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class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Duns_Scotus"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Duns Scotus</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Duns_Scotus-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-William_of_Ockham" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#William_of_Ockham"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5</span> <span>William of Ockham</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-William_of_Ockham-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Modern</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Modern-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon 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class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>The classic trio of British empiricists</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_classic_trio_of_British_empiricists-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-John_Locke" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#John_Locke"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.1</span> <span>John Locke</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-John_Locke-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-George_Berkeley" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#George_Berkeley"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.2</span> <span>George Berkeley</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-George_Berkeley-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-David_Hume" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#David_Hume"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.3</span> <span>David Hume</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-David_Hume-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Adam_Smith" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Adam_Smith"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Adam Smith</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Adam_Smith-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-19th_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#19th_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>19th century</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-19th_century-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle 19th century subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-19th_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Jeremy_Bentham" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Jeremy_Bentham"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Jeremy Bentham</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Jeremy_Bentham-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-John_Stuart_Mill" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#John_Stuart_Mill"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>John Stuart Mill</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-John_Stuart_Mill-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Henry_Sidgwick" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Henry_Sidgwick"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Henry Sidgwick</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Henry_Sidgwick-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-British_idealism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#British_idealism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>British idealism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-British_idealism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-20th_century_and_beyond" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#20th_century_and_beyond"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>20th century and beyond</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-20th_century_and_beyond-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle 20th century and beyond subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-20th_century_and_beyond-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Analytic_philosophy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Analytic_philosophy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Analytic philosophy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Analytic_philosophy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-G._E._Moore" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#G._E._Moore"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1.1</span> <span>G. E. Moore</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-G._E._Moore-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bertrand_Russell" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bertrand_Russell"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1.2</span> <span>Bertrand Russell</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bertrand_Russell-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-A._J._Ayer" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#A._J._Ayer"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1.3</span> <span>A. J. Ayer</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-A._J._Ayer-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ordinary_language_philosophy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ordinary_language_philosophy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1.4</span> <span>Ordinary language philosophy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ordinary_language_philosophy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Contemporary_times" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Contemporary_times"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Contemporary times</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Contemporary_times-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">British philosophy</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. 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interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%B0ngilis_f%C9%99ls%C9%99f%C9%99si" title="İngilis fəlsəfəsi – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="İngilis fəlsəfəsi" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Britisk_filosofi" title="Britisk filosofi – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Britisk filosofi" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%81%D9%87_%D8%A8%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C%D8%A7%DB%8C%DB%8C" title="فلسفه بریتانیایی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="فلسفه بریتانیایی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophie_britannique" title="Philosophie britannique – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Philosophie britannique" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A4%D7%99%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%A1%D7%95%D7%A4%D7%99%D7%94_%D7%91%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%98%D7%99%D7%AA" title="פילוסופיה בריטית – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="פילוסופיה בריטית" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D2%93%D1%8B%D0%BB%D1%88%D1%8B%D0%BD_%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F%D1%81%D1%8B" title="Ағылшын философиясы – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Ағылшын философиясы" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C%D8%A7%DB%8C%D9%8A_%D9%81%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%81%D9%87" title="بریتانیایي فلسفه – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="بریتانیایي فلسفه" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Английская философия – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Английская философия" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Britsk%C3%A1_filozofia" title="Britská filozofia – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Britská filozofia" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%8A%E0%B8%8D%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%9A%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%8A" title="ปรัชญาบริติช – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ปรัชญาบริติช" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Britanya_felsefesi" title="Britanya felsefesi – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Britanya felsefesi" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%8B%B1%E5%9C%8B%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8" title="英國哲學 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="英國哲學" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q1074689#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div 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src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/David_Hume.jpg/220px-David_Hume.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="267" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/David_Hume.jpg/330px-David_Hume.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/David_Hume.jpg/440px-David_Hume.jpg 2x" data-file-width="825" data-file-height="1000" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a>, a profoundly influential 18th-century Scottish philosopher</figcaption></figure> <p><b>British philosophy</b> refers to the <a href="/wiki/Philosophical" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophical">philosophical</a> tradition of the <a href="/wiki/British_people" title="British people">British people</a>. "The native characteristics of British philosophy are these: common sense, dislike of complication, a strong preference for the concrete over the abstract and a certain awkward honesty of method in which an occasional pearl of poetry is embedded".<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Medieval">Medieval</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=British_philosophy&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Medieval"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Anselm_of_Canterbury">Anselm of Canterbury</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=British_philosophy&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Anselm of Canterbury"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Anselm_of_Canterbury" title="Anselm of Canterbury">Anselm of Canterbury</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Anselm_of_Canterbury.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Anselm_of_Canterbury.jpg/200px-Anselm_of_Canterbury.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="221" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Anselm_of_Canterbury.jpg/300px-Anselm_of_Canterbury.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/59/Anselm_of_Canterbury.jpg 2x" data-file-width="391" data-file-height="432" /></a><figcaption>A colourised 16th-century portrait of <a href="/wiki/Anselm,_Archbishop_of_Canterbury" class="mw-redirect" title="Anselm, Archbishop of Canterbury">Anselm, Archbishop of Canterbury</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Saint Anselm of Canterbury (c. 1033 – 1109) was an important philosopher and theologian of the Catholic Church, who held the office of <a href="/wiki/Archbishop_of_Canterbury" title="Archbishop of Canterbury">Archbishop of Canterbury</a> from 1093 to 1109. Anselm is famed as the originator of the ontological argument for the existence of God and of the satisfaction theory of atonement. Anselm's works are considered philosophical as well as theological since they endeavour to render Christian tenets of faith, traditionally taken as a revealed truth, as a rational system.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="William_of_Sherwood">William of Sherwood</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=British_philosophy&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: William of Sherwood"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/William_of_Sherwood" title="William of Sherwood">William of Sherwood</a></div> <p>William of Sherwood (<span title="circa">c.</span><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1200</span> – c.<span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1272</span>) was a <a href="/wiki/Medieval" class="mw-redirect" title="Medieval">medieval</a> <a href="/wiki/English_people" title="English people">English</a> <a href="/wiki/Scholastic_philosopher" class="mw-redirect" title="Scholastic philosopher">scholastic philosopher</a>, <a href="/wiki/Logician" class="mw-redirect" title="Logician">logician</a>, and teacher. Little is known of his life, but he is thought to have studied in <a href="/wiki/Paris" title="Paris">Paris</a> and he was a master at <a href="/wiki/Oxford" title="Oxford">Oxford</a> in 1252. He was the author of two books which were an important influence on the development of <a href="/wiki/Scholastic_logic" class="mw-redirect" title="Scholastic logic">scholastic logic</a>: <i>Introductiones in Logicam</i> (Introduction to Logic), and <i><a href="/wiki/Syncategorematic_term" title="Syncategorematic term">Syncategoremata</a></i>. These are the first known works to deal in a systematic way with what is now called <a href="/wiki/Supposition_theory" title="Supposition theory">supposition theory</a>, and were influential on the development of logic in both England and on the continent. According to <a href="/wiki/Roger_Bacon" title="Roger Bacon">Roger Bacon</a>, Sherwood was among "the more famous wise men of Christendom", of whom he names another as <a href="/wiki/Albertus_Magnus" title="Albertus Magnus">Albertus Magnus</a>. Bacon judged Sherwood to be "much wiser than Albert".<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Roger_Bacon">Roger Bacon</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=British_philosophy&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Roger Bacon"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Roger_Bacon" title="Roger Bacon">Roger Bacon</a></div> <p>Roger Bacon (c. 1214–1294), also known as Doctor Mirabilis (<a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a>: "Wondrous Doctor"), was an <a href="/wiki/England" title="England">English</a> <a href="/wiki/Philosopher" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosopher">philosopher</a> and <a href="/wiki/Franciscan" class="mw-redirect" title="Franciscan">Franciscan</a> friar who placed considerable emphasis on empirical methods. He is sometimes credited as one of the earliest <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">European</a> advocates of the modern <a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">scientific method</a><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> inspired by the works of <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a> and <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> via early <a href="/wiki/Islamic_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic science">Islamic scientists</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Avicenna</a> and <a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Averroes</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Duns_Scotus">Duns Scotus</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=British_philosophy&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Duns Scotus"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Duns_Scotus" title="Duns Scotus">Duns Scotus</a></div> <p>John Duns Scotus (c. 1265 – 8 November 1308) was an important philosopher and theologian of the <a href="/wiki/High_Middle_Ages" title="High Middle Ages">High Middle Ages</a>. Scotus was born around 1265,<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> at <a href="/wiki/Duns,_Scottish_Borders" title="Duns, Scottish Borders">Duns</a>, in <a href="/wiki/Berwickshire" title="Berwickshire">Berwickshire</a>, <a href="/wiki/Scotland" title="Scotland">Scotland</a>. In 1291 he was ordained as a priest in <a href="/wiki/Northampton,_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Northampton, England">Northampton</a>, <a href="/wiki/England" title="England">England</a>. A note in Codex 66 of <a href="/wiki/Merton_College,_Oxford" title="Merton College, Oxford">Merton College, Oxford</a>, records that Scotus "flourished at <a href="/wiki/Cambridge,_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Cambridge, England">Cambridge</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oxford,_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxford, England">Oxford</a> and <a href="/wiki/Paris" title="Paris">Paris</a>". He died in <a href="/wiki/Cologne" title="Cologne">Cologne</a> in 1308. He is buried in the "Minoritenkirche", the Church of the <a href="/wiki/Franciscans" title="Franciscans">Franciscans</a> (or Minor Friars) in Cologne. He was <a href="/wiki/Beatification" title="Beatification">beatified</a> by <a href="/wiki/Pope_John_Paul_II" title="Pope John Paul II">Pope John Paul II</a> on 20 March 1993. </p><p>Nicknamed <i>Doctor Subtilis</i> (<i>the subtle doctor</i>), he is well known for the "univocity of being," the formal distinction, and the idea of <a href="/wiki/Haecceity" title="Haecceity">haecceity</a>. The univocity of being holds that existence is the most abstract concept we have and is applicable to everything that exists. The formal distinction is a way of distinguishing between different aspects of the same thing such that the distinction is intermediate between what is merely conceptual, and what is fully real or mind-independent. Haecceity (from the <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> <i>haecceitas</i>) is the idea of "thisness," a concept which denotes the discrete qualities, properties or characteristics of a thing which make it a particular thing. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="William_of_Ockham">William of Ockham</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=British_philosophy&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: William of Ockham"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/William_of_Ockham" title="William of Ockham">William of Ockham</a></div> <p>William of Ockham (c. 1288 – c. 1348) was an <a href="/wiki/England" title="England">English</a> <a href="/wiki/Franciscan" class="mw-redirect" title="Franciscan">Franciscan</a> <a href="/wiki/Friar" title="Friar">friar</a> and <a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">scholastic</a> <a href="/wiki/Philosopher" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosopher">philosopher</a>. He is perhaps most well known for his principle of parsimony, famously known as <a href="/wiki/Occam%27s_razor" title="Occam's razor">Occam's razor</a>. This actual term is claimed not to appear in his writings,<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but rather summarizes the principle he expressed in passages such as <i><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/William_of_Occam" class="extiw" title="q:William of Occam">Numquam ponenda est pluralitas sine necessitate</a> [Plurality must never be posited without necessity]</i><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Britannica_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Britannica-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <i>Frustra fit per plura quod potest fieri per pauciora (It is futile to do with more things that which can be done with fewer)</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Generally it refers to distinguishing between two hypotheses either by "shaving away" unnecessary assumptions or cutting apart two similar conclusions. </p><p>The words often attributed to Occam: <i>entia non sunt multiplicanda praeter necessitatem ("entities must not be multiplied beyond necessity")</i> are absent in his extant works;<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This particular phrasing comes from <a href="/wiki/John_Punch_(theologian)" title="John Punch (theologian)">John Punch</a> who used it in describing a "common axiom" (<i>axioma vulgare</i>) of the <a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholastics</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Modern">Modern</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=British_philosophy&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Modern"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Francis_Bacon">Francis Bacon</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=British_philosophy&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Francis Bacon"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Francis_Bacon" title="Francis Bacon">Francis Bacon</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Somer_Francis_Bacon.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Somer_Francis_Bacon.jpg/200px-Somer_Francis_Bacon.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="246" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Somer_Francis_Bacon.jpg/300px-Somer_Francis_Bacon.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Somer_Francis_Bacon.jpg/400px-Somer_Francis_Bacon.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1629" data-file-height="2000" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Francis_Bacon" title="Francis Bacon">Francis Bacon</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Francis Bacon (1561–1626) was an Englishman who was a <a href="/wiki/Politician" title="Politician">statesman</a>, <a href="/wiki/Scientist" title="Scientist">scientist</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lawyer" title="Lawyer">lawyer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jurist" title="Jurist">jurist</a> and <a href="/wiki/Author" title="Author">author</a> in addition to being a philosopher. He famously died of pneumonia contracted while studying the effects of freezing on the preservation of meat. He served both as <a href="/wiki/Attorney_General_for_England_and_Wales" title="Attorney General for England and Wales">Attorney General</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lord_Chancellor" title="Lord Chancellor">Lord Chancellor</a> of England. Although his political career ended in disgrace, he remained extremely influential through his works, especially as philosophical advocate and practitioner of the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">scientific method</a> and pioneer in the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Scientific revolution">scientific revolution</a>. </p><p>Bacon has been called the father of empiricism.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His works established and popularized deductive methodologies for <a href="/wiki/Science" title="Science">scientific</a> inquiry, often called the <i><a href="/wiki/Baconian_method" title="Baconian method">Baconian method</a></i> or simply, the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">scientific method</a>. His demand for a planned procedure of investigating all things natural marked a new turn in the rhetorical and theoretical framework for science, much of which still surrounds conceptions of proper <a href="/wiki/Methodology" title="Methodology">methodology</a> today. His dedication probably led to his death, so bringing him into a rare historical group of scientists who were killed by their own experiments. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Thomas_Hobbes">Thomas Hobbes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=British_philosophy&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Thomas Hobbes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Thomas Hobbes</a></div> <p>Thomas Hobbes (1588–1679) was an English philosopher, remembered today for his work on <a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">political philosophy</a>. His 1651 book <i><a href="/wiki/Leviathan_(Hobbes_book)" title="Leviathan (Hobbes book)">Leviathan</a></i> established the foundation for most of Western political philosophy from the perspective of <a href="/wiki/Social_contract" title="Social contract">social contract</a> theory.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Hobbes was a champion of absolutism for the sovereign but he also developed some of the fundamentals of European liberal thought: the right of the individual; the natural equality of all men; the artificial character of the political order (which led to the later distinction between <a href="/wiki/Civil_society" title="Civil society">civil society</a> and the state); the view that all legitimate political power must be "representative" and based on the consent of the people; and a liberal interpretation of law which leaves people free to do whatever the law does not explicitly forbid.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Hobbes also contributed to a diverse array of fields, including <a href="/wiki/History" title="History">history</a>, <a href="/wiki/Geometry" title="Geometry">geometry</a>, physics of <a href="/wiki/Gas" title="Gas">gases</a>, <a href="/wiki/Theology" title="Theology">theology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">ethics</a>, general philosophy, and <a href="/wiki/Political_science" title="Political science">political science</a>. His account of human nature as self-interested cooperation has proved to be an enduring theory in the field of <a href="/wiki/Philosophical_anthropology" title="Philosophical anthropology">philosophical anthropology</a>. He was one of the key founders of philosophical <a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">materialism</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_classic_trio_of_British_empiricists">The classic trio of British empiricists</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=British_philosophy&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: The classic trio of British empiricists"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The three 'classic' British <a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">empiricists</a> in the early modern era were John Locke, George Berkeley, and David Hume. The term "British empiricism" refers to the philosophical tradition in Britain that was epitomised by these thinkers (though this tradition did have precursors in Britain stretching back to <a href="/wiki/Roger_Bacon" title="Roger Bacon">Roger Bacon</a>). Berkeley, despite being Irish, was referred to as British as <a href="/wiki/County_Kilkenny" title="County Kilkenny">County Kilkenny</a>, where he lived in <a href="/wiki/Ireland" title="Ireland">Ireland</a>, was a part of the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_of_Great_Britain_and_Ireland" title="United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland">United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland</a> at the time. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="John_Locke">John Locke</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=British_philosophy&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: John Locke"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Locke-John-LOC.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Locke-John-LOC.jpg/200px-Locke-John-LOC.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="261" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Locke-John-LOC.jpg/300px-Locke-John-LOC.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Locke-John-LOC.jpg/400px-Locke-John-LOC.jpg 2x" data-file-width="875" data-file-height="1140" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a></figcaption></figure> <p>John Locke (1632–1704) was an empiricist at the beginning of the <a href="/wiki/Modern_philosophy" title="Modern philosophy">Modern period</a> of philosophy. As such (and in contrast to <a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a>), he held that all of the objects of the understanding are ideas, where ideas exist in the mind. One of his goals in his work <i><a href="/wiki/An_Essay_Concerning_Human_Understanding" title="An Essay Concerning Human Understanding">An Essay Concerning Human Understanding</a></i> is to trace the origin of ideas. There are no innate ideas “stamped upon the mind” from birth, and all knowledge is rooted in experience. Further, there are also <i>simple ideas</i> and <i>complex ideas</i>. Simple ideas enter by the senses, and they are simple and unmixed. Complex ideas are simple ideas that have been combined and related together using the abstracting activity of the mind. </p><p>John Locke embodied the idea of religious tolerance and said "no mans knowledge can exceed his experience" based on his background in epistemology. </p><p>Locke is also responsible for an early theory of <a href="/wiki/Personal_identity" title="Personal identity">personal identity</a>. He thought that our being the same person from one time to another consists, not in our having the same soul or the same body, but rather the same series of psychological connections. For Locke, to be a person is to be an intelligent thinking being that can know itself as itself, the same thinking thing in different times and places. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="George_Berkeley">George Berkeley</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=British_philosophy&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: George Berkeley"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/George_Berkeley" title="George Berkeley">George Berkeley</a></div> <p>George Berkeley (1685–1753) was an <a href="/wiki/Irish_people" title="Irish people">Irish</a> philosopher who served as <a href="/wiki/Bishop_of_Cloyne" title="Bishop of Cloyne">Bishop of Cloyne</a> from 1734 until his death. He was a British <a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">empiricist</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> an <a href="/wiki/Immaterialism" class="mw-redirect" title="Immaterialism">immaterialist</a>, and an <a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">idealist</a>. Many of his most important ideas were first put forth in <i><a href="/wiki/A_Treatise_Concerning_the_Principles_of_Human_Knowledge" title="A Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge">A Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge</a></i>, a work which was critical of John Locke's philosophy. Berkeley agreed with Locke that there was an outside world which caused the ideas within the mind, but Berkeley sought to prove that the outside world was also composed solely of ideas. Berkeley thought that the ideas that we possessed could only resemble other ideas (not physical objects) and thus the external world consisted not of physical form, but rather of ideas. This world was given logic and regularity by some other force, which Berkeley concluded was God. </p><p>Berkeley is famous for his motto <i>"esse est percipi aut percipere"</i>, or otherwise, <i>"to exist is to be perceived, or to perceive"</i>. This means that there are no things other than ideas and the minds that house them. There is no such thing as a mind-independent entity. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="David_Hume">David Hume</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=British_philosophy&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: David Hume"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Scottish_Enlightenment" title="Scottish Enlightenment">Scottish Enlightenment</a></div> <p>David Hume (1711–1776) was a Scottish <a href="/wiki/Philosopher" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosopher">philosopher</a>, <a href="/wiki/Economist" title="Economist">economist</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Historian" title="Historian">historian</a>. His major works, <i><a href="/wiki/A_Treatise_of_Human_Nature" title="A Treatise of Human Nature">A Treatise of Human Nature</a></i> (1739–1740), the <i><a href="/wiki/An_Enquiry_concerning_Human_Understanding" class="mw-redirect" title="An Enquiry concerning Human Understanding">An Enquiry concerning Human Understanding</a></i> (1748), <i><a href="/wiki/An_Enquiry_Concerning_the_Principles_of_Morals" title="An Enquiry Concerning the Principles of Morals">An Enquiry Concerning the Principles of Morals</a></i> (1751), and <i><a href="/wiki/Dialogues_Concerning_Natural_Religion" title="Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion">Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion</a></i> (1779) remain widely influential.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His ideas regarding free will and determinism, causation, personal identity, induction, and morality still inspire discussion. </p><p>Hume famously described the <a href="/wiki/Problem_of_induction" title="Problem of induction">problem of induction</a>. He argues that <a href="/wiki/Inductive_reasoning" title="Inductive reasoning">inductive reasoning</a> cannot be rationally employed, since, in order to justify induction, one would either have to provide a sound deductive argument or an inductively strong argument. But there is no sound deductive argument for induction, and to ask for an inductive argument to justify induction would be to <a href="/wiki/Begging_the_question" title="Begging the question">beg the question</a>. </p><p>Hume's problem of causation is related to his problem of induction. He held that there is no empirical access to the supposed necessary connection between cause and effect. In seeking to justify the belief that A causes B, one would point out that, in the past, B has always closely followed A in both space and time. But the special necessary connection that is supposed to be causation is never given to us in experience. We only observe a constant conjunction of events, with no necessity whatsoever. </p><p>In personal identity, Hume was a <a href="/wiki/Bundle_theory" title="Bundle theory">bundle theorist</a>. He said that there is no robust self to which properties adhere. Experience only shows us that there is only a bundle of perceptions. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Adam_Smith">Adam Smith</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=British_philosophy&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Adam Smith"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Adam Smith</a></div> <p>Adam Smith (1723–1790) was a <a href="/wiki/Scotland" title="Scotland">Scottish</a> <a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">moral philosopher</a> and a pioneer of <a href="/wiki/Political_economy" title="Political economy">political economics</a>. Smith wrote <i><a href="/wiki/The_Theory_of_Moral_Sentiments" title="The Theory of Moral Sentiments">The Theory of Moral Sentiments</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/The_Wealth_of_Nations" title="The Wealth of Nations">An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations</a></i>. The latter, usually abbreviated as <i>The Wealth of Nations</i>, is considered his <i><a href="/wiki/Masterpiece" title="Masterpiece">magnum opus</a></i> and the first modern work of <a href="/wiki/Economics" title="Economics">economics</a>. Smith is widely cited as the father of modern economics. </p><p>Smith studied <a href="/wiki/Moral_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Moral philosophy">moral philosophy</a> at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Glasgow" title="University of Glasgow">University of Glasgow</a> and the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Oxford" title="University of Oxford">University of Oxford</a>. After graduating, he delivered a successful series of public lectures at <a href="/wiki/Edinburgh" title="Edinburgh">Edinburgh</a>, leading him to collaborate with <a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a> during the Scottish Enlightenment. Smith obtained a professorship at <a href="/wiki/Glasgow" title="Glasgow">Glasgow</a> teaching moral philosophy, and during this time he wrote and published <i>The Theory of Moral Sentiments</i>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="19th_century">19th century</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=British_philosophy&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: 19th century"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Jeremy_Bentham">Jeremy Bentham</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=British_philosophy&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Jeremy Bentham"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Jeremy Bentham</a></div> <p>Jeremy Bentham (1748–1832) is well known for beginning the tradition of classical utilitarianism in Britain. <a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">Utilitarianism</a> is a <a href="/wiki/Consequentialism" title="Consequentialism">consequentialist</a> theory of <a href="/wiki/Normative_ethics" title="Normative ethics">normative ethics</a> which holds that an act is morally right if and only if that act maximizes happiness or pleasure. Classical utilitarianism is said to be hedonistic because it regards pleasure as the only intrinsic good and pain as the only intrinsic evil.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Utilitarianism was described by Bentham as "the <i>greatest happiness</i> or <i>greatest felicity</i> principle".<sup id="cite_ref-BenthamIntroductiontothePrinciples_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BenthamIntroductiontothePrinciples-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Bentham's utilitarianism is known for arguing that the <a href="/wiki/Felicific_calculus" title="Felicific calculus">felicific calculus</a> should be used to determine the rightness and wrongness of acts. It does this by measuring the amount of pain and pleasure for various acts. Bentham thought that pleasure and pain could be broken down into distinct units called hedons and dolors. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="John_Stuart_Mill">John Stuart Mill</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=British_philosophy&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: John Stuart Mill"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">John Stuart Mill</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:John_Stuart_Mill_by_London_Stereoscopic_Company,_c1870.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/John_Stuart_Mill_by_London_Stereoscopic_Company%2C_c1870.jpg/200px-John_Stuart_Mill_by_London_Stereoscopic_Company%2C_c1870.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="251" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/John_Stuart_Mill_by_London_Stereoscopic_Company%2C_c1870.jpg/300px-John_Stuart_Mill_by_London_Stereoscopic_Company%2C_c1870.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/John_Stuart_Mill_by_London_Stereoscopic_Company%2C_c1870.jpg/400px-John_Stuart_Mill_by_London_Stereoscopic_Company%2C_c1870.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1274" data-file-height="1600" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">John Stuart Mill</a></figcaption></figure> <p>John Stuart Mill (1806–1873) was an influential contributor to <a href="/wiki/Social_theory" title="Social theory">social theory</a>, <a href="/wiki/Political_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Political theory">political theory</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Political_economy" title="Political economy">political economy</a>. His conception of <a href="/wiki/Liberty" title="Liberty">liberty</a> justified the freedom of the individual in opposition to unlimited state control.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Mill also continued Bentham's tradition of advancing and defending utilitarianism. Mill's book <i>Utilitarianism</i> is a philosophical defense of utilitarianism. The essay first appeared as a series of three articles published in <i><a href="/wiki/Fraser%27s_Magazine" title="Fraser's Magazine">Fraser's Magazine</a></i> in 1861; the articles were collected and reprinted as a single book in 1863. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Henry_Sidgwick">Henry Sidgwick</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=British_philosophy&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Henry Sidgwick"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Henry_Sidgwick" title="Henry Sidgwick">Henry Sidgwick</a></div> <p>Henry Sidgwick (1838–1900) also focused on utilitarian ethics and was one of the founders and first president of the <a href="/wiki/Society_for_Psychical_Research" title="Society for Psychical Research">Society for Psychical Research</a>, was a member of the <a href="/wiki/Metaphysical_Society" title="Metaphysical Society">Metaphysical Society</a>, and promoted the <a href="/wiki/Female_education" title="Female education">higher education of women</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Methods_of_Ethics" title="The Methods of Ethics">The Methods of Ethics</a></i> is a book on <a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">utilitarianism</a> written by Sidgwick that was first published in 1874.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <i><a href="/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i> indicates that <i>The Methods of Ethics</i> "in many ways marked the culmination of the classical utilitarian tradition." Well-known contemporary utilitarian philosopher <a href="/wiki/Peter_Singer" title="Peter Singer">Peter Singer</a> has said that the <i>Methods</i> "is simply the best book on ethics ever written."<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="British_idealism">British idealism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=British_philosophy&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: British idealism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/British_idealism" title="British idealism">British idealism</a></div> <p>As an area of <a href="/wiki/Absolute_idealism" title="Absolute idealism">absolute idealism</a>, British idealism was a philosophical movement that was influential in Britain from the mid-nineteenth century to the early twentieth century. Important representatives included <a href="/wiki/T._H._Green" title="T. H. Green">T. H. Green</a>, <a href="/wiki/F._H._Bradley" title="F. H. Bradley">F. H. Bradley</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bernard_Bosanquet_(philosopher)" title="Bernard Bosanquet (philosopher)">Bernard Bosanquet</a>, <a href="/wiki/J._M._E._McTaggart" title="J. M. E. McTaggart">J. M. E. McTaggart</a>, <a href="/wiki/H._H._Joachim" class="mw-redirect" title="H. H. Joachim">H. H. Joachim</a>, <a href="/wiki/J._H._Muirhead" title="J. H. Muirhead">J. H. Muirhead</a>, and <a href="/wiki/G._R._G._Mure" title="G. R. G. Mure">G. R. G. Mure</a>. Two British philosophers, <a href="/wiki/G._E._Moore" title="G. E. Moore">G. E. Moore</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a>, were brought up in this tradition and then reacted against it by pioneering <a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">analytic philosophy</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="20th_century_and_beyond">20th century and beyond</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=British_philosophy&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: 20th century and beyond"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Analytic_philosophy">Analytic philosophy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=British_philosophy&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Analytic philosophy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">Analytic philosophy</a></div> <p>Analytic philosophy was based on traditional British empiricism, updated to accommodate the new developments in logic pioneered by German mathematician <a href="/wiki/Gottlob_Frege" title="Gottlob Frege">Gottlob Frege</a>. It has dominated philosophy in the English-speaking world since the early 20th century. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="G._E._Moore">G. E. Moore</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=British_philosophy&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: G. E. Moore"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/G._E._Moore" title="G. E. Moore">G. E. Moore</a></div> <p>George Edward Moore (1873–1958) was an English philosopher. One of the founders of the <a href="/wiki/Analytic_tradition" class="mw-redirect" title="Analytic tradition">analytic tradition</a>, he led the British 'revolt against idealism' at the turn of the twentieth century, along with Bertrand Russell - while Russell is better known, he stated that it was in fact Moore who "led the way".<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Moore is best known today for his defence of <a href="/wiki/Ethical_non-naturalism" title="Ethical non-naturalism">ethical non-naturalism</a>, his emphasis on <a href="/wiki/Common_sense" title="Common sense">common sense</a> in philosophical method, and the <a href="/wiki/Moore%27s_paradox" title="Moore's paradox">paradox that bears his name</a>. He was admired by and influential among other philosophers, and also by the <a href="/wiki/Bloomsbury_Group" title="Bloomsbury Group">Bloomsbury Group</a>, but is (unlike his colleague Russell) mostly unknown today outside of academic philosophy. Moore's essays are known for his clear, circumspect writing style, and for his methodical and patient approach to philosophical problems. He was critical of philosophy for its lack of <a href="/wiki/Philosophical_progress" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophical progress">progress</a>, which he believed was in stark contrast to the dramatic advances in the <a href="/wiki/Natural_sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Natural sciences">natural sciences</a> since the <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a>. He often praised the analytic reasoning of <a href="/wiki/Thales_of_Miletus" title="Thales of Miletus">Thales of Miletus</a>, an early Greek philosopher, for his analysis of the meaning of the term "<a href="/wiki/Landscaping" title="Landscaping">landscaping</a>". Moore thought Thales' <a href="/wiki/Reasoning" class="mw-redirect" title="Reasoning">reasoning</a> was one of the few historical examples of philosophical inquiry resulting in practical advances. Among his most famous works are his book <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://fair-use.org/g-e-moore/principia-ethica">Principia Ethica</a></i>, and his essays, "The Refutation of Idealism", "<a href="/wiki/A_Defence_of_Common_Sense" title="A Defence of Common Sense">A Defence of Common Sense</a>", and "A Proof of the External World". </p><p>He was president of the <a href="/wiki/Aristotelian_Society" title="Aristotelian Society">Aristotelian Society</a> from 1918 to 1919.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Bertrand_Russell">Bertrand Russell</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=British_philosophy&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Bertrand Russell"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bertrand_Russell_in_1924.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Bertrand_Russell_in_1924.jpg/200px-Bertrand_Russell_in_1924.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="282" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b8/Bertrand_Russell_in_1924.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="423" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Bertrand Russell (1872–1970) led the British "revolt against <a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">idealism</a>" in the early 1900s, along with G. E. Moore. He was influenced by <a href="/wiki/Gottlob_Frege" title="Gottlob Frege">Gottlob Frege</a>, and was the mentor of <a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Ludwig Wittgenstein</a>. He is widely held to be one of the 20th century's premier logicians.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He co-authored, with <a href="/wiki/Alfred_North_Whitehead" title="Alfred North Whitehead">Alfred North Whitehead</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Principia_Mathematica" title="Principia Mathematica">Principia Mathematica</a></i>, an attempt to derive all mathematical truths from a set of <a href="/wiki/Axiom" title="Axiom">axioms</a> using <a href="/wiki/Rule_of_inference" title="Rule of inference">rules of inference</a> in <a href="/wiki/Symbolic_logic" class="mw-redirect" title="Symbolic logic">symbolic logic</a>. His philosophical essay "<a href="/wiki/On_Denoting" title="On Denoting">On Denoting</a>" has been considered a "paradigm of philosophy."<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Both works have had a considerable influence on <a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">logic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mathematics" title="Mathematics">mathematics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Set_theory" title="Set theory">set theory</a>, <a href="/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">linguistics</a>, and philosophy. </p><p>Russell's <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_descriptions" title="Theory of descriptions">theory of descriptions</a> has been profoundly influential in the <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_language" title="Philosophy of language">philosophy of language</a> and the analysis of <a href="/wiki/Definite_description" title="Definite description">definite descriptions</a>. His theory was first developed in his 1905 paper "On Denoting". </p><p>Russell was a prominent <a href="/wiki/Anti-war" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-war">anti-war</a> <a href="/wiki/Activism" title="Activism">activist</a>; he championed <a href="/wiki/Free_trade" title="Free trade">free trade</a> and <a href="/wiki/Anti-imperialism" title="Anti-imperialism">anti-imperialism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Russell went to prison for his pacifist activism during World War I. Later, he campaigned against <a href="/wiki/Adolf_Hitler" title="Adolf Hitler">Adolf Hitler</a>, then criticised <a href="/wiki/Stalinist" class="mw-redirect" title="Stalinist">Stalinist</a> <a href="/wiki/Totalitarianism" title="Totalitarianism">totalitarianism</a>, attacked the United States of America's involvement in the <a href="/wiki/Vietnam_War" title="Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a>, and finally became an outspoken proponent of <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_disarmament" title="Nuclear disarmament">nuclear disarmament</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Gallery_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gallery-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1950, Russell was awarded the <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="Nobel Prize in Literature">Nobel Prize in Literature</a>, "in recognition of his varied and significant writings in which he champions <a href="/wiki/Humanitarian" class="mw-redirect" title="Humanitarian">humanitarian</a> ideals and <a href="/wiki/Freethought" title="Freethought">freedom of thought</a>."<sup id="cite_ref-nobel_prize_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nobel_prize-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="A._J._Ayer">A. J. Ayer</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=British_philosophy&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: A. J. Ayer"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/A._J._Ayer" title="A. J. Ayer">A. J. Ayer</a></div> <p>Sir Alfred Jules Ayer (29 October 1910, London – 27 June 1989, London), better known as A. J. Ayer or "Freddie" to friends, was a British analytic philosopher known for his promotion of <a href="/wiki/Logical_positivism" title="Logical positivism">logical positivism</a>, particularly in his books <i><a href="/wiki/Language,_Truth_and_Logic" class="mw-redirect" title="Language, Truth and Logic">Language, Truth and Logic</a></i> (1936) and <i>The Problem of Knowledge</i> (1956). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Ordinary_language_philosophy">Ordinary language philosophy</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=British_philosophy&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Ordinary language philosophy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ordinary_language_philosophy" title="Ordinary language philosophy">Ordinary language philosophy</a></div> <p>Ordinary language philosophy is a philosophical school that approaches traditional philosophical problems as rooted in <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Misunderstanding" class="extiw" title="wikt:Misunderstanding">misunderstandings</a> that philosophers develop by forgetting what words mean in their everyday use. </p><p>This approach typically involves eschewing philosophical theories in favour of close attention to the detail of everyday language. Sometimes also called "Oxford philosophy", it is generally associated with the work of a number of mid-century <a href="/wiki/University_of_Oxford" title="University of Oxford">Oxford</a> professors: mainly <a href="/wiki/J._L._Austin" title="J. L. Austin">J. L. Austin</a>, but also <a href="/wiki/Gilbert_Ryle" title="Gilbert Ryle">Gilbert Ryle</a>, <a href="/wiki/H._L._A._Hart" title="H. L. A. Hart">H. L. A. Hart</a>, and <a href="/wiki/P.F._Strawson" class="mw-redirect" title="P.F. Strawson">P.F. Strawson</a>. </p><p>It was a major philosophic school between 1930 and 1970. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Contemporary_times">Contemporary times</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=British_philosophy&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Contemporary times"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Recent British philosophers particularly active in the <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_religion" title="Philosophy of religion">philosophy of religion</a> have included <a href="/wiki/Antony_Flew" title="Antony Flew">Antony Flew</a>, <a href="/wiki/C._S._Lewis" title="C. S. Lewis">C. S. Lewis</a>, and <a href="/wiki/John_Hick" title="John Hick">John Hick</a>. </p><p>Important moral and political philosophers have included <a href="/wiki/R._M._Hare" title="R. M. Hare">R. M. Hare</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alasdair_MacIntyre" title="Alasdair MacIntyre">Alasdair MacIntyre</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Roger_Scruton" title="Roger Scruton">Roger Scruton</a>. </p><p>Other recent figures in the British analytic tradition include <a href="/wiki/David_Wiggins" title="David Wiggins">David Wiggins</a>, <a href="/wiki/Derek_Parfit" title="Derek Parfit">Derek Parfit</a>, and <a href="/wiki/P._F._Strawson" title="P. F. Strawson">P. F. Strawson</a>, who have focused on fields such as <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">metaphysics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">philosophy of mind</a>, <a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">logic</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_language" title="Philosophy of language">philosophy of language</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=British_philosophy&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid 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data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFMatthews1943" class="citation book cs1">Matthews, Kenneth (1943). <i>British Philosophers</i>. Great Britain: William Collins. p. 7.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=British+Philosophers&rft.place=Great+Britain&rft.pages=7&rft.pub=William+Collins&rft.date=1943&rft.aulast=Matthews&rft.aufirst=Kenneth&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDaviesLeftow2004" class="citation book cs1">Davies, Brian; et al. (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Z8zGpbpwRhIC&pg=PA2"><i>The Cambridge Companion to Anselm</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge,_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Cambridge, England">Cambridge</a>: Cambridge University Press. p. 2. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-00205-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-00205-2"><bdi>0-521-00205-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Companion+to+Anselm&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=2&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=0-521-00205-2&rft.aulast=Davies&rft.aufirst=Brian&rft.au=Leftow%2C+Brian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZ8zGpbpwRhIC%26pg%3DPA2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBacon1859" class="citation book cs1">Bacon, Roger (1859). "Preface". In Brewer, J.S. (ed.). <i>Fr. Rogeri Bacon opera quædam hactenus inedita</i>. Vol. I. Translated by Kretzmann, Norman. London.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Preface&rft.btitle=Fr.+Rogeri+Bacon+opera+qu%C3%A6dam+hactenus+inedita&rft.place=London&rft.date=1859&rft.aulast=Bacon&rft.aufirst=Roger&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRandall_Noon1992" class="citation book cs1">Randall Noon (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ru_E__W7euUC&q=roger-bacon+scientific-method&pg=PA39"><i>Introduction to Forensic Engineering</i></a>. CRC Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8493-8102-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-8493-8102-9"><bdi>0-8493-8102-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+Forensic+Engineering&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=0-8493-8102-9&rft.au=Randall+Noon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dru_E__W7euUC%26q%3Droger-bacon%2Bscientific-method%26pg%3DPA39&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Glick, Thomas F.; Livesey, Steven John; Wallis, Faith: <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SaJlbWK_-FcC&pg=PA424&dq=roger-bacon+muslim+arabic+islamic+translation&ei=zaw-SYGICYeKNJzK-MEG">Medieval Science, Technology, and Medicine: An Encyclopedia</a></i>, first edition, Routledge, September 29, 2005, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-96930-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-96930-7">978-0-415-96930-7</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Moorstein, Mark: <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=36g9_8MX53cC&pg=PA237&dq=firnas+bacon&sig=tC8mV6aqxryvkGPQAtuWH7uVp1w">Frameworks: Conflict in Balance</a></i>, page 237, iUniverse, Inc., June 9, 2004, 308 pp, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-595-31824-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-595-31824-7">978-0-595-31824-7</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSayed_Khatab_and_Gary_D._Bouma2007" class="citation book cs1">Sayed Khatab and Gary D. 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style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Branches" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Branches</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_philosophy#Branches" title="Outline of philosophy">Branches</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Applied_philosophy" title="Applied philosophy">Applied philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">Logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphilosophy" title="Metaphilosophy">Metaphilosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_information" title="Philosophy of information">Philosophy of information</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_language" title="Philosophy of language">Philosophy of language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mathematics" title="Philosophy of mathematics">Philosophy of mathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_religion" title="Philosophy of religion">Philosophy of religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Philosophy of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">Political philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Practical_philosophy" title="Practical philosophy">Practical philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_philosophy" title="Social philosophy">Social philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theoretical_philosophy" title="Theoretical philosophy">Theoretical philosophy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">Aesthetics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aesthetic_emotions" title="Aesthetic emotions">Aesthetic response</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formalism_(art)" title="Formalism (art)">Formalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institutional_theory_of_art" class="mw-redirect" title="Institutional theory of art">Institutionalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fideism" title="Fideism">Fideism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalized_epistemology" title="Naturalized epistemology">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemological_particularism" title="Epistemological particularism">Particularism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_skepticism" title="Philosophical skepticism">Skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solipsism" title="Solipsism">Solipsism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">Ethics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Consequentialism" title="Consequentialism">Consequentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deontology" title="Deontology">Deontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtue_ethics" title="Virtue ethics">Virtue</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Free_will" title="Free will">Free will</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Compatibilism" title="Compatibilism">Compatibilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hard_determinism" title="Hard determinism">Hard</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incompatibilism" title="Incompatibilism">Incompatibilism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hard_incompatibilism" class="mw-redirect" title="Hard incompatibilism">Hard</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism_(metaphysics)" title="Libertarianism (metaphysics)">Libertarianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atomism" title="Atomism">Atomism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism" title="Mind–body dualism">Dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysical_naturalism" title="Metaphysical naturalism">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">Realism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">Mind</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behaviorism" title="Behaviorism">Behaviorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eliminative_materialism" title="Eliminative materialism">Eliminativism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emergentism" title="Emergentism">Emergentism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epiphenomenalism" title="Epiphenomenalism">Epiphenomenalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functionalism_(philosophy_of_mind)" title="Functionalism (philosophy of mind)">Functionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Objectivity (philosophy)">Objectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subjectivism" title="Subjectivism">Subjectivism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Norm_(philosophy)" title="Norm (philosophy)">Normativity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Moral_absolutism" title="Moral absolutism">Absolutism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_particularism" title="Moral particularism">Particularism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relativism" title="Relativism">Relativism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_nihilism" title="Moral nihilism">Nihilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_skepticism" title="Moral skepticism">Skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_universalism" title="Moral universalism">Universalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">Ontology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Action_theory_(philosophy)" title="Action theory (philosophy)">Action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Event_(philosophy)" title="Event (philosophy)">Event</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Process_philosophy" title="Process philosophy">Process</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Reality" title="Reality">Reality</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-realism" title="Anti-realism">Anti-realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conceptualism" title="Conceptualism">Conceptualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">Materialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nominalism" title="Nominalism">Nominalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physicalism" title="Physicalism">Physicalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">Realism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="By_era" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">By era</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_philosophy" title="History of philosophy">By era</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_philosophy" title="Ancient philosophy">Ancient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Medieval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_philosophy" title="Renaissance philosophy">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_philosophy" title="Early modern philosophy">Early modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_philosophy" title="Modern philosophy">Modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_philosophy" title="Contemporary philosophy">Contemporary</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_philosophy" title="Ancient philosophy">Ancient</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Chinese</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculturalism" title="Agriculturalism">Agriculturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legalism_(Chinese_philosophy)" title="Legalism (Chinese philosophy)">Legalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Names" title="School of Names">Logicians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohism" title="Mohism">Mohism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Naturalists" title="School of Naturalists">Chinese naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Taoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yangism" title="Yangism">Yangism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Greco-</a><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_philosophy" title="Ancient Roman philosophy">Roman</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Socratic_philosophy" title="Pre-Socratic philosophy">Presocratic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ionian_School_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ionian School (philosophy)">Ionians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pythagoreanism" title="Pythagoreanism">Pythagoreans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eleatics" title="Eleatics">Eleatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atomism" title="Atomism">Atomists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sophist" title="Sophist">Sophists</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyrenaics" title="Cyrenaics">Cyrenaics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cynicism_(philosophy)" title="Cynicism (philosophy)">Cynicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eretrian_school" title="Eretrian school">Eretrian school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megarian_school" title="Megarian school">Megarian school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Platonic_Academy" title="Platonic Academy">Academy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peripatetic_school" title="Peripatetic school">Peripatetic school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_philosophy" title="Hellenistic philosophy">Hellenistic philosophy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pyrrhonism" title="Pyrrhonism">Pyrrhonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epicureanism" title="Epicureanism">Epicureanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Academic_Skepticism" class="mw-redirect" title="Academic Skepticism">Academic Skepticism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Platonism" title="Middle Platonism">Middle Platonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_the_Sextii" title="School of the Sextii">School of the Sextii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neopythagoreanism" title="Neopythagoreanism">Neopythagoreanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Sophistic" title="Second Sophistic">Second Sophistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoplatonism" title="Neoplatonism">Neoplatonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_Fathers" title="Church Fathers">Church Fathers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_philosophy" title="Hindu philosophy">Hindu</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Samkhya" title="Samkhya">Samkhya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nyaya" title="Nyaya">Nyaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaisheshika" title="Vaisheshika">Vaisheshika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yoga_Sutras_of_Patanjali" title="Yoga Sutras of Patanjali">Yoga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%C4%ABm%C4%81%E1%B9%83s%C4%81" title="Mīmāṃsā">Mīmāṃsā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%80j%C4%ABvika" title="Ājīvika">Ājīvika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aj%C3%B1ana" title="Ajñana">Ajñana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charvaka" title="Charvaka">Cārvāka</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jain_philosophy" title="Jain philosophy">Jain</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anekantavada" title="Anekantavada">Anekantavada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sy%C4%81dv%C4%81da" class="mw-redirect" title="Syādvāda">Syādvāda</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_philosophy" title="Buddhist philosophy">Buddhist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abhidharma" title="Abhidharma">Abhidharma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarvastivada" title="Sarvastivada">Sarvāstivadā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pudgalavada" title="Pudgalavada">Pudgalavada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sautr%C4%81ntika" title="Sautrāntika">Sautrāntika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madhyamaka" title="Madhyamaka">Madhyamaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Svatantrika%E2%80%93Prasa%E1%B9%85gika_distinction" title="Svatantrika–Prasaṅgika distinction">Svatantrika and Prasangika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9A%C5%ABnyat%C4%81" title="Śūnyatā">Śūnyatā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yogachara" title="Yogachara">Yogacara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism" title="Tibetan Buddhism">Tibetan</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Iranian_philosophy" title="Iranian philosophy">Persian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mazdakism" title="Mazdakism">Mazdakism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mithraism" title="Mithraism">Mithraism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoroastrianism" title="Zoroastrianism">Zoroastrianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zurvanism" title="Zurvanism">Zurvanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Medieval</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">East Asian</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Xuanxue" title="Xuanxue">Neotaoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiantai" title="Tiantai">Tiantai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huayan" title="Huayan">Huayan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chan_Buddhism" title="Chan Buddhism">Chan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zen" title="Zen">Zen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Confucianism" title="Neo-Confucianism">Neo-Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Confucianism" title="Korean Confucianism">Korean Confucianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">European</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_philosophy" title="Christian philosophy">Christian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustinianism" title="Augustinianism">Augustinianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomism" title="Thomism">Thomism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scotism" title="Scotism">Scotism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occamism" title="Occamism">Occamism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_humanism" title="Renaissance humanism">Renaissance humanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Indian</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vedanta" title="Vedanta">Vedanta</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Achintya_Bheda_Abheda" title="Achintya Bheda Abheda">Acintya bheda abheda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Advaita_Vedanta" title="Advaita Vedanta">Advaita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhedabheda" title="Bhedabheda">Bhedabheda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dvaita_Vedanta" title="Dvaita Vedanta">Dvaita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nimbarka_Sampradaya" title="Nimbarka Sampradaya">Nimbarka Sampradaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shuddhadvaita" title="Shuddhadvaita">Shuddhadvaita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vishishtadvaita" title="Vishishtadvaita">Vishishtadvaita</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navya-Ny%C4%81ya" title="Navya-Nyāya">Navya-Nyāya</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Islamic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristotelianism" title="Aristotelianism">Aristotelianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Averroism" title="Averroism">Averroism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avicennism" title="Avicennism">Avicennism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illuminationism" title="Illuminationism">Illuminationism</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kalam" title="Kalam">ʿIlm al-Kalām</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sufi_philosophy" title="Sufi philosophy">Sufi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_philosophy" title="Jewish philosophy">Jewish</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Islamic_philosophies_(800%E2%80%931400)" title="Judeo-Islamic philosophies (800–1400)">Judeo-Islamic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Modern_philosophy" title="Modern philosophy">Modern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Realism" title="Classical Realism">Classical Realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collectivism_and_individualism" class="mw-redirect" title="Collectivism and individualism">Collectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism" title="Mind–body dualism">Dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edo_neo-Confucianism" title="Edo neo-Confucianism">Edo neo-Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historicism" title="Historicism">Historicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holism" title="Holism">Holism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">Humanism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antihumanism" title="Antihumanism">Anti-</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Absolute_idealism" title="Absolute idealism">Absolute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_idealism" title="British idealism">British</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_idealism" title="German idealism">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objective_idealism" title="Objective idealism">Objective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subjective_idealism" title="Subjective idealism">Subjective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendental_idealism" title="Transcendental idealism">Transcendental</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Individualism" title="Individualism">Individualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kokugaku" title="Kokugaku">Kokugaku</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_liberalism" title="Classical liberalism">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">Materialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernism" title="Modernism">Modernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nihilism" title="Nihilism">Nihilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Confucianism" title="New Confucianism">New Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-scholasticism" title="Neo-scholasticism">Neo-scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">Pragmatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reductionism" title="Reductionism">Reductionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_contract" title="Social contract">Social contract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendentalism" title="Transcendentalism">Transcendentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">Utilitarianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cartesianism" title="Cartesianism">Cartesianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kantianism" title="Kantianism">Kantianism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Kantianism" title="Neo-Kantianism">Neo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Philosophy of Søren Kierkegaard">Kierkegaardianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krausism" title="Krausism">Krausism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hegelianism" class="mw-redirect" title="Hegelianism">Hegelianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxist_philosophy" title="Marxist philosophy">Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newtonianism" title="Newtonianism">Newtonianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Philosophy of Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzscheanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spinozism" class="mw-redirect" title="Spinozism">Spinozism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_philosophy" title="Contemporary philosophy">Contemporary</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">Analytic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Applied_ethics" title="Applied ethics">Applied ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_feminism" title="Analytical feminism">Analytic feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_Marxism" title="Analytical Marxism">Analytical Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">Communitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consequentialism" title="Consequentialism">Consequentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_rationalism" title="Critical rationalism">Critical rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experimental_philosophy" title="Experimental philosophy">Experimental philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Falsifiability" title="Falsifiability">Falsificationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Coherentism" title="Coherentism">Coherentism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internalism_and_externalism" title="Internalism and externalism">Internalism and externalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logical_positivism" title="Logical positivism">Logical positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_positivism" title="Legal positivism">Legal positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meta-ethics" class="mw-redirect" title="Meta-ethics">Meta-ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_realism" title="Moral realism">Moral realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalized_epistemology" title="Naturalized epistemology">Quinean naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Normative_ethics" title="Normative ethics">Normative ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordinary_language_philosophy" title="Ordinary language philosophy">Ordinary language philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postanalytic_philosophy" title="Postanalytic philosophy">Postanalytic philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quietism_(philosophy)" title="Quietism (philosophy)">Quietism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">Rawlsian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformed_epistemology" title="Reformed epistemology">Reformed epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systemics" title="Systemics">Systemics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientism" title="Scientism">Scientism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_realism" title="Scientific realism">Scientific realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_skepticism" title="Scientific skepticism">Scientific skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transactionalism" title="Transactionalism">Transactionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism#Developments_in_the_20th_century" title="Utilitarianism">Contemporary utilitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vienna_Circle" title="Vienna Circle">Vienna Circle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Wittgensteinian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Continental_philosophy" title="Continental philosophy">Continental</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">Critical theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deconstruction" title="Deconstruction">Deconstruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_philosophy" title="Feminist philosophy">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frankfurt_School" title="Frankfurt School">Frankfurt School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermeneutics" title="Hermeneutics">Hermeneutics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Marxism" title="Neo-Marxism">Neo-Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_historicism" title="New historicism">New Historicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Posthumanism" title="Posthumanism">Posthumanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postmodern_philosophy" title="Postmodern philosophy">Postmodernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-structuralism" title="Post-structuralism">Post-structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_constructionism" title="Social constructionism">Social constructionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism" title="Structuralism">Structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Marxism" title="Western Marxism">Western Marxism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Miscellaneous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kyoto_School" title="Kyoto School">Kyoto School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivism" title="Objectivism">Objectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postcritique" title="Postcritique">Postcritique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_cosmism" title="Russian cosmism">Russian cosmism</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophies" title="List of philosophies">more...</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="By_region" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><div class="hlist"><ul><li>By region</li></ul></div></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_philosophy#Philosophic_traditions_by_region" title="Outline of philosophy">By region</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/African_philosophy" title="African philosophy">African</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ubuntu_philosophy" title="Ubuntu philosophy">Bantu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_philosophy" title="Ancient Egyptian philosophy">Egyptian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_philosophy" title="Ethiopian philosophy">Ethiopian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Africana_philosophy" title="Africana philosophy">Africana</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Eastern_philosophy" title="Eastern philosophy">Eastern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_philosophy" title="Buddhist philosophy">Buddhist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indonesian_philosophy" title="Indonesian philosophy">Indonesian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_philosophy" title="Japanese philosophy">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_philosophy" title="Korean philosophy">Korean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_in_Taiwan" title="Philosophy in Taiwan">Taiwanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_philosophy" title="Vietnamese philosophy">Vietnamese</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Middle_Eastern_philosophy" title="Middle Eastern philosophy">Middle Eastern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 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