Beclamide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brivaracetam" title="Brivaracetam">Brivaracetam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cannabidiol" title="Cannabidiol">Cannabidiol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carisbamate" title="Carisbamate">Carisbamate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etiracetam" title="Etiracetam">Etiracetam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fenfluramine" title="Fenfluramine">Fenfluramine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ganaxolone" title="Ganaxolone">Ganaxolone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Levetiracetam" title="Levetiracetam">Levetiracetam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perampanel" title="Perampanel">Perampanel</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background: transparent; padding: 0px;"><div><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><sup>#</sup><a href="/wiki/WHO_Model_List_of_Essential_Medicines" title="WHO Model List of Essential Medicines">WHO-EM</a></li> <li><sup>‡</sup><a href="/wiki/List_of_withdrawn_drugs" title="List of withdrawn drugs">Withdrawn</a> from market</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clinical_trial" title="Clinical trial">Clinical trials</a>: <ul><li><sup>†</sup><a href="/wiki/Phases_of_clinical_research#Phase_III" title="Phases of clinical research">Phase III</a></li> <li><sup>§</sup>Never to phase III</li></ul></li></ul> </div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Major_chemical_drug_groups_–_based_upon_the_Anatomical_Therapeutic_Chemical_Classification_System" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Major_drug_groups" title="Template:Major drug groups"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Major_drug_groups" title="Template talk:Major drug groups"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Major_drug_groups" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Major drug groups"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Major_chemical_drug_groups_–_based_upon_the_Anatomical_Therapeutic_Chemical_Classification_System" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Major chemical drug groups – based upon the <a href="/wiki/Anatomical_Therapeutic_Chemical_Classification_System" title="Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical Classification System">Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical Classification System</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Human_gastrointestinal_tract" class="mw-redirect" title="Human gastrointestinal tract">gastrointestinal tract</a><br />/ <a href="/wiki/Metabolism" title="Metabolism">metabolism</a> (<a href="/wiki/ATC_code_A" title="ATC code A">A</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i>stomach acid</i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antacid" title="Antacid">Antacids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H2_antagonist" class="mw-redirect" title="H2 antagonist">H<sub>2</sub> antagonists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proton-pump_inhibitor" title="Proton-pump inhibitor">Proton-pump inhibitors</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antiemetic" title="Antiemetic">Antiemetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laxative" title="Laxative">Laxatives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antidiarrhoeal" class="mw-redirect" title="Antidiarrhoeal">Antidiarrhoeals</a> / <a href="/wiki/Antipropulsive" title="Antipropulsive">Antipropulsives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-obesity_medication" title="Anti-obesity medication">Anti-obesity drugs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diabetes_medication" title="Diabetes medication">Diabetes medication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitamin" title="Vitamin">Vitamins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dietary_mineral" class="mw-redirect" title="Dietary mineral">Dietary minerals</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Blood" title="Blood">blood</a> and blood<br />forming organs (<a href="/wiki/ATC_code_B" title="ATC code B">B</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antithrombotic" title="Antithrombotic">Antithrombotics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antiplatelet_drug" title="Antiplatelet drug">Antiplatelets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anticoagulant" title="Anticoagulant">Anticoagulants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thrombolytic_drug" class="mw-redirect" title="Thrombolytic drug">Thrombolytics / fibrinolytics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antihemorrhagic" title="Antihemorrhagic">Antihemorrhagics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Platelet" title="Platelet">Platelets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coagulation" title="Coagulation">Coagulants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antifibrinolytic" title="Antifibrinolytic">Antifibrinolytics</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Circulatory_system" title="Circulatory system">cardiovascular<br />system</a> (<a href="/wiki/ATC_code_C" title="ATC code C">C</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i>cardiac therapy / <a href="/wiki/Antianginal" title="Antianginal">antianginals</a></i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cardiac_glycoside" title="Cardiac glycoside">Cardiac glycosides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antiarrhythmic_agent" title="Antiarrhythmic agent">Antiarrhythmics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cardiac_stimulant" title="Cardiac stimulant">Cardiac stimulants</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antihypertensive_drug" class="mw-redirect" title="Antihypertensive drug">Antihypertensives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diuretic" title="Diuretic">Diuretics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vasodilation" title="Vasodilation">Vasodilators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beta_blocker" title="Beta blocker">Beta blockers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calcium_channel_blocker" title="Calcium channel blocker">Calcium channel blockers</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Renin%E2%80%93angiotensin_system" title="Renin–angiotensin system">renin–angiotensin system</a></i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/ACE_inhibitor" title="ACE inhibitor">ACE inhibitors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angiotensin_II_receptor_antagonist" class="mw-redirect" title="Angiotensin II receptor antagonist">Angiotensin II receptor antagonists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renin_inhibitor" title="Renin inhibitor">Renin inhibitors</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypolipidemic_agent" class="mw-redirect" title="Hypolipidemic agent">Antihyperlipidemics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Statin" title="Statin">Statins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fibrate" title="Fibrate">Fibrates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bile_acid_sequestrant" title="Bile acid sequestrant">Bile acid sequestrants</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Human_skin" title="Human skin">skin</a> (<a href="/wiki/ATC_code_D" title="ATC code D">D</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emollient" class="mw-redirect" title="Emollient">Emollients</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cicatrizant" class="mw-redirect" title="Cicatrizant">Cicatrizants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antipruritic" title="Antipruritic">Antipruritics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antipsoriatic" class="mw-redirect" title="Antipsoriatic">Antipsoriatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ATC_code_D09" title="ATC code D09">Medicated dressings</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Genitourinary_system" title="Genitourinary system">genitourinary<br />system</a> (<a href="/wiki/ATC_code_G" title="ATC code G">G</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hormonal_contraception" title="Hormonal contraception">Hormonal contraception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fertility_medication" title="Fertility medication">Fertility agents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selective_estrogen_receptor_modulator" title="Selective estrogen receptor modulator">Selective estrogen receptor modulators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_steroid" class="mw-redirect" title="Sex steroid">Sex hormones</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Endocrine_system" title="Endocrine system">endocrine<br />system</a> (<a href="/wiki/ATC_code_H" title="ATC code H">H</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hypothalamic%E2%80%93pituitary_hormone" title="Hypothalamic–pituitary hormone">Hypothalamic–pituitary hormones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corticosteroid" title="Corticosteroid">Corticosteroids</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glucocorticoid" title="Glucocorticoid">Glucocorticoids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mineralocorticoid" title="Mineralocorticoid">Mineralocorticoids</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_steroid" class="mw-redirect" title="Sex steroid">Sex hormones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thyroid_hormone" class="mw-redirect" title="Thyroid hormone">Thyroid hormones</a> / <a href="/wiki/Antithyroid_agent" title="Antithyroid agent">Antithyroid agents</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Infection" title="Infection">infections</a> and<br /><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/infestation" class="extiw" title="wikt:infestation">infestations</a> (<a href="/wiki/ATC_code_J" title="ATC code J">J</a>, <a href="/wiki/ATC_code_P" title="ATC code P">P</a>, <a href="/wiki/ATCvet_code_QI" title="ATCvet code QI">QI</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antimicrobial" title="Antimicrobial">Antimicrobials</a>: <a href="/wiki/Antibacterial" class="mw-redirect" title="Antibacterial">Antibacterials</a> (<a href="/wiki/Antimycobacterial" title="Antimycobacterial">Antimycobacterials</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antifungal_drug" class="mw-redirect" title="Antifungal drug">Antifungals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antiviral_drug" title="Antiviral drug">Antivirals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antiparasitic" title="Antiparasitic">Antiparasitics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antiprotozoal_agent" class="mw-redirect" title="Antiprotozoal agent">Antiprotozoals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthelmintic" title="Anthelmintic">Anthelmintics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ectoparasiticide" title="Ectoparasiticide">Ectoparasiticides</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intravenous_immunoglobulin" class="mw-redirect" title="Intravenous immunoglobulin">Intravenous immunoglobulin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaccine" title="Vaccine">Vaccines</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Malignant" class="mw-redirect" title="Malignant">malignant</a> disease<br />(<a href="/wiki/ATC_code_L" title="ATC code L">L01–L02</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chemotherapy" title="Chemotherapy">Anticancer agents</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antimetabolite" title="Antimetabolite">Antimetabolites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alkylating_antineoplastic_agent" title="Alkylating antineoplastic agent">Alkylating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spindle_poison" title="Spindle poison">Spindle poisons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antineoplastic" class="mw-redirect" title="Antineoplastic">Antineoplastic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Topoisomerase_inhibitor" title="Topoisomerase inhibitor">Topoisomerase inhibitors</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Immune_system" title="Immune system">immune</a> disease<br />(<a href="/wiki/ATC_code_L" title="ATC code L">L03–L04</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Immunomodulator" class="mw-redirect" title="Immunomodulator">Immunomodulators</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Immunostimulant" title="Immunostimulant">Immunostimulants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immunosuppressive_drug" title="Immunosuppressive drug">Immunosuppressants</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Muscle" title="Muscle">muscles</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bone" title="Bone">bones</a>,<br />and <a href="/wiki/Joint" title="Joint">joints</a> (<a href="/wiki/ATC_code_M" title="ATC code M">M</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anabolic_steroid" title="Anabolic steroid">Anabolic steroids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-inflammatory" title="Anti-inflammatory">Anti-inflammatories</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Non-steroidal_anti-inflammatory_drug" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug">Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disease-modifying_antirheumatic_drug" title="Disease-modifying antirheumatic drug">Antirheumatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corticosteroid" title="Corticosteroid">Corticosteroids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muscle_relaxant" title="Muscle relaxant">Muscle relaxants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bisphosphonate" title="Bisphosphonate">Bisphosphonates</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Human_brain" title="Human brain">brain</a> and<br /><a href="/wiki/Nervous_system" title="Nervous system">nervous system</a> (<a href="/wiki/ATC_code_N" title="ATC code N">N</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Analgesic" title="Analgesic">Analgesics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anesthetic" title="Anesthetic">Anesthetics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/General_anaesthetic" title="General anaesthetic">General</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Local_anesthetic" title="Local anesthetic">Local</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anorectic" title="Anorectic">Anorectics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antihyperkinetic" class="mw-redirect" title="Antihyperkinetic">Anti-ADHD agents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Addiction_medicine" title="Addiction medicine">Antiaddictives</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Anticonvulsants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antidementia_drug" class="mw-redirect" title="Antidementia drug">Antidementia agents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antidepressant" title="Antidepressant">Antidepressants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antimigraine_drug" title="Antimigraine drug">Antimigraine agents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Management_of_Parkinson%27s_disease#Medication" title="Management of Parkinson's disease">Antiparkinson agents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antipsychotic" title="Antipsychotic">Antipsychotics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anxiolytic" title="Anxiolytic">Anxiolytics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aphrodisiac" title="Aphrodisiac">Aphrodisiacs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Depressant" title="Depressant">Depressants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entactogen" class="mw-redirect" title="Entactogen">Entactogens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entheogen" title="Entheogen">Entheogens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euphoria" title="Euphoria">Euphoriants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychedelics,_dissociatives_and_deliriants" class="mw-redirect" 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