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id="toc-Supreme_Court_of_Justice-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Courts_of_public_law" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Courts_of_public_law"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Courts of public law</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Courts_of_public_law-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Courts of public law subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Courts_of_public_law-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Administrative_court_system" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Administrative_court_system"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Administrative court system</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Administrative_court_system-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Constitutional_Court" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Constitutional_Court"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Constitutional Court</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Constitutional_Court-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>History</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle History subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-March_Constitution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#March_Constitution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>March Constitution</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-March_Constitution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Return_to_absolutism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Return_to_absolutism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Return to absolutism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Return_to_absolutism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-December_Constitution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#December_Constitution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>December Constitution</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-December_Constitution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-First_Republic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#First_Republic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4</span> <span>First Republic</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-First_Republic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Later_developments" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Later_developments"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.5</span> <span>Later developments</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Later_developments-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Translation_notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Translation_notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Translation notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Translation_notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> 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href="#Books_and_articles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Books and articles</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Books_and_articles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-English" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#English"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1.1</span> <span>English</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-English-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-German" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#German"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1.2</span> <span>German</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-German-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Statutes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Statutes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2</span> <span>Statutes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Statutes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Historical" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Historical"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2.1</span> <span>Historical</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Historical-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Current" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Current"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2.2</span> <span>Current</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Current-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Websites" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Websites"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.3</span> <span>Websites</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Websites-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> 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data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Overview of court system in Austria</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:AT_50473_Justizpalast_Wien,_Iustitia_-_Emanuel_Pendl_4293-HDR.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/AT_50473_Justizpalast_Wien%2C_Iustitia_-_Emanuel_Pendl_4293-HDR.jpg/220px-AT_50473_Justizpalast_Wien%2C_Iustitia_-_Emanuel_Pendl_4293-HDR.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="332" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/AT_50473_Justizpalast_Wien%2C_Iustitia_-_Emanuel_Pendl_4293-HDR.jpg/330px-AT_50473_Justizpalast_Wien%2C_Iustitia_-_Emanuel_Pendl_4293-HDR.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/AT_50473_Justizpalast_Wien%2C_Iustitia_-_Emanuel_Pendl_4293-HDR.jpg/440px-AT_50473_Justizpalast_Wien%2C_Iustitia_-_Emanuel_Pendl_4293-HDR.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3375" data-file-height="5094" /></a><figcaption>A statue of <a href="/wiki/Lady_Justice" title="Lady Justice">Iustitia</a> in the Austrian <a href="/wiki/Palace_of_Justice_(Vienna)" class="mw-redirect" title="Palace of Justice (Vienna)">Palace of Justice</a>, the seat of one of the country's top courts</figcaption></figure> <p>The <b>judiciary of Austria</b> (<a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a>: <i lang="de">österreischische Judikative</i>) is the <a href="/wiki/Judiciary" title="Judiciary">system of courts</a>, <a href="/wiki/Prosecution" class="mw-redirect" title="Prosecution">prosecution</a> and <a href="/wiki/Prison" title="Prison">correction</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Austria" class="mw-redirect" title="Republic of Austria">Republic of Austria</a> as well as the <a href="/wiki/Branch_of_government" class="mw-redirect" title="Branch of government">branch of government</a> responsible for upholding the <a href="/wiki/Rule_of_law" title="Rule of law">rule of law</a> and administering <a href="/wiki/Justice" title="Justice">justice</a>. The judiciary is <a href="/wiki/Judicial_independence" title="Judicial independence">independent</a> of the other two branches of government and is committed to guaranteeing <a href="/wiki/Right_to_a_fair_trial" title="Right to a fair trial">fair trials</a> and <a href="/wiki/Equality_before_the_law" title="Equality before the law">equality before the law</a>. It has broad and effective powers of <a href="/wiki/Judicial_review_in_Austria" title="Judicial review in Austria">judicial review</a>. </p><p>Structurally, the Austrian judiciary is divided into general courts (<span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">ordentliche Gerichte</i></span>) and courts of public law (<span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Gerichte öffentlichen Rechts</i></span>). The general courts handle <a href="/wiki/Lawsuit" title="Lawsuit">civil</a> and criminal trials as well as non-adversary proceedings such as inheritance cases or legal guardianship matters. The courts of public law supervise the other two branches of government: the administrative court system reviews the legality of administrative acts; the <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_Court_(Austria)" title="Constitutional Court (Austria)">Constitutional Court</a> adjudicates on complaints regarding the constitutionality of statutes, the legality of ordinances, and the conduct of elected officials and political appointees in office. </p><p>In addition to the court system proper, the judicial arm of Austrian state power includes the state prosecution service (<span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Staatsanwaltschaft</i></span>), the prisons (<span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Justizanstalten</i></span>) and the <a href="/wiki/Justizwache" title="Justizwache">correctional officers' corps</a> (<span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Justizwache</i></span>). Remand prisons for pre-trial detention or other types of non-correctional custody (<span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Polizeianhaltezentren</i></span>) belong to the <a href="/wiki/Executive_(government)" title="Executive (government)">executive branch</a>. The judiciary is assisted by the <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Justice_(Austria)" title="Ministry of Justice (Austria)">Ministry of Justice</a> (<span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Justizministerium</i></span>), a cabinet-level division of the national executive. </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886046785">.mw-parser-output .toclimit-2 .toclevel-1 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-3 .toclevel-2 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-4 .toclevel-3 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-5 .toclevel-4 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-6 .toclevel-5 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-7 .toclevel-6 ul{display:none}</style><div class="toclimit-3"><meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Organization">Organization</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Judiciary_of_Austria&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Organization"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The administration of justice in <a href="/wiki/Austria" title="Austria">Austria</a> is the sole responsibility of the federal government. Judges and prosecutors are recruited, trained, and employed by the Republic; courts hand down verdicts in the name of the Republic (<span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">im Namen der Republik</i></span>). There is no such thing, for example, as an Austrian county court.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The court system has two branches: </p> <ul><li>general courts (<span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">ordentliche Gerichte</i></span>) try criminal cases and (most) civil cases;<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>courts of public law (<span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Gerichte öffentlichten Rechts</i></span>) try (some of the) civil cases in which the respondent is a government authority:<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>b<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <ul><li>the <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_Court_(Austria)" title="Constitutional Court (Austria)">Constitutional Court</a> (<span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Verfassungsgerichtshof</i></span>) exercises <a href="/wiki/Judicial_review" title="Judicial review">judicial review</a> of legislation and constitutional review of administrative actions;</li> <li>a system of administrative courts (<span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Verwaltungsgerichte</i></span>) exercises judicial review of administrative actions.</li></ul></li></ul> <p>Judges are <a href="/wiki/Judicial_independence" title="Judicial independence">independent</a>. Appointments are for life; judges cannot be removed or reassigned without their consent. In courts with more than one judge − which is essentially all of them − there has to be a fixed and specific apportionment of responsibilities (<span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">feste Geschäftseinteilung</i></span>) to prevent the government from influencing outcomes by hand-picking a judge sympathetic to its perspective.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, if a litigant files for divorce in a court with multiple judges handling divorce cases, the first letter of their last name decides which judge they are assigned.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBerka2016270_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBerka2016270-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Judges presiding over trials are professionals. In order to become eligible for appointment to a bench, a prospective judge needs to have a master's degree or equivalent in Austrian law, undergo four years of post-graduate training, and pass an exam. The training includes theoretical instruction and internship-type practical work in an actual courthouse. Appointments to benches are made by the <a href="/wiki/President_of_Austria" title="President of Austria">president</a>, although the president can and does delegate most of this responsibility to the <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Justice_(Austria)" title="Ministry of Justice (Austria)">minister of justice</a>. Nominations come from within the judiciary; panels of judges suggest candidates for benches with vacancies.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There is no <a href="/wiki/Military_justice" title="Military justice">military justice</a> in peacetime; members of the military are tried by the regular court system.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Procedure">Procedure</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Judiciary_of_Austria&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Procedure"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Landesgericht_Wels.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Landesgericht_Wels.JPG/220px-Landesgericht_Wels.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="219" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Landesgericht_Wels.JPG/330px-Landesgericht_Wels.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Landesgericht_Wels.JPG/440px-Landesgericht_Wels.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="1196" /></a><figcaption>The seat of the <a href="/wiki/Wels" title="Wels">Wels</a> regional court</figcaption></figure> <p>Trials are oral and public.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Civil trials are <a href="/wiki/Adversarial_system" title="Adversarial system">adversarial trials</a> (<span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">streitige Verfahren</i></span>). The court evaluates evidence brought before it by the parties to the trial but makes no attempt to uncover any additional evidence or otherwise investigate the matter itself. Criminal trials are <a href="/wiki/Inquisitorial_system" title="Inquisitorial system">inquisitorial trials</a> (<span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Anklageverfahren</i></span>).<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>c<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The court is actively involved, questioning witnesses brought forward by the parties to the trials, summoning expert witnesses on its own initiative, and generally attempting to determine the truth. Most trials are bench trials, although the bench will often be a panel including one or more <a href="/wiki/Lay_judge" title="Lay judge">lay judges</a> (<span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Schöffen</i></span>). Criminal defendants accused of political transgressions or of serious crimes with severe penalties have a right to trial by jury.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Pursuant to the <a href="/wiki/European_Convention_on_Human_Rights" title="European Convention on Human Rights">European Convention on Human Rights</a>, which has been adopted into the Austrian constitution, but also to Austrian constitutional law preceding it, criminal defendants are protected by the set of procedural guarantees typical for modern <a href="/wiki/Liberal_democracy" title="Liberal democracy">liberal democracies</a>. Among other things, defendants </p> <ul><li>are <a href="/wiki/Presumption_of_innocence" title="Presumption of innocence">presumed innocent until proven guilty</a>;<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>have the right to a <a href="/wiki/Speedy_trial" title="Speedy trial">speedy trial</a>;<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>cannot be tried <a href="/wiki/Trial_in_absentia" title="Trial in absentia">in absentia</a>;<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>cannot be forced to incriminate themselves;<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>cannot be tried for transgressions that are not specifically defined to be criminal offenses by statutory law, or that <em>were</em> not specifically defined to be criminal offenses by statutory law <em>at the time they were committed</em> ("<a href="/wiki/Nulla_poena_sine_lege" title="Nulla poena sine lege">nulla poena sine lege</a>");<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>cannot be prosecuted twice for the same crime, alleged or actual ("<a href="/wiki/Non_bis_in_idem" title="Non bis in idem">non bis in idem</a>");<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>have a right to an appeal.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>The right to an appeal is taken seriously. Any party to any trial before a general court can file an appeal on facts and law (<span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Berufung</i></span>).<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> If the case is a civil case, the appellate court first checks whether the trial court has committed procedural errors; if yes, it orders a retrial, sending the case back to the trial court.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZPO§477,_§494,_§496_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZPO§477,_§494,_§496-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> If no, or if the case is criminal, the appellate court conducts what is essentially a retrial itself − the appellate trial does not merely review questions of law but also questions of fact, assessing evidence and questioning witnesses.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZPO§482,_§484_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZPO§482,_§484-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In addition to the appeal on facts and law against the verdict of the trial court, an appeal at law (<span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Revision</i></span> in civil trials, <span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Nichtigkeitsbeschwerde</i></span> in criminal cases) can be filed against the verdict of the appellate court.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In criminal cases, appeals at law that are not obviously frivolous are also handled in public hearings.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStPO§§285c-285d,_§286_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStPO§§285c-285d,_§286-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A successful appeal at law not just overturns but completely erases the verdict of the appellate court, sending the case down the ladder again. Verdicts of trial courts − although not of appellate courts − that result from the trial court's application of an unconstitutional statute or an illegal ordinance can additionally be fought with extraordinary appeals at law to the Constitutional Court. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="General_courts">General courts</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Judiciary_of_Austria&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: General courts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The hierarchy of general courts has four levels: district, regional, higher regional, and supreme.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStPO§29_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStPO§29-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>For most cases, <a href="/wiki/Original_jurisdiction" title="Original jurisdiction">original jurisdiction</a> lies with one of the district courts; its decision can be appealed to the relevant regional court. Some cases are first tried before the regional court and can be appealed to the higher regional court. Higher regional courts and the Supreme Court do not have original jurisdiction; they exclusively hear appeals. </p><p>One of the peculiarities of the Austrian judiciary is its strict organizational separation of civil and criminal justice. Courts are divided into civil and criminal chambers; judges spend their days trying either civil cases or criminal cases but never both. In <a href="/wiki/Vienna" title="Vienna">Vienna</a> and in <a href="/wiki/Graz" title="Graz">Graz</a> − the country's two largest cities by a wide margin − the two chambers of the regional court are actually two completely separate courts, housed in separate buildings. In Vienna, there is a third regional court for trials at mercantile law (<span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Handelsgericht</i></span>) and a fourth regional court for cases involving employment and social assistance law (<span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Arbeits- und Sozialgericht</i></span>). Normally, original jurisdiction over disputes in these areas of law would lie with the civil regional court. As an additional special case, the higher regional court in Vienna has original jurisdiction over antitrust cases. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="District_courts">District courts</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Judiciary_of_Austria&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: District courts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There are currently 115 district courts (<span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Bezirksgerichte</i></span>). Most judicial districts are coextensive with one of the country's 94 <a href="/wiki/District_(Austria)" class="mw-redirect" title="District (Austria)">administrative districts</a>, although there are exceptions. Some of the larger administrative districts are partitioned into two or more judicial districts. The extreme case is the <a href="/wiki/Vienna" title="Vienna">City of Vienna</a>, home to no fewer than 12 separate district courts. In some cases, a district court serving a city also serves part of the surrounding suburbs. In others, two or three very small administrative districts are lumped together into a single judicial zone. </p><p>District courts are responsible for </p> <ul><li>civil trials (<span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Zivilverfahren</i></span>) involving matrimonial and family matters, real estate rental or lease matters, real estate boundary or easement disputes, or trespass to land;</li> <li>most simple debt collection, foreclosure, and bankruptcy matters;</li> <li>other civil trials with the amount in dispute not exceeding €15,000, excepting employment and social assistance disputes;</li> <li>most criminal trials (<span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Strafverfahren</i></span>) involving finable offenses or jailable offenses with a jail term of no more than one year;<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStPO§30_(1)_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStPO§30_(1)-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>most non-adversary matters (<span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Außerstreitsachen</i></span>), for example probate proceedings, adoptions, declarations of death in absentia, or invalidation of lost securities certificates;</li> <li>most adversary non-trial matters (<span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">streitige Außerstreitsachen</i></span>), including but not limited to child custody disputes, child maintenance and visitation rights disputes, appointments of legal guardians for senile elders or the mentally ill, or expropriation proceedings;</li> <li>maintaining the land register.</li></ul> <p>Trials before the district court are bench trials decided by a single judge (<span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Bezirksrichter</i></span>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStPO§30_(2)_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStPO§30_(2)-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Non-adversary proceedings, debt collection, foreclosure, bankruptcy, and land register matters can also be decided by a judiciary clerk (<span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Rechtspfleger</i></span>). </p><p>While there are permanent district judges, there are no district <em>attorneys</em>. Criminal trials are prosecuted by a state attorney (<span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Staatsanwalt</i></span>) attached to the relevant regional court. In minor cases, the public prosecutor can assign a district prosecutor (<span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Bezirksanwalt</i></span>) to substitute for them. The district prosecutor is not necessarily an attorney, however, and cannot act on their own initiative or authority.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStPO§20_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStPO§20-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Regional_courts">Regional courts</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Judiciary_of_Austria&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Regional courts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Schillerstrasse_1_Gericht_Feldkirch_1.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Schillerstrasse_1_Gericht_Feldkirch_1.JPG/220px-Schillerstrasse_1_Gericht_Feldkirch_1.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="157" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Schillerstrasse_1_Gericht_Feldkirch_1.JPG/330px-Schillerstrasse_1_Gericht_Feldkirch_1.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Schillerstrasse_1_Gericht_Feldkirch_1.JPG/440px-Schillerstrasse_1_Gericht_Feldkirch_1.JPG 2x" data-file-width="5683" data-file-height="4051" /></a><figcaption>The seat of the <a href="/wiki/Feldkirch,_Vorarlberg" title="Feldkirch, Vorarlberg">Feldkirch</a> regional court</figcaption></figure> <p>There are 18 regional courts (<span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Landesgerichte</i></span>) in Austria; their seats are in <a href="/wiki/Eisenstadt" title="Eisenstadt">Eisenstadt</a>, <a href="/wiki/Feldkirch,_Vorarlberg" title="Feldkirch, Vorarlberg">Feldkirch</a>, <a href="/wiki/Graz" title="Graz">Graz</a>, <a href="/wiki/Innsbruck" title="Innsbruck">Innsbruck</a>, <a href="/wiki/Klagenfurt" class="mw-redirect" title="Klagenfurt">Klagenfurt</a>, <a href="/wiki/Korneuburg" title="Korneuburg">Korneuburg</a>, <a href="/wiki/Krems_an_der_Donau" title="Krems an der Donau">Krems an der Donau</a>, <a href="/wiki/Leoben" title="Leoben">Leoben</a>, <a href="/wiki/Linz" title="Linz">Linz</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ried_im_Innkreis" title="Ried im Innkreis">Ried im Innkreis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Salzburg" title="Salzburg">Salzburg</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sankt_P%C3%B6lten" title="Sankt Pölten">Sankt Pölten</a>, <a href="/wiki/Steyr" title="Steyr">Steyr</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vienna" title="Vienna">Vienna</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wels" title="Wels">Wels</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Wiener_Neustadt" title="Wiener Neustadt">Wiener Neustadt</a>. In Graz and Vienna, the civil and criminal chambers set up as two separate courts, meaning that Graz and Vienna each have a civil regional court (<span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Landesgericht für Zivilrechtssachen</i></span>) and a criminal regional court (<span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Landesgericht für Strafrechtssachen</i></span>). </p><p>Regional courts are responsible for </p> <ul><li>exercising original jurisdiction over all civil and criminal matters not handled by district courts;</li> <li>hearing appeals on facts and law (<span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Berufungen</i></span>) against district court decisions;</li> <li>keeping the company register.</li></ul> <p>In cases for which the regional court has original jurisdiction, the trial is usually a bench trial decided by a single professional judge,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStPO§31_(4)_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStPO§31_(4)-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but there are several exceptions: </p> <ul><li>Suits at employment law or social assistance law are decided by a panel of three judges, one professional judge (<span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Berufsrichter</i></span>) and two <a href="/wiki/Lay_judge" title="Lay judge">lay judges</a> (<span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Laienrichter</i></span>). The lay judges are <em>expert</em> lay judges (<span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">fachkundige Laienrichter</i></span>) and are effectively meant to double as court-appointed disinterested expert witnesses.</li> <li>Other civil suits can be tried by three-judge panels upon request of the parties if the amount in dispute exceeds EUR 100,000. In cases at mercantile law, the panel consists of two professional judges and one expert lay judge (<span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">fachmännischer Laienrichter</i></span> here). In other cases, the panel consists of three professional judges.</li> <li>Criminal trials are held before three-judge panels, four-judge panels, or juries in cases of alleged homicide, sexual assault, robbery, certain types of grand larceny or fraud, and in any case where the alleged crime carries a maximum jail term of more than five years. The specifics are somewhat involved; the following is a rough outline: <ul><li>Most of the cases outlined above go before a three-judge panel consisting of one professional judge and two lay judges (<span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Schöffen</i></span>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStPO§31_(3),_§32_(1)_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStPO§31_(3),_§32_(1)-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>In cases of alleged manslaughter, aggravated robbery, rape, membership in a terrorist organization, abuse of official authority, or financial crimes causing more than EUR 1,000,000 in damage, a second professional judge is added to the panel.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStPO§32_(1a)_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStPO§32_(1a)-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Charges of murder, actual terrorist violence, or armed insurrection are jury trials decided by three professional judges and eight jurors (<span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Geschworene</i></span>). The same is true for treason, a number of other political crimes, and all other crimes with minimum jail terms of more than five and maximum jail terms of more than ten years.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStPO§31_(2)_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStPO§31_(2)-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul></li></ul> <p>In criminal trials, some effort is made to prevent panels and juries from being biased or unable to empathize with either defendants or alleged victims. If the crime alleged is a sexual assault or some other violation of a person's sexual integrity serious enough to warrant a panel, then at least one of the judges must belong to the same sex as the alleged victim. If there is a jury, then at least two of the jurors must be of the same sex as the alleged victim.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStPO§32_(2)_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStPO§32_(2)-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> If the defendant is juvenile and the alleged crime is serious enough to warrant a panel, then at least one of the judges must be of the same sex as the defendant and at least one of the judges must be a present or former educator or competent social worker. If there is a jury, at least two of the jurors must be of the relevant sex and at least four must have the relevant job experience.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJGG§28_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJGG§28-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Appeals of district courts decisions to regional courts are decided by three-judge panels: two professional judges and one expert lay judge in trials at mercantile law, three professional judges in all other civil matters and in all criminal cases.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStPO§31_(6)_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStPO§31_(6)-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Routine company register decisions are made by single judges or by judicial clerks. </p><p>Attached to every regional court dealing with criminal trials, there is a branch of the state prosecution service (<span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Staatsanwaltschaft</i></span>) and a <a href="/wiki/Prison" title="Prison">prison</a> (<span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Justizanstalt</i></span>). Regional courts and regional-level state prosecutors organize and supervise most of the pre-trial work (<span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Ermittlungsverfahren</i></span>) in Austria, even in cases in which the main court proceedings (<span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Hauptverfahren</i></span>) are going to take place in a district court. In many ways, the regional courts are the backbone of the Austrian judiciary. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Higher_regional_courts">Higher regional courts</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Judiciary_of_Austria&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Higher regional courts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There are four higher regional courts (<span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Oberlandesgerichte</i></span>). They are located in <a href="/wiki/Graz" title="Graz">Graz</a>, <a href="/wiki/Innsbruck" title="Innsbruck">Innsbruck</a>, <a href="/wiki/Linz" title="Linz">Linz</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Vienna" title="Vienna">Vienna</a>. </p><p>Higher regional courts decide appeals on facts and law (<span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Berufungen</i></span>) in cases originally tried before regional courts.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStPO§33_(1)_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStPO§33_(1)-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As a special case, the higher regional court in Vienna decides antitrust disputes. </p><p>Trials before higher regional courts are bench trials decided by panels of either three or five judges: three professional judges and two expert lay judges in employment and social assistance cases, two professional judges and one expert lay judge in all other civil cases, and three professional judges in all criminal trials.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStPO§33_(2)_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStPO§33_(2)-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Each higher regional court has a chief public prosecutor's office (<span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Oberstaatsanwaltschaft</i></span>). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Supreme_Court_of_Justice">Supreme Court of Justice</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Judiciary_of_Austria&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Supreme Court of Justice"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Justizpalast_Vienna_June_2006_227.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Justizpalast_Vienna_June_2006_227.jpg/220px-Justizpalast_Vienna_June_2006_227.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Justizpalast_Vienna_June_2006_227.jpg/330px-Justizpalast_Vienna_June_2006_227.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Justizpalast_Vienna_June_2006_227.jpg/440px-Justizpalast_Vienna_June_2006_227.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="2560" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Palace_of_Justice_(Vienna)" class="mw-redirect" title="Palace of Justice (Vienna)">Palace of Justice</a>, seat of the Supreme Court of Justice since 1881</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Justice_(Austria)" title="Supreme Court of Justice (Austria)">Supreme Court of Justice (Austria)</a></div> <p>The Supreme Court of Justice (<span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Oberster Gerichtshof</i></span> or <span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">OGH</i></span>) hears appeals at law (<span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Revisionen</i></span> in civil trials, <span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Nichtigkeitsbeschwerden</i></span> in criminal cases) against verdicts of appellate courts.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The court also deals with service-related complaints by jurists against the judiciary and with disciplinary complaints against jurists; it acts as the trial court in cases involving certain senior judges and prosecutors, as an appeals court in cases involving lower-level judges and prosecutors, attorneys, and notaries.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition to its adjudicative responsibilities, the court is charged with running the Republic's official public law library (the <span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Zentralbibliothek</i></span>).<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On the request of the president of the court or the <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Justice" class="mw-redirect" title="Ministry of Justice">minister of justice</a>, the court produces appraisals of draft legislation presented to the <a href="/wiki/National_Council_(Austria)" title="National Council (Austria)">National Council</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Government_of_Austria" title="Government of Austria">government</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The court does not have a fixed number of justices; it consists of a president, a vice president, and as many additional members as Court and cabinet deem necessary and appropriate.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As of the early 21st century, there are typically between fifty and sixty judges on the court.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As of August 2018, there are 61.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERichterinnen_und_Richter_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERichterinnen_und_Richter-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The court is partitioned into 18 panels (<span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Senate</i></span>) of five members each.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One panel exclusively deals with appeals decisions reached by <a href="/wiki/Arbitration" title="Arbitration">arbitration</a> tribunals; another panel hears to appeals to antitrust verdicts handed down by the Vienna higher regional court, which has specialist <a href="/wiki/Exclusive_jurisdiction" title="Exclusive jurisdiction">exclusive jurisdiction</a> over all Austrian antitrust cases. A third panel handles disciplinary proceedings and other disputes internal to the judiciary. Of the remaining fifteen panels, ten deal with civil cases and five with criminal trials.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGeschäftsverteilung_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGeschäftsverteilung-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The responsibility for appointing justices is vested in the <a href="/wiki/President_of_Austria" title="President of Austria">president</a>, but the president can and usually does delegate this task to the <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Justice_(Austria)" title="Ministry of Justice (Austria)">minister of justice</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEB-VGArt._86_(1)_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEB-VGArt._86_(1)-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The court maintains a special personnel committee (<a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a>: <span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Personalsenat</i></span>) that provides the minister with a shortlist of three candidates in the event of a vacancy.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In theory, the minister may appoint any Austrian legally qualified to sit the bench and not excluded by the constitution's rudimentary incompatibility provisions. In practice, the minister dependably picks one of the three candidates nominated by the court.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraf200676_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraf200676-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Supreme Court of Justice convenes in the <a href="/wiki/Palace_of_Justice,_Vienna" title="Palace of Justice, Vienna">Palace of Justice</a> in <a href="/wiki/Vienna" title="Vienna">Vienna</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Courts_of_public_law">Courts of public law</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Judiciary_of_Austria&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Courts of public law"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Austrian model of <a href="/wiki/Separation_of_powers" title="Separation of powers">separation of powers</a> forbids the administrative and judicial branches of government from interfering with each other. This peculiarity, established during the neo-absolutist years of the Habsburg monarchy, originally meant that subjects could not take bureaucrats to court or otherwise petition the courts to review the legality of administrative acts. The <a href="/wiki/Federal_Constitutional_Law_(Austrian_act)" class="mw-redirect" title="Federal Constitutional Law (Austrian act)">Constitution of 1920</a> fixes this problem by establishing the Administrative Court and the Constitutional Court, two tribunals that cut across the division. Pointedly called <span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Gerichtshöfe</i></span> instead of simply <span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Gerichte</i></span>, the two tribunals are staffed by lawyer judges and generally behave like courts without technically <em>being</em> courts. The terminology used by most modern English-language literature makes the distinction difficult to see; it remains salient in German texts. </p><p>Broadly speaking, the administrative court system reviews administrative acts, the Constitutional Court reviews legislative acts and judicial demarcation conflicts. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Administrative_court_system">Administrative court system</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Judiciary_of_Austria&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Administrative court system"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Administrative_Court_(Austria)" class="mw-redirect" title="Supreme Administrative Court (Austria)">Supreme Administrative Court (Austria)</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Constitutional_Court">Constitutional Court</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Judiciary_of_Austria&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Constitutional Court"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kunstforum_Vienna_June_2006_069.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Kunstforum_Vienna_June_2006_069.jpg/220px-Kunstforum_Vienna_June_2006_069.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Kunstforum_Vienna_June_2006_069.jpg/330px-Kunstforum_Vienna_June_2006_069.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Kunstforum_Vienna_June_2006_069.jpg/440px-Kunstforum_Vienna_June_2006_069.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="2560" /></a><figcaption>The seat of the Constitutional Court</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_Court_(Austria)" title="Constitutional Court (Austria)">Constitutional Court (Austria)</a></div> <p>The Constitutional Court (<span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Verfassungsgerichtshof</i></span> or <span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">VfGH</i></span>) adjudicates on </p> <ul><li>liability claims against Austria, its provinces, and its municipalities;<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>demarcation conflicts between courts, between courts and the administration, and between national and regional governments;<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>the constitutionality of <a href="/wiki/Statute" title="Statute">statutes</a> and the legality of ordinances and other <a href="/wiki/Primary_and_secondary_legislation" title="Primary and secondary legislation">secondary legislation</a>;<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>the legality of <a href="/wiki/Treaty" title="Treaty">international treaties</a>;<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>election complaints;<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>accusations of misconduct in office against certain elected officials and political appointees;<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>complaints alleging violations of constitutional rights or the <a href="/wiki/Rule_of_law" title="Rule of law">rule of law</a> by the executive branch.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEB-VGArt._144_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEB-VGArt._144-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>The Constitutional Court is the only court in Austria with the power of <a href="/wiki/Judicial_review" title="Judicial review">judicial review</a> of legislation. The Austrian method of vesting all power to strike legislation in a single specialist court is called the <em>centralized</em> system of judicial review. <sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEÖhlinger2007442,_450_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEÖhlinger2007442,_450-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Because Austria was the first country to adopt this approach when <a href="/wiki/Hans_Kelsen" title="Hans Kelsen">Hans Kelsen</a> created the Constitutional Court in its modern form with the 1920 <a href="/wiki/Federal_Constitutional_Law_(Austrian_act)" class="mw-redirect" title="Federal Constitutional Law (Austrian act)">Kelsen constitution</a>, the approach is sometimes also called the <em>Austrian</em> system.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELachmayer201775_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELachmayer201775-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Because the approach has since spread to <a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a>, <a href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain">Spain</a>, <a href="/wiki/Portugal" title="Portugal">Portugal</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Belgium" title="Belgium">Belgium</a>, some people call it the <em>European</em> approach.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Legislation can be challenged before the Constitutional Court by any private person, natural or other. The complaint has to argue that the complainant is being violated in their rights by the piece of legislation at issue, actually and not just potentially. The complaint also has to argue that there is no plausible way for the complainant to get the problem resolved through any other procedure.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Depending on the type of the statute, ordinance, or treaty, the court can often also be called upon by the national government, by regional governments, or by groups of national or regional legislators.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Legislation can also be challenged by courts that are trying cases for whose outcome it is relevant. Legislation can further be challenged by one of the parties to the a trial, but only after the trial court has handed down its verdict and only if the verdict actually references the piece of legislation in question.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Verdicts by administrative trial courts can additionally be challenged on the grounds that they violate the relevant party's constitutional rights in some other way. This possibility lets the Constitutional Court exercise judicial review not just of ordinances but also of individual-scope actions of the <a href="/wiki/Executive_(government)" title="Executive (government)">executive branch</a>: A citizen who feels violated in their constitutional rights by an administrative decision or assessment files suit in an administrative court. If the administrative court agrees with the complainant, it overrules the administration. If the administrative court does not, the complainant can escalate the matter to the Constitutional Court. If the Constitutional Court agrees with the complainant, it overrules the administrative court, prompting a retrial; it thus potentially also overrules the administration.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Unlike the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Justice_(Austria)" title="Supreme Court of Justice (Austria)">Supreme Court of Justice</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Administrative_Court_(Austria)" class="mw-redirect" title="Supreme Administrative Court (Austria)">Supreme Administrative Court</a>, the Constitutional Court is not a <a href="/wiki/Appellate_court" title="Appellate court">court of appeals</a>. It only hears cases it has <a href="/wiki/Original_jurisdiction" title="Original jurisdiction">original jurisdiction</a> over, although the way Austria uses general and administrative courts to vet complaints about unconstitutional legislation and other constitutional rights infringements does present something of an edge case. </p><p>The Constitutional Court consists of fourteen members and six substitute members, appointed by the <a href="/wiki/President_of_Austria" title="President of Austria">president</a> on nomination of the cabinet, the <a href="/wiki/National_Council_(Austria)" title="National Council (Austria)">National Council</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Council_(Austria)" title="Federal Council (Austria)">Federal Council</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In theory, trials before the Constitutional Court are oral, public, and decided by the full plenum.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVfGG§§19−26_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVfGG§§19−26-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In practice, oral argument and true plenary sessions have become rare because workload is heavy and there are broad exceptions to these general rules; most cases today are decided behind closed doors by panels of either nine or five members. Opinions tend to be concise and academic. Only the actual decision is published; there are no concurring or dissenting opinions.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Judiciary_of_Austria&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="March_Constitution">March Constitution</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Judiciary_of_Austria&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: March Constitution"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1848_vienna_students.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/1848_vienna_students.jpg/220px-1848_vienna_students.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="203" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/1848_vienna_students.jpg/330px-1848_vienna_students.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0a/1848_vienna_students.jpg 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="369" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1848_in_the_Austrian_Empire" title="Revolutions of 1848 in the Austrian Empire">Revolutions of 1848</a> set Austria on the path from <a href="/wiki/Absolute_monarchy" title="Absolute monarchy">absolute</a> to <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_monarchy" title="Constitutional monarchy">constitutional monarchy</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>In its modern form, the Austrian judiciary goes back to the <a href="/wiki/March_Constitution_(Austria)" title="March Constitution (Austria)">March Constitution</a> of 1849. </p><p>Throughout the 18th and early 19th century, the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Habsburg" title="House of Habsburg">Habsburgs</a> had tried to rule as <a href="/wiki/Absolute_monarch" class="mw-redirect" title="Absolute monarch">absolute monarchs</a>, holding unrestricted power over their subjects with no constraints due to any kind of <a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">feudal</a> social compact and with no interference from any of the <a href="/wiki/Estates_of_the_realm" title="Estates of the realm">estates</a> of their various realms. The <a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1848_in_the_Austrian_Empire" title="Revolutions of 1848 in the Austrian Empire">Revolutions of 1848</a> compelled a first step towards <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_monarchy" title="Constitutional monarchy">constitutional rule</a>. Under intense pressure, <a href="/wiki/Emperor_of_Austria" title="Emperor of Austria">Emperor</a> <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_I_of_Austria" title="Ferdinand I of Austria">Ferdinand</a> tried to appease the revolutionaries by enacting the <a href="/wiki/Pillersdorf_Constitution" title="Pillersdorf Constitution">Pillersdorf Constitution</a>, a statute that promised increased civil liberties, a limited form of democratic participation in government, and access to independent courts with the power to review administrative acts and halt administrative overreach.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although the document as a whole was fairly short, one of its seven sections was a substantial <a href="/wiki/Bill_of_rights" title="Bill of rights">bill of rights</a> that was modern for the time.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrauneder2009117_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrauneder2009117-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The appeasement failed to stem the crisis; Ferdinand had to abdicate. His successor, <a href="/wiki/Franz_Joseph_I_of_Austria" title="Franz Joseph I of Austria">Franz Joseph</a> succeeded in ending the protests by promulgating the <a href="/wiki/March_Constitution_(Austria)" title="March Constitution (Austria)">March Constitution</a>, a set of edicts that built on the Pillersdorf Constitution but included a number of additional concessions.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The constitution established a number of principles that remain in force until the present day:<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>The judicial powers and responsibilities of landlords, cities, and ecclesiastical corporations are abolished; all disputes are adjudicated by the State, in courts explicitly created by statutory law and according to procedure explicitly set forth in statutory law. (§20, §100)</li> <li>Justices have <a href="/wiki/Judicial_independence" title="Judicial independence">judicial independence</a>. (§101)</li> <li>Judiciary and executive are <a href="/wiki/Separation_of_powers" title="Separation of powers">separate powers</a>; court system and bureaucracy cannot squash each other's decisions or otherwise interfere in each other's domains. (§102)</li> <li>Criminal trials are <a href="/wiki/Inquisitorial_system" title="Inquisitorial system">inquisitorial trials</a> (<span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Anklageprozesse</i></span>). While the judge is tasked with actively searching for the truth as opposed to merely refereeing, however, judge and prosecutor are separate entities. The older form of inquisitorial system, in which judge and prosecutor are the same party (<span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Inquisitionsprozesse</i></span> proper in German) is no longer used. (§103)</li> <li>Trials are oral and public. (§103)</li> <li>Political trials are jury trials. (§103)</li></ul> <p>Subsequent legislation pursuant to the March Constitution created a court system that also survives, with a few significant but narrow alterations, until this day.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrauneder2009127−128_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrauneder2009127−128-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most notably, the outline defined by the constitution was fleshed by the Constitution of the courts (<span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Gerichtsverfassungsgesetz</i></span> or <span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">GVG</i></span>) of 1849 and the Penal Procedure Code (<span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Strafprozessordnung</i></span> or <span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">StPO</i></span>) of 1850:<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>The court system is a hierarchy with five levels: district, district collegiate, regional, higher regional, and supreme; (§1 GVG, §8 StPO) <ul><li>District courts (<span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Bezirksgerichte</i></span>);</li> <li>District collegiate courts (<span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Bezirkskollegialgerichte</i></span>);</li> <li>Regional courts (<span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Landesgerichte</i></span>);</li> <li>Higher regional courts (<span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Oberlandesgerichte</i></span>);</li> <li>Supreme Court (<span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Oberster Gerichts- und Kassationshof</i></span>)</li></ul></li> <li>District courts are trial courts with single judges handling civil disputes and minor misdemeanors. (§§2−9 GVG, §9 StPO)</li> <li>District collegiate courts are trial courts with panels of judges trying more serious transgressions. (§§10−11 GVG, §§10−13 StPO)</li> <li>Regional courts are trial courts with panels of judges trying serious crimes, in some cases assisted by juries, but also appellate courts hearing appeals to verdicts of district and district collegiate courts in their respective regions. (§§12−18 GVG, §§14−16 StPO)</li> <li>Higher regional courts and the Supreme Court only have appellate jurisdiction.</li> <li>A professional body of state attorneys (<span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Staatsanwaltschaft</i></span>) represents the State in court where necessary; most notably, the state attorney's offices act as a professional <a href="/wiki/Prosecutor" title="Prosecutor">prosecution service</a>, charging defendants and presenting the case against them before the judge. Regional and higher courts have state attorneys' offices attached to them; the state attorneys working at the regional court level are the backbone of the service. Trials before district courts are usually handled through assistants and proxies. (§29 GVG, §§51−60 StPO)</li> <li>Appeals are limited. Verdicts in civil cases can be appealed up only once; verdicts in criminal cases can be appealed up twice. Appeals in point of law and pleas in nullity may still be possible even when regular appeals are exhausted, but the specifics are complicated. (§2 GVG, §§352−390 StPO)</li></ul> <p>The main differences between the court system of the March Constitution and the court system as it exists today are the district collegiate courts, since abolished, the comparatively wide purview of the state attorneys, since narrowed, and the fact that there is no <a href="/wiki/Judicial_review" title="Judicial review">judicial review</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Separation_of_powers" title="Separation of powers">separation of powers</a> between judiciary and executive was complete; courts could not overrule the bureaucracy just as the bureaucracy could not overrule the courts. The also was no mechanism for courts to squash unconstitutional legislation. The need for a judicial review of laws was simply not felt at the time. In modern Austria, the main seat of power (<span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Machtzentrum</i></span>) is the legislature and the Constitutional Court is the monitoring authority acting as a check on it. In the philosophical framework of 19th-century Austria, the imperial court was the main seat of power and <em>the legislature</em> was meant to be the monitoring authority.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Return_to_absolutism">Return to absolutism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Judiciary_of_Austria&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Return to absolutism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Franzjosef.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Franzjosef.jpg/220px-Franzjosef.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="270" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Franzjosef.jpg/330px-Franzjosef.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Franzjosef.jpg/440px-Franzjosef.jpg 2x" data-file-width="457" data-file-height="560" /></a><figcaption>Emperor <a href="/wiki/Franz_Joseph_I_of_Austria" title="Franz Joseph I of Austria">Franz Joseph</a> spent much of his early reign trying to reassert unqualified sovereignty.</figcaption></figure> <p>Since the March Constitution was <em>decreed</em> (<span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">oktroyiert</i></span>) by the crown as opposed to enacted by the people or agreed upon by the empire's constituent crown lands, Franz Joseph felt at liberty to walk back on his promises as soon as he had regained a firm grip on his subjects. The Constitution (<span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Verfassung</i></span>) was abrogated in 1852 and replaced with a number of "constitutional principles" (<span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Verfassungsgrundsätze</i></span>) that sounded vaguely progressive but did not actually bind the ruling house to any real degree. Franz Joseph was trying to return to absolutist rule.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Jury trials were abolished. A complete rewrite of the Penal Procedure Code in 1853 reintroduced old-style inquisitorial trials. Judges lost their independence. State attorneys continued to exist but lost most of their responsibilities; they were essentially reduced to their function as public prosecutors, and comparatively powerless ones at that. Trials were no longer public. Trials before higher regional courts and the supreme court were no longer oral. On the district level, the <a href="/wiki/Separation_of_powers" title="Separation of powers">separation of powers</a> was abandoned, at least on paper. District courts were merged into district administrative offices, although in practice district judges continued to operate much as they had before.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The return to absolutism ultimately failed. The continuing rise of <a href="/wiki/Civic_nationalism" title="Civic nationalism">civic nationalism</a> and continuing demands by Austria's <a href="/wiki/Hungarians" title="Hungarians">Hungarian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Slavs" title="Slavs">Slavic</a> subjects for material autonomy, exacerbated by a series of diplomatic setbacks, kept eroding the cohesion of the empire and the personal authority of the Emperor. By 1861, Franz Joseph was forced to grant a third constitution. Following his defeat in the <a href="/wiki/Austro-Prussian_War" title="Austro-Prussian War">Austro-Prussian War</a> in 1866, he was forced to give up for good on his desire to remain the sole sovereign and font of law. In the <a href="/wiki/Austro-Hungarian_Compromise_of_1867" title="Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867">Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Hungary" title="Kingdom of Hungary">Kingdom of Hungary</a> received near-complete independence. Shortly thereafter, the remainder of the empire received the <a href="/wiki/December_Constitution" title="December Constitution">December Constitution</a>, a fourth and final set of fundamental laws that the Emperor would no longer be able to unilaterally scrap.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="December_Constitution">December Constitution</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Judiciary_of_Austria&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: December Constitution"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As far as civil and criminal jurisprudence was concerned, the December Constitution mostly just resurrected the principles originally stipulated in 1849. Judges regained their autonomy and independence, although state attorneys remained limited to their narrow role as prosecutors. The constitution restored full separation of powers, including on the district level. District courts, accordingly, were detached from district administrative offices again. District collegiate courts, on the other hand, were not; they were simply abandoned.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The system of general courts now had the same four rungs it still has today: </p> <ul><li>District courts (<span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Bezirksgerichte</i></span>);</li> <li>Regional courts (now called <span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Kreisgerichte</i></span> instead of <span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Landesgerichte</i></span>);</li> <li>Higher regional courts (still called <span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Oberlandesgerichte</i></span>);</li> <li>Supreme Court (<span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Oberster Gerichts- und Kassationshof</i></span>).</li></ul> <p>The December Constitution did more than merely revive suspended institutions, however. One of its parts, the Basic Law on the General Rights of Nationals (<span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Staatsgrundgesetz über die allgemeinen Rechte der Staatsbürger</i></span>) was a second <a href="/wiki/Bill_of_rights" title="Bill of rights">bill of rights</a> that was a significant improvement over its 1848 precursor. Other parts of the constitution entrenched the <a href="/wiki/Rule_of_law" title="Rule of law">rule of law</a> and made it clear that Habsburg subjects would from now on be able to take the State to court should it violate their fundamental rights.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrauneder2009157_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrauneder2009157-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since regular courts were still unable to overrule the bureaucracy, much less the legislature, these guarantees necessitated the creation of specialist courts that could:<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>The Administrative Court (<span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Verwaltungsgerichtshof</i></span>), stipulated by the 1867 Basic Law on Judicial Power (<span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Staatsgrundgesetz über die richterliche Gewalt</i></span>) and implemented in 1876, had the power to review the legality of administrative acts, ensuring that the executive branch remained faithful to the principle of the rule of law.</li> <li>The Imperial Court (<span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Reichsgericht</i></span>), stipulated by the Basic Law on the Creation of an Imperial Court (<span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Staatsgrundgesetz über die Einrichtung eines Reichsgerichtes</i></span>) in 1867 and implemented in 1869, decided demarcation conflicts between courts and the bureaucracy, between its constituent crown lands, and between one of the crown lands and the Empire itself.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERGBl_1867/143Art._2_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERGBl_1867/143Art._2-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It also adjudicated on financial liability claims raised by crown lands against each other, by a crown land against the Empire, by the Empire against a crown land, or by a person, corporation, or municipality against a crown land or the Empire.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Last but not least, the Imperial Court also heard complaints of citizens who alleged to have been violated in their constitutional rights, although its powers were not cassatory: it could only vindicate the complainant by <em>declaring</em> the government to be in the wrong, not by actually voiding its wrongful decisions.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The State Court (<span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Staatsgerichtshof</i></span>) held the Emperor's ministers accountable for political misconduct committed in office.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The State Court was an oblique and roundabout way of keeping the Emperor himself in check. The Emperor could not be taken to court, but under the terms of the Law on the Responsibility of Ministers (<span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Gesetz über die Verantwortlichkeit der Minister</i></span>) of 1867 he was no longer an autocrat; many of his decrees and injunctions now depended on the relevant minister to countersign them. The double-pronged approach of making the Emperor dependent on his ministers and also making ministers criminally liable for bad outcomes would firstly enable, secondly motivate the ministers to put pressure on the monarch.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERGBl_1867/101_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERGBl_1867/101-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The statute in question actually predates the Constitution by a few months, but the Constitution conspicuously failed to abrogate it; it also expressly confirmed the legal inviolability of the person of the Emperor himself.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoke1996394−395_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoke1996394−395-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>The December Constitution thus created the distinction between general courts and courts of public law. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="First_Republic">First Republic</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Judiciary_of_Austria&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: First Republic"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/December_Constitution" title="December Constitution">December Constitution</a> remained in force essentially unaltered until the end of the <a href="/wiki/Habsburg_monarchy" title="Habsburg monarchy">Habsburg monarchy</a> in 1918. </p><p>The end of <a href="/wiki/Austria-Hungary" title="Austria-Hungary">Austria-Hungary</a> was not a collapse so much as an explosion. Hungary broke away from Austria. The <a href="/wiki/Slavs" title="Slavs">Slavic</a> peoples of Austria broke away from the German-speaking heartland, all essentially at the same time, and started establishing the <a href="/wiki/Nation_state" title="Nation state">nation states</a> they had been demanding for decades. The German-speaking remnant was demoralized, rudderless, and crippled by partisan strife. The monarchy was discredited and its administration with it. None of the rump state's various legislative bodies had any real authority either. Provincial legislatures had been elected using a system of curia suffrage, meaning they had no democratic legitimacy. The House of Deputies, the lower chamber of the <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Council_(Austria)" title="Imperial Council (Austria)">Imperial Council</a>, had been elected democratically, but the last election had been held in 1911. Political left and political right agreed that Austria should become a <a href="/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">democratic</a> <a href="/wiki/Republic" title="Republic">republic</a> but had fundamentally different ideas regarding many other aspects of their future constitutional framework. </p><p>In acknowledgment of their questionable standing, the remaining deputies decided to meet not as the House of Deputies but as the Provisional National Assembly. The Assembly would only make decisions that could not be delayed; it would retain as much as possible of the existing body of constitutional law until general elections could be held and a properly legitimized Constituting National Assembly could be convoked.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In particular, the Provisional Assembly made no drastic changes to the court system; it mainly updated the system of courts of public law:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrauneder2009201–202_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrauneder2009201–202-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>The Administrative Court was retained.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStGBl_1919/88_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStGBl_1919/88-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The State Court was disbanded. In its original form, it was pointless without a monarch in possession of permanent and unqualified immunity; besides, it had never actually convened.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoke1996395_88-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoke1996395-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The responsibility for holding top officials accountable was transferred to a special committee of the Provisional National Assembly.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStGBl_1918/1§9_89-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStGBl_1918/1§9-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The Imperial Court was renamed to Constitutional Court (<span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Verfassungsgerichtshof</i></span>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStGBl_1919/48_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStGBl_1919/48-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In April 1919, the government transferred the responsibilities of the former State Court to the Constitutional Court<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStGBl_1919/212Art._1_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStGBl_1919/212Art._1-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and also gave the Constitutional Court cassatory power: from now on, the court could not just <em>note</em> the unconstitutionality of an administrative decision, it could actually annul it, sending complainant and defendant back to square one.<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>A special Election Court (<span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Wahlgerichtshof</i></span>) was created to handle complaints regarding the upcoming Constituting Assembly election.<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>The only other significant change involved the Supreme Court: its name was shortened to its modern form.<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The new, permanent <a href="/wiki/Federal_Constitutional_Law_(Austrian_act)" class="mw-redirect" title="Federal Constitutional Law (Austrian act)">Kelsen constitution</a> of 1920 finally gave the Constitutional Court the power of <a href="/wiki/Judicial_review" title="Judicial review">judicial review</a>. The court was now able to void regulations that violated the law and laws that violated the constitution. It also acquired responsibility for handling election complaints; the Kelsen constitution did not retain the Election Court.<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Austrian courts other than the Constitutional Court have no power of judicial review to this day; they cannot strike or refuse to apply laws they consider unconstitutional, although they can (and are required to) refuse to apply laws they think have not been constitutionally enacted or promulgated. A court that suspects a statute at issue may be unconstitutional has the right (and the obligation) to refer the matter to the Constitutional Court.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEÖhlinger2007271_96-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEÖhlinger2007271-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The literature calls this approach the <em>centralized</em> system of judicial review.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEÖhlinger2007442,_450_56-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEÖhlinger2007442,_450-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Because Austria was in fact the first country ever to adopt this system and because it has since spread to <a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a>, <a href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain">Spain</a>, <a href="/wiki/Portugal" title="Portugal">Portugal</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Belgium" title="Belgium">Belgium</a>, it is also called the "Austrian" or "European" model.<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Revisions of 1925 and 1929 made no further changes to the court system.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrauneder2009209−215_98-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrauneder2009209−215-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Later_developments">Later developments</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Judiciary_of_Austria&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Later developments"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Translation_notes">Translation notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Judiciary_of_Austria&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Translation notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Some authors, mostly Austrians, translate "<span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">ordentliche Gerichte</i></span>" as "<a href="/wiki/Ordinary_courts" class="mw-redirect" title="Ordinary courts">ordinary courts</a>". Among authors who speak English as a first language, "general courts" predominates.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sometimes translated as "public courts"; see above.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">In <a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a>, <span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">inquisitorisches Verfahren</i></span> is only used to denote inquisitorial trials in which judge and prosecutor are the same person, or the same panel. An inquisitorial trial in which judge and prosecution are separate entities is called an <span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Anklageverfahren</i></span>, literally "prosecutorial trial". There has been no <span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">inquisitorisches Verfahren</i></span> in Austria since the 1870s.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Citations">Citations</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Judiciary_of_Austria&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Citations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFB-VG">B-VG</a>, Art. 82.</li><li><a href="#CITEREFBerka2016">Berka 2016</a>, p. 273.</li><li><a href="#CITEREFÖhlinger2007">Öhlinger 2007</a>, p. 269.</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFB-VG">B-VG</a>, Art. 87−88.</li><li><a href="#CITEREFBerka2016">Berka 2016</a>, pp. 269−271.</li><li><a href="#CITEREFÖhlinger2007">Öhlinger 2007</a>, pp. 269−270.</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBerka2016270-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBerka2016270_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBerka2016">Berka 2016</a>, p. 270.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFB-VG">B-VG</a>, Art.86.</li><li><a href="#CITEREFÖhlinger2007">Öhlinger 2007</a>, p. 270.</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFB-VG">B-VG</a>, Art. 84.</li><li><a href="#CITEREFÖhlinger2007">Öhlinger 2007</a>, p. 269.</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFB-VG">B-VG</a>, Art. 90 (1).</li><li><a href="#CITEREFBerka2016">Berka 2016</a>, pp. 271−272, 560−561.</li><li><a href="#CITEREFÖhlinger2007">Öhlinger 2007</a>, pp. 272, 439−433.</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFB-VG">B-VG</a>, Art. 90 (2).</li><li><a href="#CITEREFBerka2016">Berka 2016</a>, p. 272.</li><li><a href="#CITEREFÖhlinger2007">Öhlinger 2007</a>, p. 272.</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFB-VG">B-VG</a>, Art. 91.</li><li><a href="#CITEREFBerka2016">Berka 2016</a>, p. 274.</li><li><a href="#CITEREFÖhlinger2007">Öhlinger 2007</a>, p. 270.</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFStPO">StPO</a>, §8, §14.</li><li><a href="#CITEREFBerka2016">Berka 2016</a>, pp. 272, 563−564.</li><li><a href="#CITEREFÖhlinger2007">Öhlinger 2007</a>, p. 434.</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFStPO">StPO</a>, §9.</li><li><a href="#CITEREFBerka2016">Berka 2016</a>, pp. 561−562.</li><li><a href="#CITEREFÖhlinger2007">Öhlinger 2007</a>, p. 432.</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFStPO">StPO</a>, §6.</li><li><a href="#CITEREFÖhlinger2007">Öhlinger 2007</a>, pp. 429−430.</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFStPO">StPO</a>, §7.</li><li><a href="#CITEREFBerka2016">Berka 2016</a>, pp. 272, 564−565.</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFBerka2016">Berka 2016</a>, p. 566.</li><li><a href="#CITEREFÖhlinger2007">Öhlinger 2007</a>, p. 425.</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFStPO">StPO</a>, §17.</li><li><a href="#CITEREFBerka2016">Berka 2016</a>, pp. 566−568.</li><li><a href="#CITEREFÖhlinger2007">Öhlinger 2007</a>, pp. 438−439.</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFBerka2016">Berka 2016</a>, pp. 568−569.</li><li><a href="#CITEREFÖhlinger2007">Öhlinger 2007</a>, p. 437.</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFStPO">StPO</a>, §280.</li><li><a href="#CITEREFZPO">ZPO</a>, §461.</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEZPO§477,_§494,_§496-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZPO§477,_§494,_§496_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFZPO">ZPO</a>, §477, §494, §496.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEZPO§482,_§484-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZPO§482,_§484_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFZPO">ZPO</a>, §482, §484.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFStPO">StPO</a>, §§502-505.</li><li><a href="#CITEREFZPO">ZPO</a>, §280.</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStPO§§285c-285d,_§286-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStPO§§285c-285d,_§286_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStPO">StPO</a>, §§285c-285d, §286.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStPO§29-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStPO§29_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStPO">StPO</a>, §29.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStPO§30_(1)-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStPO§30_(1)_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStPO">StPO</a>, §30 (1).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStPO§30_(2)-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStPO§30_(2)_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStPO">StPO</a>, §30 (2).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStPO§20-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStPO§20_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStPO">StPO</a>, §20.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStPO§31_(4)-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStPO§31_(4)_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStPO">StPO</a>, §31 (4).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStPO§31_(3),_§32_(1)-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStPO§31_(3),_§32_(1)_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStPO">StPO</a>, §31 (3), §32 (1).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStPO§32_(1a)-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStPO§32_(1a)_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStPO">StPO</a>, §32 (1a).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStPO§31_(2)-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStPO§31_(2)_31-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStPO">StPO</a>, §31 (2).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStPO§32_(2)-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStPO§32_(2)_32-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStPO">StPO</a>, §32 (2).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJGG§28-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJGG§28_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJGG">JGG</a>, §28.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStPO§31_(6)-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStPO§31_(6)_34-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStPO">StPO</a>, §31 (6).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStPO§33_(1)-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStPO§33_(1)_35-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStPO">StPO</a>, §33 (1).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStPO§33_(2)-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStPO§33_(2)_36-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStPO">StPO</a>, §33 (2).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFStPO">StPO</a>, §34.</li><li><a href="#CITEREFAufgaben">Aufgaben</a>, Oberstes Organ.</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFRStDG">RStDG</a>, §82, §90, §111.</li><li><a href="#CITEREFAufgaben">Aufgaben</a>, Dienst- und Disziplinargerichtsbarkeit.</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFAufgaben">Aufgaben</a>, Zentralbibliothek.</li><li><a href="#CITEREFZentralbibliothek">Zentralbibliothek</a>.</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFOGHG">OGHG</a>, §11.</li><li><a href="#CITEREFAufgaben">Aufgaben</a>, Gesetzesbegutachtung.</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFB-VG">B-VG</a>, Art. 92.</li><li><a href="#CITEREFOGHG">OGHG</a>, §1 (2).</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFFoster2013">Foster 2013</a>, p. 38.</li><li><a href="#CITEREFGraf2006">Graf 2006</a>, p. 76</li><li><a href="#CITEREFStelzer2011">Stelzer 2011</a>, p. 188.</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERichterinnen_und_Richter-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERichterinnen_und_Richter_43-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRichterinnen_und_Richter">Richterinnen und Richter</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFOGHG">OGHG</a>, §6.</li><li><a href="#CITEREFAufgaben">Aufgaben</a>, Fünfer Senate.</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGeschäftsverteilung-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGeschäftsverteilung_45-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGeschäftsverteilung">Geschäftsverteilung</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEB-VGArt._86_(1)-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEB-VGArt._86_(1)_46-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFB-VG">B-VG</a>, Art. 86 (1).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFB-VG">B-VG</a>, Art. 86 (2).</li><li><a href="#CITEREFRStDG">RStDG</a>, §25, §32, §33.</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraf200676-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraf200676_48-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGraf2006">Graf 2006</a>, p. 76.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFB-VG">B-VG</a>, Art. 137.</li><li><a href="#CITEREFÖhlinger2007">Öhlinger 2007</a>, pp. 445−446.</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFB-VG">B-VG</a>, Art. 138.</li><li><a href="#CITEREFÖhlinger2007">Öhlinger 2007</a>, pp. 446−449.</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFB-VG">B-VG</a>, Art. 139−140.</li><li><a href="#CITEREFÖhlinger2007">Öhlinger 2007</a>, pp. 449−467.</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFB-VG">B-VG</a>, Art. 140a.</li><li><a href="#CITEREFÖhlinger2007">Öhlinger 2007</a>, p. 468.</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFB-VG">B-VG</a>, Art. 141.</li><li><a href="#CITEREFÖhlinger2007">Öhlinger 2007</a>, pp. 469−473.</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFB-VG">B-VG</a>, Art. 142−143.</li><li><a href="#CITEREFÖhlinger2007">Öhlinger 2007</a>, pp. 473−474.</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEB-VGArt._144-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEB-VGArt._144_55-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFB-VG">B-VG</a>, Art. 144.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEÖhlinger2007442,_450-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEÖhlinger2007442,_450_56-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEÖhlinger2007442,_450_56-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFÖhlinger2007">Öhlinger 2007</a>, pp. 442, 450.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELachmayer201775-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELachmayer201775_57-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLachmayer2017">Lachmayer 2017</a>, p. 75.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFCappelatti1970">Cappelatti 1970</a>, p. 46.</li><li><a href="#CITEREFLijphart1999">Lijphart 1999</a>, pp. 224−225.</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFB-VG">B-VG</a>, Art. 139 (1) 3, 140 (1) 1c.</li><li><a href="#CITEREFBerka2016">Berka 2016</a>, pp. 370−372, 381.</li><li><a href="#CITEREFÖhlinger2007">Öhlinger 2007</a>, pp. 459−462.</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFB-VG">B-VG</a>, Art. 139 (1), 140 (1).</li><li><a href="#CITEREFBerka2016">Berka 2016</a>, pp. 367, 381.</li><li><a href="#CITEREFLachmayer2017">Lachmayer 2017</a>, p. 82.</li><li><a href="#CITEREFÖhlinger2007">Öhlinger 2007</a>, p. 214.</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFB-VG">B-VG</a>, Art. 139−140.</li><li><a href="#CITEREFBerka2016">Berka 2016</a>, pp. 363−370, 379−382.</li><li><a href="#CITEREFÖhlinger2007">Öhlinger 2007</a>, pp. 450−457.</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFB-VG">B-VG</a>, Art. 144.</li><li><a href="#CITEREFBerka2016">Berka 2016</a>, pp. 334, 346−350.</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFB-VG">B-VG</a>, Art. 147.</li><li><a href="#CITEREFLachmayer2017">Lachmayer 2017</a>, pp. 85−86.</li><li><a href="#CITEREFÖhlinger2007">Öhlinger 2007</a>, pp. 222, 442.</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVfGG§§19−26-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVfGG§§19−26_64-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFVfGG">VfGG</a>, §§19−26.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFBerka2016">Berka 2016</a>, p. 344.</li><li><a href="#CITEREFVfGG">VfGG</a>, §7.</li><li><a href="#CITEREFLachmayer2017">Lachmayer 2017</a>, pp. 83−84, 98−101.</li><li><a href="#CITEREFÖhlinger2007">Öhlinger 2007</a>, pp. 442−444, 480, 483.</li><li><a href="#CITEREFWeissensteiner,_July_2,_2016">Weissensteiner, July 2, 2016</a>.</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFBrauneder2009">Brauneder 2009</a>, pp. 112−114.</li><li><a href="#CITEREFHoke1996">Hoke 1996</a>, pp. 341−345.</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrauneder2009117-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrauneder2009117_67-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBrauneder2009">Brauneder 2009</a>, p. 117.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFBrauneder2009">Brauneder 2009</a>, pp. 119, 122, 125, 127−128.</li><li><a href="#CITEREFHoke1996">Hoke 1996</a>, pp. 345−353.</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFRGBl_1848/150">RGBl 1848/150</a>.</li><li><a href="#CITEREFBrauneder2009">Brauneder 2009</a>, pp. 125, 127−128.</li><li><a href="#CITEREFHoke1996">Hoke 1996</a>, pp. 356−357.</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrauneder2009127−128-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrauneder2009127−128_70-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBrauneder2009">Brauneder 2009</a>, pp. 127−128.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFRGBl_1849/278">RGBl 1849/278</a>.</li><li><a href="#CITEREFRGBl_1850/25">RGBl 1850/25</a>.</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFKelsen1925">Kelsen 1925</a>, pp. 256−257.</li><li><a href="#CITEREFPernthaler1989">Pernthaler 1989</a>, p. 42.</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFBrauneder2009">Brauneder 2009</a>, p. 134.</li><li><a href="#CITEREFHoke1996">Hoke 1996</a>, pp. 359−360.</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFBrauneder2009">Brauneder 2009</a>, pp. 145−146.</li><li><a href="#CITEREFHoke1996">Hoke 1996</a>, pp. 361, 363−364.</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFBrauneder2009">Brauneder 2009</a>, pp. 154−155.</li><li><a href="#CITEREFHoke1996">Hoke 1996</a>, pp. 370−371, 385−387.</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFBrauneder2009">Brauneder 2009</a>, pp. 174−175.</li><li><a href="#CITEREFHoke1996">Hoke 1996</a>, pp. 397−400.</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrauneder2009157-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrauneder2009157_77-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBrauneder2009">Brauneder 2009</a>, p. 157.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFBrauneder2009">Brauneder 2009</a>, pp. 160−161.</li><li><a href="#CITEREFHoke1996">Hoke 1996</a>, pp. 403−404.</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERGBl_1867/143Art._2-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERGBl_1867/143Art._2_79-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRGBl_1867/143">RGBl 1867/143</a>, Art. 2.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFRGBl_1867/143">RGBl 1867/143</a>, Art. 3c.</li><li><a href="#CITEREFHoke1996">Hoke 1996</a>, pp. 400, 403.</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFRGBl_1867/143">RGBl 1867/143</a>, Art. 3c.</li><li><a href="#CITEREFBrauneder2009">Brauneder 2009</a>, p. 160.</li><li><a href="#CITEREFHoke1996">Hoke 1996</a>, p. 400.</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFRGBl_1867/145">RGBl 1867/145</a>.</li><li><a href="#CITEREFBrauneder2009">Brauneder 2009</a>, p. 161.</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERGBl_1867/101-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERGBl_1867/101_83-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRGBl_1867/101">RGBl 1867/101</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoke1996394−395-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoke1996394−395_84-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHoke1996">Hoke 1996</a>, pp. 394−395.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFStGBl_1918/5">StGBl 1918/5</a>.</li><li><a href="#CITEREFBrauneder2009">Brauneder 2009</a>, pp. 189, 191−192, 194.</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrauneder2009201–202-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrauneder2009201–202_86-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBrauneder2009">Brauneder 2009</a>, pp. 201–202.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStGBl_1919/88-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStGBl_1919/88_87-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStGBl_1919/88">StGBl 1919/88</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoke1996395-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoke1996395_88-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHoke1996">Hoke 1996</a>, p. 395.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStGBl_1918/1§9-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStGBl_1918/1§9_89-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStGBl_1918/1">StGBl 1918/1</a>, §9.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStGBl_1919/48-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStGBl_1919/48_90-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStGBl_1919/48">StGBl 1919/48</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStGBl_1919/212Art._1-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStGBl_1919/212Art._1_91-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStGBl_1919/212">StGBl 1919/212</a>, Art. 1.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFStGBl_1919/212">StGBl 1919/212</a>, Art. 5.</li><li><a href="#CITEREFBrauneder2009">Brauneder 2009</a>, p. 201.</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFStGBl_1919/90">StGBl 1919/90</a>.</li><li><a href="#CITEREFBrauneder2009">Brauneder 2009</a>, p. 202.</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFStGBl_1918/38">StGBl 1918/38</a>.</li><li><a href="#CITEREFStGBl_1919/41">StGBl 1919/41</a>.</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFBGBl_1920/1">BGBl 1920/1</a>, §§139−141.</li><li><a href="#CITEREFBrauneder2009">Brauneder 2009</a>, p. 223.</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEÖhlinger2007271-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEÖhlinger2007271_96-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFÖhlinger2007">Öhlinger 2007</a>, p. 271.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFCappelatti1970">Cappelatti 1970</a>, p. 46.</li><li><a href="#CITEREFLijphart1999">Lijphart 1999</a>, pp. 224−225.</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrauneder2009209−215-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrauneder2009209−215_98-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBrauneder2009">Brauneder 2009</a>, pp. 209−215.</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Judiciary_of_Austria&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Books_and_articles">Books and articles</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Judiciary_of_Austria&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Books and articles"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="English">English</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Judiciary_of_Austria&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: English"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFFoster2013" class="citation book cs1">Foster, Nigel (2013). <i>Austrian Legal System and Laws</i>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-135-33658-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-135-33658-5"><bdi>978-1-135-33658-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Austrian+Legal+System+and+Laws&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1-135-33658-5&rft.aulast=Foster&rft.aufirst=Nigel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudiciary+of+Austria" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLachmayer2017" class="citation book cs1">Lachmayer, Konrad (2017). "The Austrian Constitutional Court". In Jakab, András; Dyevre, Arthur; Itzcovich, Giulio (eds.). <i>Comparative Constitutional Reasoning</i>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-107-08558-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-107-08558-9"><bdi>978-1-107-08558-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Austrian+Constitutional+Court&rft.btitle=Comparative+Constitutional+Reasoning&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-1-107-08558-9&rft.aulast=Lachmayer&rft.aufirst=Konrad&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudiciary+of+Austria" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLijphart1999" class="citation book cs1">Lijphart, Arend (1999). <i>Patterns of Democracy: Government Forms and Performance in Thirty-Six Countries</i>. New Haven and London: Yale University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-300-07893-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-300-07893-5"><bdi>0-300-07893-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Patterns+of+Democracy%3A+Government+Forms+and+Performance+in+Thirty-Six+Countries&rft.place=New+Haven+and+London&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=0-300-07893-5&rft.aulast=Lijphart&rft.aufirst=Arend&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudiciary+of+Austria" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStelzer2011" class="citation book cs1">Stelzer, Manfred (2011). <i>The Constitution of the Republic of Austria: A Contextual Analysis</i>. Hart Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-8411-3852-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-8411-3852-7"><bdi>978-1-8411-3852-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Constitution+of+the+Republic+of+Austria%3A+A+Contextual+Analysis&rft.pub=Hart+Publishing&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-8411-3852-7&rft.aulast=Stelzer&rft.aufirst=Manfred&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudiciary+of+Austria" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="German">German</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Judiciary_of_Austria&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: German"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAdamovich_et_al.2011" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Adamovich_Jr." title="Ludwig Adamovich Jr.">Adamovich, Ludwig</a>; <a href="/wiki/Bernd-Christian_Funk" title="Bernd-Christian Funk">Funk, Bernd-Christian</a>; <a href="/wiki/Gerhart_Holzinger" title="Gerhart Holzinger">Holzinger, Gerhart</a>; Frank, Stefan (2011). <i>Österreichisches Staatsrecht. Band 1: Grundlagen</i> (in German) (2nd ed.). Vienna: Springer. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-211-89396-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-211-89396-8"><bdi>978-3-211-89396-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%C3%96sterreichisches+Staatsrecht.+Band+1%3A+Grundlagen&rft.place=Vienna&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-3-211-89396-8&rft.aulast=Adamovich&rft.aufirst=Ludwig&rft.au=Funk%2C+Bernd-Christian&rft.au=Holzinger%2C+Gerhart&rft.au=Frank%2C+Stefan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudiciary+of+Austria" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAufgaben" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ogh.gv.at/der-oberste-gerichtshof/aufgaben/">"Aufgaben"</a>. <i>Oberster Gerichtshof</i> (in German)<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2018-08-29</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Oberster+Gerichtshof&rft.atitle=Aufgaben&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ogh.gv.at%2Fder-oberste-gerichtshof%2Faufgaben%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudiciary+of+Austria" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBerka2016" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Berka, Walter (2016). <i>Verfassungsrecht</i> (in German) (6th ed.). Vienna: Österreich Verlag. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-7046-7281-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-7046-7281-0"><bdi>978-3-7046-7281-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Verfassungsrecht&rft.place=Vienna&rft.edition=6th&rft.pub=%C3%96sterreich+Verlag&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-3-7046-7281-0&rft.aulast=Berka&rft.aufirst=Walter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudiciary+of+Austria" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrauneder2009" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Brauneder, Wilhelm (2009). <i>Österreichische Verfassungsgeschichte</i> (in German) (11th ed.). Vienna: Manzsche Verlags- und Universitätsbuchhandlung. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-214-14876-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-214-14876-8"><bdi>978-3-214-14876-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%C3%96sterreichische+Verfassungsgeschichte&rft.place=Vienna&rft.edition=11th&rft.pub=Manzsche+Verlags-+und+Universit%C3%A4tsbuchhandlung&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-3-214-14876-8&rft.aulast=Brauneder&rft.aufirst=Wilhelm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudiciary+of+Austria" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCappelatti1970" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Cappelatti, Mauro (1970). <i>Judicial Review in the Contemporary World</i> (in German). Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Judicial+Review+in+the+Contemporary+World&rft.place=Indianapolis&rft.pub=Bobbs-Merrill&rft.date=1970&rft.aulast=Cappelatti&rft.aufirst=Mauro&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudiciary+of+Austria" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGraf2006" class="citation magazine cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Graf, Philipp J (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bmi.gv.at/magazinfiles/2006/03_04/files/hoechtsgerichte.pdf">"Österreichs höchste Richter"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Öffentliche Sicherheit</i> (in German). No. 3–4/2006. Austrian Ministry of the Interior. pp. 75–81.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=%C3%96ffentliche+Sicherheit&rft.atitle=%C3%96sterreichs+h%C3%B6chste+Richter&rft.issue=3%E2%80%934%2F2006&rft.pages=75-81&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Graf&rft.aufirst=Philipp+J&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bmi.gv.at%2Fmagazinfiles%2F2006%2F03_04%2Ffiles%2Fhoechtsgerichte.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudiciary+of+Austria" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHoke1996" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Hoke, Rudolf (1996). <i>Österreichische und deutsche Rechtsgeschichte</i> (in German) (2nd ed.). Vienna: Böhlau Studienbücher. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-205-98179-0" title="Special:BookSources/3-205-98179-0"><bdi>3-205-98179-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%C3%96sterreichische+und+deutsche+Rechtsgeschichte&rft.place=Vienna&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=B%C3%B6hlau+Studienb%C3%BCcher&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=3-205-98179-0&rft.aulast=Hoke&rft.aufirst=Rudolf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudiciary+of+Austria" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKelsen1925" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Hans_Kelsen" title="Hans Kelsen">Kelsen, Hans</a> (1925). <i>Allgemeine Staatslehre</i> (in German). Berlin: Julius Springer.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Allgemeine+Staatslehre&rft.place=Berlin&rft.pub=Julius+Springer&rft.date=1925&rft.aulast=Kelsen&rft.aufirst=Hans&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudiciary+of+Austria" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFÖhlinger2007" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Theo_%C3%96hlinger" title="Theo Öhlinger">Öhlinger, Theo</a> (2007). <i>Verfassungsrecht</i> (in German) (7th ed.). Vienna: Facultas. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-7089-0152-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-7089-0152-7"><bdi>978-3-7089-0152-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Verfassungsrecht&rft.place=Vienna&rft.edition=7th&rft.pub=Facultas&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-3-7089-0152-7&rft.aulast=%C3%96hlinger&rft.aufirst=Theo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudiciary+of+Austria" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPernthaler1989" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Pernthaler, Peter (1989). <i>Kompetenzverteilung in der Krise</i> (in German). Vienna: Wilhelm Braumüller. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-7003-0811-6" title="Special:BookSources/3-7003-0811-6"><bdi>3-7003-0811-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Kompetenzverteilung+in+der+Krise&rft.place=Vienna&rft.pub=Wilhelm+Braum%C3%BCller&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=3-7003-0811-6&rft.aulast=Pernthaler&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudiciary+of+Austria" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWeissensteiner,_July_2,_2016" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Weissensteiner, Nina (July 2, 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://derstandard.at/2000040243036/Adamovich-Das-ist-ja-alles-kein-Spass">"Adamovich: Das ist ja alles kein Spaß"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Der_Standard" title="Der Standard">Der Standard</a></i> (in German)<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2018-06-10</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Der+Standard&rft.atitle=Adamovich%3A+Das+ist+ja+alles+kein+Spa%C3%9F&rft.date=2016-07-02&rft.aulast=Weissensteiner&rft.aufirst=Nina&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fderstandard.at%2F2000040243036%2FAdamovich-Das-ist-ja-alles-kein-Spass&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudiciary+of+Austria" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZentralbibliothek" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ogh.gv.at/service/zentralbibliothek/">"Zentralbibliothek"</a>. <i>Oberster Gerichtshof</i> (in German)<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2018-08-29</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Oberster+Gerichtshof&rft.atitle=Zentralbibliothek&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ogh.gv.at%2Fservice%2Fzentralbibliothek%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudiciary+of+Austria" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Statutes">Statutes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Judiciary_of_Austria&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Statutes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Historical">Historical</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Judiciary_of_Austria&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Historical"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1041539562">.mw-parser-output .citation{word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}</style><cite id="CITEREFRGBl_1848/150" class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://alex.onb.ac.at/cgi-content/alex?aid=rgb&datum=18490005&seite=00000151">RGBl 1848/150, Reichsverfassung für das Kaiserthum Oesterreich</a>. Retrieved October 6, 2018.</cite></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562"><cite id="CITEREFRGBl_1849/278" class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://alex.onb.ac.at/cgi-content/alex?aid=rgb&datum=18490006&seite=00000343">RGBl 1849/278, Grundzüge der neuen Gerichtsverfassung</a>. Retrieved October 6, 2018.</cite></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562"><cite id="CITEREFRGBl_1850/25" class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://alex.onb.ac.at/cgi-content/alex?aid=rgb&datum=18500004&seite=00000287">RGBl 1850/25, Neue provisorische Strafproceß-Ordnung</a>. Retrieved October 6, 2018.</cite></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562"><cite id="CITEREFRGBl_1867/143" class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://alex.onb.ac.at/cgi-content/alex?aid=rgb&datum=18670004&seite=00000397">RGBl 1867/143, Staatsgrundgesetz über die Einsetzung eines Reichsgerichtes</a>. Retrieved October 6, 2018.</cite></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562"><cite id="CITEREFRGBl_1867/145" class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://alex.onb.ac.at/cgi-content/alex?aid=rgb&datum=18670004&seite=00000400">RGBl 1867/145, Staatsgrundgesetz über die Ausübung der Regierungs- und der Vollzugsgewalt</a>. Retrieved October 6, 2018.</cite></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562"><cite id="CITEREFRGBl_1867/101" class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://alex.onb.ac.at/cgi-content/alex?aid=rgb&datum=18670004&seite=00000208">RGBl 1867/101, Gesetz über die Verantwortlichkeit der Minister</a>. Retrieved October 6, 2018.</cite></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562"><cite id="CITEREFStGBl_1918/1" class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://alex.onb.ac.at/cgi-content/alex?aid=sgb&datum=19180004&seite=00000001">StGBl 1918/1, Grundlegende Einrichtungen der Staatsgewalt</a>. Retrieved October 6, 2018.</cite></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562"><cite id="CITEREFStGBl_1918/5" class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://alex.onb.ac.at/cgi-content/alex?aid=sgb&datum=19180004&seite=00000004">StGBl 1918/5, Gesetz über die Staats- und Regierungsform von Deutschösterreich</a>. Retrieved October 6, 2018.</cite></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562"><cite id="CITEREFStGBl_1918/38" class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://alex.onb.ac.at/cgi-content/alex?aid=sgb&datum=19180004&seite=00000048">StGBl 1918/38, Grundgesetz über die richterliche Gewalt</a>. Retrieved October 6, 2018.</cite></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562"><cite id="CITEREFStGBl_1919/41" class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://alex.onb.ac.at/cgi-content/alex?aid=sgb&datum=19190004&seite=00000073">StGBl 1919/41, Gesetz betreffend die Errichtung eines Obersten Gerichtshofes</a>. Retrieved October 6, 2018.</cite></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562"><cite id="CITEREFStGBl_1919/48" class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://alex.onb.ac.at/cgi-content/alex?aid=sgb&datum=19190004&seite=00000078">StGBl 1919/48, Gesetz über die Errichtung eines deutschösterreichischen Verfassungsgerichtshofes</a>. Retrieved October 6, 2018.</cite></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562"><cite id="CITEREFStGBl_1919/88" class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://alex.onb.ac.at/cgi-content/alex?aid=sgb&datum=19190004&seite=00000152">StGBl 1919/88, Gesetz über die Errichtung eines deutschösterreichischen Verwaltungsgerichtshofes</a>. Retrieved October 6, 2018.</cite></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562"><cite id="CITEREFStGBl_1919/90" class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://alex.onb.ac.at/cgi-content/alex?aid=sgb&datum=19190004&seite=00000153">StGBl 1919/90, Gesetz betreffend den Wahlgerichtshof für die Wahlen zur konstituierenden Nationalversammlung</a>. Retrieved October 6, 2018.</cite></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562"><cite id="CITEREFStGBl_1919/212" class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://alex.onb.ac.at/cgi-content/alex?aid=sgb&datum=19190004&seite=00000515">StGBl 1919/212, Gesetz, womit die Aufgabe des ehemaligen Staatsgerichtshofes auf den deutschösterreichischen Verfassungsgerichtshof übertragen und das Gesetz über die Errichtung eines deutschösterreichischen Verfassungsgerichtshofes abgeändert und ergänzt wird</a>. Retrieved October 6, 2018.</cite></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562"><cite id="CITEREFBGBl_1920/1" class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://alex.onb.ac.at/cgi-content/alex?aid=bgb&datum=19200004&seite=00000001">BGBl 1920/1, Bundes-Verfassungsgesetz</a>. Retrieved October 6, 2018.</cite></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Current">Current</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Judiciary_of_Austria&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Current"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFB-VG" class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ris.bka.gv.at/GeltendeFassung.wxe?Abfrage=Bundesnormen&Gesetzesnummer=10000138">"Bundesverfassungsgesetz (B-VG) as last amended May 15, 2018 by BGBl. 22/2018"</a>. May 15, 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2018-05-28</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Bundesverfassungsgesetz+%28B-VG%29+as+last+amended+May+15%2C+2018+by+BGBl.+22%2F2018&rft.date=2018-05-15&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ris.bka.gv.at%2FGeltendeFassung.wxe%3FAbfrage%3DBundesnormen%26Gesetzesnummer%3D10000138&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudiciary+of+Austria" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJGG" class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ris.bka.gv.at/GeltendeFassung.wxe?Abfrage=Bundesnormen&Gesetzesnummer=10002825">"Jugendgerichtsgesetz 1988 (JGG), consolidated version as last amended December 28, 2015 by BGBL. 154/2015"</a>. December 28, 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2018-06-03</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Jugendgerichtsgesetz+1988+%28JGG%29%2C+consolidated+version+as+last+amended+December+28%2C+2015+by+BGBL.+154%2F2015&rft.date=2015-12-28&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ris.bka.gv.at%2FGeltendeFassung.wxe%3FAbfrage%3DBundesnormen%26Gesetzesnummer%3D10002825&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudiciary+of+Austria" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOGHG" class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ris.bka.gv.at/GeltendeFassung.wxe?Abfrage=Bundesnormen&Gesetzesnummer=10000449">"OGH-Gesetz (OGHG), consolidated version as last amended December 28, 2007 by BGBl. 112/2007"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2018-08-29</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=OGH-Gesetz+%28OGHG%29%2C+consolidated+version+as+last+amended+December+28%2C+2007+by+BGBl.+112%2F2007&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ris.bka.gv.at%2FGeltendeFassung.wxe%3FAbfrage%3DBundesnormen%26Gesetzesnummer%3D10000449&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudiciary+of+Austria" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRStDG" class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ris.bka.gv.at/GeltendeFassung.wxe?Abfrage=Bundesnormen&Gesetzesnummer=10008187">"Richter- und Staatsanwaltschaftsdienstgesetz (RStDG), consolidates version as last amended by August 14, 2018 by BGBl. 60/2018"</a>. August 14, 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2018-08-29</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Richter-+und+Staatsanwaltschaftsdienstgesetz+%28RStDG%29%2C+consolidates+version+as+last+amended+by+August+14%2C+2018+by+BGBl.+60%2F2018&rft.date=2018-08-14&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ris.bka.gv.at%2FGeltendeFassung.wxe%3FAbfrage%3DBundesnormen%26Gesetzesnummer%3D10008187&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudiciary+of+Austria" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStPO" class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ris.bka.gv.at/GeltendeFassung.wxe?Abfrage=Bundesnormen&Gesetzesnummer=10002326">"Strafprozeßordnung 1975 (StPO) as last amended May 17, 2017 by BGBl. 32/2018"</a>. May 17, 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2018-06-03</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Strafproze%C3%9Fordnung+1975+%28StPO%29+as+last+amended+May+17%2C+2017+by+BGBl.+32%2F2018&rft.date=2017-05-17&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ris.bka.gv.at%2FGeltendeFassung.wxe%3FAbfrage%3DBundesnormen%26Gesetzesnummer%3D10002326&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudiciary+of+Austria" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVfGG" class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ris.bka.gv.at/GeltendeFassung.wxe?Abfrage=Bundesnormen&Gesetzesnummer=10000245">"Verfassungsgerichtshofsgesetz 1953 (VfGG), consolidated version as last amended May 15, 2018 by BGBl. 22/2018"</a>. May 15, 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2018-05-28</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Verfassungsgerichtshofsgesetz+1953+%28VfGG%29%2C+consolidated+version+as+last+amended+May+15%2C+2018+by+BGBl.+22%2F2018&rft.date=2018-05-15&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ris.bka.gv.at%2FGeltendeFassung.wxe%3FAbfrage%3DBundesnormen%26Gesetzesnummer%3D10000245&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudiciary+of+Austria" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZPO" class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ris.bka.gv.at/GeltendeFassung.wxe?Abfrage=Bundesnormen&Gesetzesnummer=10001699">"Zivilprozessordnung (ZPO), consolidated version as last amended May 15, 2018 by BGBl. 32/2018"</a>. May 17, 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2018-06-03</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Zivilprozessordnung+%28ZPO%29%2C+consolidated+version+as+last+amended+May+15%2C+2018+by+BGBl.+32%2F2018&rft.date=2018-05-17&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ris.bka.gv.at%2FGeltendeFassung.wxe%3FAbfrage%3DBundesnormen%26Gesetzesnummer%3D10001699&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudiciary+of+Austria" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Websites">Websites</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Judiciary_of_Austria&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Websites"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGeschäftsverteilung" class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ogh.gv.at/der-oberste-gerichtshof/geschaeftsverteilung/">"Geschäftsverteilung"</a>. <i>Oberster Gerichtshof</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2018-08-30</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Oberster+Gerichtshof&rft.atitle=Gesch%C3%A4ftsverteilung&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ogh.gv.at%2Fder-oberste-gerichtshof%2Fgeschaeftsverteilung%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudiciary+of+Austria" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRichterinnen_und_Richter" class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ogh.gv.at/der-oberste-gerichtshof/richterinnen-und-richter/">"Richterinnen und Richter"</a>. <i>Oberster Gerichtshof</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2018-08-29</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Oberster+Gerichtshof&rft.atitle=Richterinnen+und+Richter&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ogh.gv.at%2Fder-oberste-gerichtshof%2Frichterinnen-und-richter%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudiciary+of+Austria" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol 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template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Austria_topics" title="Template talk:Austria topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Austria_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Austria topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Austria_articles" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Austria" title="Austria">Austria</a> <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Austria" title="Outline of Austria">articles</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Austria" title="History of Austria">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hallstatt_culture" title="Hallstatt culture">Hallstatt culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celts" title="Celts">Celts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Noricum" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Noricum">Kingdom of Noricum</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Noricum" title="Noricum">Noricum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pannonia" title="Pannonia">Pannonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raetia" title="Raetia">Raetia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_peoples" title="Germanic peoples">Germanic tribes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rugiland" title="Rugiland">Rugiland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ostrogothic_Kingdom" title="Ostrogothic Kingdom">Ostrogothic Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Francia" title="East Francia">East Francia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Margraviate_of_Austria" title="Margraviate of Austria">Margraviate of Austria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Austria" title="Duchy of Austria">Duchy of Austria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archduchy_of_Austria" title="Archduchy of Austria">Archduchy of Austria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habsburg_monarchy" title="Habsburg monarchy">Habsburg monarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Vienna_(1529)" title="Siege of Vienna (1529)">Siege of Vienna (1529)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austrian_Empire" title="Austrian Empire">Austrian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/March_Constitution_(Austria)" title="March Constitution (Austria)">March Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Vienna" title="Congress of Vienna">Congress of Vienna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austria-Hungary" title="Austria-Hungary">Austria-Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_German-Austria" title="Republic of German-Austria">German Austria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Austrian_Republic" title="First Austrian Republic">First Austrian Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austrian_Civil_War" title="Austrian Civil War">Austrian Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_State_of_Austria" title="Federal State of Austria">Federal State of Austria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austrofascism" class="mw-redirect" title="Austrofascism">Austrofascism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anschluss" title="Anschluss">Anschluss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ostmark_(Austria)" title="Ostmark (Austria)">Ostmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allied-occupied_Austria" title="Allied-occupied Austria">Allied-administered Austria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Vienna" title="History of Vienna">History of Vienna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Austria" title="Military history of Austria">Military history of Austria</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Austria" title="Geography of Austria">Geography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Federal_states_of_Austria" title="Federal states of Austria">Administrative divisions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alps_conifer_and_mixed_forests" title="Alps conifer and mixed forests">Alps conifer and mixed forests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_and_towns_in_Austria" title="List of cities and towns in Austria">Cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Districts_of_Austria" title="Districts of Austria">Districts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ecoregions_in_Austria" title="List of ecoregions in Austria">Ecoregions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_lakes_of_Austria" title="List of lakes of Austria">Lakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_highest_mountains_of_Austria" title="List of highest mountains of Austria">Mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pannonian_mixed_forests" title="Pannonian mixed forests">Pannonian mixed forests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rivers_of_Austria" title="List of rivers of Austria">Rivers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/States_of_Austria" class="mw-redirect" title="States of Austria">States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_European_broadleaf_forests" title="Western European broadleaf forests">Western European broadleaf forests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_World_Heritage_Sites_in_Austria" title="List of World Heritage Sites in Austria">World Heritage Sites</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Austria" title="Politics of Austria">Politics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Austria" title="Climate change in Austria">Climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Austria" title="Constitution of Austria">Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_Austria" title="Elections in Austria">Elections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_Austria" title="Foreign relations of Austria">Foreign relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government_of_Austria" title="Government of Austria">Government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Austria" title="Human rights in Austria">Human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Austria" title="Law of Austria">Law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Law_enforcement_in_Austria" title="Law enforcement in Austria">enforcement</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_Austria" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights in Austria">LGBT rights</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Legal system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austrian_Armed_Forces" title="Austrian Armed Forces">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austrian_Parliament" title="Austrian Parliament">Parliament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_parties_in_Austria" title="List of political parties in Austria">Political parties</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Austria" title="Economy of Austria">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Austria" title="Agriculture in Austria">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banking_in_Austria" title="Banking in Austria">Banking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_companies_of_Austria" title="List of companies of Austria">Companies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_in_Austria" title="Energy in Austria">Energy</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mining_in_Austria&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mining in Austria (page does not exist)">Mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxation_in_Austria" title="Taxation in Austria">Taxation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Austria" title="Telecommunications in Austria">Telecommunications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_Austria" title="Tourism in Austria">Tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_in_Austria" title="Transport in Austria">Transport</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Society_of_Austria" title="Category:Society of Austria">Society</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_Austria" title="Abortion in Austria">Abortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austrians" title="Austrians">Austrian people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Austria" title="Crime in Austria">Crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_Austria" title="Demographics of Austria">Demographics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Austria" title="Education in Austria">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_Austria" title="Demographics of Austria">Ethnic groups</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Healthcare_in_Austria" title="Healthcare in Austria">Health care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Austria" title="Languages of Austria">Languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pornography_in_Austria" title="Pornography in Austria">Pornography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostitution_in_Austria" title="Prostitution in Austria">Prostitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Austria" title="Religion in Austria">Religion</a> (<a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_religion_in_Austria" title="Freedom of religion in Austria">freedom of religion</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Austria" title="Women in Austria">Women</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Austria" title="Culture of Austria">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_Austria" class="mw-redirect" title="Architecture of Austria">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinema_of_Austria" title="Cinema of Austria">Cinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coat_of_arms_of_Austria" title="Coat of arms of Austria">Coat of arms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austrian_cuisine" title="Austrian cuisine">Cuisine</a> (<a href="/wiki/Austrian_wine" title="Austrian wine">wine</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_Austria" title="Flag of Austria">Flag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austrian_literature" title="Austrian literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_of_Austria" class="mw-redirect" title="Media of Austria">Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_museums_in_Austria" title="List of museums in Austria">Museums</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Austria" title="Music of Austria">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_anthem_of_Austria" title="National anthem of Austria">National anthem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_holidays_in_Austria" title="Public holidays in Austria">Public holidays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sport_in_Austria" title="Sport in Austria">Sport</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight:bold;"><div><div style="margin-bottom:-0.4em;"><ul><li><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Austria" title="Outline of Austria">Outline</a></span></li><li><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Austria" title="Outline of Austria">Index</a></span></li></ul></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Austria" title="Category:Austria">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Austria" title="Portal:Austria">Portal</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Judiciaries_of_Europe" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Judiciaries_of_Europe" title="Template:Judiciaries of Europe"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Judiciaries_of_Europe" title="Template talk:Judiciaries of Europe"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Judiciaries_of_Europe" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Judiciaries of Europe"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Judiciaries_of_Europe" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Judiciaries of Europe</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sovereign states</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judiciary_of_Albania" title="Judiciary of Albania">Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judiciary_of_Andorra" title="Judiciary of Andorra">Andorra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judiciary_of_Armenia" title="Judiciary of Armenia">Armenia</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Austria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judiciary_of_Azerbaijan" title="Judiciary of Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Judiciary_of_Belarus&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Judiciary of Belarus (page does not exist)">Belarus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judiciary_of_Belgium" title="Judiciary of Belgium">Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judiciary_of_Bosnia_and_Herzegovina" class="mw-redirect" title="Judiciary of Bosnia and Herzegovina">Bosnia and Herzegovina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judiciary_of_Bulgaria" class="mw-redirect" title="Judiciary of Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judiciary_of_Croatia" title="Judiciary of Croatia">Croatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judiciary_of_Cyprus" title="Judiciary of Cyprus">Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judiciary_of_the_Czech_Republic" title="Judiciary of the Czech Republic">Czech Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judiciary_of_Denmark" class="mw-redirect" title="Judiciary of Denmark">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Judiciary_of_Estonia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Judiciary of Estonia (page does not exist)">Estonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judiciary_of_Finland" class="mw-redirect" title="Judiciary of Finland">Finland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judiciary_of_France" title="Judiciary of France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judiciary_of_Georgia_(country)" class="mw-redirect" title="Judiciary of Georgia (country)">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judiciary_of_Germany" title="Judiciary of Germany">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judiciary_of_Greece" title="Judiciary of Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judiciary_of_Hungary" class="mw-redirect" title="Judiciary of Hungary">Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judiciary_of_Iceland" class="mw-redirect" title="Judiciary of Iceland">Iceland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judiciary_of_the_Republic_of_Ireland" class="mw-redirect" title="Judiciary of the Republic of Ireland">Ireland</a></li> <li class="mw-empty-elt"></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judiciary_of_Italy" title="Judiciary of Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judiciary_of_Kazakhstan" class="mw-redirect" title="Judiciary of Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Judiciary_of_Latvia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Judiciary of Latvia (page does not exist)">Latvia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judiciary_of_Liechtenstein" class="mw-redirect" title="Judiciary of Liechtenstein">Liechtenstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judiciary_of_Lithuania" class="mw-redirect" title="Judiciary of Lithuania">Lithuania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judiciary_of_Luxembourg" title="Judiciary of Luxembourg">Luxembourg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judiciary_of_Malta" title="Judiciary of Malta">Malta</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Judiciary_of_Moldova&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Judiciary of Moldova (page does not exist)">Moldova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judiciary_of_Monaco" class="mw-redirect" title="Judiciary of Monaco">Monaco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judiciary_of_Montenegro" class="mw-redirect" title="Judiciary of Montenegro">Montenegro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judiciary_of_the_Netherlands" title="Judiciary of the Netherlands">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judiciary_of_North_Macedonia" class="mw-redirect" title="Judiciary of North Macedonia">North Macedonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judiciary_of_Norway" title="Judiciary of Norway">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judiciary_of_Poland" title="Judiciary of Poland">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judiciary_of_Portugal" title="Judiciary of Portugal">Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judiciary_of_Romania" title="Judiciary of Romania">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judiciary_of_Russia" title="Judiciary of Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judiciary_of_San_Marino" title="Judiciary of San Marino">San Marino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judiciary_of_Serbia" title="Judiciary of Serbia">Serbia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Judiciary_of_Slovakia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Judiciary of Slovakia (page does not exist)">Slovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judiciary_of_Slovenia" title="Judiciary of Slovenia">Slovenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judiciary_of_Spain" title="Judiciary of Spain">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judiciary_of_Sweden" title="Judiciary of Sweden">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judiciary_of_Switzerland" class="mw-redirect" title="Judiciary of Switzerland">Switzerland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judiciary_of_Turkey" class="mw-redirect" title="Judiciary of Turkey">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judiciary_of_Ukraine" title="Judiciary of Ukraine">Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judiciary_of_the_United_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Judiciary of the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judiciary_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Judiciary of England">England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judiciary_of_Northern_Ireland" class="mw-redirect" title="Judiciary of Northern Ireland">Northern Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judiciary_of_Scotland" title="Judiciary of Scotland">Scotland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judiciary_of_Wales" class="mw-redirect" title="Judiciary of Wales">Wales</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">States with limited<br />recognition</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Judiciary_of_Abkhazia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Judiciary of Abkhazia (page does not exist)">Abkhazia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judiciary_of_Kosovo" title="Judiciary of Kosovo">Kosovo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judiciary_of_Northern_Cyprus" title="Judiciary of Northern Cyprus">Northern Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Judiciary_of_South_Ossetia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Judiciary of South Ossetia (page does not exist)">South Ossetia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Judiciary_of_Transnistria&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Judiciary of Transnistria (page does not exist)">Transnistria</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Dependencies and<br />other entities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Judiciary_of_%C3%85land&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Judiciary of Åland (page does not exist)">Åland</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Judiciary_of_the_Faroe_Islands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Judiciary of the Faroe Islands (page does not exist)">Faroe Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judiciary_of_Gibraltar" title="Judiciary of Gibraltar">Gibraltar</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Judiciary_of_Guernsey&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Judiciary of Guernsey (page does not exist)">Guernsey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judiciary_of_the_Isle_of_Man" title="Judiciary of the Isle of Man">Isle of Man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judiciary_of_Jersey" title="Judiciary of Jersey">Jersey</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Judiciary_of_Svalbard&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Judiciary of Svalbard (page does not exist)">Svalbard</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img 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