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class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Language</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Language-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Logicism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Logicism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Logicism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Logicism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Empiricism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Empiricism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Empiricism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Empiricism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>History</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" 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<span>Rivals</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rivals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Export" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Export"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4</span> <span>Export</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Export-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Principles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Principles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Principles</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Principles-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Principles subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Principles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Analytic/synthetic_gap" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Analytic/synthetic_gap"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Analytic/synthetic gap</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Analytic/synthetic_gap-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Observation/theory_gap" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Observation/theory_gap"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Observation/theory gap</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Observation/theory_gap-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cognitive_meaningfulness" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cognitive_meaningfulness"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>Cognitive meaningfulness</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cognitive_meaningfulness-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Verification" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Verification"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3.1</span> <span>Verification</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Verification-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Confirmation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Confirmation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3.2</span> <span>Confirmation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Confirmation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Weak_verification" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Weak_verification"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3.3</span> <span>Weak verification</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Weak_verification-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Philosophy_of_science" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Philosophy_of_science"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Philosophy of science</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Philosophy_of_science-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Philosophy of science subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Philosophy_of_science-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Explanation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Explanation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Explanation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Explanation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Unity_of_science" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Unity_of_science"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Unity of science</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Unity_of_science-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Theory_reduction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Theory_reduction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3</span> <span>Theory reduction</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Theory_reduction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Critics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Critics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Critics</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Critics-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Critics subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Critics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Popper" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Popper"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Popper</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Popper-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Quine" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Quine"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2</span> <span>Quine</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Quine-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hanson" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hanson"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.3</span> <span>Hanson</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hanson-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Kuhn" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kuhn"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.4</span> <span>Kuhn</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kuhn-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Putnam" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Putnam"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.5</span> <span>Putnam</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Putnam-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Decline" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Decline"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Decline</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Decline-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-See_also-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle See also subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-People" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#People"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.1</span> <span>People</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-People-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Logical positivism</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 56 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-56" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">56 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logiese_positivisme" title="Logiese positivisme – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Logiese positivisme" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%88%D8%B6%D8%B9%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D9%86%D8%B7%D9%82%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="الوضعية المنطقية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="الوضعية المنطقية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empirismu_l%C3%B3xicu" title="Empirismu lóxicu – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Empirismu lóxicu" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AF%E0%A7%8C%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%95_%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A6" title="যৌক্তিক ইতিবাদ – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="যৌক্তিক ইতিবাদ" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%B4-chek-tek_si%CC%8Dt-ch%C3%A8ng-ch%C3%BA-g%C4%AB" title="Lô-chek-tek si̍t-chèng-chú-gī – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Lô-chek-tek si̍t-chèng-chú-gī" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B5%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%B7%D1%96%D1%82%D1%8B%D0%B2%D1%96%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Неапазітывізм – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Неапазітывізм" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%B7%D1%8A%D0%BC" title="Логически позитивизъм – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Логически позитивизъм" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neopositivisme" title="Neopositivisme – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Neopositivisme" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logick%C3%BD_pozitivismus" title="Logický pozitivismus – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Logický pozitivismus" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positifiaeth_resymegol" title="Positifiaeth resymegol – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Positifiaeth resymegol" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logisk_positivisme" title="Logisk positivisme – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Logisk positivisme" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logischer_Empirismus" title="Logischer Empirismus – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Logischer Empirismus" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loogiline_positivism" title="Loogiline positivism – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Loogiline positivism" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9B%CE%BF%CE%B3%CE%B9%CE%BA%CF%8C%CF%82_%CE%B8%CE%B5%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%B9%CF%83%CE%BC%CF%8C%CF%82" title="Λογικός θετικισμός – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Λογικός θετικισμός" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empirismo_l%C3%B3gico" title="Empirismo lógico – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Empirismo lógico" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logika_empiriismo" title="Logika empiriismo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Logika empiriismo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positibismo_logiko" title="Positibismo logiko – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Positibismo logiko" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%AB%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%AA%E2%80%8C%DA%AF%D8%B1%D8%A7%DB%8C%DB%8C_%D9%85%D9%86%D8%B7%D9%82%DB%8C" title="اثبات‌گرایی منطقی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="اثبات‌گرایی منطقی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empirisme_logique" title="Empirisme logique – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Empirisme logique" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neopositivismo" title="Neopositivismo – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Neopositivismo" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%85%BC%EB%A6%AC%EC%8B%A4%EC%A6%9D%EC%A3%BC%EC%9D%98" title="논리실증주의 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="논리실증주의" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8F%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%B4%D5%A1%D5%A2%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%BA%D5%B8%D5%A6%D5%AB%D5%BF%D5%AB%D5%BE%D5%AB%D5%A6%D5%B4" title="Տրամաբանական պոզիտիվիզմ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Տրամաբանական պոզիտիվիզմ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A6" title="तार्किक वस्तुनिष्ठावाद – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="तार्किक वस्तुनिष्ठावाद" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logi%C4%8Dki_pozitivizam" title="Logički pozitivizam – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Logički pozitivizam" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neopositivisme" title="Neopositivisme – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Neopositivisme" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%B6kfr%C3%A6%C3%B0ileg_raunhyggja" title="Rökfræðileg raunhyggja – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Rökfræðileg raunhyggja" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positivismo_logico" title="Positivismo logico – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Positivismo logico" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A4%D7%95%D7%96%D7%99%D7%98%D7%99%D7%91%D7%99%D7%96%D7%9D_%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%92%D7%99" title="פוזיטיביזם לוגי – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="פוזיטיביזם לוגי" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9A%E1%83%9D%E1%83%92%E1%83%98%E1%83%99%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98_%E1%83%9E%E1%83%9D%E1%83%96%E1%83%98%E1%83%A2%E1%83%98%E1%83%95%E1%83%98%E1%83%96%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98" title="ლოგიკური პოზიტივიზმი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ლოგიკური პოზიტივიზმი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Неопозитивизм – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Неопозитивизм" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Неопозитивизм – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Неопозитивизм" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positivismus_logicus" title="Positivismus logicus – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Positivismus logicus" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lo%C4%A3iskais_pozit%C4%ABvisms" title="Loģiskais pozitīvisms – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Loģiskais pozitīvisms" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logikai_pozitivizmus" title="Logikai pozitivizmus – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Logikai pozitivizmus" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positivisme_logik" title="Positivisme logik – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Positivisme logik" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logisch_positivisme" title="Logisch positivisme – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Logisch positivisme" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%AB%96%E7%90%86%E5%AE%9F%E8%A8%BC%E4%B8%BB%E7%BE%A9" title="論理実証主義 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="論理実証主義" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logisk_positivisme" title="Logisk positivisme – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Logisk positivisme" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neopozitivizm" title="Neopozitivizm – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Neopozitivizm" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%86%D8%B7%D9%82%D9%8A_%D9%85%D8%AB%D8%A8%D8%AA_%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AF%D9%8A" title="منطقي مثبت اندي – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="منطقي مثبت اندي" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pozytywizm_logiczny" title="Pozytywizm logiczny – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Pozytywizm logiczny" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positivismo_l%C3%B3gico" title="Positivismo lógico – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Positivismo lógico" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neopozitivism" title="Neopozitivism – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Neopozitivism" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Логический позитивизм – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Логический позитивизм" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logical_positivism" title="Logical positivism – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Logical positivism" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%86%D8%B7%D9%82%D9%8A_%D8%A7%D8%AB%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="منطقي اثبات – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="منطقي اثبات" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سنڌي</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neopozitivizmus" title="Neopozitivizmus – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Neopozitivizmus" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logi%C4%8Dki_pozitivizam" title="Logički pozitivizam – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Logički pozitivizam" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logi%C4%8Dki_pozitivizam" title="Logički pozitivizam – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Logički pozitivizam" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Looginen_empirismi" title="Looginen empirismi – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Looginen empirismi" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logisk_positivism" title="Logisk positivism – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Logisk positivism" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positibismo_lohiko" title="Positibismo lohiko – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Positibismo lohiko" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mant%C4%B1ksal_pozitivizm" title="Mantıksal pozitivizm – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Mantıksal pozitivizm" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%96%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B2%D1%96%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Логічний позитивізм – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Логічний позитивізм" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ch%E1%BB%A7_ngh%C4%A9a_th%E1%BB%B1c_ch%E1%BB%A9ng_logic" title="Chủ nghĩa thực chứng logic – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Chủ nghĩa thực chứng logic" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%80%BB%E8%BE%91%E5%AE%9E%E8%AF%81%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89" title="逻辑实证主义 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="逻辑实证主义" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a 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title="Lists of philosophers">Philosophers</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_aestheticians" title="List of aestheticians">Aesthetic philosophers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_epistemologists" title="List of epistemologists">Epistemologists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ethicists" title="List of ethicists">Ethicists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_logicians" title="List of logicians">Logicians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_metaphysicians" title="List of metaphysicians">Metaphysicians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophers_of_mind" title="List of philosophers of mind">Philosophers of mind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_sociopolitical_thinkers" title="Index of sociopolitical thinkers">Social and political philosophers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_philosophy" title="Women in philosophy">Women in philosophy</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Philosophy_sidebar" title="Template:Philosophy sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Philosophy_sidebar" title="Template talk:Philosophy sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Logical positivism</b>, later called <b>logical empiricism</b>, and both of which together are also known as <b>neopositivism</b>, is a movement whose central thesis is the <a href="/wiki/Verificationism" title="Verificationism">verification principle</a> (also known as the verifiability criterion of meaning).<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This <a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">theory of knowledge</a> asserts that only statements verifiable through direct observation or <a href="/wiki/Deductive_logic" class="mw-redirect" title="Deductive logic">logical proof</a> are meaningful in terms of conveying <a href="/wiki/Truth" title="Truth">truth</a> value, information or <a href="/wiki/Fact" title="Fact">factual</a> content. Starting in the late 1920s, groups of <a href="/wiki/Philosopher" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosopher">philosophers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Scientist" title="Scientist">scientists</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Mathematician" title="Mathematician">mathematicians</a> formed the <a href="/wiki/Berlin_Circle_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Berlin Circle (philosophy)">Berlin Circle</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Vienna_Circle" title="Vienna Circle">Vienna Circle</a>, which, in these two cities, would propound the ideas of logical positivism. </p><p>Flourishing in several European centres through the 1930s, the movement sought to prevent confusion rooted in unclear language and unverifiable claims by converting philosophy into "scientific philosophy", which, according to the logical positivists, ought to share the bases and structures of <a href="/wiki/Empirical_sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Empirical sciences">empirical sciences</a>' best examples, such as <a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Albert Einstein</a>'s <a href="/wiki/General_theory_of_relativity" class="mw-redirect" title="General theory of relativity">general theory of relativity</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Friedman-pxiv_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Friedman-pxiv-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite its ambition to overhaul philosophy by studying and mimicking the extant conduct of empirical science, logical positivism became erroneously stereotyped as a movement to regulate the scientific process and to place strict standards on it.<sup id="cite_ref-Friedman-pxiv_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Friedman-pxiv-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, the movement shifted to a milder variant, logical empiricism. It was led mainly by <a href="/wiki/Carl_Hempel" class="mw-redirect" title="Carl Hempel">Carl Hempel</a>, who, during the rise of <a href="/wiki/Nazism" title="Nazism">Nazism</a>, had emigrated to the United States. In the ensuing years, the movement's central premises, still unresolved, were heavily criticised by leading philosophers, particularly <a href="/wiki/Willard_van_Orman_Quine" class="mw-redirect" title="Willard van Orman Quine">Willard van Orman Quine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Karl Popper</a>, and even, within the movement itself, by Hempel. The 1962 publication of <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Kuhn" title="Thomas Kuhn">Thomas Kuhn</a>'s landmark book <i><a href="/wiki/The_Structure_of_Scientific_Revolutions" title="The Structure of Scientific Revolutions">The Structure of Scientific Revolutions</a></i> dramatically shifted academic philosophy's focus. In 1967 philosopher <a href="/wiki/John_Passmore" title="John Passmore">John Passmore</a> pronounced logical positivism "dead, or as dead as a philosophical movement ever becomes".<sup id="cite_ref-passmore_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-passmore-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Origins">Origins</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Logical_positivism&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Origins"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Logical positivists picked from <a href="/wiki/Tractatus_Logico-Philosophicus" title="Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus">Ludwig Wittgenstein's early philosophy of language</a> the verifiability principle or criterion of meaningfulness. As in <a href="/wiki/Ernst_Mach" title="Ernst Mach">Ernst Mach</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Phenomenalism" title="Phenomenalism">phenomenalism</a>, whereby the mind knows only actual or potential sensory experience, verificationists took all sciences' basic content to be only sensory experience. And some influence came from <a href="/wiki/Percy_Bridgman" class="mw-redirect" title="Percy Bridgman">Percy Bridgman</a>'s musings that others proclaimed as <a href="/wiki/Operationalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Operationalism">operationalism</a>, whereby a physical theory is understood by what laboratory procedures scientists perform to test its predictions. In <a href="/wiki/Verificationism" title="Verificationism">verificationism</a>, only the <i>verifiable</i> was scientific, and thus meaningful (or <i>cognitively meaningful</i>), whereas the unverifiable, being unscientific, were meaningless "pseudostatements" (just <i>emotively meaningful</i>). Unscientific discourse, as in <a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">ethics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">metaphysics</a>, would be unfit for discourse by philosophers, newly tasked to organize <a href="/wiki/Knowledge" title="Knowledge">knowledge</a>, not develop new knowledge.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Definitions">Definitions</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Logical_positivism&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Definitions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Logical positivism is sometimes stereotyped as forbidding talk of <a href="/wiki/Unobservable" title="Unobservable">unobservables</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Microscopic" class="mw-redirect" title="Microscopic">microscopic</a> entities or such notions as causality and general principles,<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but that is an <a href="/wiki/Strawman" class="mw-redirect" title="Strawman">exaggeration.</a> Rather, most neopositivists viewed talk of unobservables as <a href="/wiki/Metaphor" title="Metaphor">metaphorical</a> or elliptical: direct observations phrased abstractly or indirectly. So <i><a href="/wiki/Theoretical_term" class="mw-redirect" title="Theoretical term">theoretical terms</a></i> would garner meaning from <i><a href="/wiki/Observational_term" class="mw-redirect" title="Observational term">observational terms</a></i> via <i>correspondence rules</i>, and thereby <i>theoretical laws</i> would be reduced to <i>empirical laws</i>. Via <a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Logicism" title="Logicism">logicism</a>, reducing <a href="/wiki/Mathematics" title="Mathematics">mathematics</a> to logic, <a href="/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">physics</a>' mathematical formulas would be converted to <a href="/wiki/Symbolic_logic" class="mw-redirect" title="Symbolic logic">symbolic logic</a>. Via Russell's <a href="/wiki/Logical_atomism" title="Logical atomism">logical atomism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Natural_language" title="Natural language">ordinary language</a> would break into discrete units of meaning.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Rational_reconstruction" title="Rational reconstruction">Rational reconstruction</a>, then, would convert ordinary statements into standardized equivalents, all networked and united by a <a href="/wiki/Logical_syntax" class="mw-redirect" title="Logical syntax">logical syntax</a>. A scientific theory would be stated with its method of verification, whereby a <a href="/wiki/Logical_calculus" class="mw-redirect" title="Logical calculus">logical calculus</a> or <a href="/wiki/Operationalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Operationalism">empirical operation</a> could <a href="/wiki/Deductive_inference" class="mw-redirect" title="Deductive inference">verify</a> its <a href="/wiki/Truth-value" class="mw-redirect" title="Truth-value">falsity or truth</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Development">Development</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Logical_positivism&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Development"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the late 1930s, logical positivists fled Germany and Austria for Britain and the United States. By then, many had replaced Mach's phenomenalism with <a href="/wiki/Otto_Neurath" title="Otto Neurath">Otto Neurath</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Physicalism" title="Physicalism">physicalism</a>, whereby science's content is not actual or potential sensations, but instead consists of entities that are publicly observable. <a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Carnap" title="Rudolf Carnap">Rudolf Carnap</a>, who had sparked logical positivism in the Vienna Circle, had sought to replace <i>verification</i> with simply <i>confirmation</i>. With World War II's close in 1945, logical positivism became milder, <i>logical empiricism</i>, led largely by <a href="/wiki/Carl_Gustav_Hempel" title="Carl Gustav Hempel">Carl Hempel</a>, in America, who expounded the <a href="/wiki/Covering_law_model" class="mw-redirect" title="Covering law model">covering law model</a> of scientific explanation. Logical positivism became a major underpinning of <a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">analytic philosophy</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated1_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated1-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and dominated philosophy in the <a href="/wiki/English-speaking_world" title="English-speaking world">English-speaking world</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">philosophy of science</a>, while influencing sciences, but especially <a href="/wiki/Social_science" title="Social science">social sciences</a>, into the 1960s. Yet the movement failed to resolve its central problems,<sup id="cite_ref-Smith1986_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Smith1986-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Bunge1996_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bunge1996-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and its doctrines were increasingly criticized, most trenchantly by <a href="/wiki/Willard_Van_Orman_Quine" title="Willard Van Orman Quine">Willard Van Orman Quine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Norwood_Russell_Hanson" title="Norwood Russell Hanson">Norwood Hanson</a>, <a href="/wiki/Karl_Raimund_Popper" class="mw-redirect" title="Karl Raimund Popper">Karl Popper</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Samuel_Kuhn" class="mw-redirect" title="Thomas Samuel Kuhn">Thomas Kuhn</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Carl_Gustav_Hempel" title="Carl Gustav Hempel">Carl Hempel</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Roots">Roots</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Logical_positivism&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Roots"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Language">Language</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Logical_positivism&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Language"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><i><a href="/wiki/Tractatus_Logico-Philosophicus" title="Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus">Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus</a></i>, by the young <a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Ludwig Wittgenstein</a>, introduced the view of philosophy as "critique of language", offering the possibility of a theoretically principled distinction of intelligible versus nonsensical discourse. <i>Tractatus</i> adhered to a <a href="/wiki/Correspondence_theory_of_truth" title="Correspondence theory of truth">correspondence theory of truth</a> (versus a <a href="/wiki/Coherence_theory_of_truth" title="Coherence theory of truth">coherence theory of truth</a>). Wittgenstein's influence also shows in some versions of the <a href="/wiki/Verifiability_principle" class="mw-redirect" title="Verifiability principle">verifiability principle</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In tractarian doctrine, truths of logic are <a href="/wiki/Tautology_(logic)" title="Tautology (logic)">tautologies</a>, a view widely accepted by logical positivists who were also influenced by Wittgenstein's interpretation of <a href="/wiki/Probability" title="Probability">probability</a> although, according to Neurath, some logical positivists found <i>Tractatus</i> to contain too much metaphysics.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Logicism">Logicism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Logical_positivism&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Logicism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Gottlob_Frege" title="Gottlob Frege">Gottlob Frege</a> began the program of reducing mathematics to logic. He continued it with <a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a>, but lost interest in this <a href="/wiki/Logicism" title="Logicism">logicism</a>. Russell then continued it with <a href="/wiki/Alfred_North_Whitehead" title="Alfred North Whitehead">Alfred North Whitehead</a> in their <i><a href="/wiki/Principia_Mathematica" title="Principia Mathematica">Principia Mathematica</a></i>, inspiring some of the more mathematical logical positivists, such as <a href="/wiki/Hans_Hahn_(mathematician)" title="Hans Hahn (mathematician)">Hans Hahn</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Carnap" title="Rudolf Carnap">Rudolf Carnap</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Hintikka_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hintikka-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Carnap's early anti-metaphysical works employed Russell's <a href="/wiki/Type_theory" title="Type theory">theory of types</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Carnap envisioned a universal language that could reconstruct mathematics and thereby encode physics.<sup id="cite_ref-Hintikka_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hintikka-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Yet <a href="/wiki/Kurt_G%C3%B6del" title="Kurt Gödel">Kurt Gödel</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Incompleteness_theorem" class="mw-redirect" title="Incompleteness theorem">incompleteness theorem</a> showed this impossible except in trivial cases, and <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Tarski" title="Alfred Tarski">Alfred Tarski</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Undefinability_theorem" class="mw-redirect" title="Undefinability theorem">undefinability theorem</a> shattered all hopes of reducing mathematics to logic.<sup id="cite_ref-Hintikka_13-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hintikka-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus, a universal language failed to stem from Carnap's 1934 work <i>Logische Syntax der Sprache</i> (<i>Logical Syntax of Language</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-Hintikka_13-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hintikka-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Still, some logical positivists, including Carl Hempel, continued support of logicism.<sup id="cite_ref-Hintikka_13-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hintikka-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Empiricism">Empiricism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Logical_positivism&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Empiricism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In Germany, <a href="/wiki/Hegelian_metaphysics" class="mw-redirect" title="Hegelian metaphysics">Hegelian metaphysics</a> was a dominant movement, and Hegelian successors such as <a href="/wiki/F_H_Bradley" class="mw-redirect" title="F H Bradley">F H Bradley</a> explained reality by postulating metaphysical entities lacking empirical basis, drawing reaction in the form of <a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">positivism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Suppe,_Frederick_1999_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Suppe,_Frederick_1999-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Starting in the late 19th century, there was a "back to <a href="/wiki/Kant" class="mw-redirect" title="Kant">Kant</a>" movement(<a href="/wiki/Neo-Kantianism" title="Neo-Kantianism">Neo-Kantianism</a>). <a href="/wiki/Ernst_Mach" title="Ernst Mach">Ernst Mach</a>'s positivism and <a href="/wiki/Phenomenalism" title="Phenomenalism">phenomenalism</a> were a major influence.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Logical_positivism&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vienna">Vienna</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Logical_positivism&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Vienna"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Vienna_Circle" title="Vienna Circle">Vienna Circle</a>, gathering around <a href="/wiki/University_of_Vienna" title="University of Vienna">University of Vienna</a> and <a href="/wiki/Caf%C3%A9_Central" title="Café Central">Café Central</a>, was led principally by <a href="/wiki/Moritz_Schlick" title="Moritz Schlick">Moritz Schlick</a>. Schlick had held a <a href="/wiki/Neo-Kantianism" title="Neo-Kantianism">neo-Kantian</a> position, but later converted, via Carnap's 1928 book <i>Der logische Aufbau der Welt</i>, that is, <i>The Logical Structure of the World</i>. A 1929 pamphlet written by <a href="/wiki/Otto_Neurath" title="Otto Neurath">Otto Neurath</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hans_Hahn_(mathematician)" title="Hans Hahn (mathematician)">Hans Hahn</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Carnap" title="Rudolf Carnap">Rudolf Carnap</a> summarized the Vienna Circle's positions. Another member of Vienna Circle to later prove very influential was Carl Hempel. A friendly but tenacious critic of the Circle was <a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Karl Popper</a>, whom Neurath nicknamed the "Official Opposition".<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Carnap and other Vienna Circle members, including Hahn and Neurath, saw need for a weaker criterion of meaningfulness than verifiability.<sup id="cite_ref-Sarkar2005_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sarkar2005-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A radical "left" wing—led by Neurath and Carnap—began the program of "liberalization of empiricism", and they also emphasized <a href="/wiki/Fallibilism" title="Fallibilism">fallibilism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pragmatics" title="Pragmatics">pragmatics</a>, which latter Carnap even suggested as empiricism's basis.<sup id="cite_ref-Sarkar2005_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sarkar2005-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A conservative "right" wing—led by Schlick and <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Waismann" title="Friedrich Waismann">Waismann</a>—rejected both the liberalization of empiricism and the epistemological nonfoundationalism of a move from <a href="/wiki/Phenomenalism" title="Phenomenalism">phenomenalism</a> to <a href="/wiki/Physicalism" title="Physicalism">physicalism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Sarkar2005_18-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sarkar2005-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As Neurath and somewhat Carnap posed science toward social reform, the split in Vienna Circle also reflected political views.<sup id="cite_ref-Sarkar2005_18-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sarkar2005-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Berlin">Berlin</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Logical_positivism&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Berlin"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Berlin_Circle_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Berlin Circle (philosophy)">Berlin Circle</a> was led principally by <a href="/wiki/Hans_Reichenbach" title="Hans Reichenbach">Hans Reichenbach</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rivals">Rivals</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Logical_positivism&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Rivals"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Both Moritz Schlick and Rudolf Carnap had been influenced by and sought to define logical positivism versus the neo-Kantianism of <a href="/wiki/Ernst_Cassirer" title="Ernst Cassirer">Ernst Cassirer</a>—the then leading figure of <a href="/wiki/Marburg_school" class="mw-redirect" title="Marburg school">Marburg school</a>, so called—and against <a href="/wiki/Edmund_Husserl" title="Edmund Husserl">Edmund Husserl</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">phenomenology</a>. Logical positivists especially opposed <a href="/wiki/Martin_Heidegger" title="Martin Heidegger">Martin Heidegger</a>'s obscure metaphysics, the epitome of what logical positivism rejected. In the early 1930s, Carnap debated Heidegger over "metaphysical pseudosentences".<sup id="cite_ref-Friedman-pxii_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Friedman-pxii-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Export">Export</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Logical_positivism&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Export"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As the movement's first emissary to the <a href="/wiki/New_World" title="New World">New World</a>, Moritz Schlick visited <a href="/wiki/Stanford_University" title="Stanford University">Stanford University</a> in 1929, yet otherwise remained in Vienna and was murdered in 1936 at <a href="/wiki/University_of_Vienna" title="University of Vienna">the University</a> by a former student, <a href="/wiki/Johann_Nelb%C3%B6ck" title="Johann Nelböck">Johann Nelböck</a>, who was reportedly deranged.<sup id="cite_ref-Friedman-pxii_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Friedman-pxii-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> That year, a British attendee at some Vienna Circle meetings since 1933, <a href="/wiki/A._J._Ayer" title="A. J. Ayer">A. J. Ayer</a> saw his <i><a href="/wiki/Language,_Truth_and_Logic" class="mw-redirect" title="Language, Truth and Logic">Language, Truth and Logic</a></i>, written in English, import logical positivism to the <a href="/wiki/English-speaking_world" title="English-speaking world">English-speaking world</a>. By then, the <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Party" title="Nazi Party">Nazi Party</a>'s 1933 rise to power in Germany had triggered flight of intellectuals.<sup id="cite_ref-Friedman-pxii_19-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Friedman-pxii-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In exile in England, Otto Neurath died in 1945.<sup id="cite_ref-Friedman-pxii_19-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Friedman-pxii-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rudolf Carnap, Hans Reichenbach, and Carl Hempel—Carnap's <a href="/wiki/Prot%C3%A9g%C3%A9" class="mw-redirect" title="Protégé">protégé</a> who had studied in <a href="/wiki/Berlin" title="Berlin">Berlin</a> with Reichenbach—settled permanently in America.<sup id="cite_ref-Friedman-pxii_19-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Friedman-pxii-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Upon Germany's <a href="/wiki/Annexation_of_Austria" class="mw-redirect" title="Annexation of Austria">annexation of Austria</a> in 1938, remaining logical positivists, many of whom were also <a href="/wiki/Jewish" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish">Jewish</a>, were targeted and continued flight. Logical positivism thus became dominant in the English-speaking world.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Principles">Principles</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Logical_positivism&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Principles"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Analytic/synthetic_gap"><span id="Analytic.2Fsynthetic_gap"></span>Analytic/synthetic gap</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Logical_positivism&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Analytic/synthetic gap"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Concerning <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">reality</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Logical_truth" title="Logical truth">necessary</a> is a state true in all <a href="/wiki/Possible_worlds" class="mw-redirect" title="Possible worlds">possible worlds</a>—mere <a href="/wiki/Logical_validity" class="mw-redirect" title="Logical validity">logical validity</a>—whereas the <a href="/wiki/Contingency_(philosophy)" title="Contingency (philosophy)">contingent</a> hinges on the way the particular world is. Concerning <a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">knowledge</a>, the <i><a href="/wiki/A_priori_knowledge" class="mw-redirect" title="A priori knowledge">a priori</a></i> is knowable before or without, whereas the <i><a href="/wiki/A_posteriori" class="mw-redirect" title="A posteriori">a posteriori</a></i> is knowable only after or through, relevant experience. Concerning <a href="/wiki/Propositions" class="mw-redirect" title="Propositions">statements</a>, the <i><a href="/wiki/Analytic-synthetic_distinction" class="mw-redirect" title="Analytic-synthetic distinction">analytic</a></i> is true via terms' <a href="/wiki/Syntax" title="Syntax">arrangement</a> and <a href="/wiki/Semantics" title="Semantics">meanings</a>, thus a <a href="/wiki/Tautology_(logic)" title="Tautology (logic)">tautology</a>—true by logical necessity but uninformative about the world—whereas the <i><a href="/wiki/Analytic-synthetic_distinction" class="mw-redirect" title="Analytic-synthetic distinction">synthetic</a></i> adds reference to a state of facts, a <a href="/wiki/Contingency_(philosophy)" title="Contingency (philosophy)">contingency</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1739, <a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a> cast <a href="/wiki/Hume%27s_fork" title="Hume's fork">a fork</a> aggressively dividing "relations of ideas" from "matters of fact and real existence", such that all truths are of one type or the other.<sup id="cite_ref-Flew_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Flew-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By Hume's fork, truths by relations among ideas (abstract) all align on one side (analytic, necessary, <i>a priori</i>), whereas truths by states of actualities (concrete) always align on the other side (synthetic, contingent, <i>a posteriori</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-Flew_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Flew-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Of any treatises containing neither, Hume orders, "Commit it then to the flames, for it can contain nothing but <a href="/wiki/Sophistry" class="mw-redirect" title="Sophistry">sophistry</a> and illusion".<sup id="cite_ref-Flew_23-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Flew-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Thus awakened from "dogmatic slumber", <a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a> quested to answer Hume's challenge—but by explaining how metaphysics is possible. Eventually, in his <a href="/wiki/Critique_of_Pure_Reason" title="Critique of Pure Reason">1781 work</a>, Kant crossed the tines of Hume's fork to identify another range of truths by necessity—<a href="/wiki/Synthetic_a_priori" class="mw-redirect" title="Synthetic a priori">synthetic <i>a priori</i></a>, statements claiming states of facts but known true before experience—by arriving at <a href="/wiki/Transcendental_idealism" title="Transcendental idealism">transcendental idealism</a>, attributing the mind a constructive role in <a href="/wiki/Phenomena" class="mw-redirect" title="Phenomena">phenomena</a> by arranging <a href="/wiki/Sense_data" title="Sense data">sense data</a> into the very experience of <i>space</i>, <i>time</i>, and <i>substance</i>. Thus, Kant saved <a href="/wiki/Newton%27s_law_of_universal_gravitation" title="Newton's law of universal gravitation">Newton's law of universal gravitation</a> from Hume's <a href="/wiki/Problem_of_induction" title="Problem of induction">problem of induction</a> by finding uniformity of nature to be <i>a priori</i> knowledge. Logical positivists rejected Kant's <a href="/wiki/Synthetic_a_priori" class="mw-redirect" title="Synthetic a priori">synthetic <i>a priori</i></a>, and adopted <a href="/wiki/Hume%27s_fork" title="Hume's fork">Hume's fork</a>, whereby a statement is either analytic and <i>a priori</i> (thus <a href="/wiki/Logical_truth" title="Logical truth">necessary</a> and verifiable logically) or synthetic and <i><a href="/wiki/A_posteriori" class="mw-redirect" title="A posteriori">a posteriori</a></i> (thus <a href="/wiki/Contingency_(philosophy)" title="Contingency (philosophy)">contingent</a> and verifiable empirically).<sup id="cite_ref-Flew_23-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Flew-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Observation/theory_gap"><span id="Observation.2Ftheory_gap"></span>Observation/theory gap</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Logical_positivism&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Observation/theory gap"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Early, most logical positivists proposed that all knowledge is based on logical inference from simple "protocol sentences" grounded in observable facts. In the 1936 and 1937 papers "Testability and meaning", individual terms replace sentences as the units of meaning.<sup id="cite_ref-Sarkar2005_18-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sarkar2005-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Further, theoretical terms no longer need to acquire meaning by explicit definition from observational terms: the connection may be indirect, through a system of implicit definitions.<sup id="cite_ref-Sarkar2005_18-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sarkar2005-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Carnap also provided an important, pioneering discussion of disposition predicates.<sup id="cite_ref-Sarkar2005_18-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sarkar2005-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cognitive_meaningfulness">Cognitive meaningfulness</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Logical_positivism&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Cognitive meaningfulness"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Verification">Verification</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Logical_positivism&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Verification"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The logical positivists' initial stance was that a statement is "cognitively meaningful" in terms of conveying truth value, information or factual content only if some finite procedure conclusively determines its truth.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By this <a href="/wiki/Verifiability_principle" class="mw-redirect" title="Verifiability principle">verifiability principle</a>, only statements verifiable either by their <a href="/wiki/Analytic_proposition" class="mw-redirect" title="Analytic proposition">analyticity</a> or by empiricism were <i>cognitively meaningful</i>. <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">ontology</a>, as well as much of <a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">ethics</a> failed this criterion, and so were found <i>cognitively meaningless</i>. Moritz Schlick, however, did not view ethical or <a href="/wiki/Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">aesthetic</a> statements as <a href="/wiki/Meaning_(philosophy_of_language)" class="mw-redirect" title="Meaning (philosophy of language)">cognitively meaningless</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>Cognitive meaningfulness</i> was variously defined: having a <a href="/wiki/Truth_value" title="Truth value">truth value</a>; corresponding to a possible state of affairs; intelligible or understandable as are scientific statements.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Ethics and aesthetics were subjective preferences, while <a href="/wiki/Theology" title="Theology">theology</a> and other metaphysics contained "pseudostatements", neither true nor false. This meaningfulness was cognitive, although other types of meaningfulness—for instance, emotive, expressive, or figurative—occurred in metaphysical discourse, dismissed from further review. Thus, logical positivism indirectly asserted <a href="/wiki/Hume%27s_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Hume's law">Hume's law</a>, the principle that <i>is</i> statements cannot justify <i>ought</i> statements, but are separated by an unbridgeable gap. <a href="/wiki/A._J._Ayer" title="A. J. Ayer">A. J. Ayer</a>'s 1936 book asserted an extreme variant—the <a href="/wiki/Emotivism" title="Emotivism">boo/hooray doctrine</a>—whereby all evaluative judgments are but emotional reactions.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Confirmation">Confirmation</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Logical_positivism&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Confirmation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In an important pair of papers in 1936 and 1937, "Testability and meaning", Carnap replaced <i>verification</i> with <i>confirmation</i>, on the view that although universal laws cannot be verified they can be confirmed.<sup id="cite_ref-Sarkar2005_18-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sarkar2005-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Later, Carnap employed abundant logical and mathematical methods in researching inductive logic while seeking to provide an account of probability as "degree of confirmation", but was never able to formulate a model.<sup id="cite_ref-IEP-Carnap_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IEP-Carnap-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Carnap's inductive logic, every universal law's degree of confirmation is always zero.<sup id="cite_ref-IEP-Carnap_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IEP-Carnap-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In any event, the precise formulation of what came to be called the "criterion of cognitive significance" took three decades (Hempel 1950, Carnap 1956, Carnap 1961).<sup id="cite_ref-Sarkar2005_18-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sarkar2005-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Carl Hempel became a major critic within the logical positivism movement.<sup id="cite_ref-sep-hempel_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sep-hempel-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hempel criticized the positivist thesis that empirical knowledge is restricted to <i>Basissätze</i>/<i>Beobachtungssätze</i>/<i>Protokollsätze</i> (<b>basic statements</b> or <b>observation statements</b> or <b>protocol statements</b>).<sup id="cite_ref-sep-hempel_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sep-hempel-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hempel elucidated the <a href="/wiki/Paradox_of_the_ravens" class="mw-redirect" title="Paradox of the ravens">paradox of confirmation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Weak_verification">Weak verification</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Logical_positivism&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Weak verification"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The second edition of <a href="/wiki/A._J._Ayer" title="A. J. Ayer">A. J. Ayer</a>'s book arrived in 1946, and discerned <i>strong</i> versus <i>weak</i> forms of verification. Ayer concluded, "A proposition is said to be verifiable, in the strong sense of the term, if, and only if, its truth could be conclusively established by experience", but is verifiable in the weak sense "if it is possible for experience to render it probable".<sup id="cite_ref-Ayer-p50_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ayer-p50-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> And yet, "no proposition, other than a <a href="/wiki/Tautology_(logic)" title="Tautology (logic)">tautology</a>, can possibly be anything more than a probable <a href="/wiki/Hypothesis" title="Hypothesis">hypothesis</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-Ayer-p50_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ayer-p50-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus, all are open to weak verification.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Philosophy_of_science">Philosophy of science</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Logical_positivism&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Philosophy of science"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Upon the global defeat of Nazism, and the removal from philosophy of rivals for radical reform—<a href="/wiki/Marburg_school" class="mw-redirect" title="Marburg school">Marburg</a> neo-Kantianism, <a href="/wiki/Edmund_Husserl" title="Edmund Husserl">Husserlian</a> phenomenology, <a href="/wiki/Martin_Heidegger" title="Martin Heidegger">Heidegger</a>'s "existential hermeneutics"—and while hosted in the climate of American <a href="/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">pragmatism</a> and commonsense empiricism, the neopositivists shed much of their earlier, revolutionary zeal.<sup id="cite_ref-Friedman-pxiv_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Friedman-pxiv-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> No longer crusading to revise traditional philosophy into a new <i>scientific philosophy</i>, they became respectable members of a new philosophy subdiscipline, <i><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">philosophy of science</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Friedman-pxiv_2-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Friedman-pxiv-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Receiving support from <a href="/wiki/Ernest_Nagel" title="Ernest Nagel">Ernest Nagel</a>, logical empiricists were especially influential in the social sciences.<sup id="cite_ref-Novick-p546_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Novick-p546-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Explanation">Explanation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Logical_positivism&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Explanation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Comtean positivism</a> had viewed science as <i>description</i>, whereas the logical positivists posed science as <i>explanation</i>, perhaps to better realize the envisioned <a href="/wiki/Unity_of_science" title="Unity of science">unity of science</a> by covering not only <a href="/wiki/Fundamental_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Fundamental science">fundamental science</a>—that is, <a href="/wiki/Fundamental_interactions" class="mw-redirect" title="Fundamental interactions">fundamental physics</a>—but the <a href="/wiki/Special_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Special science">special sciences</a>, too, for instance <a href="/wiki/Biology" title="Biology">biology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anthropology" title="Anthropology">anthropology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">psychology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">sociology</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Economics" title="Economics">economics</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Woodward-Background_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Woodward-Background-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The most widely accepted concept of scientific explanation, held even by neopositivist critic Karl Popper, was the <a href="/wiki/Deductive-nomological_model" title="Deductive-nomological model">deductive-nomological model</a> (DN model).<sup id="cite_ref-Woodward-introduction_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Woodward-introduction-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Yet DN model received its greatest explication by Carl Hempel, first in his 1942 article "The function of general laws in history", and more explicitly with <a href="/wiki/Paul_Oppenheim" title="Paul Oppenheim">Paul Oppenheim</a> in their 1948 article "Studies in the logic of explanation".<sup id="cite_ref-Woodward-introduction_36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Woodward-introduction-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the DN model, the stated phenomenon to be explained is the <i>explanandum</i>—which can be an event, <a href="/wiki/Scientific_law" title="Scientific law">law</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Scientific_theory" title="Scientific theory">theory</a>—whereas premises stated to explain it are the <i>explanans</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Suppe_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Suppe-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Explanans must be true or highly confirmed, contain at least one law, and entail the explanandum.<sup id="cite_ref-Suppe_37-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Suppe-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus, given initial conditions <i>C</i><sub>1</sub>, <i>C</i><sub>2</sub>, ..., <i>C</i><sub>n</sub><i> plus general laws </i>L<i><sub>1</sub>, </i>L<i><sub>2</sub>, ..., </i>L<sub>n</sub><i>, event </i>E<i> is a deductive consequence and scientifically explained.<sup id="cite_ref-Suppe_37-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Suppe-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the DN model, a law is an unrestricted generalization by conditional proposition—</i>If A, then B<i>—and has empirical content testable.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (Differing from a merely true regularity—for instance, </i>George always carries only $1 bills in his wallet<i>—a law suggests what </i>must<i> be true,<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and is consequent of a <a href="/wiki/Scientific_theory" title="Scientific theory">scientific theory</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Axiom" title="Axiom">axiomatic</a> structure.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>)</i> </p><p>By the <a href="/wiki/Humeanism#Causality_and_necessity" title="Humeanism">Humean</a> empiricist view that humans observe sequences of events, (not cause and effect, as causality and causal mechanisms are unobservable), the DN model neglects causality beyond mere <a href="/wiki/Constant_conjunction" title="Constant conjunction">constant conjunction</a>, first event <i>A</i> and then always event <i>B</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Woodward-Background_35-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Woodward-Background-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hempel's explication of the DN model held <a href="/wiki/Natural_laws" class="mw-redirect" title="Natural laws">natural laws</a>—empirically confirmed regularities—as satisfactory and, if formulated realistically, approximating causal explanation.<sup id="cite_ref-Suppe_37-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Suppe-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In later articles, Hempel defended the DN model and proposed a probabilistic explanation, inductive-statistical model (IS model).<sup id="cite_ref-Suppe_37-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Suppe-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the DN and IS models together form the <i>covering law model</i>,<sup id="cite_ref-Suppe_37-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Suppe-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as named by a critic, <a href="/wiki/William_Dray" class="mw-redirect" title="William Dray">William Dray</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Derivation of statistical laws from other statistical laws goes to deductive-statistical model (DS model).<sup id="cite_ref-Glennan_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Glennan-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Georg_Henrik_von_Wright" title="Georg Henrik von Wright">Georg Henrik von Wright</a>, another critic, named it <i>subsumption theory</i>,<sup id="cite_ref-Riedel_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Riedel-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> fitting the ambition of theory reduction.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Unity_of_science">Unity of science</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Logical_positivism&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Unity of science"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Logical positivists were generally committed to "<a href="/wiki/Unified_Science" title="Unified Science">Unified Science</a>", and sought a common language or, in Neurath's phrase, a "universal slang" whereby all scientific propositions could be expressed.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The adequacy of proposals or fragments of proposals for such a language was often asserted on the basis of various "reductions" or "explications" of the terms of one special science to the terms of another, putatively more fundamental. Sometimes these reductions consisted of set-theoretic manipulations of a few logically primitive concepts (as in Carnap's <i>Logical Structure of the World</i>, 1928).<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sometimes, these reductions consisted of allegedly analytic or <i>a priori</i> deductive relationships (as in Carnap's "Testability and meaning").<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A number of publications over a period of thirty years would attempt to elucidate this concept. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Theory_reduction">Theory reduction</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Logical_positivism&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Theory reduction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As in <a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Comtean positivism</a>'s envisioned <a href="/wiki/Unity_of_science" title="Unity of science">unity of science</a>, neopositivists aimed to network all special sciences through the <a href="/wiki/Covering_law_model" class="mw-redirect" title="Covering law model">covering law model of scientific explanation</a>. And ultimately, by supplying <a href="/wiki/Boundary_condition" class="mw-redirect" title="Boundary condition">boundary conditions</a> and supplying bridge laws within the covering law model, all the special sciences' laws would reduce to <a href="/wiki/Fundamental_interactions" class="mw-redirect" title="Fundamental interactions">fundamental physics</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Fundamental_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Fundamental science">fundamental science</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Critics">Critics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Logical_positivism&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Critics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>After World War II, key tenets of logical positivism, including its atomistic philosophy of science, the verifiability principle, and the <a href="/wiki/Hume%27s_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Hume's law">fact/value gap</a>, drew escalated criticism.<sup id="cite_ref-Sarkar2005_18-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sarkar2005-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The verifiability criterion made <a href="/wiki/Universal_proposition" class="mw-redirect" title="Universal proposition">universal statements</a> 'cognitively' meaningless, and even made statements beyond empiricism for technological but not conceptual reasons meaningless, which was taken to pose significant problems for the philosophy of science.<sup id="cite_ref-sep-hempel_31-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sep-hempel-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-sep-problem-of-induction_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sep-problem-of-induction-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-sep-vienna-circle_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sep-vienna-circle-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These problems were recognized within the movement, which hosted attempted solutions—Carnap's move to <i>confirmation</i>, Ayer's acceptance of <i>weak verification</i>—but the program drew sustained criticism from a number of directions by the 1950s. Even philosophers disagreeing among themselves on which direction general <a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">epistemology</a> ought to take, as well as on <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">philosophy of science</a>, agreed that the logical empiricist program was untenable, and it became viewed as self-contradictory: the verifiability criterion of meaning was itself unverified.<sup id="cite_ref-Putnam1985_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Putnam1985-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Notable critics included <a href="/wiki/Karl_Raimund_Popper" class="mw-redirect" title="Karl Raimund Popper">Popper</a>, <a href="/wiki/Willard_Van_Orman_Quine" title="Willard Van Orman Quine">Quine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Norwood_Russell_Hanson" title="Norwood Russell Hanson">Hanson</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Samuel_Kuhn" class="mw-redirect" title="Thomas Samuel Kuhn">Kuhn</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hilary_Putnam" title="Hilary Putnam">Putnam</a>, <a href="/wiki/J._L._Austin" title="J. L. Austin">Austin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Peter_Strawson" class="mw-redirect" title="Peter Strawson">Strawson</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nelson_Goodman" title="Nelson Goodman">Goodman</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Richard_Rorty" title="Richard Rorty">Rorty</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Popper">Popper</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Logical_positivism&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Popper"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>An early, tenacious critic was <a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Karl Popper</a> whose 1934 book <i>Logik der Forschung</i>, arriving in English in 1959 as <i><a href="/wiki/The_Logic_of_Scientific_Discovery" title="The Logic of Scientific Discovery">The Logic of Scientific Discovery</a></i>, directly answered verificationism. Popper considered the <a href="/wiki/Problem_of_induction" title="Problem of induction">problem of induction</a> as rendering empirical verification logically impossible,<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the <a href="/wiki/Deductive_fallacy" class="mw-redirect" title="Deductive fallacy">deductive fallacy</a> of <a href="/wiki/Affirming_the_consequent" title="Affirming the consequent">affirming the consequent</a> reveals any phenomenon's capacity to host more than one logically possible explanation. Accepting <a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">scientific method</a> as <a href="/wiki/Hypothetico-deductive_model" title="Hypothetico-deductive model">hypotheticodeduction</a>, whose <a href="/wiki/Argument_form" class="mw-redirect" title="Argument form">inference form</a> is <a href="/wiki/Denying_the_consequent" class="mw-redirect" title="Denying the consequent">denying the consequent</a>, Popper finds scientific method unable to proceed without <a href="/wiki/Falsifiable" class="mw-redirect" title="Falsifiable">falsifiable</a> predictions.<sup id="cite_ref-Popper_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Popper-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Popper thus identifies <a href="/wiki/Falsifiability" title="Falsifiability">falsifiability</a> to <a href="/wiki/Problem_of_demarcation" class="mw-redirect" title="Problem of demarcation">demarcate</a> not <i>meaningful</i> from <i>meaningless</i> but simply <i>scientific</i> from <i>unscientific</i>—a label not in itself unfavorable.<sup id="cite_ref-Popper_52-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Popper-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Popper finds virtue in metaphysics, required to develop new scientific theories. And an unfalsifiable—thus unscientific, perhaps metaphysical—concept in one era can later, through evolving knowledge or technology, become falsifiable, thus scientific. Popper also found science's quest for truth to rest on values. Popper disparages the <i><a href="/wiki/Pseudoscientific" class="mw-redirect" title="Pseudoscientific">pseudoscientific</a></i>, which occurs when an unscientific theory is proclaimed true and coupled with seemingly scientific method by "testing" the unfalsifiable theory—whose predictions are confirmed by necessity—or when a scientific theory's falsifiable predictions are strongly falsified but the theory is persistently protected by "immunizing stratagems", such as the appendage of <i><a href="/wiki/Ad_hoc" title="Ad hoc">ad hoc</a></i> clauses saving the theory or the recourse to increasingly speculative hypotheses shielding the theory.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Explicitly denying the positivist view of meaning and verification, Popper developed the epistemology of <a href="/wiki/Critical_rationalism" title="Critical rationalism">critical rationalism</a>, which considers that human knowledge evolves by conjectures and refutations, and that no number, degree, and variety of empirical successes can either verify or confirm scientific theory. For Popper, science's aim is <i>corroboration</i> of scientific theory, which strives for <a href="/wiki/Scientific_realism" title="Scientific realism">scientific realism</a> but accepts the maximal status of strongly corroborated <a href="/wiki/Verisimilitude" title="Verisimilitude">verisimilitude</a> ("truthlikeness"). Popper thus acknowledged the value of the positivist movement's emphasis on science but claimed that he had "killed positivism".<sup id="cite_ref-:1_53-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Quine">Quine</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Logical_positivism&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Quine"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Although an empiricist, American logician <a href="/wiki/Willard_Van_Orman_Quine" title="Willard Van Orman Quine">Willard Van Orman Quine</a> published the 1951 paper "<a href="/wiki/Two_Dogmas_of_Empiricism" title="Two Dogmas of Empiricism">Two Dogmas of Empiricism</a>",<sup id="cite_ref-:2_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which challenged conventional empiricist presumptions. Quine attacked the <a href="/wiki/Analytic-synthetic_distinction" class="mw-redirect" title="Analytic-synthetic distinction">analytic/synthetic division</a>, which the verificationist program had been hinged upon in order to entail, by consequence of <a href="/wiki/Hume%27s_fork" title="Hume's fork">Hume's fork</a>, both <a href="/wiki/Logical_truth" title="Logical truth">necessity</a> and <a href="/wiki/A_priori_and_a_posteriori" title="A priori and a posteriori">aprioricity</a>. Quine's <a href="/wiki/Ontological_relativity" class="mw-redirect" title="Ontological relativity">ontological relativity</a> explained that every term in any statement has its meaning contingent on a vast network of knowledge and belief, the speaker's conception of the entire world. Quine later proposed <a href="/wiki/Naturalized_epistemology" title="Naturalized epistemology">naturalized epistemology</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_54-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hanson">Hanson</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Logical_positivism&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Hanson"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1958, <a href="/wiki/Norwood_Russell_Hanson" title="Norwood Russell Hanson">Norwood Hanson</a>'s <i>Patterns of Discovery</i> undermined the division of <a href="/wiki/Observation" title="Observation">observation</a> versus <a href="/wiki/Theory" title="Theory">theory</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Novick-p527_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Novick-p527-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as one can predict, collect, prioritize, and assess data only via some horizon of expectation set by a theory. Thus, any <a href="/wiki/Dataset" class="mw-redirect" title="Dataset">dataset</a>—the direct observations, the scientific facts—is <a href="/wiki/Theory-laden" class="mw-redirect" title="Theory-laden">laden with theory</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Kuhn">Kuhn</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Logical_positivism&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Kuhn"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>With his landmark <i><a href="/wiki/The_Structure_of_Scientific_Revolutions" title="The Structure of Scientific Revolutions">The Structure of Scientific Revolutions</a></i> (1962), <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Samuel_Kuhn" class="mw-redirect" title="Thomas Samuel Kuhn">Thomas Kuhn</a> critically destabilized the verificationist program, which was presumed to call for <a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">foundationalism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (But already in the 1930s, <a href="/wiki/Otto_Neurath" title="Otto Neurath">Otto Neurath</a> had argued for nonfoundationalism via <a href="/wiki/Coherentism" title="Coherentism">coherentism</a> by likening science to a boat (<a href="/wiki/Neurath%27s_boat" title="Neurath's boat">Neurath's boat</a>) that scientists must rebuild at sea.<sup id="cite_ref-ONPSP_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ONPSP-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) Although Kuhn's thesis itself was attacked even by opponents of neopositivism, in the 1970 postscript to <i>Structure</i>, Kuhn asserted, at least, that there was no <a href="/wiki/Algorithm" title="Algorithm">algorithm</a> to science—and, on that, even most of Kuhn's critics agreed.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Powerful and persuasive, Kuhn's book, unlike the vocabulary and symbols of logic's <a href="/wiki/Formal_language" title="Formal language">formal language</a>, was written in <a href="/wiki/Natural_language" title="Natural language">natural language</a> open to the layperson.<sup id="cite_ref-Novick-p526_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Novick-p526-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Kuhn's book was first published in a volume of <i><a href="/wiki/International_Encyclopedia_of_Unified_Science" title="International Encyclopedia of Unified Science">International Encyclopedia of Unified Science</a></i>—a project begun by logical positivists but <span class="nowrap">co-edited</span> by Neurath whose view of science was already nonfoundationalist as mentioned above—and some sense unified science, indeed, but by bringing it into the realm of historical and social assessment, rather than fitting it to the model of physics.<sup id="cite_ref-Novick-p526_59-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Novick-p526-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Kuhn's ideas were rapidly adopted by scholars in disciplines well outside natural sciences,<sup id="cite_ref-Novick-p526_59-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Novick-p526-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and, as logical empiricists were extremely influential in the social sciences,<sup id="cite_ref-Novick-p546_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Novick-p546-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> ushered academia into <a href="/wiki/Postpositivism" title="Postpositivism">postpositivism</a> or postempiricism.<sup id="cite_ref-Novick-p526_59-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Novick-p526-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Putnam">Putnam</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Logical_positivism&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Putnam"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The "<a href="/wiki/Received_view_of_theories" title="Received view of theories">received view</a>" operates on the <i>correspondence rule</i> that states, "The observational terms are taken as referring to specified phenomena or phenomenal properties, and the only interpretation given to the theoretical terms is their explicit definition provided by the correspondence rules".<sup id="cite_ref-Suppe,_Frederick_1999_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Suppe,_Frederick_1999-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to <a href="/wiki/Hilary_Putnam" title="Hilary Putnam">Hilary Putnam</a>, a former student of <a href="/wiki/Hans_Reichenbach" title="Hans Reichenbach">Reichenbach</a> and of <a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Carnap" title="Rudolf Carnap">Carnap</a>, the dichotomy of observational terms versus theoretical terms introduced a problem within scientific discussion that was nonexistent until this dichotomy was stated by logical positivists.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Putnam's four objections: </p> <ul><li>Something is referred to as "observational" if it is observable directly with our senses. Then an observational term cannot be applied to something unobservable. If this is the case, there are no observational terms.</li> <li>With Carnap's classification, some unobservable terms are not even theoretical and belong to neither observational terms nor theoretical terms. Some theoretical terms refer primarily to observational terms.</li> <li>Reports of observational terms frequently contain theoretical terms.</li> <li>A scientific theory may not contain any theoretical terms (an example of this is <a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Darwin</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Darwinian_evolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Darwinian evolution">original theory of evolution</a>).</li></ul> <p>Putnam also alleged that positivism was actually a form of <a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">metaphysical idealism</a> by its rejecting scientific theory's ability to garner knowledge about nature's unobservable aspects. With his "no miracles" argument, posed in 1974, Putnam asserted <a href="/wiki/Scientific_realism" title="Scientific realism">scientific realism</a>, the stance that science achieves true—or approximately true—knowledge of the world as it exists independently of humans' sensory experience. In this, Putnam opposed not only the positivism but other <a href="/wiki/Instrumentalism" title="Instrumentalism">instrumentalism</a>—whereby scientific theory is but a human tool to predict human observations—filling the void left by positivism's decline.<sup id="cite_ref-Friedman-pxii_19-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Friedman-pxii-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Decline">Decline</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Logical_positivism&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Decline"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>By the late 1960s, logical positivism had become exhausted.<sup id="cite_ref-Fotionarticle_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fotionarticle-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1976, <a href="/wiki/A._J._Ayer" title="A. J. Ayer">A. J. Ayer</a> quipped that "the most important" defect of logical positivism "was that nearly all of it was false," though he maintained "it was true in spirit."<sup id="cite_ref-Routledge_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Routledge-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although logical positivism tends to be recalled as a pillar of <a href="/wiki/Scientism" title="Scientism">scientism</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Stahl-etal-p180_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stahl-etal-p180-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Carl_Hempel" class="mw-redirect" title="Carl Hempel">Carl Hempel</a> was key in establishing the subdiscipline of the philosophy of science,<sup id="cite_ref-Friedman-pxii_19-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Friedman-pxii-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> where <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Kuhn" title="Thomas Kuhn">Thomas Kuhn</a> and <a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Karl Popper</a> brought in the era of <a href="/wiki/Postpositivism" title="Postpositivism">postpositivism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Novick-p526_59-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Novick-p526-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/John_Passmore" title="John Passmore">John Passmore</a> found logical positivism to be "dead, or as dead as a philosophical movement ever becomes".<sup id="cite_ref-Routledge_62-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Routledge-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Logical positivism's fall reopened the debate over the metaphysical merit of scientific theory, whether it can offer knowledge of the world beyond human experience (scientific realism) versus whether it is but a human tool to predict human experience (instrumentalism).<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Philosophers increasingly critiqued logical positivism, often misrepresenting it without thorough examination.<sup id="cite_ref-Friedman-p1_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Friedman-p1-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Friedman-p2_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Friedman-p2-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was generally reduced to oversimplifications and stereotypes, particularly associating it with <a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">foundationalism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Friedman-p2_68-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Friedman-p2-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The movement helped anchor <a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">analytic philosophy</a> in the English-speaking world and reintroducing empiricism in Britain. Its influence extended beyond philosophy, particularly in psychology and social sciences.<sup id="cite_ref-Friedman-pxii_19-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Friedman-pxii-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Logical_positivism&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-realism" title="Anti-realism">Anti-realism</a> – Truth of a statement rests on its demonstrability, not its correspondence to an external reality</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Definitions_of_philosophy" title="Definitions of philosophy">Definitions of philosophy</a> – Proposed definitions of philosophy</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empirio-criticism" class="mw-redirect" title="Empirio-criticism">Empirio-criticism</a> – Austrian physicist, philosopher and university educator (1838–1916)<span style="display:none" class="category-annotation-with-redirected-description">Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raven_paradox" title="Raven paradox">Raven paradox</a> – Paradox arising from the question of what constitutes evidence for a statement</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociological_positivism" class="mw-redirect" title="Sociological positivism">Sociological positivism</a> – Empiricist philosophical theory<span style="display:none" class="category-annotation-with-redirected-description">Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strategic_positivism" title="Strategic positivism">Strategic positivism</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Structure_of_Science" title="The Structure of Science">The Structure of Science</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unobservable" title="Unobservable">Unobservable</a> – Entity not directly observable by humans</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="People">People</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Logical_positivism&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: People"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gustav_Bergmann" title="Gustav Bergmann">Gustav Bergmann</a> – Austrian-born American philosopher (1906-1987)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Feigl" title="Herbert Feigl">Herbert Feigl</a> – Austrian-American philosopher</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurt_Grelling" title="Kurt Grelling">Kurt Grelling</a> – German logician and philosopher (1886–1942)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Waismann" title="Friedrich Waismann">Friedrich Waismann</a> – Austrian mathematician, physicist and philosopher (1896–1959)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/R._B._Braithwaite" title="R. B. Braithwaite">R. B. Braithwaite</a> – English philosopher and ethicist</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Logical_positivism&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFPeter_Godfrey-Smith.2010" class="citation book cs1">Peter Godfrey-Smith. (2010). <i>Theory and Reality : an Introduction to the Philosophy of Science</i>. University of Chicago Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-282-64630-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-282-64630-8"><bdi>978-1-282-64630-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/748357235">748357235</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Theory+and+Reality+%3A+an+Introduction+to+the+Philosophy+of+Science.&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F748357235&rft.isbn=978-1-282-64630-8&rft.au=Peter+Godfrey-Smith.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALogical+positivism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Friedman-pxiv-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Friedman-pxiv_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Friedman-pxiv_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Friedman-pxiv_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Friedman-pxiv_2-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Michael Friedman, <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=e9TjZc9wNUAC">Reconsidering Logical Positivism</a> </i> (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1999), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=e9TjZc9wNUAC&pg=PR14">p. xiv</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-passmore-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-passmore_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141014040321/http://collegewing.com/logical-positivism-j-passmore-1967/">Passmore, John. 'Logical Positivism', <i>The Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>, Paul Edwards (ed.). New York: Macmillan, 1967, 1st edition</a><sup><a href="/wiki/Template:Usurped/doc" title="Template:Usurped/doc">[usurped]</a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAllen2007" class="citation journal cs1">Allen, Barry (May 2007). "Turning back the linguistic turn in the theory of knowledge". <i><a href="/wiki/Thesis_Eleven" title="Thesis Eleven">Thesis Eleven</a></i>. <b>89</b> (1): 6–22 (7). <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0725513607076129">10.1177/0725513607076129</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145778455">145778455</a>. <q>In his famous novel <i><a href="/wiki/Nineteen_Eighty-Four" title="Nineteen Eighty-Four">Nineteen Eighty-Four</a></i> <a href="/wiki/George_Orwell" title="George Orwell">George Orwell</a> gave a nice (if for us ironical) explanation of the boon Carnap expects from the logical reform of grammar. Right-thinking <a href="/wiki/Ingsoc" class="mw-redirect" title="Ingsoc">Ingsoc</a> party members are as offended as Carnap by the unruliness of language. It's a scandal that grammar allows such pseudo-statements as 'It is the right of the people to alter or abolish Government' (Jefferson), or 'Das Nichts nichtet' (Heidegger). Language as it is makes no objection to such statements, and to Carnap, as to the Party, that's a sore defect. <a href="/wiki/Newspeak" title="Newspeak">Newspeak</a>, a reformed grammar under development at the Ministry of Truth, will do what Carnap wants philosophical grammar to do</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Thesis+Eleven&rft.atitle=Turning+back+the+linguistic+turn+in+the+theory+of+knowledge&rft.volume=89&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=6-22+%287%29&rft.date=2007-05&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F0725513607076129&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A145778455%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Allen&rft.aufirst=Barry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALogical+positivism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRussellSlater2024" class="citation cs2">Russell, Bertrand; Slater, John G. (3 July 2024), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9781003557036-20">"The Philosophy of Logical Atomism [1918]"</a>, <i>The Collected Papers of Bertrand Russell, Volume 8</i>, London: Routledge, pp. 157–244, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-003-55703-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-003-55703-6"><bdi>978-1-003-55703-6</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 September</span> 2024</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Collected+Papers+of+Bertrand+Russell%2C+Volume+8&rft.atitle=The+Philosophy+of+Logical+Atomism+%5B1918%5D&rft.pages=157-244&rft.date=2024-07-03&rft.isbn=978-1-003-55703-6&rft.aulast=Russell&rft.aufirst=Bertrand&rft.au=Slater%2C+John+G.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.4324%2F9781003557036-20&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALogical+positivism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-autogenerated1-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated1_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/vienna-circle">"Vienna Circle"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150810041731/http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/vienna-circle">Archived</a> 10 August 2015 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> in <i>Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Smith1986-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Smith1986_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith1986" class="citation book cs1">Smith, L.D. (1986). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/behaviorismlogic0000smit"><i>Behaviorism and Logical Positivism: A Reassessment of the Alliance</i></a></span>. Stanford University Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/behaviorismlogic0000smit/page/314">314</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0804713016" title="Special:BookSources/978-0804713016"><bdi>978-0804713016</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/85030366">85030366</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 January</span> 2016</span>. <q>The secondary and historical literature on logical positivism affords substantial grounds for concluding that logical positivism failed to solve many of the central problems it generated for itself. Prominent among the unsolved problems was the failure to find an acceptable statement of the verifiability (later confirmability) criterion of meaningfulness. Until a competing tradition emerged (about the late 1950s), the problems of logical positivism continued to be attacked from within that tradition. But as the new tradition in the philosophy of science began to demonstrate its effectiveness—by dissolving and rephrasing old problems as well as by generating new ones—philosophers began to shift allegiances to the new tradition, even though that tradition has yet to receive a canonical formulation.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Behaviorism+and+Logical+Positivism%3A+A+Reassessment+of+the+Alliance&rft.pages=314&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=1986&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F85030366&rft.isbn=978-0804713016&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=L.D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbehaviorismlogic0000smit&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALogical+positivism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bunge1996-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Bunge1996_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBunge1996" class="citation book cs1">Bunge, M.A. (1996). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/findingphilosoph0000bung"><i>Finding Philosophy in Social Science</i></a></span>. Yale University Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/findingphilosoph0000bung/page/317">317</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0300066067" title="Special:BookSources/978-0300066067"><bdi>978-0300066067</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/lc96004399">lc96004399</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 January</span> 2016</span>. <q>To conclude, logical positivism was progressive compared with the classical positivism of <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy" title="Ptolemy">Ptolemy</a>, <a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">Hume</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jean_le_Rond_d%27Alembert" title="Jean le Rond d'Alembert">d'Alembert</a>, <a href="/wiki/Auguste_Comte" title="Auguste Comte">Comte</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">John Stuart Mill</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ernst_Mach" title="Ernst Mach">Ernst Mach</a>. It was even more so by comparison with its contemporary rivals—<a href="/wiki/Neo-Thomism" class="mw-redirect" title="Neo-Thomism">neo-Thomism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Neo-Kantianism" title="Neo-Kantianism">neo-Kantianism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Intuitionism" title="Intuitionism">intuitionism</a>, dialectical materialism, phenomenology, and <a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">existentialism</a>. However, neo-positivism failed dismally to give a faithful account of science, whether natural or social. It failed because it remained anchored to sense-data and to a phenomenalist metaphysics, overrated the power of induction and underrated that of hypothesis, and denounced realism and materialism as metaphysical nonsense. Although it has never been practiced consistently in the advanced natural sciences and has been criticized by many philosophers, notably Popper (1959 [1935], 1963), logical positivism remains the tacit philosophy of many scientists. Regrettably, the anti-positivism fashionable in the metatheory of social science is often nothing but an excuse for sloppiness and wild speculation.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Finding+Philosophy+in+Social+Science&rft.pages=317&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=1996&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2Flc96004399&rft.isbn=978-0300066067&rft.aulast=Bunge&rft.aufirst=M.A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ffindingphilosoph0000bung&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALogical+positivism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140107230818/http://www.drury.edu/ess/philsci/popper.html">"Popper, Falsifiability, and the Failure of Positivism"</a>. 7 August 2000. Archived from the original on 7 January 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 June</span> 2012</span>. <q>The upshot is that the positivists seem caught between insisting on the V.C. [Verifiability Criterion]—but for no defensible reason—or admitting that the V.C. requires a background language, etc., which opens the door to relativism, etc. In light of this dilemma, many folk—especially following Popper's "last-ditch" effort to "save" empiricism/positivism/realism with the falsifiability criterion—have agreed that positivism is a dead-end.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Popper%2C+Falsifiability%2C+and+the+Failure+of+Positivism&rft.date=2000-08-07&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.drury.edu%2Fess%2Fphilsci%2Fpopper.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALogical+positivism" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_web" title="Template:Cite web">cite web</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: unfit URL (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_unfit_URL" title="Category:CS1 maint: unfit URL">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For example, compare "Proposition 4.024" of <i>Tractatus</i>, asserting that we understand a proposition when we know the outcome if it is true, with Schlick's asserting, "To state the circumstances under which a proposition is true is the same as stating its meaning".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Positivismus und realismus", <i>Erkenntnis</i> <b>3</b>:1–31, English trans in Sarkar, Sahotra, ed, <i>Logical Empiricism at its Peak: Schlick, Carnap, and Neurath</i> (New York: Garland Publishing, 1996), p. 38.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For summary of the effect of Tractatus on logical positivists, see the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pitt.edu/~philosop/images/doc4-full.jpg">Entwicklung der Thesen des "Wiener Kreises"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061109000315/http://www.pitt.edu/~philosop/images/doc4-full.jpg">Archived</a> 9 November 2006 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hintikka-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hintikka_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hintikka_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hintikka_13-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hintikka_13-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hintikka_13-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Jaako Hintikka, "Logicism", in Andrew D Irvine, ed, <i>Philosophy of Mathematics</i> (Burlington MA: North Holland, 2009), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=mbn35b2ghgkC&pg=PA283">pp. 283–84</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See Rudolf Carnap, "The elimination of metaphysics through logical analysis of language", <i>Erkenntnis</i>, 1932;<b>2</b>, reprinted in <i>Logical Positivism</i>, Alfred Jules Ayer, ed, (New York: Free Press, 1959), pp. 60–81.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Suppe,_Frederick_1999-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Suppe,_Frederick_1999_15-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Suppe,_Frederick_1999_15-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Frederick Suppe, "The positivist model of scientific theories", in <i>Scientific Inquiry</i>, Robert Klee, ed, (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999), pp. 16–24.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRay2017" class="citation cs2">Ray, Christopher (September 2017), Newton-Smith, W. H. (ed.), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9781405164481.ch37">"Logical Positivism"</a>, <i>A Companion to the Philosophy of Science</i> (1 ed.), Wiley, pp. 243–251, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2F9781405164481.ch37">10.1002/9781405164481.ch37</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-631-23020-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-631-23020-5"><bdi>978-0-631-23020-5</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 October</span> 2023</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=A+Companion+to+the+Philosophy+of+Science&rft.atitle=Logical+Positivism&rft.pages=243-251&rft.date=2017-09&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2F9781405164481.ch37&rft.isbn=978-0-631-23020-5&rft.aulast=Ray&rft.aufirst=Christopher&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fonlinelibrary.wiley.com%2Fdoi%2F10.1002%2F9781405164481.ch37&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALogical+positivism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBartley1982" class="citation journal cs1">Bartley, W. W. (February 1982). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf02378809">"The Philosophy of Karl Popper Part III. Rationality, Criticism, and Logic"</a>. <i>Philosophia</i>. <b>11</b> (1–2): 121–221. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fbf02378809">10.1007/bf02378809</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0048-3893">0048-3893</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Philosophia&rft.atitle=The+Philosophy+of+Karl+Popper+Part+III.+Rationality%2C+Criticism%2C+and+Logic&rft.volume=11&rft.issue=1%E2%80%932&rft.pages=121-221&rft.date=1982-02&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fbf02378809&rft.issn=0048-3893&rft.aulast=Bartley&rft.aufirst=W.+W.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1007%2Fbf02378809&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALogical+positivism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sarkar2005-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Sarkar2005_18-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sarkar2005_18-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sarkar2005_18-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sarkar2005_18-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sarkar2005_18-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sarkar2005_18-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sarkar2005_18-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sarkar2005_18-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sarkar2005_18-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sarkar2005_18-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSarkarPfeifer2005" class="citation book cs1">Sarkar, S; Pfeifer, J (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=od68ge7aF6wC&pg=PA83"><i>The Philosophy of Science: An Encyclopedia</i></a>. Vol. 1. Taylor & Francis. p. 83. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0415939270" title="Special:BookSources/978-0415939270"><bdi>978-0415939270</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Philosophy+of+Science%3A+An+Encyclopedia&rft.pages=83&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0415939270&rft.aulast=Sarkar&rft.aufirst=S&rft.au=Pfeifer%2C+J&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dod68ge7aF6wC%26pg%3DPA83&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALogical+positivism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Friedman-pxii-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Friedman-pxii_19-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Friedman-pxii_19-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Friedman-pxii_19-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Friedman-pxii_19-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Friedman-pxii_19-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Friedman-pxii_19-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Friedman-pxii_19-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Friedman-pxii_19-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Friedman, <i>Reconsidering Logical Positivism</i> (Cambridge UP, 1999), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=e9TjZc9wNUAC&pg=PR12">p. xii</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9780203565520-7">"Logical Positivism The Vienna Circle"</a>, <i>Beyond Positivism</i>, Routledge, pp. 29–36, 20 July 2015, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-429-23433-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-429-23433-0"><bdi>978-0-429-23433-0</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 September</span> 2024</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Beyond+Positivism&rft.atitle=Logical+Positivism+The+Vienna+Circle&rft.pages=29-36&rft.date=2015-07-20&rft.isbn=978-0-429-23433-0&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.4324%2F9780203565520-7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALogical+positivism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRey2023" class="citation cs2">Rey, Georges (2023), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2023/entries/analytic-synthetic/">"The Analytic/Synthetic Distinction"</a>, in Zalta, Edward N.; Nodelman, Uri (eds.), <i>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i> (Spring 2023 ed.), Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 July</span> 2023</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Analytic%2FSynthetic+Distinction&rft.btitle=The+Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.edition=Spring+2023&rft.pub=Metaphysics+Research+Lab%2C+Stanford+University&rft.date=2023&rft.aulast=Rey&rft.aufirst=Georges&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Farchives%2Fspr2023%2Fentries%2Fanalytic-synthetic%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALogical+positivism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://iep.utm.edu/quine-an/">"Quine, Willard Van Orman: Analytic/Synthetic Distinction | Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 July</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Quine%2C+Willard+Van+Orman%3A+Analytic%2FSynthetic+Distinction+%7C+Internet+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fiep.utm.edu%2Fquine-an%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALogical+positivism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Flew-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Flew_23-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Flew_23-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Flew_23-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Flew_23-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAntony_Flew1984" class="citation book cs1">Antony Flew (1984). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=MmJHVU9Rv3YC&pg=PA156"><i>A Dictionary of Philosophy: Revised Second Edition</i></a> (2nd ed.). New York: St. Martin's Press. p. 156. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-312-20923-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-312-20923-0"><bdi>978-0-312-20923-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Dictionary+of+Philosophy%3A+Revised+Second+Edition&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=156&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=St.+Martin%27s+Press&rft.date=1984&rft.isbn=978-0-312-20923-0&rft.au=Antony+Flew&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DMmJHVU9Rv3YC%26pg%3DPA156&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALogical+positivism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHelen_Buss_Mitchell2010" class="citation book cs1">Helen Buss Mitchell (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=P6o0OUzwmSAC&pg=PA249"><i>Roots of Wisdom: A Tapestry of Philosophical Traditions</i></a>. Cengage Learning. pp. 249–50. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-495-80896-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-495-80896-1"><bdi>978-0-495-80896-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Roots+of+Wisdom%3A+A+Tapestry+of+Philosophical+Traditions&rft.pages=249-50&rft.pub=Cengage+Learning&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-495-80896-1&rft.au=Helen+Buss+Mitchell&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DP6o0OUzwmSAC%26pg%3DPA249&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALogical+positivism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For a classic survey of other versions of verificationism, see Carl G Hempel, "Problems and changes in the empiricist criterion of meaning", <i>Revue Internationale de Philosophie</i>, 1950;<b>41</b>:41–63.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See Moritz Schlick, "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LTOaM0X6e6cC&q=%22The+future+of+philosophy%22">The future Of philosophy</a>", in <i>The Linguistic Turn</i>, Richard Rorty, ed, (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992), pp. 43–53.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Examples of these different views can be found in Scheffler's <i>Anatomy of Inquiry</i>, Ayer's <i>Language, Truth, and Logic</i>, Schlick's "Positivism and realism" (reprinted in Sarkar 1996 and Ayer 1959), and Carnap's <i>Philosophy and Logical Syntax</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_28-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_28-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAyer1936" class="citation book cs1">Ayer, A.J (1936). <i>Language, Truth, and Meaning</i>. pp. 2 (Preface to the 1st edition) and 63-77 (Chapter 6).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Language%2C+Truth%2C+and+Meaning&rft.pages=2+%28Preface+to+the+1st+edition%29+and+63-77+%28Chapter+6%29&rft.date=1936&rft.aulast=Ayer&rft.aufirst=A.J&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALogical+positivism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/24-231-ethics-fall-2009/f5b666a0f7be491b8e44180c6d7629fc_MIT24_231F09_lec04.pdf">"24.231 Ethics – Handout 3 Ayer's Emotivism"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=24.231+Ethics+%E2%80%93+Handout+3+Ayer%27s+Emotivism&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Focw.mit.edu%2Fcourses%2F24-231-ethics-fall-2009%2Ff5b666a0f7be491b8e44180c6d7629fc_MIT24_231F09_lec04.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALogical+positivism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-IEP-Carnap-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-IEP-Carnap_30-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-IEP-Carnap_30-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Mauro Murzi <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/carnap">"Rudolf Carnap (1891–1970)"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131014232341/http://www.iep.utm.edu/carnap/">Archived</a> 14 October 2013 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <i>Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>, 12 April 2001.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-sep-hempel-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-sep-hempel_31-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-sep-hempel_31-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-sep-hempel_31-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFetzer2012" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Fetzer, James (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/hempel/#SciRea">"Carl Hempel"</a>. In Edward N. Zalta (ed.). <i>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i> (Summer 2012 ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120930055402/http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/hempel/#SciRea">Archived</a> from the original on 30 September 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 August</span> 2012</span>. <q>It would fall to Hempel to become perhaps the most astute critic of that movement and to contribute to its refinement as logical empiricism... Hempel himself attained a certain degree of prominence as a critic of this movement... The analytic/synthetic distinction and the observational/theoretical distinction were tied together by the <i>verifiability criterion of meaningfulness</i>... By this standard, sentences that are non-analytic but also non-verifiable, including various theological or metaphysical assertions concerning God or The Absolute, qualify as cognitively meaningless. This was viewed as a desirable result. But, as Hempel would demonstrate, its scope was far too sweeping, since it also rendered meaningless the distinctively scientific assertions made by laws and theories... The analytic/synthetic distinction took a decided hit when the noted logician, Willard van Orman Quine, published "Two Dogmas of Empiricism" (1953), challenging its adequacy... While the analytic/synthetic distinction appears to be justifiable in modeling important properties of languages, the observational/theoretical distinction does not fare equally well. Within logical positivism, observation language was assumed to consist of names and predicates whose applicability or not can be ascertained, under suitable conditions, by means of direct observation... Karl Popper (1965, 1968), however, would carry the argument in a different direction by looking at the ontic nature of properties... Hempel (1950, 1951), meanwhile, demonstrated that the verifiability criterion could not be sustained. Since it restricts empirical knowledge to observation sentences and their deductive consequences, scientific theories are reduced to logical constructions from observables. In a series of studies about cognitive significance and empirical testability, he demonstrated that the verifiability criterion implies that existential generalizations are meaningful, but that universal generalizations are not, even though they include general laws, the principal objects of scientific discovery. Hypotheses about relative frequencies in finite sequences are meaningful, but hypotheses concerning limits in infinite sequences are not. The verifiability criterion thus imposed a standard that was too strong to accommodate the characteristic claims of science and was not justifiable... Both theoretical and dispositional predicates, which refer to non-observables, posed serious problems for the positivist position, since the verifiability criterion implies they must be reducible to observables or are empirically meaningless... The need to dismantle the verifiability criterion of meaningfulness together with the demise of the observational/theoretical distinction meant that logical positivism no longer represented a rationally defensible position. At least two of its defining tenets had been shown to be without merit. Since most philosophers believed that Quine had shown the analytic/synthetic distinction was also untenable, moreover, many concluded that the enterprise had been a total failure. Among the important benefits of Hempel's critique, however, was the production of more general and flexible criteria of cognitive significance... Hempel suggested multiple criteria for assessing the cognitive significance of different theoretical systems, where significance is not categorical but rather a matter of degree... The elegance of Hempel's study laid to rest any lingering aspirations for simple criteria of cognitive significance and signaled the demise of logical positivism as a philosophical movement. Precisely what remained, however, was in doubt. Presumably, anyone who rejected one or more of the three principles defining positivism—the analytic/synthetic distinction, the observational/theoretical distinction, and the verifiability criterion of significance—was not a logical positivist. The precise outlines of its philosophical successor, which would be known as "logical empiricism", were not entirely evident. Perhaps this study came the closest to defining its intellectual core. Those who accepted Hempel's four criteria and viewed cognitive significance as a matter of degree were members, at least in spirit. But some new problems were beginning to surface with respect to Hempel's covering-law explication of explanation and old problems remained from his studies of induction, the most remarkable of which was known as "the paradox of confirmation".</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Carl+Hempel&rft.btitle=The+Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.edition=Summer+2012&rft.date=2012&rft.aulast=Fetzer&rft.aufirst=James&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fhempel%2F%23SciRea&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALogical+positivism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrupi2021" class="citation cs2">Crupi, Vincenzo (2021), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2021/entries/confirmation/">"Confirmation"</a>, in Zalta, Edward N. (ed.), <i>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i> (Spring 2021 ed.), Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 July</span> 2023</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Confirmation&rft.btitle=The+Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.edition=Spring+2021&rft.pub=Metaphysics+Research+Lab%2C+Stanford+University&rft.date=2021&rft.aulast=Crupi&rft.aufirst=Vincenzo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Farchives%2Fspr2021%2Fentries%2Fconfirmation%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALogical+positivism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ayer-p50-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Ayer-p50_33-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ayer-p50_33-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Ayer, <i><a href="/wiki/Language,_Truth_and_Logic" class="mw-redirect" title="Language, Truth and Logic">Language, Truth and Logic</a></i>, 1946, pp. 50–51.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Novick-p546-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Novick-p546_34-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Novick-p546_34-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Novick, <i>That Noble Dream</i> (Cambridge UP, 1988), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=mhiw__MLyVAC&dq=Carnap+Hempel+Nagel+social+sciences+natural+fact+value&pg=PA546">p. 546</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Woodward-Background-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Woodward-Background_35-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Woodward-Background_35-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">James Woodward, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2011/entries/scientific-explanation">"Scientific explanation"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131202051319/http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2011/entries/scientific-explanation/">Archived</a> 2 December 2013 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> – sec 1 "Background and introduction", in Zalta EN, ed,<i>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>, Winter 2011 edn</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Woodward-introduction-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Woodward-introduction_36-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Woodward-introduction_36-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">James Woodward, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2011/entries/scientific-explanation">"Scientific explanation"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131202051319/http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2011/entries/scientific-explanation/">Archived</a> 2 December 2013 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> – Article overview, Zalta EN, ed, <i>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>, Winter 2011 edn</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Suppe-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Suppe_37-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Suppe_37-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Suppe_37-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Suppe_37-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Suppe_37-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Suppe_37-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Suppe, <i>Structure of Scientific Theories</i> (U Illinois P, 1977), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SpvZsxCA0TIC&pg=PA619">pp. 619–21</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Eleonora Montuschi, <i>Objects in Social Science</i> (London & New York: Continuum, 2003), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=bQ24-BV8WSAC&pg=PA62">pp. 61–62</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bechtel, <i>Philosophy of Science</i> (Lawrence Erlbaum, 1988), p. 25.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bechtel, <i>Philosophy of Science</i> (Lawrence Erlbaum, 1988), pp. 27–28.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Georg Henrik von Wright, <i>Explanation and Understanding</i> (Ithaca NY: Cornell University Press, 1971), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=33wCi2bg5x0C&pg=PA11">p. 11</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Glennan-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Glennan_42-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Stuart Glennan, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=od68ge7aF6wC&pg=PA276">p. 276</a>, in Sarkar S & Pfeifer J, eds, <i>The Philosophy of Science: An Encyclopedia</i>, Volume 1: A–M (New York: Routledge, 2006).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Riedel-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Riedel_43-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Manfred Riedel, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=It3ji_AuO3sC&dq=Covering+subsumption&pg=PA3">pp. 3–4</a>, in Manninen J & Tuomela R, eds, <i>Essays on Explanation and Understanding: Studies in the Foundation of Humanities and Social Sciences</i> (Dordrecht: D Reidel Publishing, 1976).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For a review of "unity of science" to, see Gregory Frost-Arnold, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://philsci-archive.pitt.edu/archive/00002005/01/PSA2004Short.rtf">"The large-scale structure of logical empiricism: Unity of science and the rejection of metaphysics"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070623031008/http://philsci-archive.pitt.edu/archive/00002005/01/PSA2004Short.rtf">Archived</a> 23 June 2007 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHinst2020" class="citation cs2">Hinst, Peter (2020), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-476-05728-0_9509-1">"Carnap, Rudolf: Der logische Aufbau der Welt"</a>, <i>Kindlers Literatur Lexikon (KLL)</i>, Stuttgart: J.B. Metzler, pp. 1–2, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-476-05728-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-476-05728-0"><bdi>978-3-476-05728-0</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 September</span> 2024</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Kindlers+Literatur+Lexikon+%28KLL%29&rft.atitle=Carnap%2C+Rudolf%3A+Der+logische+Aufbau+der+Welt&rft.pages=1-2&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-3-476-05728-0&rft.aulast=Hinst&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1007%2F978-3-476-05728-0_9509-1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALogical+positivism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSarkar2021" class="citation cs2">Sarkar, Sahotra (12 November 2021), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9781003249573-13">"Rudolf Carnap Testability and Meaning"</a>, <i>Logical Empiricism at its Peak</i>, New York: Routledge, pp. 200–265, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-003-24957-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-003-24957-3"><bdi>978-1-003-24957-3</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 September</span> 2024</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Logical+Empiricism+at+its+Peak&rft.atitle=Rudolf+Carnap+Testability+and+Meaning&rft.pages=200-265&rft.date=2021-11-12&rft.isbn=978-1-003-24957-3&rft.aulast=Sarkar&rft.aufirst=Sahotra&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.4324%2F9781003249573-13&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALogical+positivism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKuhn1996" class="citation book cs1">Kuhn, Thomas S. (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.7208/chicago/9780226458106.001.0001"><i>The Structure of Scientific Revolutions</i></a>. University of Chicago Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-45808-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-45808-3"><bdi>978-0-226-45808-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Structure+of+Scientific+Revolutions&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-226-45808-3&rft.aulast=Kuhn&rft.aufirst=Thomas+S.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.7208%2Fchicago%2F9780226458106.001.0001&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALogical+positivism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-sep-problem-of-induction-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-sep-problem-of-induction_48-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohn_Vicker2011" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">John Vicker (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2011/entries/induction-problem/#VerCon">"The problem of induction"</a>. In Edward N Zalta (ed.). <i>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i> (Fall 2011 ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131202064021/http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2011/entries/induction-problem/#VerCon">Archived</a> from the original on 2 December 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 August</span> 2012</span>. <q>This initial formulation of the criterion was soon seen to be too strong; it counted as meaningless not only metaphysical statements but also statements that are clearly empirically meaningful, such as that all copper conducts electricity and, indeed, any universally quantified statement of infinite scope, as well as statements that were at the time beyond the reach of experience for technical, and not conceptual, reasons, such as that there are mountains on the back side of the moon. These difficulties led to modification of the criterion: The latter to allow empirical verification if not in fact then at least in principle, the former to soften verification to empirical confirmation.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+problem+of+induction&rft.btitle=The+Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.edition=Fall+2011&rft.date=2011&rft.au=John+Vicker&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Farchives%2Ffall2011%2Fentries%2Finduction-problem%2F%23VerCon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALogical+positivism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-sep-vienna-circle-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-sep-vienna-circle_49-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUebel2008" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Uebel, Thomas (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2008/entries/vienna-circle/">"Vienna Circle"</a>. In Edward N. Zalta (ed.). <i>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i> (Fall 2008 ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131202074112/http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2008/entries/vienna-circle/">Archived</a> from the original on 2 December 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 August</span> 2012</span>. <q><p>What Carnap later called the 'liberalization of empiricism' was underway and different camps became discernible within the Circle ... In the first place, this liberalization meant the accommodation of universally quantified statements and the return, as it were, to salient aspects of Carnap's 1928 conception. Everybody had noted that the Wittgensteinian verificationist criterion rendered universally quantified statements meaningless. Schlick (1931) thus followed Wittgenstein's own suggestion to treat them instead as representing rules for the formation of verifiable singular statements. (His abandonment of conclusive verifiability is indicated only in Schlick 1936a.) A second element that began to do so soon was the recognition of the problem of the irreducibility of disposition terms to observation terms ... A third element was that disagreement arose as to whether the in-principle verifiability or support turned on what was merely logically possible or on what was nomologically possible, as a matter of physical law etc. A fourth element, finally, was that differences emerged as to whether the criterion of significance was to apply to all languages or whether it was to apply primarily to constructed, formal languages. Schlick retained the focus on logical possibility and natural languages throughout, but Carnap had firmly settled his focus on nomological possibility and constructed languages by the mid-thirties. Concerned with natural language, Schlick (1932, 1936a) deemed all statements meaningful for which it was logically possible to conceive of a procedure of verification; concerned with constructed languages only, Carnap (1936–37) deemed meaningful only statements for whom it was nomologically possible to conceive of a procedure of confirmation or disconfirmation.</p><p>Many of these issues were openly discussed at the Paris congress in 1935. Already in 1932 Carnap had sought to sharpen his previous criterion by stipulating that those statements were meaningful that were syntactically well-formed and whose non-logical terms were reducible to terms occurring in the basic observational evidence statements of science. While Carnap's focus on the reduction of descriptive terms allows for the conclusive verification of some statements, his criterion also allowed universally quantified statements to be meaningful, provided they were syntactically and terminologically correct (1932a, §2). It was not until one of his Paris addresses, however, that Carnap officially declared the meaning criterion to be mere confirmability. Carnap's new criterion required neither verification nor falsification but only partial testability so as now to include not only universal statements but also the disposition statements of science ... Though plausible initially, the device of introducing non-observational terms in this way gave rise to a number of difficulties which impugned the supposedly clear distinctions between logical and empirical matters and analytic and synthetic statements (Hempel 1951). Independently, Carnap himself (1939) soon gave up the hope that all theoretical terms of science could be related to an observational base by such reduction chains. This admission raised a serious problem for the formulation of a meaning criterion: how was one to rule out unwanted metaphysical claims while admitting as significant highly abstract scientific claims?</p></q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Vienna+Circle&rft.btitle=The+Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.edition=Fall+2008&rft.date=2008&rft.aulast=Uebel&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Farchives%2Ffall2008%2Fentries%2Fvienna-circle%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALogical+positivism" class="Z3988"></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Quotations#Specific_recommendations" title="Wikipedia:Quotations"><span title="too-lengthy quotation (November 2020)">excessive quote</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Putnam1985-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Putnam1985_50-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHilary_Putnam1985" class="citation book cs1">Hilary Putnam (1985). <i>Philosophical Papers: Volume 3, Realism and Reason</i>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521313940" title="Special:BookSources/978-0521313940"><bdi>978-0521313940</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/lc82012903">lc82012903</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Philosophical+Papers%3A+Volume+3%2C+Realism+and+Reason&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1985&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2Flc82012903&rft.isbn=978-0521313940&rft.au=Hilary+Putnam&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALogical+positivism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Popper then denies that science requires <a href="/wiki/Inductive_inference" class="mw-redirect" title="Inductive inference">inductive inference</a> or that it actually exists, although most philosophers believe it exists and that science requires it [Samir Okasha, <i>The Philosophy of Science: A Very Short Introduction</i> (New York: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>, 2002), p. 23],</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Popper-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Popper_52-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Popper_52-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPopper2005" class="citation journal cs1">Popper, Karl (4 November 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9780203994627">"The Logic of Scientific Discovery"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4324%2F9780203994627">10.4324/9780203994627</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=The+Logic+of+Scientific+Discovery&rft.date=2005-11-04&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4324%2F9780203994627&rft.aulast=Popper&rft.aufirst=Karl&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.4324%2F9780203994627&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALogical+positivism" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_journal" title="Template:Cite journal">cite journal</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment">Cite journal requires <code class="cs1-code">|journal=</code> (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#missing_periodical" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_53-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_53-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPopper2014" class="citation journal cs1">Popper, Karl (1 May 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9780203538074">"Conjectures and Refutations"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4324%2F9780203538074">10.4324/9780203538074</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Conjectures+and+Refutations&rft.date=2014-05-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4324%2F9780203538074&rft.aulast=Popper&rft.aufirst=Karl&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.4324%2F9780203538074&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALogical+positivism" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_journal" title="Template:Cite journal">cite journal</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment">Cite journal requires <code class="cs1-code">|journal=</code> (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#missing_periodical" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:2-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:2_54-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_54-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">W. V. O. Quine, "Two Dogmas of Empiricism", <i>Philosophical Review</i> 1951;<b>60</b>:20–43, collected in Quine, <i>From a Logical Point of View</i> (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1953).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Novick-p527-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Novick-p527_55-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Novick, <i>That Noble Dream</i> (Cambridge University Press, 1988), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=mhiw__MLyVAC&dq=Hanson&pg=PA527">p. 527</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHanson1967" class="citation journal cs1">Hanson, Norwood Russell (8 June 1967). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2024301">"An Anatomy of Discovery"</a>. <i>The Journal of Philosophy</i>. <b>64</b> (11): 321. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2024301">10.2307/2024301</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0022-362X">0022-362X</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Philosophy&rft.atitle=An+Anatomy+of+Discovery&rft.volume=64&rft.issue=11&rft.pages=321&rft.date=1967-06-08&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2024301&rft.issn=0022-362X&rft.aulast=Hanson&rft.aufirst=Norwood+Russell&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.2307%2F2024301&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALogical+positivism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDaston2020" class="citation journal cs1">Daston, Lorraine (1 May 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1215/08992363-8090152">"Thomas S. Kuhn, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (1962)"</a>. <i>Public Culture</i>. <b>32</b> (2): 405–413. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1215%2F08992363-8090152">10.1215/08992363-8090152</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0899-2363">0899-2363</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Public+Culture&rft.atitle=Thomas+S.+Kuhn%2C+The+Structure+of+Scientific+Revolutions+%281962%29&rft.volume=32&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=405-413&rft.date=2020-05-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1215%2F08992363-8090152&rft.issn=0899-2363&rft.aulast=Daston&rft.aufirst=Lorraine&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1215%2F08992363-8090152&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALogical+positivism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ONPSP-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ONPSP_58-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCartwrightCatFleckUebel2008" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Nancy_Cartwright_(philosopher)" title="Nancy Cartwright (philosopher)">Cartwright, Nancy</a>; Cat, Jordi; Fleck, Lola; Uebel, Thomas E. (2008). "On Neurath's Boat". <i>Otto Neurath: Philosophy Between Science and Politics</i>. Ideas in Context. Vol. 38. Cambridge UP. pp. 89–94. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521041119" title="Special:BookSources/978-0521041119"><bdi>978-0521041119</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=On+Neurath%27s+Boat&rft.btitle=Otto+Neurath%3A+Philosophy+Between+Science+and+Politics&rft.series=Ideas+in+Context&rft.pages=89-94&rft.pub=Cambridge+UP&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0521041119&rft.aulast=Cartwright&rft.aufirst=Nancy&rft.au=Cat%2C+Jordi&rft.au=Fleck%2C+Lola&rft.au=Uebel%2C+Thomas+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALogical+positivism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Novick-p526-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Novick-p526_59-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Novick-p526_59-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Novick-p526_59-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Novick-p526_59-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Novick-p526_59-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Novick, <i>That Noble Dream</i> (Cambridge University Press, 1988), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=mhiw__MLyVAC&dq=Kuhn's+logical+Unified&pg=PA526">pp. 526–27</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161125032543/https://books.google.com/books?id=mhiw__MLyVAC&pg=PA526&dq=Kuhn's+logical+Unified">Archived</a> 25 November 2016 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hilary Putnam, "Problems with the observational/theoretical distinction", in <i>Scientific Inquiry,</i> Robert Klee, ed (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999), pp. 25–29.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Fotionarticle-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Fotionarticle_61-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNicholas_G_Fotion1995" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Nick_Fotion" title="Nick Fotion">Nicholas G Fotion</a> (1995). Ted Honderich (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/oxfordcompaniont00hond/page/508"><i>The Oxford Companion to Philosophy</i></a>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/oxfordcompaniont00hond/page/508">508</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-866132-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-866132-0"><bdi>978-0-19-866132-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Companion+to+Philosophy&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=508&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-19-866132-0&rft.au=Nicholas+G+Fotion&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Foxfordcompaniont00hond%2Fpage%2F508&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALogical+positivism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Routledge-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Routledge_62-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Routledge_62-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHanfling2003" class="citation book cs1">Hanfling, Oswald (2003). "Logical Positivism". <i>Routledge History of Philosophy</i>. Routledge. pp. 193f.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Logical+Positivism&rft.btitle=Routledge+History+of+Philosophy&rft.pages=193f&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2003&rft.aulast=Hanfling&rft.aufirst=Oswald&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALogical+positivism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4cnRJGs08hE">"Ayer on Logical Positivism: Section 4"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/YouTube" title="YouTube">YouTube</a></i>. 6:30. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211109/4cnRJGs08hE">Archived</a> from the original on 9 November 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=YouTube&rft.atitle=Ayer+on+Logical+Positivism%3A+Section+4&rft.pages=6%3A30&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.youtube.com%2Fwatch%3Fv%3D4cnRJGs08hE&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALogical+positivism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Stahl-etal-p180-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Stahl-etal-p180_64-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliam_StahlRobert_A._CampbellGary_DiverYvonne_Petry2002" class="citation book cs1">William Stahl; Robert A. Campbell; Gary Diver; Yvonne Petry (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GY6i84rSKMcC&pg=PA180"><i>Webs of Reality: Social Perspectives on Science and Religion</i></a>. Rutgers University Press. p. 180. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8135-3107-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8135-3107-6"><bdi>978-0-8135-3107-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Webs+of+Reality%3A+Social+Perspectives+on+Science+and+Religion&rft.pages=180&rft.pub=Rutgers+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-8135-3107-6&rft.au=William+Stahl&rft.au=Robert+A.+Campbell&rft.au=Gary+Diver&rft.au=Yvonne+Petry&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DGY6i84rSKMcC%26pg%3DPA180&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALogical+positivism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hilary Putnam, "What is realism?", in Jarrett Leplin, ed, <i>Scientific Realism</i> (Berkeley, Los Angeles, London: University of California Press, 1984), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zhBeVFm8WuAC&dq=Realism+realists+positivism+opera-tionalism&pg=PA140">p. 140</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ruth Lane, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0951692896008003003">"Positivism, scientific realism and political science: Recent developments in the philosophy of science"</a>, <i>Journal of Theoretical Politics</i>, 1996 Jul<b>8</b>(3):361–82, abstract.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Friedman-p1-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Friedman-p1_67-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Friedman, <i>Reconsidering Logical Positivism</i> (Cambridge, 1999), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=e9TjZc9wNUAC&dq=half+centry+bogeyman+faults+failings+dispassionate&pg=PA1">p. 1</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Friedman-p2-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Friedman-p2_68-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Friedman-p2_68-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Friedman, <i>Reconsidering Logical Positivism</i> (Cambridge, 1999), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=e9TjZc9wNUAC&dq=clear+critics+agendas+foundationalism&pg=PA2">p. 2</a>.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Logical_positivism&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Bechtel, William, <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://content.taylorfrancis.com/books/download?dac=C2007-0-02715-3&isbn=9781317767480&format=googlePreviewPdf">Philosophy of Science: An Overview for Cognitive Science</a></i> (Hillsdale NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Assoc, 1988).</li> <li>Friedman, Michael, <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=e9TjZc9wNUAC">Reconsidering Logical Positivism</a></i> (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1999).</li> <li>Novick, Peter, <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780521357456">That Noble Dream: The 'Objectivity Question' and the American Historical Profession</a></i> (Cambridge UK: Cambridge University Press, 1988).</li> <li>Stahl, William A & Robert A Campbell, Yvonne Petry, Gary Diver, <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GY6i84rSKMcC&q=%22logical+positivism%22">Webs of Reality: Social Perspectives on Science and Religion</a></i> (Piscataway NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2002).</li> <li>Suppe, Frederick, ed, <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SpvZsxCA0TIC&q=positivism">The Structure of Scientific Theories</a></i>, 2nd edn (Urbana IL: University of Illinois Press, 1977).</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Logical_positivism&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Achinstein" title="Peter Achinstein">Achinstein, Peter</a> and <a href="/wiki/Stephen_Francis_Barker" class="mw-redirect" title="Stephen Francis Barker">Barker, Stephen F.</a> <i>The Legacy of Logical Positivism: Studies in the Philosophy of Science</i>. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1969.</li> <li>Ayer, Alfred Jules. <i>Logical Positivism</i>. Glencoe, Ill: Free Press, 1959.</li> <li>Barone, Francesco. <i>Il neopositivismo logico</i>. Roma Bari: Laterza, 1986.</li> <li>Bergmann, Gustav. <i>The Metaphysics of Logical Positivism</i>. New York: Longmans Green, 1954.</li> <li>Cirera, Ramon. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/carnapviennacir00cire/page/n18">Carnap and the Vienna Circle: Empiricism and Logical Syntax</a></i>. Atlanta, GA: Rodopi, 1994.</li> <li>Edmonds, David & Eidinow, John; <i>Wittgenstein's Poker</i>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-06-621244-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-06-621244-8">0-06-621244-8</a></li> <li>Friedman, Michael. <i>Reconsidering Logical Positivism</i>. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1999</li> <li>Gadol, Eugene T. <i>Rationality and Science: A Memorial Volume for Moritz Schlick in Celebration of the Centennial of his Birth</i>. Wien: Springer, 1982.</li> <li>Geymonat, Ludovico. <i>La nuova filosofia della natura in Germania</i>. Torino, 1934.</li> <li>Giere, Ronald N. and Richardson, Alan W. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Xa9LuLMrJvkC&q=positivism">Origins of Logical Empiricism</a></i>. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1997.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oswald_Hanfling" title="Oswald Hanfling">Hanfling, Oswald</a>. <i>Logical Positivism</i>. Oxford: B. Blackwell, 1981.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jim_Holt_(philosopher)" title="Jim Holt (philosopher)">Holt, Jim</a>, "Positive Thinking" (review of <a href="/wiki/Karl_Sigmund" title="Karl Sigmund">Karl Sigmund</a>, <i>Exact Thinking in Demented Times: The Vienna Circle and the Epic Quest for the Foundations of Science</i>, Basic Books, 449 pp.), <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Review_of_Books" title="The New York Review of Books">The New York Review of Books</a></i>, vol. LXIV, no. 20 (21 December 2017), pp. 74–76.</li> <li>Jangam, R. T. <i>Logical Positivism and Politics</i>. Delhi: Sterling Publishers, 1970.</li> <li>Janik, Allan and <a href="/wiki/Stephen_Toulmin" title="Stephen Toulmin">Toulmin, Stephen</a>. <i>Wittgenstein's Vienna</i>. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1973.</li> <li>Kraft, Victor. The Vienna Circle: <i>The Origin of Neo-positivism, a Chapter in the History of Recent Philosophy</i>. New York: Greenwood Press, 1953.</li> <li>McGuinness, Brian. <i>Wittgenstein and the Vienna Circle: Conversations Recorded by Friedrich Waismann</i>. Trans. by Joachim Schulte and Brian McGuinness. New York: Barnes & Noble Books, 1979.</li> <li>Milkov, Nikolay (ed.). <i>Die Berliner Gruppe. Texte zum Logischen Empirismus von Walter Dubislav, Kurt Grelling, Carl G. Hempel, Alexander Herzberg, Kurt Lewin, Paul Oppenheim und Hans Reichenbach.</i> Hamburg: Meiner 2015. (German)</li> <li>Mises von, Richard. <i>Positivism: A Study in Human Understanding</i>. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1951.</li> <li>Parrini, Paolo. <i>Empirismo logico e convenzionalismo: saggio di storia della filosofia della scienza</i>. Milano: F. Angeli, 1983.</li> <li>Parrini, Paolo; Salmon, Wesley C.; Salmon, Merrilee H. (ed.) <i>Logical Empiricism – Historical and Contemporary Perspectives</i>, Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2003.</li> <li>Reisch, George. <i>How the Cold War Transformed Philosophy of Science : To the Icy Slopes of Logic</i>. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005.</li> <li>Rescher, Nicholas. <i>The Heritage of Logical Positivism</i>. Lanham, MD: University Press of America, 1985.</li> <li>Richardson, Alan and Thomas Uebel (eds.) <i>The Cambridge Companion to Logical Positivism.</i> New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007.</li> <li>Salmon, Wesley and Wolters, Gereon (ed.) <i>Logic, Language, and the Structure of Scientific Theories: Proceedings of the Carnap-Reichenbach Centennial, University of Konstanz, 21–24 May 1991</i>, Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1994.</li> <li>Sarkar, Sahotra (ed.) <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=eS8jeSgy8eIC&q=positivism">The Emergence of Logical Empiricism: From 1900 to the Vienna Circle</a></i>. New York: Garland Publishing, 1996.</li> <li>Sarkar, Sahotra (ed.) <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hf0Ar62uA34C&q=positivism">Logical Empiricism at its Peak: Schlick, Carnap, and Neurath</a></i>. New York: Garland Pub., 1996.</li> <li>Sarkar, Sahotra (ed.) <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=H-OdzRfpehEC&q=positivism">Logical Empiricism and the Special Sciences</a>: Reichenbach, Feigl, and Nagel</i>. New York: Garland Pub., 1996.</li> <li>Sarkar, Sahotra (ed.) <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NiQBRoKrVW0C&q=positivism">Decline and Obsolescence of Logical Empiricism: Carnap vs. Quine and the Critics</a></i>. New York: Garland Pub., 1996.</li> <li>Sarkar, Sahotra (ed.) <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=FJ68n_9XXAwC&q=positivism">The Legacy of the Vienna Circle: Modern Reappraisals</a></i>. New York: Garland Pub., 1996.</li> <li>Spohn, Wolfgang (ed.) <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ED3sCAAAQBAJ&q=positivism">Erkenntnis Orientated: A Centennial Volume for Rudolf Carnap and Hans Reichenbach</a></i>, Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1991.</li> <li>Stadler, Friedrich. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2rAlCQAAQBAJ&q=positivism">The Vienna Circle. Studies in the Origins, Development, and Influence of Logical Empiricism</a>.</i> New York: Springer, 2001. – 2nd Edition: Dordrecht: Springer, 2015.</li> <li>Stadler, Friedrich (ed.). <i>The Vienna Circle and Logical Empiricism. Re-evaluation and Future Perspectives.</i> Dordrecht – Boston – London, Kluwer 2003.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWerkmeister1937" class="citation journal cs1">Werkmeister, William (May 1937). "Seven Theses of Logical Positivism Critically Examined". <i>The Philosophical Review</i>. <b>46</b> (3): 276–297. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2181086">10.2307/2181086</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2181086">2181086</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Philosophical+Review&rft.atitle=Seven+Theses+of+Logical+Positivism+Critically+Examined&rft.volume=46&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=276-297&rft.date=1937-05&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2181086&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2181086%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Werkmeister&rft.aufirst=William&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALogical+positivism" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Logical_positivism&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></span> Media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Logical_positivism" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Logical positivism">Logical positivism</a> at Wikimedia Commons</li></ul> <p><b>Articles by logical positivists</b> </p> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://sites.google.com/site/gnadav/TheScientificConceptionoftheWorldeng.doc">The Scientific Conception of the World: The Vienna Circle</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.calstatela.edu/dept/phil/pdf/res/Carnap-Elimination-of-Metaphysics.pdf">Carnap, Rudolf. 'The Elimination of Metaphysics Through Logical Analysis of Language'</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ditext.com/carnap/carnap.html">Carnap, Rudolf. 'Empiricism, Semantics, and Ontology.'</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20051215185548/http://philosophy.ru/edu/ref/sci/carnap.html">Excerpt from Carnap, Rudolf. <i>Philosophy and Logical Syntax</i>.</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110511191629/http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/cgi-local/DHI/dhicontrib2.cgi?id=dv3-69">Feigl, Herbert. 'Positivism in the Twentieth Century (Logical Empiricism)', <i>Dictionary of the History of Ideas</i>, 1974, Gale Group (Electronic Edition)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060615004555/http://www.lawrence.edu/fast/boardmaw/Hempel_Emp_Crit.html">Hempel, Carl. 'Problems and Changes in the Empiricist Criterion of Meaning.'</a></li></ul> <p><b>Articles on logical positivism</b> </p> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCreath" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Creath, Richard. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logical-empiricism//">"Logical Empiricism"</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Edward_N._Zalta" title="Edward N. Zalta">Zalta, Edward N.</a> (ed.). <i><a href="/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Logical+Empiricism&rft.btitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.aulast=Creath&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Flogical-empiricism%2F%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALogical+positivism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.philosophypages.com/hy/6q.htm">Kemerling, Garth. 'Logical Positivism', <i>Philosophy Pages</i></a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.murzim.net/Articles/Positivism.pdf">Murzi, Mauro. 'Logical Positivism', <i>The New Encyclopedia of Unbelief</i>, Tom Flynn (ed.). Prometheus Books, 2007 (PDF version)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://murzim.net/LP/LP00.html">Murzi, Mauro. 'The Philosophy of Logical Positivism.'</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141014040321/http://collegewing.com/logical-positivism-j-passmore-1967/">Passmore, John. 'Logical Positivism', <i>The Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>, Paul Edwards (ed.). New York: Macmillan, 1967, first edition</a><sup><a href="/wiki/Template:Usurped/doc" title="Template:Usurped/doc">[usurped]</a></sup></li></ul> <p><b>Articles on related philosophical topics</b> </p> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2003/entries/probability-interpret/">Hájek, Alan. 'Interpretations of Probability', <i>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Summer 2003 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.)</i></a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2003/entries/analytic-synthetic/">Rey, Georges. 'The Analytic/Synthetic Distinction', <i>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2003 Edition)</i>, Edward N. Zalta (ed.)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2001/entries/genrel-early/">Ryckman, Thomas A., 'Early Philosophical Interpretations of General Relativity', <i>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2001 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.)</i></a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2003/entries/lvov-warsaw/">Woleński, Jan. 'Lvov-Warsaw School', <i>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Summer 2003 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.)</i></a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2003/entries/scientific-explanation/">Woodward, James. 'Scientific Explanation', <i>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Summer 2003 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.)</i></a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output 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style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">Logic</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_logic" title="Outline of logic">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_logic" title="History of logic">History</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Major fields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Logic_in_computer_science" title="Logic in computer science">Computer science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formal_semantics_(natural_language)" title="Formal semantics (natural language)">Formal semantics (natural language)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inference" title="Inference">Inference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_logic" title="Philosophy of logic">Philosophy of logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formal_proof" title="Formal proof">Proof</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semantics_of_logic" title="Semantics of logic">Semantics of logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syntax_(logic)" title="Syntax (logic)">Syntax</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Logics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_logic" title="Classical logic">Classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Informal_logic" title="Informal logic">Informal</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Critical_thinking" title="Critical thinking">Critical thinking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reason" title="Reason">Reason</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_logic" title="Mathematical logic">Mathematical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-classical_logic" title="Non-classical logic">Non-classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_logic" 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distinction">Analytic and synthetic propositions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antecedent_(logic)" title="Antecedent (logic)">Antecedent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consequent" title="Consequent">Consequent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contradiction" title="Contradiction">Contradiction</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paradox" title="Paradox">Paradox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antinomy" title="Antinomy">Antinomy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deductive_reasoning" title="Deductive reasoning">Deduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deductive_closure" title="Deductive closure">Deductive closure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Definition" title="Definition">Definition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Description" title="Description">Description</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logical_consequence" title="Logical consequence">Entailment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Entailment_(linguistics)" title="Entailment (linguistics)">Linguistic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logical_form" title="Logical form">Form</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inductive_reasoning" title="Inductive reasoning">Induction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logical_truth" title="Logical truth">Logical truth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Name" title="Name">Name</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Necessity_and_sufficiency" title="Necessity and sufficiency">Necessity and sufficiency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Premise" title="Premise">Premise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Probability" title="Probability">Probability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proposition" title="Proposition">Proposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reference" title="Reference">Reference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statement_(logic)" title="Statement (logic)">Statement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Substitution_(logic)" title="Substitution (logic)">Substitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Truth" title="Truth">Truth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Validity_(logic)" title="Validity (logic)">Validity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Index_of_logic_articles" title="Index of logic articles">topics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mathematical_logic_topics" title="List of mathematical logic topics">Mathematical logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Boolean_algebra_topics" title="List of Boolean algebra topics">Boolean algebra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_set_theory_topics" title="List of set theory topics">Set theory</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group 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style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Analytic_philosophy" title="Template:Analytic philosophy"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Analytic_philosophy" title="Template talk:Analytic philosophy"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Analytic_philosophy" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Analytic philosophy"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Analytic_philosophy" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">Analytic philosophy</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related articles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Areas of focus</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_language" title="Philosophy of language">Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mathematics" title="Philosophy of mathematics">Mathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Science</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Turns</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Virtue_ethics" title="Virtue ethics">Aretaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_turn" title="Linguistic turn">Linguistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Performativity" title="Performativity">Performative</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Logic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_logic" title="Classical logic">Classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deviant_logic" title="Deviant logic">Deviant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_logic" title="Mathematical logic">Mathematical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-classical_logic" title="Non-classical logic">Non-classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paraconsistent_logic" title="Paraconsistent logic">Paraconsistent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_logic" title="Philosophical logic">Philosophical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First-order_logic" title="First-order logic">Predicate</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Theories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-realism" title="Anti-realism">Anti-realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Causal_theory_of_reference" title="Causal theory of reference">Causal theory of reference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Descriptivist_theory_of_names" title="Descriptivist theory of names">Descriptivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emotivism" title="Emotivism">Emotivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_feminism" title="Analytical feminism">Feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functionalism_(philosophy_of_mind)" title="Functionalism (philosophy of mind)">Functionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logical_atomism" title="Logical atomism">Logical atomism</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Logical positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_Marxism" title="Analytical Marxism">Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurophilosophy" title="Neurophilosophy">Neurophilosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordinary_language_philosophy" title="Ordinary language philosophy">Ordinary language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neopragmatism" title="Neopragmatism">Pragmatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quietism_(philosophy)" title="Quietism (philosophy)">Quietism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism_(philosophy_of_science)" title="Structuralism (philosophy of science)">Scientific structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sense_data" title="Sense data">Sense data</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytic_theology" title="Analytic theology">Analytic theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_Thomism" title="Analytical Thomism">Analytical Thomism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_analysis" title="Philosophical analysis">Analysis</a> (<a href="/wiki/Paradox_of_analysis" title="Paradox of analysis">paradox of analysis</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytic%E2%80%93synthetic_distinction" title="Analytic–synthetic distinction">Analytic–synthetic distinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counterfactual_conditional" title="Counterfactual conditional">Counterfactual</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_kind" title="Natural kind">Natural kind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reflective_equilibrium" title="Reflective equilibrium">Reflective equilibrium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supervenience" title="Supervenience">Supervenience</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Modality" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_modality" class="mw-redirect" title="Linguistic modality">Modality</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Actualism" title="Actualism">Actualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysical_necessity" title="Metaphysical necessity">Necessity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logical_possibility" title="Logical possibility">Possibility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Possible_world" title="Possible world">Possible world</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modal_realism" title="Modal realism">Realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rigid_designator" title="Rigid designator">Rigid designator</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Philosophers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Noam_Chomsky" title="Noam Chomsky">Noam Chomsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keith_Donnellan" title="Keith Donnellan">Keith Donnellan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gottlob_Frege" title="Gottlob Frege">Gottlob Frege</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Gettier" title="Edmund Gettier">Edmund Gettier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jaakko_Hintikka" title="Jaakko Hintikka">Jaakko Hintikka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Peano" title="Giuseppe Peano">Giuseppe Peano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russ_Shafer-Landau" title="Russ Shafer-Landau">Russ Shafer-Landau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Sosa" title="Ernest Sosa">Ernest Sosa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barry_Stroud" title="Barry Stroud">Barry Stroud</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Australian_realism" title="Australian realism">Australian realism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/David_Malet_Armstrong" title="David Malet Armstrong">David Malet Armstrong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Chalmers" title="David Chalmers">David Chalmers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._L._Mackie" title="J. L. Mackie">J. L. Mackie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Singer" title="Peter Singer">Peter Singer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._J._C._Smart" title="J. J. C. Smart">J. J. C. Smart</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Cambridge</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arif_Ahmed_(philosopher)" title="Arif Ahmed (philosopher)">Arif Ahmed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C._D._Broad" title="C. D. Broad">Charlie Broad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Casimir_Lewy" title="Casimir Lewy">Casimir Lewy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norman_Malcolm" title="Norman Malcolm">Norman Malcolm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G._E._Moore" title="G. E. Moore">G. E. Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graham_Priest" title="Graham Priest">Graham Priest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frank_P._Ramsey" class="mw-redirect" title="Frank P. Ramsey">Frank P. Ramsey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Ludwig Wittgenstein</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ordinary_language_philosophy" title="Ordinary language philosophy">Oxford</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/G._E._M._Anscombe" title="G. E. M. Anscombe">G. E. M. Anscombe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._L._Austin" title="J. L. Austin">J. L. Austin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Dummett" title="Michael Dummett">Michael Dummett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antony_Flew" title="Antony Flew">Antony Flew</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippa_Foot" title="Philippa Foot">Philippa Foot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Geach" title="Peter Geach">Peter Geach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Grice" title="Paul Grice">Paul Grice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R._M._Hare" title="R. M. Hare">R. M. Hare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alasdair_MacIntyre" title="Alasdair MacIntyre">Alasdair MacIntyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Derek_Parfit" title="Derek Parfit">Derek Parfit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_Ryle" title="Gilbert Ryle">Gilbert Ryle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Searle" title="John Searle">John Searle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P._F._Strawson" title="P. F. Strawson">P. F. Strawson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Swinburne" title="Richard Swinburne">Richard Swinburne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Taylor_(philosopher)" title="Charles Taylor (philosopher)">Charles Taylor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Williams" title="Bernard Williams">Bernard Williams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timothy_Williamson" title="Timothy Williamson">Timothy Williamson</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Logical positivists</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/A._J._Ayer" title="A. J. Ayer">A. J. Ayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Nagel" title="Ernest Nagel">Ernest Nagel</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Berlin_Circle" title="Berlin Circle">Berlin Circle</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Gustav_Hempel" title="Carl Gustav Hempel">Carl Gustav Hempel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Reichenbach" title="Hans Reichenbach">Hans Reichenbach</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Vienna_Circle" title="Vienna Circle">Vienna Circle</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Carnap" title="Rudolf Carnap">Rudolf Carnap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Hahn_(mathematician)" title="Hans Hahn (mathematician)">Hans Hahn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otto_Neurath" title="Otto Neurath">Otto Neurath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moritz_Schlick" title="Moritz Schlick">Moritz Schlick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Waismann" title="Friedrich Waismann">Friedrich Waismann</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Harvard</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roderick_Chisholm" title="Roderick Chisholm">Roderick Chisholm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_Davidson_(philosopher)" title="Donald Davidson (philosopher)">Donald Davidson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Dennett" title="Daniel Dennett">Daniel Dennett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nelson_Goodman" title="Nelson Goodman">Nelson Goodman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christine_Korsgaard" title="Christine Korsgaard">Christine Korsgaard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Nagel" title="Thomas Nagel">Thomas Nagel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Nozick" title="Robert Nozick">Robert Nozick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hilary_Putnam" title="Hilary Putnam">Hilary Putnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willard_Van_Orman_Quine" title="Willard Van Orman Quine">W. V. O. Quine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">John Rawls</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Notre Dame</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Audi" title="Robert Audi">Robert Audi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_van_Inwagen" title="Peter van Inwagen">Peter van Inwagen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pittsburgh_School" class="mw-redirect" title="Pittsburgh School">Pittsburgh School</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Brandom" title="Robert Brandom">Robert Brandom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patricia_Churchland" title="Patricia Churchland">Patricia Churchland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Churchland" title="Paul Churchland">Paul Churchland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adolf_Gr%C3%BCnbaum" title="Adolf Grünbaum">Adolf Grünbaum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_McDowell" title="John McDowell">John McDowell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruth_Millikan" title="Ruth Millikan">Ruth Millikan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Pruss" title="Alexander Pruss">Alexander Pruss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Rescher" title="Nicholas Rescher">Nicholas Rescher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilfrid_Sellars" title="Wilfrid Sellars">Wilfrid Sellars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bas_van_Fraassen" title="Bas van Fraassen">Bas van Fraassen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Neopragmatism" title="Neopragmatism">Pragmatism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Susan_Haack" title="Susan Haack">Susan Haack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Rescher" title="Nicholas Rescher">Nicholas Rescher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morton_White" title="Morton White">Morton White</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Princeton</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alonzo_Church" title="Alonzo Church">Alonzo Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jerry_Fodor" title="Jerry Fodor">Jerry Fodor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurt_G%C3%B6del" title="Kurt Gödel">Kurt Gödel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Lewis_(philosopher)" title="David Lewis (philosopher)">David Lewis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jaegwon_Kim" title="Jaegwon Kim">Jaegwon Kim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saul_Kripke" title="Saul Kripke">Saul Kripke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Rorty" title="Richard Rorty">Richard Rorty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nathan_Salmon" title="Nathan Salmon">Nathan Salmon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Walzer" title="Michael Walzer">Michael Walzer</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Quietism_(philosophy)" title="Quietism (philosophy)">Quietism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/James_F._Conant" title="James F. Conant">James F. Conant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alice_Crary" title="Alice Crary">Alice Crary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cora_Diamond" title="Cora Diamond">Cora Diamond</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Reformed</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alvin_Plantinga" title="Alvin Plantinga">Alvin Plantinga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Lane_Craig" title="William Lane Craig">William Lane Craig</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Wolterstorff" title="Nicholas Wolterstorff">Nicholas Wolterstorff</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Science</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Feyerabend" title="Paul Feyerabend">Paul Feyerabend</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Kuhn" title="Thomas Kuhn">Thomas Kuhn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Karl Popper</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Stanford_School" title="Stanford School">Stanford School</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nancy_Cartwright_(philosopher)" title="Nancy Cartwright (philosopher)">Nancy Cartwright</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Dupr%C3%A9" title="John Dupré">John Dupré</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Galison" title="Peter Galison">Peter Galison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ian_Hacking" title="Ian Hacking">Ian Hacking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patrick_Suppes" title="Patrick Suppes">Patrick Suppes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lwow-Warsaw</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jan_%C5%81ukasiewicz" title="Jan Łukasiewicz">Jan Łukasiewicz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Tarski" title="Alfred Tarski">Alfred Tarski</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Analytic_philosophy" title="Category:Analytic philosophy">Category</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e0/Symbol_question.svg/16px-Symbol_question.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e0/Symbol_question.svg/23px-Symbol_question.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e0/Symbol_question.svg/31px-Symbol_question.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Index_of_analytic_philosophy_articles" title="Index of analytic philosophy articles">Index</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Positivism" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Positivism" title="Template:Positivism"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Positivism" title="Template talk:Positivism"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Positivism" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Positivism"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Positivism" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Perspectives</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antihumanism" title="Antihumanism">Antihumanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientism" title="Scientism">Scientism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Declinations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Legal_positivism" title="Legal positivism">Legal positivism</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Logical positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivist_school_(criminology)" title="Positivist school (criminology)">Positivist school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postpositivism" title="Postpositivism">Postpositivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociological_positivism" class="mw-redirect" title="Sociological positivism">Sociological positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Mach" title="Ernst Mach">Machian positivism (empirio-criticism)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rankean_historical_positivism" class="mw-redirect" title="Rankean historical positivism">Rankean historical positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivism_in_Poland" class="mw-redirect" title="Positivism in Poland">Polish positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Machism" title="Russian Machism">Russian Machism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Principal concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Consilience" title="Consilience">Consilience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demarcation_problem" title="Demarcation problem">Demarcation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evidence" title="Evidence">Evidence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inductive_reasoning" title="Inductive reasoning">Induction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justification_(epistemology)" title="Justification (epistemology)">Justification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudoscience" title="Pseudoscience">Pseudoscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vienna_Circle#Critique_of_metaphysics" title="Vienna Circle">Critique of metaphysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unity_of_science" title="Unity of science">Unity of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verificationism" title="Verificationism">Verificationism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Antitheses</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antipositivism" title="Antipositivism">Antipositivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confirmation_holism" title="Confirmation holism">Confirmation holism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">Critical theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Falsifiability" title="Falsifiability">Falsifiability</a></li> <li><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Geisteswissenschaft" title="Geisteswissenschaft">Geisteswissenschaft</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermeneutics" title="Hermeneutics">Hermeneutics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historicism" title="Historicism">Historicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historism" title="Historism">Historism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_science" title="Human science">Human science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanities" title="Humanities">Humanities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methodological_dualism" title="Methodological dualism">Methodological dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_induction" title="Problem of induction">Problem of induction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reflectivism" title="Reflectivism">Reflectivism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Related <a href="/wiki/Paradigm_shift" title="Paradigm shift">paradigm shifts</a><br />in the <a href="/wiki/History_of_science" title="History of science">history of science</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Non-Euclidean_geometry" title="Non-Euclidean geometry">Non-Euclidean geometry</a> (1830s)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uncertainty_principle" title="Uncertainty principle">Uncertainty principle</a> (1927)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behavioralism" title="Behavioralism">Behavioralism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Post-behavioralism" title="Post-behavioralism">Post-behavioralism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_rationalism" title="Critical rationalism">Critical rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_science" title="Criticism of science">Criticism of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Epistemological_anarchism" class="mw-redirect" title="Epistemological anarchism">anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemological_idealism" title="Epistemological idealism">idealism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemological_nihilism" class="mw-redirect" title="Epistemological nihilism">nihilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemological_pluralism" title="Epistemological pluralism">pluralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemological_realism" title="Epistemological realism">realism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holism" title="Holism">Holism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Instrumentalism" title="Instrumentalism">Instrumentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernism" title="Modernism">Modernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(literature)" title="Naturalism (literature)">Naturalism in literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nomothetic_and_idiographic" title="Nomothetic and idiographic">Nomothetic–idiographic distinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(science)" title="Objectivity (science)">Objectivity in science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operationalization" title="Operationalization">Operationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenalism" title="Phenomenalism">Phenomenalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Philosophy of science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deductive-nomological_model" title="Deductive-nomological model">Deductive-nomological model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramsey_sentence" title="Ramsey sentence">Ramsey sentence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sense_data" title="Sense data">Sense-data theory</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qualitative_research" title="Qualitative research">Qualitative research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relationship_between_religion_and_science" title="Relationship between religion and science">Relationship between religion and science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">Sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_science" title="Social science">Social science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_social_science" title="Philosophy of social science">Philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_functionalism" title="Structural functionalism">Structural functionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism" title="Structuralism">Structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structuration_theory" title="Structuration theory">Structuration theory</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Positivist-related_debate" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Positivist-related debate</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Method</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Methodenstreit" title="Methodenstreit">Methodenstreit</a></i></span> (1890s)</li> <li><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Werturteilsstreit" title="Werturteilsstreit">Werturteilsstreit</a></i></span> (1909–1959)</li> <li><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Positivism_dispute" title="Positivism dispute">Positivismusstreit</a></i></span> (1960s)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Debates_(international_relations)#Fourth_Great_Debate" title="Great Debates (international relations)">Fourth Great Debate in international relations</a> (1980s)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_wars" title="Science wars">Science wars</a> (1990s)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Contributions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Course_in_Positive_Philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="The Course in Positive Philosophy">The Course in Positive Philosophy</a></i> (1830)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/A_General_View_of_Positivism" title="A General View of Positivism">A General View of Positivism</a></i> (1848)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Critical_History_of_Philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Critical History of Philosophy">Critical History of Philosophy</a></i> (1869)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Idealism_and_Positivism" class="mw-redirect" title="Idealism and Positivism">Idealism and Positivism</a></i> (1879–1884)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Analysis_of_Sensations" class="mw-redirect" title="The Analysis of Sensations">The Analysis of Sensations</a></i> (1886)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Logic_of_Modern_Physics" title="The Logic of Modern Physics">The Logic of Modern Physics</a></i> (1927)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Language,_Truth,_and_Logic" title="Language, Truth, and Logic">Language, Truth, and Logic</a></i> (1936)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Two_Cultures" title="The Two Cultures">The Two Cultures</a></i> (1959)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Universe_in_a_Nutshell" title="The Universe in a Nutshell">The Universe in a Nutshell</a></i> (2001)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Proponents</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Avenarius" title="Richard Avenarius">Richard Avenarius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A._J._Ayer" title="A. J. Ayer">A. J. Ayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Bogdanov" title="Alexander Bogdanov">Alexander Bogdanov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Percy_Williams_Bridgman" title="Percy Williams Bridgman">Percy Williams Bridgman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auguste_Comte" title="Auguste Comte">Auguste Comte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugen_D%C3%BChring" title="Eugen Dühring">Eugen Dühring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim">Émile Durkheim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Hawking" title="Stephen Hawking">Stephen Hawking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Laas" title="Ernst Laas">Ernst Laas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Mach" title="Ernst Mach">Ernst Mach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C._P._Snow" title="C. P. Snow">C. P. Snow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berlin_Circle" title="Berlin Circle">Berlin Circle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vienna_Circle" title="Vienna Circle">Vienna Circle</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Criticism</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Materialism_and_Empirio-criticism" title="Materialism and Empirio-criticism">Materialism and Empirio-criticism</a></i> (1909)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/History_and_Class_Consciousness" title="History and Class Consciousness">History and Class Consciousness</a></i> (1923)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Logic_of_Scientific_Discovery" title="The Logic of Scientific Discovery">The Logic of Scientific Discovery</a></i> (1934)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Poverty_of_Historicism" title="The Poverty of Historicism">The Poverty of Historicism</a></i> (1936)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/World_Hypotheses" title="World Hypotheses">World Hypotheses</a></i> (1942)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Two_Dogmas_of_Empiricism" title="Two Dogmas of Empiricism">Two Dogmas of Empiricism</a></i> (1951)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Truth_and_Method" title="Truth and Method">Truth and Method</a></i> (1960)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Structure_of_Scientific_Revolutions" title="The Structure of Scientific Revolutions">The Structure of Scientific Revolutions</a></i> (1962)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Conjectures_and_Refutations" class="mw-redirect" title="Conjectures and Refutations">Conjectures and Refutations</a></i> (1963)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/One-Dimensional_Man" title="One-Dimensional Man">One-Dimensional Man</a></i> (1964)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Knowledge_and_Human_Interests" title="Knowledge and Human Interests">Knowledge and Human Interests</a></i> (1968)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Poverty_of_Theory" class="mw-redirect" title="The Poverty of Theory">The Poverty of Theory</a></i> (1978)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Scientific_Image" class="mw-redirect" title="The Scientific Image">The Scientific Image</a></i> (1980)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Rhetoric_of_Economics" class="mw-redirect" title="The Rhetoric of Economics">The Rhetoric of Economics</a></i> (1986)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Critics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theodor_W._Adorno" title="Theodor W. Adorno">Theodor W. Adorno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaston_Bachelard" title="Gaston Bachelard">Gaston Bachelard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mario_Bunge" title="Mario Bunge">Mario Bunge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Dilthey" title="Wilhelm Dilthey">Wilhelm Dilthey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Feyerabend" title="Paul Feyerabend">Paul Feyerabend</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans-Georg_Gadamer" title="Hans-Georg Gadamer">Hans-Georg Gadamer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Jürgen Habermas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Kuhn" title="Thomas Kuhn">Thomas Kuhn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin" title="Vladimir Lenin">Vladimir Lenin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gy%C3%B6rgy_Luk%C3%A1cs" title="György Lukács">György Lukács</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Marcuse" title="Herbert Marcuse">Herbert Marcuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deirdre_McCloskey" title="Deirdre McCloskey">Deirdre McCloskey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Pepper" title="Stephen Pepper">Stephen Pepper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Karl Popper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willard_Van_Orman_Quine" title="Willard Van Orman Quine">Willard Van Orman Quine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/E._P._Thompson" title="E. P. Thompson">E. P. Thompson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bas_van_Fraassen" title="Bas van Fraassen">Bas van Fraassen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Max Weber</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Concepts in contention</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Knowledge" title="Knowledge">Knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Objectivity (philosophy)">Objectivity</a></li> <li><span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Phronesis" title="Phronesis">Phronesis</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Truth" title="Truth">Truth</a></li> <li><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Verstehen" title="Verstehen">Verstehen</a></i></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><a href="/wiki/Category:Positivism" title="Category:Positivism">Category</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Philosophy" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a 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class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_philosophy#Branches" title="Outline of philosophy">Branches</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Applied_philosophy" title="Applied philosophy">Applied philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">Logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphilosophy" title="Metaphilosophy">Metaphilosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_information" title="Philosophy of information">Philosophy of information</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_language" title="Philosophy of language">Philosophy of language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mathematics" title="Philosophy of mathematics">Philosophy of mathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_religion" title="Philosophy of religion">Philosophy of religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Philosophy of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">Political philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Practical_philosophy" title="Practical philosophy">Practical philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_philosophy" title="Social philosophy">Social philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theoretical_philosophy" title="Theoretical philosophy">Theoretical philosophy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">Aesthetics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aesthetic_emotions" title="Aesthetic emotions">Aesthetic response</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formalism_(art)" title="Formalism (art)">Formalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institutional_theory_of_art" class="mw-redirect" title="Institutional theory of art">Institutionalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fideism" title="Fideism">Fideism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalized_epistemology" title="Naturalized epistemology">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemological_particularism" title="Epistemological particularism">Particularism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_skepticism" title="Philosophical skepticism">Skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solipsism" title="Solipsism">Solipsism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">Ethics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Consequentialism" title="Consequentialism">Consequentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deontology" title="Deontology">Deontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtue_ethics" title="Virtue ethics">Virtue</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Free_will" title="Free will">Free will</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Compatibilism" title="Compatibilism">Compatibilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hard_determinism" title="Hard determinism">Hard</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incompatibilism" title="Incompatibilism">Incompatibilism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hard_incompatibilism" class="mw-redirect" title="Hard incompatibilism">Hard</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism_(metaphysics)" title="Libertarianism (metaphysics)">Libertarianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atomism" title="Atomism">Atomism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism" title="Mind–body dualism">Dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysical_naturalism" title="Metaphysical naturalism">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">Realism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">Mind</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behaviorism" title="Behaviorism">Behaviorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eliminative_materialism" title="Eliminative materialism">Eliminativism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emergentism" title="Emergentism">Emergentism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epiphenomenalism" title="Epiphenomenalism">Epiphenomenalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functionalism_(philosophy_of_mind)" title="Functionalism (philosophy of mind)">Functionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Objectivity (philosophy)">Objectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subjectivism" title="Subjectivism">Subjectivism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Norm_(philosophy)" title="Norm (philosophy)">Normativity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Moral_absolutism" title="Moral absolutism">Absolutism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_particularism" title="Moral particularism">Particularism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relativism" title="Relativism">Relativism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_nihilism" title="Moral nihilism">Nihilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_skepticism" title="Moral skepticism">Skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_universalism" title="Moral universalism">Universalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">Ontology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Action_theory_(philosophy)" title="Action theory (philosophy)">Action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Event_(philosophy)" title="Event (philosophy)">Event</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Process_philosophy" title="Process philosophy">Process</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Reality" title="Reality">Reality</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-realism" title="Anti-realism">Anti-realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conceptualism" title="Conceptualism">Conceptualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">Materialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nominalism" title="Nominalism">Nominalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physicalism" title="Physicalism">Physicalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">Realism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="By_era" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">By era</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_philosophy" title="History of philosophy">By era</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_philosophy" title="Ancient philosophy">Ancient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Medieval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_philosophy" title="Renaissance philosophy">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_philosophy" title="Early modern philosophy">Early modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_philosophy" title="Modern philosophy">Modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_philosophy" title="Contemporary philosophy">Contemporary</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_philosophy" title="Ancient philosophy">Ancient</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Chinese</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculturalism" title="Agriculturalism">Agriculturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legalism_(Chinese_philosophy)" title="Legalism (Chinese philosophy)">Legalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Names" title="School of Names">Logicians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohism" title="Mohism">Mohism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Naturalists" title="School of Naturalists">Chinese naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Taoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yangism" title="Yangism">Yangism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Greco-</a><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_philosophy" title="Ancient Roman philosophy">Roman</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Socratic_philosophy" title="Pre-Socratic philosophy">Presocratic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ionian_School_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ionian School (philosophy)">Ionians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pythagoreanism" title="Pythagoreanism">Pythagoreans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eleatics" title="Eleatics">Eleatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atomism" title="Atomism">Atomists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sophist" title="Sophist">Sophists</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyrenaics" title="Cyrenaics">Cyrenaics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cynicism_(philosophy)" title="Cynicism (philosophy)">Cynicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eretrian_school" title="Eretrian school">Eretrian school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megarian_school" title="Megarian school">Megarian school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Platonic_Academy" title="Platonic Academy">Academy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peripatetic_school" title="Peripatetic school">Peripatetic school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_philosophy" title="Hellenistic philosophy">Hellenistic philosophy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pyrrhonism" title="Pyrrhonism">Pyrrhonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epicureanism" title="Epicureanism">Epicureanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Academic_Skepticism" class="mw-redirect" title="Academic Skepticism">Academic Skepticism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Platonism" title="Middle Platonism">Middle Platonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_the_Sextii" title="School of the Sextii">School of the Sextii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neopythagoreanism" title="Neopythagoreanism">Neopythagoreanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Sophistic" title="Second Sophistic">Second Sophistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoplatonism" title="Neoplatonism">Neoplatonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_Fathers" title="Church Fathers">Church Fathers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_philosophy" title="Hindu philosophy">Hindu</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Samkhya" title="Samkhya">Samkhya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nyaya" title="Nyaya">Nyaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaisheshika" title="Vaisheshika">Vaisheshika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yoga_Sutras_of_Patanjali" title="Yoga Sutras of Patanjali">Yoga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%C4%ABm%C4%81%E1%B9%83s%C4%81" title="Mīmāṃsā">Mīmāṃsā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%80j%C4%ABvika" title="Ājīvika">Ājīvika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aj%C3%B1ana" title="Ajñana">Ajñana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charvaka" title="Charvaka">Cārvāka</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jain_philosophy" title="Jain philosophy">Jain</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anekantavada" title="Anekantavada">Anekantavada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sy%C4%81dv%C4%81da" class="mw-redirect" title="Syādvāda">Syādvāda</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_philosophy" title="Buddhist philosophy">Buddhist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abhidharma" title="Abhidharma">Abhidharma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarvastivada" title="Sarvastivada">Sarvāstivadā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pudgalavada" title="Pudgalavada">Pudgalavada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sautr%C4%81ntika" title="Sautrāntika">Sautrāntika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madhyamaka" title="Madhyamaka">Madhyamaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Svatantrika%E2%80%93Prasa%E1%B9%85gika_distinction" title="Svatantrika–Prasaṅgika distinction">Svatantrika and Prasangika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9A%C5%ABnyat%C4%81" title="Śūnyatā">Śūnyatā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yogachara" title="Yogachara">Yogacara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism" title="Tibetan Buddhism">Tibetan</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Iranian_philosophy" title="Iranian philosophy">Persian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mazdakism" title="Mazdakism">Mazdakism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mithraism" title="Mithraism">Mithraism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoroastrianism" title="Zoroastrianism">Zoroastrianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zurvanism" title="Zurvanism">Zurvanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Medieval</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">East Asian</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Xuanxue" title="Xuanxue">Neotaoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiantai" title="Tiantai">Tiantai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huayan" title="Huayan">Huayan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chan_Buddhism" title="Chan Buddhism">Chan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zen" title="Zen">Zen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Confucianism" title="Neo-Confucianism">Neo-Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Confucianism" title="Korean Confucianism">Korean Confucianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">European</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_philosophy" title="Christian philosophy">Christian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustinianism" title="Augustinianism">Augustinianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomism" title="Thomism">Thomism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scotism" title="Scotism">Scotism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occamism" title="Occamism">Occamism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_humanism" title="Renaissance humanism">Renaissance humanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Indian</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vedanta" title="Vedanta">Vedanta</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Achintya_Bheda_Abheda" title="Achintya Bheda Abheda">Acintya bheda abheda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Advaita_Vedanta" title="Advaita Vedanta">Advaita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhedabheda" title="Bhedabheda">Bhedabheda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dvaita_Vedanta" title="Dvaita Vedanta">Dvaita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nimbarka_Sampradaya" title="Nimbarka Sampradaya">Nimbarka Sampradaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shuddhadvaita" title="Shuddhadvaita">Shuddhadvaita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vishishtadvaita" title="Vishishtadvaita">Vishishtadvaita</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navya-Ny%C4%81ya" title="Navya-Nyāya">Navya-Nyāya</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Islamic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristotelianism" title="Aristotelianism">Aristotelianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Averroism" title="Averroism">Averroism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avicennism" title="Avicennism">Avicennism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illuminationism" title="Illuminationism">Illuminationism</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kalam" title="Kalam">ʿIlm al-Kalām</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sufi_philosophy" title="Sufi philosophy">Sufi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_philosophy" title="Jewish philosophy">Jewish</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Islamic_philosophies_(800%E2%80%931400)" title="Judeo-Islamic philosophies (800–1400)">Judeo-Islamic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Modern_philosophy" title="Modern philosophy">Modern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Realism" title="Classical Realism">Classical Realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collectivism_and_individualism" class="mw-redirect" title="Collectivism and individualism">Collectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism" title="Mind–body dualism">Dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edo_neo-Confucianism" title="Edo neo-Confucianism">Edo neo-Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historicism" title="Historicism">Historicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holism" title="Holism">Holism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">Humanism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antihumanism" title="Antihumanism">Anti-</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Absolute_idealism" title="Absolute idealism">Absolute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_idealism" title="British idealism">British</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_idealism" title="German idealism">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objective_idealism" title="Objective idealism">Objective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subjective_idealism" title="Subjective idealism">Subjective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendental_idealism" title="Transcendental idealism">Transcendental</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Individualism" title="Individualism">Individualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kokugaku" title="Kokugaku">Kokugaku</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_liberalism" title="Classical liberalism">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">Materialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernism" title="Modernism">Modernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nihilism" title="Nihilism">Nihilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Confucianism" title="New Confucianism">New Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-scholasticism" title="Neo-scholasticism">Neo-scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">Pragmatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reductionism" title="Reductionism">Reductionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_contract" title="Social contract">Social contract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendentalism" title="Transcendentalism">Transcendentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">Utilitarianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cartesianism" title="Cartesianism">Cartesianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kantianism" title="Kantianism">Kantianism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Kantianism" title="Neo-Kantianism">Neo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Philosophy of Søren Kierkegaard">Kierkegaardianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krausism" title="Krausism">Krausism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hegelianism" class="mw-redirect" title="Hegelianism">Hegelianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxist_philosophy" title="Marxist philosophy">Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newtonianism" title="Newtonianism">Newtonianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Philosophy of Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzscheanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spinozism" class="mw-redirect" title="Spinozism">Spinozism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_philosophy" title="Contemporary philosophy">Contemporary</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">Analytic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Applied_ethics" title="Applied ethics">Applied ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_feminism" title="Analytical feminism">Analytic feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_Marxism" title="Analytical Marxism">Analytical Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">Communitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consequentialism" title="Consequentialism">Consequentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_rationalism" title="Critical rationalism">Critical rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experimental_philosophy" title="Experimental philosophy">Experimental philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Falsifiability" title="Falsifiability">Falsificationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Coherentism" title="Coherentism">Coherentism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internalism_and_externalism" title="Internalism and externalism">Internalism and externalism</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Logical positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_positivism" title="Legal positivism">Legal positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meta-ethics" class="mw-redirect" title="Meta-ethics">Meta-ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_realism" title="Moral realism">Moral realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalized_epistemology" title="Naturalized epistemology">Quinean naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Normative_ethics" title="Normative ethics">Normative ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordinary_language_philosophy" title="Ordinary language philosophy">Ordinary language philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postanalytic_philosophy" title="Postanalytic philosophy">Postanalytic philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quietism_(philosophy)" title="Quietism (philosophy)">Quietism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">Rawlsian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformed_epistemology" title="Reformed epistemology">Reformed epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systemics" title="Systemics">Systemics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientism" title="Scientism">Scientism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_realism" title="Scientific realism">Scientific realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_skepticism" title="Scientific skepticism">Scientific skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transactionalism" title="Transactionalism">Transactionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism#Developments_in_the_20th_century" title="Utilitarianism">Contemporary utilitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vienna_Circle" title="Vienna Circle">Vienna Circle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Wittgensteinian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Continental_philosophy" title="Continental philosophy">Continental</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">Critical theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deconstruction" title="Deconstruction">Deconstruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_philosophy" title="Feminist philosophy">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frankfurt_School" title="Frankfurt School">Frankfurt School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermeneutics" title="Hermeneutics">Hermeneutics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Marxism" title="Neo-Marxism">Neo-Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_historicism" title="New historicism">New Historicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Posthumanism" title="Posthumanism">Posthumanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postmodern_philosophy" title="Postmodern philosophy">Postmodernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-structuralism" title="Post-structuralism">Post-structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_constructionism" title="Social constructionism">Social constructionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism" title="Structuralism">Structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Marxism" title="Western Marxism">Western Marxism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Miscellaneous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kyoto_School" title="Kyoto School">Kyoto School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivism" title="Objectivism">Objectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postcritique" title="Postcritique">Postcritique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_cosmism" title="Russian cosmism">Russian cosmism</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophies" title="List of philosophies">more...</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="By_region" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><div class="hlist"><ul><li>By region</li></ul></div></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_philosophy#Philosophic_traditions_by_region" title="Outline of philosophy">By region</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/African_philosophy" title="African philosophy">African</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ubuntu_philosophy" title="Ubuntu philosophy">Bantu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_philosophy" title="Ancient Egyptian philosophy">Egyptian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_philosophy" title="Ethiopian philosophy">Ethiopian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Africana_philosophy" title="Africana philosophy">Africana</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Eastern_philosophy" title="Eastern philosophy">Eastern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_philosophy" title="Buddhist philosophy">Buddhist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indonesian_philosophy" title="Indonesian philosophy">Indonesian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_philosophy" title="Japanese philosophy">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_philosophy" title="Korean philosophy">Korean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_in_Taiwan" title="Philosophy in Taiwan">Taiwanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_philosophy" title="Vietnamese philosophy">Vietnamese</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Middle_Eastern_philosophy" title="Middle Eastern philosophy">Middle Eastern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_philosophy" title="Iranian philosophy">Iranian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Islamic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_philosophy" title="Jewish philosophy">Jewish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pakistani_philosophy" title="Pakistani philosophy">Pakistani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Turkish_philosophers" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Turkish philosophers">Turkish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_philosophy" title="American philosophy">American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australian_philosophy" title="Australian philosophy">Australian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_philosophy" title="British philosophy">British</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_philosophy" title="Scottish philosophy">Scottish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_in_Canada" title="Philosophy in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Czech_philosophy" title="Czech philosophy">Czech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danish_philosophy" title="Danish philosophy">Danish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_philosophy" title="Dutch philosophy">Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_philosophy_in_Finland" title="History of philosophy in Finland">Finland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_philosophy" title="French philosophy">French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_philosophy" title="German philosophy">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_philosophy" title="Italian philosophy">Italian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_in_Malta" title="Philosophy in Malta">Maltese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_philosophy_in_Poland" title="History of philosophy in Poland">Polish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Slovene_philosophers" title="List of Slovene philosophers">Slovene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_philosophy" title="Spanish philosophy">Spanish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Miscellaneous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_American_philosophy" title="Indigenous American philosophy">Amerindian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aztec_philosophy" title="Aztec philosophy">Aztec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanian_philosophy" title="Romanian philosophy">Romanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_philosophy" title="Russian philosophy">Russian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yugoslav_philosophy" title="Yugoslav philosophy">Yugoslav</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><b><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" 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href="/wiki/List_of_philosophers_of_language" title="List of philosophers of language">Philosophers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gorgias" title="Gorgias">Gorgias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cratylus" title="Cratylus">Cratylus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eubulides" title="Eubulides">Eubulides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diodorus_Cronus" title="Diodorus Cronus">Diodorus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chrysippus" title="Chrysippus">Chrysippus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhuang_Zhou" title="Zhuang Zhou">Zhuangzi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xunzi_(philosopher)" title="Xunzi (philosopher)">Xunzi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Averroes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Khaldun" title="Ibn Khaldun">Ibn Khaldun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Hobbes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Wilkins" title="John Wilkins">Wilkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antoine_Arnauld" title="Antoine Arnauld">Arnauld</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claude_Lancelot" title="Claude Lancelot">Lancelot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Leibniz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Berkeley" title="George Berkeley">Berkeley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_Herder" title="Johann Gottfried Herder">Herder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_von_Humboldt" title="Wilhelm von Humboldt">von Humboldt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fritz_Mauthner" title="Fritz Mauthner">Mauthner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Ric%C5%93ur" title="Paul Ricœur">Ricœur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_de_Saussure" title="Ferdinand de Saussure">de Saussure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gottlob_Frege" title="Gottlob Frege">Frege</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franz_Boas" title="Franz Boas">Boas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Tillich" title="Paul Tillich">Tillich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Sapir" title="Edward Sapir">Sapir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonard_Bloomfield" title="Leonard Bloomfield">Bloomfield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henri_Bergson" title="Henri Bergson">Bergson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lev_Vygotsky" title="Lev Vygotsky">Vygotsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Wittgenstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Carnap" title="Rudolf Carnap">Carnap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Derrida" title="Jacques Derrida">Derrida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Lee_Whorf" title="Benjamin Lee Whorf">Whorf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._L._Austin" title="J. L. Austin">Austin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noam_Chomsky" title="Noam Chomsky">Chomsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans-Georg_Gadamer" title="Hans-Georg Gadamer">Gadamer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saul_Kripke" title="Saul Kripke">Kripke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A._J._Ayer" title="A. J. Ayer">Ayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G._E._M._Anscombe" title="G. E. M. Anscombe">Anscombe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jaakko_Hintikka" title="Jaakko Hintikka">Hintikka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Dummett" title="Michael Dummett">Dummett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_Davidson_(philosopher)" title="Donald Davidson (philosopher)">Davidson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Grice" title="Paul Grice">Grice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_Ryle" title="Gilbert Ryle">Ryle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P._F._Strawson" title="P. F. Strawson">Strawson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willard_Van_Orman_Quine" title="Willard Van Orman Quine">Quine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hilary_Putnam" title="Hilary Putnam">Putnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Lewis_(philosopher)" title="David Lewis (philosopher)">Lewis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Searle" title="John Searle">Searle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Watzlawick" title="Paul Watzlawick">Watzlawick</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Theories_of_language" title="Category:Theories of language">Theories</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Causal_theory_of_reference" title="Causal theory of reference">Causal theory of reference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contrastivism" title="Contrastivism">Contrast theory of meaning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contrastivism" title="Contrastivism">Contrastivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conventionalism" title="Conventionalism">Conventionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cratylism" title="Cratylism">Cratylism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deconstruction" title="Deconstruction">Deconstruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Descriptivist_theory_of_names" title="Descriptivist theory of names">Descriptivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Direct_reference_theory" title="Direct reference theory">Direct reference theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dramatism" title="Dramatism">Dramatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dynamic_semantics" title="Dynamic semantics">Dynamic semantics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expressivism" title="Expressivism">Expressivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inquisitive_semantics" title="Inquisitive semantics">Inquisitive semantics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_determinism" title="Linguistic determinism">Linguistic determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mediated_reference_theory" title="Mediated reference theory">Mediated reference theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nominalism" title="Nominalism">Nominalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-cognitivism" title="Non-cognitivism">Non-cognitivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phallogocentrism" title="Phallogocentrism">Phallogocentrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relevance_theory" title="Relevance theory">Relevance theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semantic_externalism" title="Semantic externalism">Semantic externalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semantic_holism" title="Semantic holism">Semantic holism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Situation_semantics" title="Situation semantics">Situation semantics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism" title="Structuralism">Structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supposition_theory" title="Supposition theory">Supposition theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbiosism" title="Symbiosism">Symbiosism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theological_noncognitivism" title="Theological noncognitivism">Theological noncognitivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_descriptions" title="Theory of descriptions">Theory of descriptions</a> (<a href="/wiki/Definite_description" title="Definite description">Definite description</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_language" title="Theory of language">Theory of language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unilalianism" title="Unilalianism">Unilalianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verificationism" title="Verificationism">Verification theory</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ambiguity" title="Ambiguity">Ambiguity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cant_(language)" title="Cant (language)">Cant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_relativity" title="Linguistic relativity">Linguistic relativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language" title="Language">Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Truth-bearer" title="Truth-bearer">Truth-bearer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proposition" title="Proposition">Proposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Use%E2%80%93mention_distinction" title="Use–mention distinction">Use–mention distinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concept" title="Concept">Concept</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Categorization" class="mw-redirect" title="Categorization">Categories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Set_(mathematics)" title="Set (mathematics)">Set</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Class_(philosophy)" title="Class (philosophy)">Class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_resemblance" title="Family resemblance">Family resemblance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intension" title="Intension">Intension</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logical_form" title="Logical form">Logical form</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metalanguage" title="Metalanguage">Metalanguage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mental_representation" title="Mental representation">Mental representation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modality_(natural_language)" class="mw-redirect" title="Modality (natural language)">Modality (natural language)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presupposition" title="Presupposition">Presupposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principle_of_compositionality" title="Principle of compositionality">Principle of compositionality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Property_(philosophy)" title="Property (philosophy)">Property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sign_(semiotics)" title="Sign (semiotics)">Sign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sense_and_reference" title="Sense and reference">Sense and reference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speech_act" title="Speech act">Speech act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbol" title="Symbol">Symbol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sentence_(linguistics)" title="Sentence (linguistics)">Sentence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statement_(logic)" title="Statement (logic)">Statement</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Index_of_philosophy_of_language_articles" title="Index of philosophy of language articles">more...</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Cratylus_(dialogue)" title="Cratylus (dialogue)">Cratylus</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(n.d.)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Port-Royal_Grammar" title="Port-Royal Grammar">Port-Royal Grammar</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1660)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/De_Arte_Combinatoria" title="De Arte Combinatoria">De Arte Combinatoria</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1666)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/An_Essay_Towards_a_Real_Character,_and_a_Philosophical_Language" title="An Essay Towards a Real Character, and a Philosophical Language">An Essay Towards a Real Character, and a Philosophical Language</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1668)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Alciphron_(book)" title="Alciphron (book)">Alciphron</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1732)</span></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/On_Denoting" title="On Denoting">On Denoting</a>" <span style="font-size:85%;">(1905)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tractatus_Logico-Philosophicus" title="Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus">Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1921)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Language,_Truth,_and_Logic" title="Language, Truth, and Logic">Language, Truth, and Logic</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1936)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Two_Dogmas_of_Empiricism" title="Two Dogmas of Empiricism">Two Dogmas of Empiricism</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1951)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_Investigations" title="Philosophical Investigations">Philosophical Investigations</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1953)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Of_Grammatology" title="Of Grammatology">Of Grammatology</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1967)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Naming_and_Necessity" title="Naming and Necessity">Naming and Necessity</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1980)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Wittgenstein_on_Rules_and_Private_Language" title="Wittgenstein on Rules and Private Language">Wittgenstein on Rules and Private Language</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1982)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Limited_Inc" title="Limited Inc">Limited Inc</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1988)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related articles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">Analytic philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_information" title="Philosophy of information">Philosophy of information</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_logic" title="Philosophical logic">Philosophical logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">Linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatics" title="Pragmatics">Pragmatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric" title="Rhetoric">Rhetoric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Names" title="School of Names">School of Names</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semantics_(natural_language)" class="mw-redirect" title="Semantics (natural language)">Semantics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Formal_semantics_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Formal semantics (linguistics)">Formal semantics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semiotics" title="Semiotics">Semiotics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophy_of_language" 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