CINXE.COM
Martin Rees, Carlo Rovelli and Steven Weinberg tackle big questions to mark Oxford anniversary – Physics World
<!DOCTYPE html> <html lang="en-GB"> <head> <meta charset="UTF-8"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=device-width, initial-scale=1"> <meta http-equiv="Referrer-Policy" content="origin, strict-origin-when-cross-origin"> <link rel="profile" href="http://gmpg.org/xfn/11"> <link rel="pingback" href="https://physicsworld.com/xmlrpc.php"> <link rel="preconnect" href="https://use.typekit.net" crossorigin /> <link rel="preload" href="https://cdn-cookieyes.com/client_data/32a66075cd31d8fea8d5fadf/script.js" as="script" /> <link rel="preconnect" href="https://www.googletagmanager.com" crossorigin /> <link rel="preconnect" href="https://cdn.ampproject.org" crossorigin /> <link rel="preconnect" href="https://in.hotjar.com" crossorigin /> <meta http-equiv="X-UA-Compatible" content="IE=edge" > <!-- webkit FranklinGothicURW start --> <script src="//use.typekit.net/mfv1unu.js"></script> <script>try{Typekit.load({ async: true, active: function() { jQuery('body').addClass('typekit'); } });}catch(e){}</script> <!-- webkit FranklinGothicURW end --> <link href="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/themes/iopp/static/css/font-awesome.min.css" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" /> <!-- Google Tag Manager --> <script>(function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start': new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0], j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src= 'https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f); })(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-TQRT9K38');</script> <!-- End Google Tag Manager --> <meta name='robots' content='index, follow, max-image-preview:large, max-snippet:-1, max-video-preview:-1' /> <!-- This site is optimized with the Yoast SEO plugin v23.8 - https://yoast.com/wordpress/plugins/seo/ --> <title>Martin Rees, Carlo Rovelli and Steven Weinberg tackle big questions to mark Oxford anniversary – Physics World</title> <link rel="canonical" href="https://physicsworld.com/a/martin-rees-carlo-rovelli-and-steven-weinberg-tackle-big-questions-to-mark-oxford-anniversary/" /> <meta property="og:locale" content="en_GB" /> <meta property="og:type" content="article" /> <meta property="og:title" content="Martin Rees, Carlo Rovelli and Steven Weinberg tackle big questions to mark Oxford anniversary – Physics World" /> <meta property="og:description" content="Milestone marked by commemorative volume in Journal of Physics: Conference Series" /> <meta property="og:url" content="https://physicsworld.com/martin-rees-carlo-rovelli-and-steven-weinberg-tackle-big-questions-to-mark-oxford-anniversary/" /> <meta property="og:site_name" content="Physics World" /> <meta property="article:publisher" content="https://www.facebook.com/physicsworld/" /> <meta property="article:published_time" content="2024-11-22T09:00:35+00:00" /> <meta property="article:modified_time" content="2024-11-22T11:54:51+00:00" /> <meta property="og:image" content="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/Oxford-Bodleian-Library-9067522-Shutterstock.jpg" /> <meta property="og:image:width" content="1200" /> <meta property="og:image:height" content="815" /> <meta property="og:image:type" content="image/jpeg" /> <meta name="author" content="Michael Banks" /> <meta name="twitter:card" content="summary_large_image" /> <meta name="twitter:creator" content="@PhysicsWorld" /> <meta name="twitter:site" content="@PhysicsWorld" /> <script type="application/ld+json" class="yoast-schema-graph">{"@context":"https://schema.org","@graph":[{"@type":"WebPage","@id":"https://physicsworld.com/martin-rees-carlo-rovelli-and-steven-weinberg-tackle-big-questions-to-mark-oxford-anniversary/","url":"https://physicsworld.com/martin-rees-carlo-rovelli-and-steven-weinberg-tackle-big-questions-to-mark-oxford-anniversary/","name":"Martin Rees, Carlo Rovelli and Steven Weinberg tackle big questions to mark Oxford anniversary – Physics World","isPartOf":{"@id":"https://physicsworld.com/#website"},"primaryImageOfPage":{"@id":"https://physicsworld.com/martin-rees-carlo-rovelli-and-steven-weinberg-tackle-big-questions-to-mark-oxford-anniversary/#primaryimage"},"image":{"@id":"https://physicsworld.com/martin-rees-carlo-rovelli-and-steven-weinberg-tackle-big-questions-to-mark-oxford-anniversary/#primaryimage"},"thumbnailUrl":"https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/Oxford-Bodleian-Library-9067522-Shutterstock.jpg","datePublished":"2024-11-22T09:00:35+00:00","dateModified":"2024-11-22T11:54:51+00:00","author":{"@id":"https://physicsworld.com/#/schema/person/b18b4a35db3bfcd6d7495bdf9b9c0b01"},"breadcrumb":{"@id":"https://physicsworld.com/martin-rees-carlo-rovelli-and-steven-weinberg-tackle-big-questions-to-mark-oxford-anniversary/#breadcrumb"},"inLanguage":"en-GB","potentialAction":[{"@type":"ReadAction","target":["https://physicsworld.com/martin-rees-carlo-rovelli-and-steven-weinberg-tackle-big-questions-to-mark-oxford-anniversary/"]}]},{"@type":"ImageObject","inLanguage":"en-GB","@id":"https://physicsworld.com/martin-rees-carlo-rovelli-and-steven-weinberg-tackle-big-questions-to-mark-oxford-anniversary/#primaryimage","url":"https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/Oxford-Bodleian-Library-9067522-Shutterstock.jpg","contentUrl":"https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/Oxford-Bodleian-Library-9067522-Shutterstock.jpg","width":1200,"height":815,"caption":"The St Cross Centre for the History and Philosophy of Physics at Oxford University was founded in 2014. (Courtesy: Shutterstock)"},{"@type":"BreadcrumbList","@id":"https://physicsworld.com/martin-rees-carlo-rovelli-and-steven-weinberg-tackle-big-questions-to-mark-oxford-anniversary/#breadcrumb","itemListElement":[{"@type":"ListItem","position":1,"name":"Home","item":"https://physicsworld.com/"},{"@type":"ListItem","position":2,"name":"Martin Rees, Carlo Rovelli and Steven Weinberg tackle big questions to mark Oxford anniversary"}]},{"@type":"WebSite","@id":"https://physicsworld.com/#website","url":"https://physicsworld.com/","name":"Physics World","description":"","potentialAction":[{"@type":"SearchAction","target":{"@type":"EntryPoint","urlTemplate":"https://physicsworld.com/?s={search_term_string}"},"query-input":{"@type":"PropertyValueSpecification","valueRequired":true,"valueName":"search_term_string"}}],"inLanguage":"en-GB"},{"@type":"Person","@id":"https://physicsworld.com/#/schema/person/b18b4a35db3bfcd6d7495bdf9b9c0b01","name":"Michael Banks","image":{"@type":"ImageObject","inLanguage":"en-GB","@id":"https://physicsworld.com/#/schema/person/image/","url":"https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/01/michael-banks-square-96x96.jpg","contentUrl":"https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/01/michael-banks-square-96x96.jpg","caption":"Michael Banks"},"description":"I am news editor of Physics World magazine. I also contribute regularly to the website and work on the Physics World special report programme. I joined Physics World in 2008 after completing a PhD in condensed-matter physics at the Max Planck Institute for Solid State Research in Stuttgart, Germany. I mostly cover the development of physics facilities around the world. Outside work, over the past couple of years I have become particularly adept at changing nappies.","url":"https://physicsworld.com/author/michael-banks/"}]}</script> <!-- / Yoast SEO plugin. --> <meta name="oas:article-type" content="blog" /> <meta name="oas:category" content="culture-history-society" /> <meta name="oas:article-topic" content="culture-history-society" /> <meta name="oas:article-id" content="118318" /><link rel='dns-prefetch' href='//cdn.jsdelivr.net' /> <link rel='dns-prefetch' href='//players.brightcove.net' /> <link rel='stylesheet' id='wp-block-library-css' href='https://physicsworld.com/wp-includes/css/dist/block-library/style.min.css?ver=6.6.1' type='text/css' media='all' /> <style id='safe-svg-svg-icon-style-inline-css' type='text/css'> .safe-svg-cover{text-align:center}.safe-svg-cover .safe-svg-inside{display:inline-block;max-width:100%}.safe-svg-cover svg{height:100%;max-height:100%;max-width:100%;width:100%} </style> <style id='powerpress-player-block-style-inline-css' type='text/css'> </style> <style id='classic-theme-styles-inline-css' type='text/css'> /*! This file is auto-generated */ .wp-block-button__link{color:#fff;background-color:#32373c;border-radius:9999px;box-shadow:none;text-decoration:none;padding:calc(.667em + 2px) calc(1.333em + 2px);font-size:1.125em}.wp-block-file__button{background:#32373c;color:#fff;text-decoration:none} </style> <style id='global-styles-inline-css' type='text/css'> :root{--wp--preset--aspect-ratio--square: 1;--wp--preset--aspect-ratio--4-3: 4/3;--wp--preset--aspect-ratio--3-4: 3/4;--wp--preset--aspect-ratio--3-2: 3/2;--wp--preset--aspect-ratio--2-3: 2/3;--wp--preset--aspect-ratio--16-9: 16/9;--wp--preset--aspect-ratio--9-16: 9/16;--wp--preset--color--black: #000000;--wp--preset--color--cyan-bluish-gray: #abb8c3;--wp--preset--color--white: #ffffff;--wp--preset--color--pale-pink: #f78da7;--wp--preset--color--vivid-red: #cf2e2e;--wp--preset--color--luminous-vivid-orange: #ff6900;--wp--preset--color--luminous-vivid-amber: #fcb900;--wp--preset--color--light-green-cyan: #7bdcb5;--wp--preset--color--vivid-green-cyan: #00d084;--wp--preset--color--pale-cyan-blue: #8ed1fc;--wp--preset--color--vivid-cyan-blue: #0693e3;--wp--preset--color--vivid-purple: #9b51e0;--wp--preset--gradient--vivid-cyan-blue-to-vivid-purple: linear-gradient(135deg,rgba(6,147,227,1) 0%,rgb(155,81,224) 100%);--wp--preset--gradient--light-green-cyan-to-vivid-green-cyan: linear-gradient(135deg,rgb(122,220,180) 0%,rgb(0,208,130) 100%);--wp--preset--gradient--luminous-vivid-amber-to-luminous-vivid-orange: linear-gradient(135deg,rgba(252,185,0,1) 0%,rgba(255,105,0,1) 100%);--wp--preset--gradient--luminous-vivid-orange-to-vivid-red: linear-gradient(135deg,rgba(255,105,0,1) 0%,rgb(207,46,46) 100%);--wp--preset--gradient--very-light-gray-to-cyan-bluish-gray: linear-gradient(135deg,rgb(238,238,238) 0%,rgb(169,184,195) 100%);--wp--preset--gradient--cool-to-warm-spectrum: linear-gradient(135deg,rgb(74,234,220) 0%,rgb(151,120,209) 20%,rgb(207,42,186) 40%,rgb(238,44,130) 60%,rgb(251,105,98) 80%,rgb(254,248,76) 100%);--wp--preset--gradient--blush-light-purple: linear-gradient(135deg,rgb(255,206,236) 0%,rgb(152,150,240) 100%);--wp--preset--gradient--blush-bordeaux: linear-gradient(135deg,rgb(254,205,165) 0%,rgb(254,45,45) 50%,rgb(107,0,62) 100%);--wp--preset--gradient--luminous-dusk: linear-gradient(135deg,rgb(255,203,112) 0%,rgb(199,81,192) 50%,rgb(65,88,208) 100%);--wp--preset--gradient--pale-ocean: linear-gradient(135deg,rgb(255,245,203) 0%,rgb(182,227,212) 50%,rgb(51,167,181) 100%);--wp--preset--gradient--electric-grass: linear-gradient(135deg,rgb(202,248,128) 0%,rgb(113,206,126) 100%);--wp--preset--gradient--midnight: linear-gradient(135deg,rgb(2,3,129) 0%,rgb(40,116,252) 100%);--wp--preset--font-size--small: 13px;--wp--preset--font-size--medium: 20px;--wp--preset--font-size--large: 36px;--wp--preset--font-size--x-large: 42px;--wp--preset--spacing--20: 0.44rem;--wp--preset--spacing--30: 0.67rem;--wp--preset--spacing--40: 1rem;--wp--preset--spacing--50: 1.5rem;--wp--preset--spacing--60: 2.25rem;--wp--preset--spacing--70: 3.38rem;--wp--preset--spacing--80: 5.06rem;--wp--preset--shadow--natural: 6px 6px 9px rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.2);--wp--preset--shadow--deep: 12px 12px 50px rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.4);--wp--preset--shadow--sharp: 6px 6px 0px rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.2);--wp--preset--shadow--outlined: 6px 6px 0px -3px rgba(255, 255, 255, 1), 6px 6px rgba(0, 0, 0, 1);--wp--preset--shadow--crisp: 6px 6px 0px rgba(0, 0, 0, 1);}:where(.is-layout-flex){gap: 0.5em;}:where(.is-layout-grid){gap: 0.5em;}body .is-layout-flex{display: flex;}.is-layout-flex{flex-wrap: wrap;align-items: center;}.is-layout-flex > :is(*, div){margin: 0;}body .is-layout-grid{display: grid;}.is-layout-grid > :is(*, div){margin: 0;}:where(.wp-block-columns.is-layout-flex){gap: 2em;}:where(.wp-block-columns.is-layout-grid){gap: 2em;}:where(.wp-block-post-template.is-layout-flex){gap: 1.25em;}:where(.wp-block-post-template.is-layout-grid){gap: 1.25em;}.has-black-color{color: var(--wp--preset--color--black) !important;}.has-cyan-bluish-gray-color{color: var(--wp--preset--color--cyan-bluish-gray) !important;}.has-white-color{color: var(--wp--preset--color--white) !important;}.has-pale-pink-color{color: var(--wp--preset--color--pale-pink) !important;}.has-vivid-red-color{color: var(--wp--preset--color--vivid-red) !important;}.has-luminous-vivid-orange-color{color: var(--wp--preset--color--luminous-vivid-orange) !important;}.has-luminous-vivid-amber-color{color: var(--wp--preset--color--luminous-vivid-amber) !important;}.has-light-green-cyan-color{color: var(--wp--preset--color--light-green-cyan) !important;}.has-vivid-green-cyan-color{color: var(--wp--preset--color--vivid-green-cyan) !important;}.has-pale-cyan-blue-color{color: var(--wp--preset--color--pale-cyan-blue) !important;}.has-vivid-cyan-blue-color{color: var(--wp--preset--color--vivid-cyan-blue) !important;}.has-vivid-purple-color{color: var(--wp--preset--color--vivid-purple) !important;}.has-black-background-color{background-color: var(--wp--preset--color--black) !important;}.has-cyan-bluish-gray-background-color{background-color: var(--wp--preset--color--cyan-bluish-gray) !important;}.has-white-background-color{background-color: var(--wp--preset--color--white) !important;}.has-pale-pink-background-color{background-color: var(--wp--preset--color--pale-pink) !important;}.has-vivid-red-background-color{background-color: var(--wp--preset--color--vivid-red) !important;}.has-luminous-vivid-orange-background-color{background-color: var(--wp--preset--color--luminous-vivid-orange) !important;}.has-luminous-vivid-amber-background-color{background-color: var(--wp--preset--color--luminous-vivid-amber) !important;}.has-light-green-cyan-background-color{background-color: var(--wp--preset--color--light-green-cyan) !important;}.has-vivid-green-cyan-background-color{background-color: var(--wp--preset--color--vivid-green-cyan) !important;}.has-pale-cyan-blue-background-color{background-color: var(--wp--preset--color--pale-cyan-blue) !important;}.has-vivid-cyan-blue-background-color{background-color: var(--wp--preset--color--vivid-cyan-blue) !important;}.has-vivid-purple-background-color{background-color: var(--wp--preset--color--vivid-purple) !important;}.has-black-border-color{border-color: var(--wp--preset--color--black) !important;}.has-cyan-bluish-gray-border-color{border-color: var(--wp--preset--color--cyan-bluish-gray) !important;}.has-white-border-color{border-color: var(--wp--preset--color--white) !important;}.has-pale-pink-border-color{border-color: var(--wp--preset--color--pale-pink) !important;}.has-vivid-red-border-color{border-color: var(--wp--preset--color--vivid-red) !important;}.has-luminous-vivid-orange-border-color{border-color: var(--wp--preset--color--luminous-vivid-orange) !important;}.has-luminous-vivid-amber-border-color{border-color: var(--wp--preset--color--luminous-vivid-amber) !important;}.has-light-green-cyan-border-color{border-color: var(--wp--preset--color--light-green-cyan) !important;}.has-vivid-green-cyan-border-color{border-color: var(--wp--preset--color--vivid-green-cyan) !important;}.has-pale-cyan-blue-border-color{border-color: var(--wp--preset--color--pale-cyan-blue) !important;}.has-vivid-cyan-blue-border-color{border-color: var(--wp--preset--color--vivid-cyan-blue) !important;}.has-vivid-purple-border-color{border-color: var(--wp--preset--color--vivid-purple) !important;}.has-vivid-cyan-blue-to-vivid-purple-gradient-background{background: var(--wp--preset--gradient--vivid-cyan-blue-to-vivid-purple) !important;}.has-light-green-cyan-to-vivid-green-cyan-gradient-background{background: var(--wp--preset--gradient--light-green-cyan-to-vivid-green-cyan) !important;}.has-luminous-vivid-amber-to-luminous-vivid-orange-gradient-background{background: var(--wp--preset--gradient--luminous-vivid-amber-to-luminous-vivid-orange) !important;}.has-luminous-vivid-orange-to-vivid-red-gradient-background{background: var(--wp--preset--gradient--luminous-vivid-orange-to-vivid-red) !important;}.has-very-light-gray-to-cyan-bluish-gray-gradient-background{background: var(--wp--preset--gradient--very-light-gray-to-cyan-bluish-gray) !important;}.has-cool-to-warm-spectrum-gradient-background{background: var(--wp--preset--gradient--cool-to-warm-spectrum) !important;}.has-blush-light-purple-gradient-background{background: var(--wp--preset--gradient--blush-light-purple) !important;}.has-blush-bordeaux-gradient-background{background: var(--wp--preset--gradient--blush-bordeaux) !important;}.has-luminous-dusk-gradient-background{background: var(--wp--preset--gradient--luminous-dusk) !important;}.has-pale-ocean-gradient-background{background: var(--wp--preset--gradient--pale-ocean) !important;}.has-electric-grass-gradient-background{background: var(--wp--preset--gradient--electric-grass) !important;}.has-midnight-gradient-background{background: var(--wp--preset--gradient--midnight) !important;}.has-small-font-size{font-size: var(--wp--preset--font-size--small) !important;}.has-medium-font-size{font-size: var(--wp--preset--font-size--medium) !important;}.has-large-font-size{font-size: var(--wp--preset--font-size--large) !important;}.has-x-large-font-size{font-size: var(--wp--preset--font-size--x-large) !important;} :where(.wp-block-post-template.is-layout-flex){gap: 1.25em;}:where(.wp-block-post-template.is-layout-grid){gap: 1.25em;} :where(.wp-block-columns.is-layout-flex){gap: 2em;}:where(.wp-block-columns.is-layout-grid){gap: 2em;} :root :where(.wp-block-pullquote){font-size: 1.5em;line-height: 1.6;} </style> <link rel='stylesheet' id='nine3-style-css' href='https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/themes/iopp/dist/css/main.d85b8b6e29494c1a81f4c002bb8e1b11.css?ver=6.6.1' type='text/css' media='all' /> <link rel='stylesheet' id='brightcove-pip-css-css' href='https://players.brightcove.net/videojs-pip/1/videojs-pip.css?ver=2.8.7' type='text/css' media='all' /> <link rel='stylesheet' id='brightcove-playlist-css' href='https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/plugins/brightcove-video-connect/assets/css/brightcove_playlist.min.css?ver=2.8.7' type='text/css' media='all' /> <script src="https://physicsworld.com/wp-includes/js/jquery/jquery.min.js?ver=3.7.1" id="jquery-core-js"></script> <script src="https://physicsworld.com/wp-includes/js/jquery/jquery-migrate.min.js?ver=3.4.1" id="jquery-migrate-js"></script> <script id="real3d-flipbook-forntend-js-extra"> var rootFolder = ["https:\/\/physicsworld.com\/wp-content\/plugins\/real3d-flipbook\/"]; </script> <script src="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/plugins/real3d-flipbook/js/frontend.js?ver=3.61" id="real3d-flipbook-forntend-js"></script> <link rel="https://api.w.org/" href="https://physicsworld.com/wp-json/" /><link rel="alternate" title="JSON" type="application/json" href="https://physicsworld.com/wp-json/wp/v2/posts/118318" /><link rel="EditURI" type="application/rsd+xml" title="RSD" href="https://physicsworld.com/xmlrpc.php?rsd" /> <link rel='shortlink' href='https://physicsworld.com/?p=118318' /> <link rel="alternate" title="oEmbed (JSON)" type="application/json+oembed" href="https://physicsworld.com/wp-json/oembed/1.0/embed?url=https%3A%2F%2Fphysicsworld.com%2Fa%2Fmartin-rees-carlo-rovelli-and-steven-weinberg-tackle-big-questions-to-mark-oxford-anniversary%2F" /> <link rel="alternate" title="oEmbed (XML)" type="text/xml+oembed" href="https://physicsworld.com/wp-json/oembed/1.0/embed?url=https%3A%2F%2Fphysicsworld.com%2Fa%2Fmartin-rees-carlo-rovelli-and-steven-weinberg-tackle-big-questions-to-mark-oxford-anniversary%2F&format=xml" /> <script id="dzsap-main-settings" type="application/json">{"dzsap_site_url":"https:\/\/physicsworld.com\/","pluginurl":"https:\/\/physicsworld.com\/wp-content\/plugins\/dzs-zoomsounds\/audioplayer\/","dzsap_curr_user":0,"version":"6.50","ajax_url":"https:\/\/physicsworld.com\/wp-admin\/admin-ajax.php","action_received_time_total":"send_total_time"}</script> <script type="text/javascript"><!-- function powerpress_pinw(pinw_url){window.open(pinw_url, 'PowerPressPlayer','toolbar=0,status=0,resizable=1,width=460,height=320'); return false;} //--> </script> <!-- Stream WordPress user activity plugin v4.0.2 --> <meta name="onesignal" content="wordpress-plugin"/> <script> window.OneSignal = window.OneSignal || []; OneSignal.push( function() { OneSignal.SERVICE_WORKER_UPDATER_PATH = "OneSignalSDKUpdaterWorker.js.php"; OneSignal.SERVICE_WORKER_PATH = "OneSignalSDKWorker.js.php"; OneSignal.SERVICE_WORKER_PARAM = { scope: "/" }; OneSignal.setDefaultNotificationUrl("https://physicsworld.com"); var oneSignal_options = {}; window._oneSignalInitOptions = oneSignal_options; oneSignal_options['wordpress'] = true; oneSignal_options['appId'] = '7322d010-59eb-4b97-8b58-47d4ecec27f1'; oneSignal_options['allowLocalhostAsSecureOrigin'] = true; oneSignal_options['welcomeNotification'] = { }; oneSignal_options['welcomeNotification']['title'] = "Physics World"; oneSignal_options['welcomeNotification']['message'] = ""; oneSignal_options['path'] = "https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/plugins/onesignal-free-web-push-notifications/sdk_files/"; oneSignal_options['promptOptions'] = { }; oneSignal_options['notifyButton'] = { }; oneSignal_options['notifyButton']['enable'] = true; oneSignal_options['notifyButton']['position'] = 'bottom-right'; oneSignal_options['notifyButton']['theme'] = 'default'; oneSignal_options['notifyButton']['size'] = 'medium'; oneSignal_options['notifyButton']['showCredit'] = true; oneSignal_options['notifyButton']['text'] = {}; OneSignal.init(window._oneSignalInitOptions); OneSignal.showSlidedownPrompt(); }); function documentInitOneSignal() { var oneSignal_elements = document.getElementsByClassName("OneSignal-prompt"); var oneSignalLinkClickHandler = function(event) { OneSignal.push(['registerForPushNotifications']); event.preventDefault(); }; for(var i = 0; i < oneSignal_elements.length; i++) oneSignal_elements[i].addEventListener('click', oneSignalLinkClickHandler, false); } if (document.readyState === 'complete') { documentInitOneSignal(); } else { window.addEventListener("load", function(event){ documentInitOneSignal(); }); } </script> <!-- Hotjar Tracking Code for physicsworld.com --> <script> (function(h,o,t,j,a,r){ h.hj=h.hj||function(){(h.hj.q=h.hj.q||[]).push(arguments)}; h._hjSettings={hjid:788234,hjsv:6}; a=o.getElementsByTagName('head')[0]; r=o.createElement('script');r.async=1; r.src=t+h._hjSettings.hjid+j+h._hjSettings.hjsv; a.appendChild(r); })(window,document,'https://static.hotjar.com/c/hotjar-','.js?sv='); /* Hotjar user attributes */ window.hj( 'identify', null, { Language: window.navigator.language, }); </script> <script async src="https://securepubads.g.doubleclick.net/tag/js/gpt.js"></script> <script> "use strict"; /** * Returns the OpenGraph type of this page (as set by Yoast) * * Cannot use `getMetaContent` for this as it uses the "property" attribute * instead of the expected "name". * * @return {string} OpenGraph type */ function getOgType() { let og_type = document.querySelector('meta[property="og:type"]'); return ( og_type && og_type.content ? og_type.content : '' ); } /** * Returns the content attribute of the named <meta> tag * * @param {string} name - Meta name * @return {string} Meta content */ function getMetaContent( name ) { let element = document.querySelector('meta[name="' + name + '"]'); return element ? element.content : ''; } /** * Defines a GA slot only if the slot actually exists * * @param {string} ref - Slot reference * @param {Array} dimensions - Target dimensions * @param {string} slot_id - Element ID * @param {PubAdsService} service - Service to bind to */ function defineIfSlot(ref, dimensions, slot_id, service) { const element = document.getElementById(slot_id); // No ad slot if (!element) return; return googletag.defineSlot(ref, dimensions, slot_id).addService(service); } window.googletag = ( window.googletag || { cmd: [] } ); googletag.cmd.push( function() { const pubads = googletag.pubads(); // Conditionally define slots only if the element actually exists defineIfSlot('/21821800277/pw/pw_r2_ap', [300, 250], 'div-gpt-ad-1567436410454-0', pubads); defineIfSlot('/21821800277/pw/pw_m_ap', [[300,250]], 'div-gpt-ad-3759129-1', pubads); defineIfSlot('/21821800277/pw/pw_x01_gs', [[160,60]], 'div-gpt-ad-3759129-2', pubads); defineIfSlot('/21821800277/pw/pw_x02_gs', [[160,60]], 'div-gpt-ad-3759129-3', pubads); defineIfSlot('/21821800277/pw/pw_x03_gs', [[160,60]], 'div-gpt-ad-3759129-4', pubads); defineIfSlot('/21821800277/pw/pw_x04_gs', [[160,60]], 'div-gpt-ad-3759129-5', pubads); defineIfSlot('/21821800277/pw/pw_x05_gs', [[160,60]], 'div-gpt-ad-3759129-6', pubads); defineIfSlot('/21821800277/pw/pw_x06_gs', [[160,60]], 'div-gpt-ad-3759129-7', pubads); defineIfSlot('/21821800277/pw/pw_r_ap', [300, 250], 'div-gpt-ad-1563268425067-0', pubads); defineIfSlot('/21821800277/pw/pw_r1_ap', [[300,250]], 'div-gpt-ad-3759129-11', pubads); defineIfSlot('/21821800277/pw/pw_x10_ss', [[160,60]], 'div-gpt-ad-3759129-12', pubads); defineIfSlot('/21821800277/pw/pw_x11_ss', [[160,60]], 'div-gpt-ad-3759129-13', pubads); defineIfSlot('/21821800277/pw/pw_x12_ss', [[160,60]], 'div-gpt-ad-3759129-14', pubads); defineIfSlot('/21821800277/pw/pw_x13_ss', [[160,60]], 'div-gpt-ad-3759129-15', pubads); defineIfSlot('/21821800277/pw/pw_x14_ss', [160, 60], 'div-gpt-ad-1563269243507-0', pubads); defineIfSlot('/21821800277/pw/pw_x15_ss', [[160,60]], 'div-gpt-ad-3759129-17', pubads); const leaderboard = googletag.sizeMapping() .addSize([970, 0], [[970, 90], [728, 90]]) // Larger screen ads .addSize([768, 0], [[728, 90]]) // Smaller (laptop) screen ads .addSize([0, 0], [[300, 250], [320, 50]]) // Mobile screen ads .build(); // Homepage & listing ads const t_1 = defineIfSlot('/21821800277/pw/pw_t_hp', [[970,90],[728,90],[729,90],[300,250],[320,50]], 'div-gpt-ad-3759129-18', pubads); const t_2 = defineIfSlot('/21821800277/pw/pw_t1_hp', [[970,90],[728,90],[729,90],[300,250],[320,50]], 'div-gpt-ad-3759129-19', pubads); const t_3 = defineIfSlot('/21821800277/pw/pw_t2_hp', [[970,90],[728,90],[729,90],[300,250],[320,50]], 'div-gpt-ad-3759129-20', pubads); // Only map if they actually exist t_1 && t_1.defineSizeMapping(leaderboard); t_2 && t_2.defineSizeMapping(leaderboard); t_3 && t_3.defineSizeMapping(leaderboard); // Search results const headerSize = googletag.sizeMapping() .addSize([970, 0], [[970, 90]]) .addSize([0, 0], [[320, 50]]) .build() // Header ad (always appears) googletag.defineSlot('/21821800277/pw/pw_h_sw', [[970,90], [320, 50]], 'div-gpt-ad-5400963-20').defineSizeMapping(headerSize).addService(pubads); // Only apply targeting if values exist const article_og = getOgType(); if ( article_og ) { pubads.setTargeting( "articleTag", article_og ); } const article_type = getMetaContent( "oas:article-type" ); if ( article_type ) { pubads.setTargeting( "articleType", article_type ); } const article_category = getMetaContent( "oas:category" ); if ( article_category ) { pubads.setTargeting( "category", article_category ); } const article_sub = getMetaContent( "oas:sub-category" ); if ( article_sub ) { pubads.setTargeting( "subCategory", article_sub ); } pubads.setTargeting( "articleId", "118318" ); // Add class to body if ads are visible pubads.addEventListener( "impressionViewable", function () { document.body.classList.add("has-ads"); }); pubads.enableSingleRequest(); pubads.collapseEmptyDivs(); // Start! googletag.enableServices(); }); </script> <!-- <style> div.advert::after { content:'Advertisement'; display:block; text-align: left; font-size:12px; color: #9B9B9B; } </style> --> </head> <body class="post-template-default single single-post postid-118318 single-format-standard category-culture-history-society not-logged-in"> <a class="sr-only" href="#main-content">Skip to main content</a> <!-- Google Tag Manager (noscript) --> <noscript aria-hidden="true"> <iframe src="https://www.googletagmanager.com/ns.html?id=GTM-TQRT9K38" height="0" width="0" style="display:none;visibility:hidden" > </iframe> </noscript> <!-- End Google Tag Manager (noscript) --> <header class="physics-world-nav"> <span class="mpu align-none" aria-hidden="true"> <div id='div-gpt-ad-5400963-20' class="advert"> <!-- remove class advert__fallback 14/03/24 as requested by Alison --> <script> googletag.cmd.push(function() { googletag.display('div-gpt-ad-5400963-20'); }); </script> </div> </span> <div class="top-bar"> <div class="top-bar__left"> <a href="https://ioppublishing.org/" class="top-bar__logo" target="_blank" rel="noopener"> <img src="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/themes/iopp/static/img/iop-publishing-logo-white.png" width="198" height="31" alt="" /> <span class="sr-only">IOP Publishing site</span> </a> </div> <button class="top-bar__menu--mobile"> Menu </button> <div class="top-bar__right"> <div class="top-bar__user"> <ul class="top-bar__links"> <li><button class="sign-in-btn"><span class="top-bar__icon"></span>Sign in</button></li> <li><button class="register-btn">Register</button></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <div class="physics-world-nav__wrapper"> <div class="physics-world-nav__left"> <a href="https://physicsworld.com" class="physics-world-nav__logo"> <span class="sr-only">Back to homepage</span> <img src="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/themes/iopp/static/img/svg/logo-culture-history-society.svg" alt="" width="217" height="40" /> </a> </div> <div class="physics-world-nav__right"> <nav class="nav-items__wrapper"> <button class="physics-world-nav__dropdown">Topics</button> <div class="topic-dropdown" aria-expanded="false"> <div class="wrapper"> <div class="topic-content-container"> <div><img width="798" height="449" src="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/KR-centred-abstract-torus-of-lights-1024x576.jpg" class="attachment-large size-large" alt="" decoding="async" fetchpriority="high" srcset="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/KR-centred-abstract-torus-of-lights-1024x576.jpg 1024w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/KR-centred-abstract-torus-of-lights-211x119.jpg 211w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/KR-centred-abstract-torus-of-lights-317x178.jpg 317w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/KR-centred-abstract-torus-of-lights-768x432.jpg 768w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/KR-centred-abstract-torus-of-lights-711x400.jpg 711w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/KR-centred-abstract-torus-of-lights-732x412.jpg 732w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/KR-centred-abstract-torus-of-lights-720x405.jpg 720w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/KR-centred-abstract-torus-of-lights-635x357.jpg 635w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/KR-centred-abstract-torus-of-lights-350x197.jpg 350w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/KR-centred-abstract-torus-of-lights-257x145.jpg 257w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/KR-centred-abstract-torus-of-lights-300x169.jpg 300w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/KR-centred-abstract-torus-of-lights-160x90.jpg 160w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/KR-centred-abstract-torus-of-lights-128x72.jpg 128w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/KR-centred-abstract-torus-of-lights.jpg 1200w" sizes="(max-width: 798px) 100vw, 798px" /><h2>Browse articles by topic</h2></div> <ul class="topic-dropdown__list"> <li> <a href="https://physicsworld.com/c/astronomy-space/"> <span class="topic-dropdown__icon" style="background-color:;"> <img src="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/08/Astronomy_and_space_164193.svg" alt="" loading="lazy" /> </span> <span class="topic-dropdown__title">Astronomy and space</span> </a> </li> <li> <a href="https://physicsworld.com/c/atomic-molecular/"> <span class="topic-dropdown__icon" style="background-color:;"> <img src="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/08/Atomic_and_molecular__774E92.svg" alt="" loading="lazy" /> </span> <span class="topic-dropdown__title">Atomic and molecular</span> </a> </li> <li> <a href="https://physicsworld.com/c/biophysics-bioengineering/"> <span class="topic-dropdown__icon" style="background-color:;"> <img src="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/08/Biophysics_and_bioengineering__05958E-1.svg" alt="" loading="lazy" /> </span> <span class="topic-dropdown__title">Biophysics and bioengineering</span> </a> </li> <li> <a href="https://physicsworld.com/c/condensed-matter/"> <span class="topic-dropdown__icon" style="background-color:;"> <img src="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/08/Condensed_matter__774E92.svg" alt="" loading="lazy" /> </span> <span class="topic-dropdown__title">Condensed matter</span> </a> </li> <li> <a href="https://physicsworld.com/c/culture-history-society/"> <span class="topic-dropdown__icon" style="background-color:;"> <img src="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/03/Culture.svg" alt="" loading="lazy" /> </span> <span class="topic-dropdown__title">Culture, history and society</span> </a> </li> <li> <a href="https://physicsworld.com/c/environment-energy/"> <span class="topic-dropdown__icon" style="background-color:;"> <img src="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/08/Environment_and_energy__85AD21-1.svg" alt="" loading="lazy" /> </span> <span class="topic-dropdown__title">Environment and energy</span> </a> </li> <li> <a href="https://physicsworld.com/c/instrumentation-measurement/"> <span class="topic-dropdown__icon" style="background-color:;"> <img src="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/08/Instrumentation_and_measurement__9D9D9C.svg" alt="" loading="lazy" /> </span> <span class="topic-dropdown__title">Instrumentation and measurement</span> </a> </li> <li> <a href="https://physicsworld.com/c/materials/"> <span class="topic-dropdown__icon" style="background-color:;"> <img src="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/08/Materials__0085C8.svg" alt="" loading="lazy" /> </span> <span class="topic-dropdown__title">Materials</span> </a> </li> <li> <a href="https://physicsworld.com/c/mathematics-computation/"> <span class="topic-dropdown__icon" style="background-color:;"> <img src="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/08/Mathematics_and_computation__EC660F.svg" alt="" loading="lazy" /> </span> <span class="topic-dropdown__title">Mathematics and computation</span> </a> </li> <li> <a href="https://physicsworld.com/c/medical-physics/"> <span class="topic-dropdown__icon" style="background-color:;"> <img src="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/08/Medical_physics__05958.svg" alt="" loading="lazy" /> </span> <span class="topic-dropdown__title">Medical physics</span> </a> </li> <li> <a href="https://physicsworld.com/c/optics-photonics/"> <span class="topic-dropdown__icon" style="background-color:;"> <img src="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/08/Optics_and_photonics__774E92.svg" alt="" loading="lazy" /> </span> <span class="topic-dropdown__title">Optics and photonics</span> </a> </li> <li> <a href="https://physicsworld.com/c/particle-nuclear/"> <span class="topic-dropdown__icon" style="background-color:;"> <img src="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/08/Particle_and_nuclear__774E92.svg" alt="" loading="lazy" /> </span> <span class="topic-dropdown__title">Particle and nuclear</span> </a> </li> <li> <a href="https://physicsworld.com/c/people/"> <span class="topic-dropdown__icon" style="background-color:;"> <img src="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/10/People-icon-purple.svg" alt="" loading="lazy" /> </span> <span class="topic-dropdown__title">People</span> </a> </li> <li> <a href="https://physicsworld.com/c/quantum/"> <span class="topic-dropdown__icon" style="background-color:;"> <img src="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/08/Quantum__774E92.svg" alt="" loading="lazy" /> </span> <span class="topic-dropdown__title">Quantum</span> </a> </li> <li> <a href="https://physicsworld.com/c/scientific-enterprise/"> <span class="topic-dropdown__icon" style="background-color:;"> <img src="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/03/Enterprise-cogs.svg" alt="" loading="lazy" /> </span> <span class="topic-dropdown__title">Scientific enterprise</span> </a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> <!-- <button class="topic-dropdown__view-more"> <span>View more</span> </button> --> </div> <div class='primary-nav'><ul class='menu'><li class='menu-item-has-children'><button class='menu-item-button' aria-expanded='false'>Latest content</button><ul class='sub-menu'><li class='menu-item__featured-content'><div><img width="798" height="394" src="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/big-data-concept-2055335264-shutterstock_greenbutterfly-WEB-1024x506.jpg" class="attachment-large size-large" alt="" decoding="async" srcset="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/big-data-concept-2055335264-shutterstock_greenbutterfly-WEB-1024x506.jpg 1024w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/big-data-concept-2055335264-shutterstock_greenbutterfly-WEB-211x104.jpg 211w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/big-data-concept-2055335264-shutterstock_greenbutterfly-WEB-317x157.jpg 317w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/big-data-concept-2055335264-shutterstock_greenbutterfly-WEB-768x380.jpg 768w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/big-data-concept-2055335264-shutterstock_greenbutterfly-WEB-809x400.jpg 809w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/big-data-concept-2055335264-shutterstock_greenbutterfly-WEB-732x362.jpg 732w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/big-data-concept-2055335264-shutterstock_greenbutterfly-WEB-720x356.jpg 720w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/big-data-concept-2055335264-shutterstock_greenbutterfly-WEB-635x314.jpg 635w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/big-data-concept-2055335264-shutterstock_greenbutterfly-WEB-350x173.jpg 350w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/big-data-concept-2055335264-shutterstock_greenbutterfly-WEB-257x127.jpg 257w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/big-data-concept-2055335264-shutterstock_greenbutterfly-WEB-300x148.jpg 300w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/big-data-concept-2055335264-shutterstock_greenbutterfly-WEB-160x79.jpg 160w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/big-data-concept-2055335264-shutterstock_greenbutterfly-WEB-128x63.jpg 128w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/big-data-concept-2055335264-shutterstock_greenbutterfly-WEB.jpg 1200w" sizes="(max-width: 798px) 100vw, 798px" /><h2>Browse articles by content type</h2></div></li><li><h2>Short reads</h2><ul class='sub-menu'><li><a href='https://physicsworld.com/l/research-updates/'>Research updates</a></li><li><a href='https://physicsworld.com/l/news/'>News</a></li><li><a href='https://physicsworld.com/l/blog/'>Blog</a></li><li><a href='https://physicsworld.com/l/innovation-showcases/'>Innovation showcases</a></li><li><a href='https://physicsworld.com/events/'>Events</a></li></ul></li><li><h2>Long reads</h2><ul class='sub-menu'><li><a href='https://physicsworld.com/l/features/'>Features</a></li><li><a href='https://physicsworld.com/l/opinion-reviews/'>Opinion and reviews</a></li><li><a href='https://physicsworld.com/l/interviews/'>Interviews</a></li><li><a href='https://physicsworld.com/l/analysis/'>Analysis</a></li></ul></li><li><h2>Multimedia</h2><ul class='sub-menu'><li><a href='https://physicsworld.com/l/audio/'>Podcasts</a></li><li><a href='https://physicsworld.com/l/videos/'>Video</a></li><li><a href='https://physicsworld.com/l/webinars/'>Webinars</a></li></ul></li></ul></li><li class=''><a href='https://physicsworld.com/p/magazine/archive/'>Magazine</a></li><li class=''><a href='https://physicsworld.com/p/physics-world-live/'>Physics World Live</a></li></ul></div> <a href="https://www.physicsworldjobs.com" target="_blank" class="nav__link-img link-img--pw-jobs"> <span class='screen-reader-text'>IOP Physics World Jobs logo</span> <svg width="121" height="18" fill="none" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g clip-path="url(#a)"><path fill-rule="evenodd" clip-rule="evenodd" d="M84.433 9.612V7.308c0-.324-.105-.792-.281-1.08-.352-.864-1.02-1.44-1.97-1.44-1.971 0-2.183 2.52-2.183 4.032 0 1.584.176 4.176 2.288 4.176.492 0 .915-.144 1.302-.468.844-.72.844-1.836.844-2.916Zm1.478 4.428h-1.337V12.6c-.598 1.116-1.443 1.656-2.71 1.656-2.815 0-3.554-2.88-3.554-5.256 0-2.34.775-5.508 3.59-5.508 1.196 0 2.006.504 2.533 1.62V.9h1.478v13.14Z" fill="#9460A4"/><path d="M8.879 8.783c0-2.124-.563-5.22-3.237-5.22-1.197 0-1.725.72-2.288 1.692V3.707H.75V17.53h2.78v-4.248c.528.613 1.091.937 1.936.937 2.815-.037 3.413-3.133 3.413-5.436Zm-2.92-.072c0 .755.034 2.34-.388 2.987-.211.36-.457.468-.88.468-1.302 0-1.196-1.296-1.196-2.268v-2.52c0-.864.211-1.907 1.267-1.907 1.302 0 1.196 2.196 1.196 3.095v.144ZM17.29 14.04V7.164c0-1.908-.211-3.672-2.534-3.672-1.126 0-1.83.324-2.463 1.296V.9H9.478v13.14h2.815V7.488c0-.936.105-1.728 1.196-1.728 1.056 0 .986.792.986 1.692v6.588h2.815ZM25.207 3.709H22.78l-1.302 6.3-1.372-6.3H17.29l2.885 10.152c-.317 1.116-.492 1.476-1.654 1.476a5.65 5.65 0 0 1-.81-.072v2.268c.423.108.81.18 1.197.18 2.288 0 2.71-1.62 3.273-3.492l3.026-10.512ZM32.387 10.872c0-2.016-1.408-2.592-2.992-3.168-.316-.108-.95-.324-1.267-.54-.281-.216-.422-.468-.422-.864 0-.54.352-.9.88-.9.88 0 1.232.648 1.478 1.404l2.006-.612c-.458-1.764-1.654-2.7-3.414-2.7-1.935 0-3.59 1.188-3.59 3.276 0 1.944 1.409 2.7 3.027 3.24.352.108.88.288 1.197.504.317.216.422.468.422.864 0 .684-.528.936-1.09.936-.986 0-1.408-.612-1.62-1.548l-2.217.36c.317 2.196 1.69 3.06 3.801 3.06 2.006.072 3.8-1.08 3.8-3.312ZM35.8 3.709h-2.816v10.332H35.8V3.709ZM35.8.9h-2.816v1.908H35.8V.9ZM44.527 10.188l-2.64-.18c-.035.792-.175 1.908-1.16 1.908-1.373 0-1.338-2.232-1.338-3.168 0-.972.035-3.096 1.408-3.096.95 0 1.055 1.224 1.09 1.944l2.64-.108c-.106-1.224-.211-2.052-1.091-2.952-.774-.792-1.654-1.044-2.71-1.044-3.132 0-4.187 2.52-4.187 5.364 0 2.772.914 5.4 4.047 5.4 2.568 0 3.66-1.584 3.94-4.068ZM52.34 10.872c0-2.016-1.408-2.592-2.992-3.168-.316-.108-.95-.324-1.267-.54-.281-.216-.422-.468-.422-.864 0-.54.352-.9.88-.9.88 0 1.231.648 1.478 1.404l2.006-.612c-.458-1.764-1.654-2.7-3.414-2.7-1.935 0-3.59 1.188-3.59 3.276 0 1.944 1.408 2.7 3.027 3.24.352.108.88.288 1.197.504.316.216.422.468.422.864 0 .684-.528.936-1.09.936-.986 0-1.409-.612-1.62-1.548l-2.217.36c.317 2.196 1.69 3.06 3.8 3.06 2.007.072 3.802-1.08 3.802-3.312Z" class="svg-fill-colour"/><path fill-rule="evenodd" clip-rule="evenodd" d="M63.002 3.709h-1.231l-1.83 7.848-1.865-7.848h-1.091l-1.69 7.74-1.759-7.74h-1.478l2.499 10.332h1.372l1.619-7.272 1.724 7.272h1.267l2.463-10.332ZM70.568 9c0-2.664-.739-5.58-3.87-5.58-3.062 0-3.872 2.844-3.872 5.472 0 2.628.81 5.436 3.836 5.436 3.027 0 3.906-2.7 3.906-5.328Zm-1.654-.108c0 1.476-.21 4.14-2.217 4.14-2.005 0-2.217-2.664-2.217-4.176s.247-4.14 2.217-4.14c2.006 0 2.217 2.664 2.217 4.176ZM75.495 5.184V3.456c-.106-.036-.211-.036-.352-.036-.563 0-1.055.288-1.443.612-.598.54-.809 1.08-1.09 1.836v-2.16h-1.338V14.04h1.513V8.712c0-1.584.458-3.564 2.358-3.564.07 0 .246 0 .352.036Z" fill="#9460A4"/><path d="M77.712.9h-1.513v13.14h1.513V.9Z" fill="#9460A4"/><path d="M89.395.9h-.352v15.948h.352V.9ZM92.844 16.848c-.422 0-.774-.072-1.161-.18v-1.26c.351.108.668.18 1.02.18 1.161 0 1.161-.828 1.161-1.764V3.924h1.478v9c.036 1.944 0 3.924-2.498 3.924ZM93.829 2.7V.9h1.619v1.8h-1.619ZM100.339 14.545c-3.026 0-3.836-2.808-3.836-5.436s.81-5.472 3.871-5.472c3.132 0 3.871 2.88 3.871 5.58-.035 2.592-.915 5.328-3.906 5.328Zm0-9.612c-1.97 0-2.217 2.628-2.217 4.14 0 1.512.211 4.176 2.217 4.176 1.971 0 2.217-2.664 2.217-4.14 0-1.512-.211-4.176-2.217-4.176ZM108.926 14.473c-1.372 0-1.935-.432-2.569-1.656-.14.468-.246.972-.387 1.44h-.774V.29h1.478v5.004c.633-1.008 1.337-1.584 2.569-1.584 2.815 0 3.519 2.988 3.519 5.328 0 2.628-.809 5.436-3.836 5.436Zm.035-9.468c-1.654 0-2.252 1.836-2.252 3.276v1.584c0 1.584.317 3.348 2.217 3.348 2.112 0 2.182-2.628 2.182-4.212 0-1.62-.07-3.996-2.147-3.996ZM116.739 14.544c-2.006 0-3.203-.936-3.625-2.952l1.408-.324c.281 1.332.985 1.98 2.322 1.98.986 0 2.041-.54 2.041-1.692 0-1.872-3.237-1.728-4.504-2.88a2.592 2.592 0 0 1-.845-1.908c0-1.872 1.549-3.096 3.308-3.096.915 0 1.795.324 2.428 1.008.423.468.563.972.739 1.62l-1.302.324c-.316-.972-.879-1.656-1.97-1.656-.915 0-1.725.576-1.725 1.584 0 .828.599 1.224 1.302 1.476 1.725.54 4.118 1.008 4.118 3.384-.036 2.052-1.83 3.132-3.695 3.132Z" class="svg-fill-colour"/></g><defs><clipPath id="a"><path fill="#fff" transform="translate(.75)" d="M0 0h120v18H0z"/></clipPath></defs></svg> </a> </nav> <button class="physics-world-nav__search-btn"> <i class="fa fa-search" aria-hidden="true"></i> Search<span class="sr-only">Open Search Dialog</span> </button> </div> </div> <div class="homepage-search" aria-expanded="false"> <form action="https://physicsworld.com"> <label for="input-home-search">Search by content type, topic, person, research area and more</label> <div class="homepage-search__form-container"> <input id="input-home-search" type="search" name="s" placeholder="Search..." value="" /> <button type="submit"> <i class="fa fa-search" aria-hidden="true"></i>Search<span class="sr-only">Submit search</span> </button> </div> </form> </div> <div class="other-sites"> <ul class="items"> <li> <a href="https://ioppublishing.org" target="_blank" rel="noopener"> IOP Publishing </a> </li> </ul> <ul class="top-bar__social"> <li> <a href="https://www.facebook.com/physicsworld/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer"> <i class="fa fa-facebook" aria-hidden="true"></i> <span class="sr-only">Follow us on Facebook</span> </a> </li> <li> <a href="https://twitter.com/PhysicsWorld" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer"> <i class="fa fa-twitter" aria-hidden="true"></i> <span class="sr-only">Follow us on Twitter</span> </a> </li> <li> <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/company/physics-world" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer"> <i class="fa fa-linkedin" aria-hidden="true"></i> <span class="sr-only">Follow us on LinkedIn</span> </a> </li> <li> <a href="https://www.youtube.com/PhysicsWorldTV" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer"> <i class="fa fa-youtube-play" aria-hidden="true"></i> <span class="sr-only">Watch us on Youtube</span> </a> </li> <li> <a href="https://physicsworld.com/feed" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer"> <i class="fa fa-rss" aria-hidden="true"></i> <span class="sr-only">RSS Feed</span> </a> </li> </ul> <ul class="items"> <li> <a href="https://www.physicsworldjobs.com/" target="_blank" rel="noopener"> Jobs </a> </li> </ul> </div> </header> <div class="popup sign-in"> <div class="popup__tabs"> <button class="popup__tab popup__tab--active" data-tab="0">Sign in</button> </h4> <button class="popup__tab" data-tab="1">Register</button> <i class="fa fa-times-circle btn--close popup__close"></i> </div> <div class="popup__content"> <div class="sign-in__content popup__row popup__row--active ajax_container"> <form action="#" method="POST" data-ajax="login" class="login-form ajax__content" data-dest=".sign-in__content" data-keep="1"> <div class="flex flex--rows popup__row__content"> <div class="popup__col"> <input type="hidden" name="redirect" value="https://physicsworld.com/a/martin-rees-carlo-rovelli-and-steven-weinberg-tackle-big-questions-to-mark-oxford-anniversary"> <input type="hidden" name="page" value="https://physicsworld.com/a/martin-rees-carlo-rovelli-and-steven-weinberg-tackle-big-questions-to-mark-oxford-anniversary"> <ul class="sign-in__inputs"> <li> <label for="input-signin-email">Enter e-mail address</label> <input id="input-signin-email" type="email" name="user-email" required oninvalid="this.setCustomValidity('Please enter a valid e-mail address')" oninput="this.setCustomValidity('')"/> </li> <li class="password-input"> <label for="input-signin-password">Enter password</label> <input type="password" name="user-password" id="input-signin-password" class="password-field" required oninvalid="this.setCustomValidity('Please enter a password')" oninput="this.setCustomValidity('')"/> <input type="checkbox" name="password" id="show-pw" /> <label for="show-pw" class="password-label">Show</label> </li> <li> <div> <input type="checkbox" name="remember-me" id="form-checkbox" class="form-checkbox" /> <label for="form-checkbox"><span></span>Remember me</label> </div> <div> <a href="#" class="forgot-btn">Forgot your password?</a> </div> </li> </ul> <aside class="register__benefits"> <strong>Are you an IOP member?</strong> <p>Sign into your <em>Physics World</em> account to get access to all available digital issues of the monthly magazine. Your <em>Physics World</em> account is separate to any IOP accounts you may have</p> </aside> </div> <div class="popup__col"> <div class="field__attempts"> <strong>Sign in to</strong> <ul> <li>Access more than 20 years of online content</li> <li>Manage which e-mail newsletters you want to receive</li> <li>Read about the big breakthroughs and innovations across 13 scientific topics</li> <li>Explore the key issues and trends within the global scientific community</li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <div class="popup__actions"> <input type="submit" value="Sign in" class="btn btn--green" /> </div> </form> </div> <div class="register__form popup__row"> <form action="/" class="form-register ajax__content " method="POST" data-ajax="register" data-dest=".register__form" data-keep="1"> <div class="flex flex--rows popup__row__content"> <ul class="register__email gutter "> <li class="col-xs-12 col-sm-6"> <label for="input-register-email">Enter e-mail address</label> <input id="input-register-email" type="email" name="user-email" required oninvalid="this.setCustomValidity('Please enter a valid e-mail address')" oninput="this.setCustomValidity('')"/> <div class="tooltip"> <span class="fa fa-question-circle"></span> <span class="tooltip__content">This e-mail address will be used to create your account</span> </div> <aside class="register__benefits"> <strong>Are you an IOP member?</strong> <p>Create a <em>Physics World</em> account to get access to all available digital issues of the monthly magazine. Your <em>Physics World</em> account is separate to any IOP accounts you may have.</p> <p><strong>Note:</strong> The verification e-mail to complete your account registration should arrive immediately. However, in some cases it takes longer. Don't forget to check your spam folder.</p> <p>If you haven't received the e-mail in 24 hours, please contact <a href="mailto:customerservices@ioppublishing.org">customerservices@ioppublishing.org</a>.</p> </aside> </li> <li class="register__info col-xs-12 col-sm-6"> <strong>Registration is free, quick and easy</strong> <br /> <ul> <li>Access more than 20 years of online content</li> <li>Choose which e-mail newsletters you want to receive</li> <li>Read about the big breakthroughs and innovations across 13 scientific topics</li> <li>Explore the key issues and trends within the global scientific community</li> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> <div class="popup__actions"> <input type="submit" value="Register" class="btn btn--green" /> </div> </form> </div> </div> </div> <div class="popup forgot-password "> <div class="popup__tabs"> <h4 class="popup__tab popup__tab--full">Reset your password</h4> <i class="fa fa-times-circle btn--close popup__close"></i> </div> <div class="popup__content forgot-parent ajax__container"> <form class="popup__row popup__row--active ajax__content forgot-form " action="/" method="POST" data-ajax="forgot" data-dest=".forgot-parent" data-keep="1"> <div class="popup__row__content"> <p>Please enter the e-mail address you used to register to reset your password</p> <p><strong>Note:</strong> The verification e-mail to change your password should arrive immediately. However, in some cases it takes longer. Don't forget to check your spam folder.</p> <p>If you haven't received the e-mail in 24 hours, please contact <a href="mailto:customerservices@ioppublishing.org">customerservices@ioppublishing.org</a></p> <label for="input-ajax-forgotten-email">Enter e-mail address</label> <input id="input-ajax-forgotten-email" type="email" name="user-email" required oninvalid="this.setCustomValidity('Please enter a valid e-mail address')" oninput="this.setCustomValidity('')"/> </div> <div class="popup__actions"> <input type="submit" value="Reset my password" class="btn btn--green" /> </div> </form> <div class="ajax__content forgot__message popup__row--active"> </div> </div> </div> <div class="popup popup-message autoclose "> <div class="popup__tabs"> <h4 class="popup__tab popup__tab--full">Registration complete</h4> <i class="fa fa-times-circle btn--close popup__close"></i> </div> <div class="popup__content ajax__container"> <div class="popup__row__content"> <p><strong>Thank you for registering with <em>Physics World</em></strong><br /> If you'd like to change your details at any time, please visit My account</p> </div> <div class="popup__actions"> <a class="btn btn--green" href="/">Close</a> </div> </div> </div> <!-- Overlay --> <div class="overlay "></div> <main class="site-window" id="main-content"> <div class="type-bar category-background-color"> <div class="type-bar__icon"> <img src="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/03/Culture.svg" alt="Culture, history and society" loading="lazy" /> </div> <h1 class="type-bar__heading"> <a href="https://physicsworld.com/c/culture-history-society/">Culture, history and society</a> </h1> </div> <style> .category-background-color { background-color: #ca991b; } .category-border-color { border-color: #ca991b; } .category-text-color { color: #ca991b; } .the-content a, .share-panel a { color: #ca991b!important; } .share-panel a:hover { border-color: #ca991b!important; } .author-byline__info a { color: #ca991b!important; } .entry-content blockquote::before { color: #ca991b!important; } .entry-content figure { color: #ca991b!important; } </style> <div class="wrapper"> <div class="row single-content"> <div class="col-md-1 share-sticky"> <ul class="share-panel"> <li> <a href="https://www.facebook.com/sharer/sharer.php?u=https://physicsworld.com/a/martin-rees-carlo-rovelli-and-steven-weinberg-tackle-big-questions-to-mark-oxford-anniversary/" aria-label="Share on Facebook"><i class="fa fa-facebook" aria-hidden="true"></i></a> </li> <li> <a href="https://twitter.com/intent/tweet?text=Milestone marked by commemorative volume in Journal of Physics: Conference Series https://physicsworld.com/a/martin-rees-carlo-rovelli-and-steven-weinberg-tackle-big-questions-to-mark-oxford-anniversary/" aria-label="Share on Twitter"> <svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" shape-rendering="geometricPrecision" text-rendering="geometricPrecision" image-rendering="optimizeQuality" fill-rule="evenodd" clip-rule="evenodd" viewBox="0 0 512 462.799"><path fill-rule="nonzero" fill="currentColor" d="M403.229 0h78.506L310.219 196.04 512 462.799H354.002L230.261 301.007 88.669 462.799h-78.56l183.455-209.683L0 0h161.999l111.856 147.88L403.229 0zm-27.556 415.805h43.505L138.363 44.527h-46.68l283.99 371.278z"/></svg> </a> </li> <li> <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/sharing/share-offsite/?url=https%3A%2F%2Fphysicsworld.com%2Fa%2Fmartin-rees-carlo-rovelli-and-steven-weinberg-tackle-big-questions-to-mark-oxford-anniversary%2F" aria-label="Share on LinkedIn" rel="noopener"><i class="fa fa-linkedin" aria-hidden="true"></i></a> </li> <li> <a href="mailto:?subject=Physics%20World:%20Martin%20Rees,%20Carlo%20Rovelli%20and%20Steven%20Weinberg%20tackle%20big%20questions%20to%20mark%20Oxford%20anniversary&body=I%20thought%20you%20might%20be%20interested%20in%20this%20Physics%20World%20article:%20%20https://physicsworld.com/a/martin-rees-carlo-rovelli-and-steven-weinberg-tackle-big-questions-to-mark-oxford-anniversary/" aria-label="Share by Email"><i class="fa fa-envelope-o" aria-hidden="true"></i></a> </li> <li> <a href="#" onclick="window.print();return false;"><i class="fa fa-print" aria-hidden="true"></i></a> </li> <!-- <li> <a href="https://physicsworld.com/a/martin-rees-carlo-rovelli-and-steven-weinberg-tackle-big-questions-to-mark-oxford-anniversary/?print-pdf=1" download><i class="fa fa-file" aria-hidden="true"></i></a> </li> --> </ul> </div> <div class="col-md-7 col-sm-7 the-content equalize-sidebar"> <ul class="hero-top-banner__category"> <li><a href="https://physicsworld.com/c/culture-history-society/" style="color: #ca991b;">Culture, history and society</a></li> <li><a href="https://physicsworld.com/l/blog/" style="color: #ca991b;">Blog</a></li> </ul> <div class="single-header single-sponsored-header"> <h1 class="single-header__heading">Martin Rees, Carlo Rovelli and Steven Weinberg tackle big questions to mark Oxford anniversary</h1> <div class="single-header__meta"> 22 Nov 2024 <a href="https://physicsworld.com/author/michael-banks/">Michael Banks</a> </div> </div> <article id="post-118318" class="post-118318 post type-post status-publish format-standard has-post-thumbnail hentry category-culture-history-society article-type-blog"> <div class="entry-content"> <!-- Issue information --> <!-- Standfirst --> <!-- Thumbnail --> <figure class="thumbnail" style="color: #ca991b"> <a href="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/Oxford-Bodleian-Library-9067522-Shutterstock.jpg" data-fancybox data-src="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/Oxford-Bodleian-Library-9067522-Shutterstock.jpg" data-caption="The St Cross Centre for the History and Philosophy of Physics at Oxford University was founded in 2014. (Courtesy: Shutterstock)"> <img src="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/Oxford-Bodleian-Library-9067522-Shutterstock-635x431.jpg" srcset=" https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/Oxford-Bodleian-Library-9067522-Shutterstock.jpg 1200w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/Oxford-Bodleian-Library-9067522-Shutterstock-635x431.jpg 635w" sizes="(max-width: 768px) 100vw, 635w" alt="Bodleian Library at Oxford" title="Oxford-Bodleian-Library-9067522-Shutterstock" width="635" height="431" /> </a> <script type="application/json"> "The St Cross Centre for the History and Philosophy of Physics at Oxford University was founded in 2014. (Courtesy: Shutterstock)" </script> <figcaption>The St Cross Centre for the History and Philosophy of Physics at Oxford University was founded in 2014. (Courtesy: Shutterstock)</figcaption> </figure> <p>If you want to read about <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1742-6596/2877/1/012095">controversies in physics</a>, <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1742-6596/2877/1/012067">a (brief) history of the speed of light</a> or the<a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1742-6596/2877/1/012044"> quest for dark matter</a>, then make sure to check out this collection of papers to mark the 10th anniversary of the <a href="https://www.stx.ox.ac.uk/the-happ-centre">St Cross Centre for the History and Philosophy of Physics</a> (HAPP).</p> <p>HAPP was co-founded in 2014 by <a href="https://www.stx.ox.ac.uk/people/dr-joanna-ashbourn">Jo Ashbourn</a> and James Dodd and since then the centre has run a series of one-day conferences as well as standalone lectures and seminars about big topics in physics and philosophy.</p> <span class="mpu align-right" aria-hidden="true"><div id='div-gpt-ad-3759129-1'class="advert" > <script> googletag.cmd.push(function() { googletag.display('div-gpt-ad-3759129-1'); }); </script> </div></span> <p>Based on these contributions, HAPP has now published a <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/issue/1742-6596/2877/1">10th anniversary commemorative volume</a> in the open-access <em>Journal of Physics: Conference Series</em>, which is published by IOP Publishing.</p> <p>The volume is structured around four themes: physicists across history; space and astronomy; philosophical perspectives; and concepts in physics.</p> <p>The big names in physics to write for the volume include Martin Rees <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1742-6596/2877/1/012050">on the search for extraterrestrial intelligence across a century</a>; Carlo Rovelli <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1742-6596/2877/1/012084">on scientific thinking across the centuries</a>; and the late Steven Weinberg <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1742-6596/2877/1/012114">on the greatest physics discoveries of the 20th century</a>.</p> <p>I was delighted <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1742-6596/2877/1/012109">to also contribute</a> to the volume based on a talk I gave in February 2020 for <a href="https://www.stx.ox.ac.uk/event/the-rise-of-big-science-in-physics">a one-day HAPP meeting about big science in physics</a>.<article class='editors-pick'> <a href='https://physicsworld.com/a/the-10-most-important-future-big-science-facilities-in-physics/'> <div class='editors-pick__image'> <div class='editors-pick__more'>Read more</div> <img decoding="async" width="120" height="90" src="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/PWMay18NEWS-jwst_1200-120x90.jpg" class="attachment-list-image size-list-image wp-post-image" alt="James Webb Space Telescope" srcset="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/PWMay18NEWS-jwst_1200-120x90.jpg 120w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/PWMay18NEWS-jwst_1200-317x238.jpg 317w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/PWMay18NEWS-jwst_1200-211x158.jpg 211w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/PWMay18NEWS-jwst_1200-768x576.jpg 768w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/PWMay18NEWS-jwst_1200-1024x768.jpg 1024w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/PWMay18NEWS-jwst_1200-533x400.jpg 533w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/PWMay18NEWS-jwst_1200-547x410.jpg 547w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/PWMay18NEWS-jwst_1200-635x476.jpg 635w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/PWMay18NEWS-jwst_1200-263x197.jpg 263w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/PWMay18NEWS-jwst_1200-300x225.jpg 300w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/PWMay18NEWS-jwst_1200-257x193.jpg 257w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/PWMay18NEWS-jwst_1200-128x96.jpg 128w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/PWMay18NEWS-jwst_1200-261x196.jpg 261w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/PWMay18NEWS-jwst_1200-549x412.jpg 549w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/PWMay18NEWS-jwst_1200.jpg 1200w" sizes="(max-width: 120px) 100vw, 120px" /> </div> <h4 class='editors-pick__title'><p>The 10 most important future big-science facilities in physics</p> </h4> </a> </article></p> <p>The conference covered the past, present and future of big science and I spoke about the coming decade of new facilities in physics and the possible science that may result. I also <a href="https://physicsworld.com/a/the-10-most-important-future-big-science-facilities-in-physics/">included my “top 10 facilities to watch” for the coming decade</a>.</p> <p><a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1742-6596/2877/1/011002">In a preface to the volume, Ashbourn writes</a> that HAPP was founded to provide “a forum in which the philosophy and methodologies that inform how current research in physics is undertaken would be included alongside the history of the discipline in an accessible way that could engage the general public as well as scientists, historians and philosophers,” adding that she is “looking forward” to HAPP’s second decade.</p> <div class="wrapper clearfix"> <div class="ajax__container fullwidth-newsletter-sign-up events-register-sign-up" style="border-color: #ca991b"> <form method="post" enctype="multipart/form-data" data-ajax="register" data-dest=".fullwidth-newsletter-sign-up"> <input type="hidden" name="signup" value="1"> <input type="hidden" name="shortform" value="1"> <input type="hidden" name="url" value="https://physicsworld.com/a/martin-rees-carlo-rovelli-and-steven-weinberg-tackle-big-questions-to-mark-oxford-anniversary"> <div class="fullwidth-newsletter-sign-up__email"> <div class="gf_browser_chrome gform_wrapper" id="gform_wrapper_1"> <div class="gform_heading"> <h3 class="gform_title">Want to read more?</h3> <span class="gform_description">Registration is free, quick and easy</span> <p><strong>Note:</strong> The verification e-mail to complete your account registration should arrive immediately. However, in some cases it takes longer. Don't forget to check your spam folder.</p> <p>If you haven't received the e-mail in 24 hours, please contact <a href="mailto:customerservices@ioppublishing.org">customerservices@ioppublishing.org</a>.</p> </div> <div class="gform_body"> <ul id="gform_fields_1" class="gform_fields right_label form_sublabel_below description_below"> <li id="field_1_1" class="gfield field_sublabel_below field_description_below gfield_visibility_visible"> <label class="gfield_label" for="user-email">E-mail Address</label> <div class="ginput_container ginput_container_email"> <input name="user-email" id="user-email" type="email" value="" class="medium" placeholder="E-mail address" required oninvalid="this.setCustomValidity('Please enter a valid e-mail address')" oninput="this.setCustomValidity('')"> </div> </li> </ul> </div> <div class="gform_footer right_label"> <button type="submit" id="register-signup" class="gform_button button button-registration-short" style="background: #ca991b">Register</button> </div> </div> </div> <div class="clearfix"> </div> </form> </div> </div> <div class="clearfix"> </div> </div><!-- .entry-content --> </article><!-- #post-## --> <div class="author-byline"> <div class="author-byline__image object-fit-element"> <img width="96" height="96" src="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/01/michael-banks-square-96x96.jpg" class="avatar avatar-96 photo" alt="" decoding="async" loading="lazy" srcset="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/01/michael-banks-square-96x96.jpg 96w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/01/michael-banks-square-211x211.jpg 211w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/01/michael-banks-square-317x317.jpg 317w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/01/michael-banks-square-768x768.jpg 768w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/01/michael-banks-square-400x400.jpg 400w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/01/michael-banks-square-410x410.jpg 410w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/01/michael-banks-square-635x635.jpg 635w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/01/michael-banks-square-197x197.jpg 197w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/01/michael-banks-square-250x250.jpg 250w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/01/michael-banks-square-90x90.jpg 90w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/01/michael-banks-square-193x193.jpg 193w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/01/michael-banks-square-128x128.jpg 128w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/01/michael-banks-square-196x196.jpg 196w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/01/michael-banks-square-412x412.jpg 412w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/01/michael-banks-square-24x24.jpg 24w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/01/michael-banks-square-48x48.jpg 48w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/01/michael-banks-square-150x150.jpg 150w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/01/michael-banks-square-300x300.jpg 300w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/01/michael-banks-square.jpg 1000w" sizes="(max-width: 96px) 100vw, 96px" /> </div> <div class="author-byline__info"> <span> <a href="https://physicsworld.com/author/michael-banks/" class="author-byline__author">Michael Banks</a> is news editor of <em>Physics World</em> magazine </span> </div> </div> </div> <div id="secondary" class="iopp-sidebar col-md-4 col-sm-5 col-xs-12 equalize-sidebar" role="complementary"> <div class="mpu-300x250"> <span class="mpu align-none" aria-hidden="true"><div id='div-gpt-ad-1563268425067-0' class="advert" > <script> googletag.cmd.push(function() { googletag.display('div-gpt-ad-1563268425067-0'); }); </script> </div></span></div> <div class="key-suppliers wrapper"> <ul> <li> <span class="mpu align-none" aria-hidden="true"><div id='div-gpt-ad-3759129-2'> <script> googletag.cmd.push(function() { googletag.display('div-gpt-ad-3759129-2'); }); </script> </div></span> </li> <li> <span class="mpu align-none" aria-hidden="true"><div id='div-gpt-ad-3759129-3'> <script> googletag.cmd.push(function() { googletag.display('div-gpt-ad-3759129-3'); }); </script> </div></span> </li> <li> <span class="mpu align-none" aria-hidden="true"><div id='div-gpt-ad-3759129-4'> <script> googletag.cmd.push(function() { googletag.display('div-gpt-ad-3759129-4'); }); </script> </div></span> </li> <li> <span class="mpu align-none" aria-hidden="true"><div id='div-gpt-ad-3759129-5'> <script> googletag.cmd.push(function() { googletag.display('div-gpt-ad-3759129-5'); }); </script> </div></span> </li> </ul> </div> <div class="mpu-300x250"> <span class="mpu align-none" aria-hidden="true"><div id='div-gpt-ad-1567436410454-0' class="advert" > <script> googletag.cmd.push(function() { googletag.display('div-gpt-ad-1567436410454-0'); }); </script> </div></span> </div> <div class="sticky-me" role="complementary"> <div class="mpu-300x250 mpu-300x250--internal"> <article class="journal-ad"> <a href="https://physicsworld.com/l/audio/?utm_source=pw&utm_medium=box&utm_campaign=podcasts"> <div class="journal-ad__image object-fit-element"> <img width="197" height="197" src="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/M-PW-BN-1124-Podcasts-600x600-1-197x197.jpg" class="attachment-1-3-cols size-1-3-cols wp-post-image" alt="" decoding="async" loading="lazy" srcset="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/M-PW-BN-1124-Podcasts-600x600-1-197x197.jpg 197w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/M-PW-BN-1124-Podcasts-600x600-1-211x211.jpg 211w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/M-PW-BN-1124-Podcasts-600x600-1-317x317.jpg 317w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/M-PW-BN-1124-Podcasts-600x600-1-400x400.jpg 400w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/M-PW-BN-1124-Podcasts-600x600-1-412x412.jpg 412w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/M-PW-BN-1124-Podcasts-600x600-1-410x410.jpg 410w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/M-PW-BN-1124-Podcasts-600x600-1-193x193.jpg 193w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/M-PW-BN-1124-Podcasts-600x600-1-250x250.jpg 250w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/M-PW-BN-1124-Podcasts-600x600-1-90x90.jpg 90w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/M-PW-BN-1124-Podcasts-600x600-1-128x128.jpg 128w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/M-PW-BN-1124-Podcasts-600x600-1-24x24.jpg 24w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/M-PW-BN-1124-Podcasts-600x600-1-48x48.jpg 48w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/M-PW-BN-1124-Podcasts-600x600-1-96x96.jpg 96w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/M-PW-BN-1124-Podcasts-600x600-1-150x150.jpg 150w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/M-PW-BN-1124-Podcasts-600x600-1-300x300.jpg 300w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/M-PW-BN-1124-Podcasts-600x600-1.jpg 600w" sizes="(max-width: 197px) 100vw, 197px" /> <div class="journal-ad__content"> </div> </div> <div class="journal-ad__info" style="background-color: #ca991b"> <h3 class="journal-ad__title" >Physics World podcast</h3> <p>Explore our two regular podcast series, Physics World Weekly and Physics World Stories</p> </div> </a> </article> </div> <div class="mpu-300x250"> <span class="mpu align-none" aria-hidden="true"><div id='div-gpt-ad-3759129-11' class="advert"> <script> googletag.cmd.push(function() { googletag.display('div-gpt-ad-3759129-11'); }); </script> </div></span></div> </div> </div><!-- #secondary --> </div> <!-- Read NEXT --> <div class="read"> <div class="read--prev"> <a href="https://physicsworld.com/a/top-cited-authors-from-north-america-share-their-tips-for-boosting-research-impact/" class="read__title">Read previous</a> <ul class="hero-top-banner__category"> <li><a href="https://physicsworld.com/c/scientific-enterprise/publishing/" style="color: #cf2e2e;">Publishing</a></li> <li><a href="https://physicsworld.com/l/blog/" style="color: #cf2e2e;">Blog</a></li> </ul> <a href="https://physicsworld.com/a/top-cited-authors-from-north-america-share-their-tips-for-boosting-research-impact/"><h4 class="read__post-title">Top-cited authors from North America share their tips for boosting research impact</h4></a> </div> <div class="read--next"> <a href="https://physicsworld.com/a/noodles-of-fun-as-uk-researchers-create-the-worlds-thinnest-spaghetti/" class="read__title">Read next</a> <ul class="hero-top-banner__category"> <li><a href="https://physicsworld.com/c/materials/" style="color: #1487c9;">Materials</a></li> <li><a href="https://physicsworld.com/l/blog/" style="color: #1487c9;">Blog</a></li> </ul> <a href="https://physicsworld.com/a/noodles-of-fun-as-uk-researchers-create-the-worlds-thinnest-spaghetti/"><h4 class="read__post-title">Noodles of fun as UK researchers create the world's thinnest spaghetti</h4></a> </div> </div> <!-- Related --> <div class="row hide-for-printer"> <div class="col-md-12"> <div class="section-breaks"> <h2 class="section-breaks__heading">Discover more from Physics World</h2> </div> <div class="row"> <div class="col-md-4"> <article class="article article--c"> <a href="https://physicsworld.com/a/trailblazer-astronaut-eileen-collins-reflects-on-space-adventure-and-the-power-of-lifelong-learning/" class="article__image object-fit-element"> <img width="350" height="197" src="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/Eileen_Collins_crop-350x197.png" class="attachment-1-3-cols size-1-3-cols wp-post-image" alt="Eileen Collins attending a survival training course at Vance Air Force Base, Oklahoma" loading="lazy" decoding="async" srcset="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/Eileen_Collins_crop-350x197.png 350w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/Eileen_Collins_crop-211x119.png 211w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/Eileen_Collins_crop-1024x576.png 1024w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/Eileen_Collins_crop-317x178.png 317w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/Eileen_Collins_crop-768x432.png 768w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/Eileen_Collins_crop-1536x864.png 1536w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/Eileen_Collins_crop-711x400.png 711w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/Eileen_Collins_crop-732x412.png 732w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/Eileen_Collins_crop-720x405.png 720w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/Eileen_Collins_crop-635x357.png 635w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/Eileen_Collins_crop-257x145.png 257w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/Eileen_Collins_crop-300x169.png 300w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/Eileen_Collins_crop-160x90.png 160w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/Eileen_Collins_crop-128x72.png 128w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/Eileen_Collins_crop.png 1600w" sizes="(max-width: 350px) 100vw, 350px" /> <span class="icon icon--audio"></span> </a> <div class="article__info"> <ul class="hero-top-banner__category"> <ul class="hero-top-banner__category category--has-background-color"> <li><a href="https://physicsworld.com/c/culture-history-society/" style="background: #ca991b;">Culture, history and society</a></li> <li><a href="https://physicsworld.com/l/audio/" style="background: #ca991b;">Podcasts</a></li> </ul> </ul> <h3 class="article__title"> <a href="https://physicsworld.com/a/trailblazer-astronaut-eileen-collins-reflects-on-space-adventure-and-the-power-of-lifelong-learning/"> <span>Trailblazer: astronaut Eileen Collins reflects on space, adventure, and the power of lifelong learning</span> </a> </h3> </div> </article> </div> <div class="col-md-4"> <article class="article article--c"> <a href="https://physicsworld.com/a/sceptical-space-settlers-einstein-in-england-trials-of-the-jwst-tackling-quantum-fundamentals-micro-reviews-of-the-best-recent-books/" class="article__image object-fit-element"> <img width="350" height="197" src="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/2024-11-condensednatter-Mars-settlement-colony-1433158079-Shutterstock_Dotted-Yeti-350x197.jpg" class="attachment-1-3-cols size-1-3-cols wp-post-image" alt="Artist impression of a colony on Mars" loading="lazy" decoding="async" srcset="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/2024-11-condensednatter-Mars-settlement-colony-1433158079-Shutterstock_Dotted-Yeti-350x197.jpg 350w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/2024-11-condensednatter-Mars-settlement-colony-1433158079-Shutterstock_Dotted-Yeti-211x119.jpg 211w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/2024-11-condensednatter-Mars-settlement-colony-1433158079-Shutterstock_Dotted-Yeti-1024x576.jpg 1024w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/2024-11-condensednatter-Mars-settlement-colony-1433158079-Shutterstock_Dotted-Yeti-317x178.jpg 317w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/2024-11-condensednatter-Mars-settlement-colony-1433158079-Shutterstock_Dotted-Yeti-768x432.jpg 768w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/2024-11-condensednatter-Mars-settlement-colony-1433158079-Shutterstock_Dotted-Yeti-711x400.jpg 711w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/2024-11-condensednatter-Mars-settlement-colony-1433158079-Shutterstock_Dotted-Yeti-732x412.jpg 732w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/2024-11-condensednatter-Mars-settlement-colony-1433158079-Shutterstock_Dotted-Yeti-720x405.jpg 720w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/2024-11-condensednatter-Mars-settlement-colony-1433158079-Shutterstock_Dotted-Yeti-635x357.jpg 635w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/2024-11-condensednatter-Mars-settlement-colony-1433158079-Shutterstock_Dotted-Yeti-257x145.jpg 257w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/2024-11-condensednatter-Mars-settlement-colony-1433158079-Shutterstock_Dotted-Yeti-300x169.jpg 300w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/2024-11-condensednatter-Mars-settlement-colony-1433158079-Shutterstock_Dotted-Yeti-160x90.jpg 160w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/2024-11-condensednatter-Mars-settlement-colony-1433158079-Shutterstock_Dotted-Yeti-128x72.jpg 128w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/2024-11-condensednatter-Mars-settlement-colony-1433158079-Shutterstock_Dotted-Yeti.jpg 1200w" sizes="(max-width: 350px) 100vw, 350px" /> <span class="icon icon--opinion-reviews"></span> </a> <div class="article__info"> <ul class="hero-top-banner__category"> <ul class="hero-top-banner__category category--has-background-color"> <li><a href="https://physicsworld.com/c/culture-history-society/everyday-science/" style="background: #ca991b;">Everyday science</a></li> <li><a href="https://physicsworld.com/l/opinion-reviews/" style="background: #ca991b;">Opinion and reviews</a></li> </ul> </ul> <h3 class="article__title"> <a href="https://physicsworld.com/a/sceptical-space-settlers-einstein-in-england-trials-of-the-jwst-tackling-quantum-fundamentals-micro-reviews-of-the-best-recent-books/"> <span>Sceptical space settlers, Einstein in England, trials of the JWST, tackling quantum fundamentals: micro reviews of the best recent books</span> </a> </h3> </div> </article> </div> <div class="col-md-4"> <article class="article article--c"> <a href="https://physicsworld.com/a/gems-from-the-physics-world-archive-isaac-asimov/" class="article__image object-fit-element"> <img width="350" height="197" src="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/10/Isaac-Asimov-featured-2278521053-Shutterstock_Mei-Zendra-editorial-use-only-350x197.jpg" class="attachment-1-3-cols size-1-3-cols wp-post-image" alt="Cartoon illustration of Isaac Asimov" loading="lazy" decoding="async" srcset="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/10/Isaac-Asimov-featured-2278521053-Shutterstock_Mei-Zendra-editorial-use-only-350x197.jpg 350w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/10/Isaac-Asimov-featured-2278521053-Shutterstock_Mei-Zendra-editorial-use-only-211x119.jpg 211w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/10/Isaac-Asimov-featured-2278521053-Shutterstock_Mei-Zendra-editorial-use-only-1024x576.jpg 1024w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/10/Isaac-Asimov-featured-2278521053-Shutterstock_Mei-Zendra-editorial-use-only-317x178.jpg 317w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/10/Isaac-Asimov-featured-2278521053-Shutterstock_Mei-Zendra-editorial-use-only-768x432.jpg 768w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/10/Isaac-Asimov-featured-2278521053-Shutterstock_Mei-Zendra-editorial-use-only-1536x864.jpg 1536w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/10/Isaac-Asimov-featured-2278521053-Shutterstock_Mei-Zendra-editorial-use-only-2048x1152.jpg 2048w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/10/Isaac-Asimov-featured-2278521053-Shutterstock_Mei-Zendra-editorial-use-only-711x400.jpg 711w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/10/Isaac-Asimov-featured-2278521053-Shutterstock_Mei-Zendra-editorial-use-only-732x412.jpg 732w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/10/Isaac-Asimov-featured-2278521053-Shutterstock_Mei-Zendra-editorial-use-only-720x405.jpg 720w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/10/Isaac-Asimov-featured-2278521053-Shutterstock_Mei-Zendra-editorial-use-only-635x357.jpg 635w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/10/Isaac-Asimov-featured-2278521053-Shutterstock_Mei-Zendra-editorial-use-only-257x145.jpg 257w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/10/Isaac-Asimov-featured-2278521053-Shutterstock_Mei-Zendra-editorial-use-only-300x169.jpg 300w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/10/Isaac-Asimov-featured-2278521053-Shutterstock_Mei-Zendra-editorial-use-only-160x90.jpg 160w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/10/Isaac-Asimov-featured-2278521053-Shutterstock_Mei-Zendra-editorial-use-only-128x72.jpg 128w" sizes="(max-width: 350px) 100vw, 350px" /> <span class="icon icon--blog"></span> </a> <div class="article__info"> <ul class="hero-top-banner__category"> <ul class="hero-top-banner__category category--has-background-color"> <li><a href="https://physicsworld.com/c/people/personalities/" style="background: #764992;">Personalities</a></li> <li><a href="https://physicsworld.com/l/blog/" style="background: #764992;">Blog</a></li> </ul> </ul> <h3 class="article__title"> <a href="https://physicsworld.com/a/gems-from-the-physics-world-archive-isaac-asimov/"> <span>Gems from the <em>Physics World</em> archive: Isaac Asimov</span> </a> </h3> </div> </article> </div> </div> </div> </div> <!-- Module 11: Related journal --> <!-- <div class="row hide-for-printer"> --> <!-- </div> --> <div class="row hide-for-printer"> <!-- Module 8b: Related jobs --> <div class="wrapper m08b"> <div class="row"> <div class="col-xs-6"> <div class="section-breaks"> <h2 class="section-breaks__heading">Related jobs</h2> </div> <div class="bright-recruits"> <ul class='bright-recruits__jobs'> <li class="bright-recruits__item"> <a href="https://www.physicsworldjobs.com/job/19473/associate-or-senior-news-and-views-editor-m-w-d-/?trackid=9&utm_source=RestAPI&utm_medium=Referral" target="_blank" rel="noopener" data-id="19473" > <span class="bright-recruits__location"> London (Central) | Springer Nature </span> <h4 class="bright-recruits__title">Associate or Senior News & Views Editor (m/w/d) </h4> </a> </li> <li class="bright-recruits__item"> <a href="https://www.physicsworldjobs.com/job/19387/editor-in-chief-vacancy-for-physica-scripta/?trackid=9&utm_source=RestAPI&utm_medium=Referral" target="_blank" rel="noopener" data-id="19387" > <span class="bright-recruits__location"> Worldwide | IOP Publishing </span> <h4 class="bright-recruits__title">Editor-in-Chief Vacancy for Physica Scripta</h4> </a> </li> <li class="bright-recruits__item"> <a href="https://www.physicsworldjobs.com/job/19554/postdoctoral-fellow-f-m-in-time-resolved-x-ray-science-on-the-beamline-id09/?trackid=9&utm_source=RestAPI&utm_medium=Referral" target="_blank" rel="noopener" data-id="19554" > <span class="bright-recruits__location"> France | European Synchrotron Radiation Facility </span> <h4 class="bright-recruits__title">Postdoctoral fellow (f/m) in time-resolved X-ray science on the beamline ID09</h4> </a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> <div class='col-xs-6'> <div class="section-breaks"> <h2 class="section-breaks__heading">Related events</h2> </div> <div class="bright-recruits"> <ul class='bright-recruits__jobs'> <li class="bright-recruits__item"> <span class="bright-recruits__location">Medical physics | Course</php></span> <a href="https://physicsworld.com/event/hybrid-teaching-course-particle-therapy/" class="bright-recruits__title related-title"> Hybrid Teaching Course Particle Therapy </a> <span class="bright-recruits__date">14 October — 29 November 2024 | Heidelberg, Germany</span> </li> <li class="bright-recruits__item"> <span class="bright-recruits__location">Medical physics | Meeting</php></span> <a href="https://physicsworld.com/event/medical-physics-group-translational-techniques-in-medical-physics/" class="bright-recruits__title related-title"> Medical Physics Group Translational Techniques in Medical Physics </a> <span class="bright-recruits__date">29 November 2024 | London, UK</span> </li> <li class="bright-recruits__item"> <span class="bright-recruits__location">Everyday science | Conference</php></span> <a href="https://physicsworld.com/event/pittcon-conference-and-exposition-2025/" class="bright-recruits__title related-title"> Pittcon Conference and Exposition </a> <span class="bright-recruits__date">1—5 March 2025 | Boston, US</span> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="row"> <!-- Module 21: Corporate Partners --> <div class='m21 wrapper'> <div class='row'> <div class="col-md-12"> <div class="corporate-partners col-md-12"> <ul> <li><span class="mpu align-none" aria-hidden="true"> <div id='div-gpt-ad-3759129-12'> <script> googletag.cmd.push(function() { googletag.display('div-gpt-ad-3759129-12'); }); </script> </div></span></li> <li><span class="mpu align-none" aria-hidden="true"><div id='div-gpt-ad-3759129-13'> <script> googletag.cmd.push(function() { googletag.display('div-gpt-ad-3759129-13'); }); </script> </div></span></li> <li><span class="mpu align-none" aria-hidden="true"><div id='div-gpt-ad-3759129-14'> <script> googletag.cmd.push(function() { googletag.display('div-gpt-ad-3759129-14'); }); </script> </div></span></li> <li><span class="mpu align-none" aria-hidden="true"><div id='div-gpt-ad-3759129-15'> <script> googletag.cmd.push(function() { googletag.display('div-gpt-ad-3759129-15'); }); </script> </div></span></li> <li><span class="mpu align-none" aria-hidden="true"><div id='div-gpt-ad-1563269243507-0' > <script> googletag.cmd.push(function() { googletag.display('div-gpt-ad-1563269243507-0'); }); </script> </div></span></li> <li><span class="mpu align-none" aria-hidden="true"><div id='div-gpt-ad-3759129-17' > <script> googletag.cmd.push(function() { googletag.display('div-gpt-ad-3759129-17'); }); </script> </div></span></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <!-- Extra modules --> </div> <div class="printer-only push-me">Copyright © 2024 by IOP Publishing Ltd and individual contributors</div> </main> <footer class="footer hide-for-printer"> <div class="wrapper"> <div class="row"> <div class="footer__container"> <div class="pw__info footer__grid-col--1"> <img src="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/themes/iopp/src/svg/pw-logo-white-red-text.svg" alt="Physics World logo" width="228px" height="42px"> <ul class="footer__social"> <li> <a href="https://www.facebook.com/physicsworld/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer" alt="Follow us on Facebook"> <i class="fa fa-facebook" aria-hidden="true"></i> <span class="sr-only">Follow us on Facebook</span> </a> </li> <li> <a href="https://twitter.com/PhysicsWorld" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer" alt="Follow us on X"> <svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" aria-hidden="true" shape-rendering="geometricPrecision" text-rendering="geometricPrecision" image-rendering="optimizeQuality" fill-rule="evenodd" clip-rule="evenodd" viewBox="0 0 512 462.799"><path fill-rule="nonzero" fill="currentColor" d="M403.229 0h78.506L310.219 196.04 512 462.799H354.002L230.261 301.007 88.669 462.799h-78.56l183.455-209.683L0 0h161.999l111.856 147.88L403.229 0zm-27.556 415.805h43.505L138.363 44.527h-46.68l283.99 371.278z"/></svg> <span class="sr-only">Follow us on X</span> </a> </li> <li> <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/company/physics-world" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer" alt="Follow us on LinkedIn"> <i class="fa fa-linkedin" aria-hidden="true"></i> <span class="sr-only">Follow us on LinkedIn</span> </a> </li> <li> <a href="https://www.youtube.com/PhysicsWorldTV" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer" alt="Watch us on Youtube"> <i class="fa fa-youtube-play" aria-hidden="true"></i> <span class="sr-only">Watch us on Youtube</span> </a> </li> <li> <a href="https://physicsworld.com/feed" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer" alt="RSS Feed"> <i class="fa fa-rss" aria-hidden="true"></i> <span class="sr-only">RSS Feed</span> </a> </li> </ul> <a href="https://physicsworld.com/account/sign-in/" class="btn btn--sign-in">Sign in</a> <a href="https://physicsworld.com/account/register/" class="btn">Register</a> </div> <div class="col__border-top footer__grid-col--2"> <h4 class="footer__heading">Our mission</h4> <p><i>Physics World</i> represents a key part of IOP Publishing’s mission to communicate world-class research and innovation to the widest possible audience. The website forms part of the <a href="https://physicsworld.com/p/our-portfolio/"><i>Physics World</i> portfolio</a>, a collection of online, digital and print information services for the global scientific community.</p> <div class="footer__podcasts"> <h4 class="footer__heading">Podcasts</h4> <a href="https://blubrry.com/physicsworldweeklypodcast/" class="footer__podcast" target="_blank" > <img width="150" height="150" src="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/PW-Podcast-WEEKLY-comp-1.jpg" class="attachment-profile_150 size-profile_150" alt="" decoding="async" loading="lazy" srcset="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/PW-Podcast-WEEKLY-comp-1.jpg 1500w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/PW-Podcast-WEEKLY-comp-1-317x317.jpg 317w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/PW-Podcast-WEEKLY-comp-1-211x211.jpg 211w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/PW-Podcast-WEEKLY-comp-1-768x768.jpg 768w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/PW-Podcast-WEEKLY-comp-1-1024x1024.jpg 1024w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/PW-Podcast-WEEKLY-comp-1-400x400.jpg 400w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/PW-Podcast-WEEKLY-comp-1-410x410.jpg 410w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/PW-Podcast-WEEKLY-comp-1-635x635.jpg 635w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/PW-Podcast-WEEKLY-comp-1-197x197.jpg 197w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/PW-Podcast-WEEKLY-comp-1-250x250.jpg 250w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/PW-Podcast-WEEKLY-comp-1-90x90.jpg 90w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/PW-Podcast-WEEKLY-comp-1-193x193.jpg 193w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/PW-Podcast-WEEKLY-comp-1-128x128.jpg 128w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/PW-Podcast-WEEKLY-comp-1-196x196.jpg 196w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/PW-Podcast-WEEKLY-comp-1-412x412.jpg 412w" sizes="(max-width: 150px) 100vw, 150px" /> <div class="podcast-details"> <h4>Physics World Weekly</h4> </div> </a> <a href="https://blubrry.com/physics_world_science_podcast/" class="footer__podcast" target="_blank" > <img width="150" height="150" src="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/PW-podcast-logo-STORIES-resized-150x150.jpg" class="attachment-profile_150 size-profile_150" alt="Physics World Stories podcast logo" decoding="async" loading="lazy" srcset="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/PW-podcast-logo-STORIES-resized-150x150.jpg 150w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/PW-podcast-logo-STORIES-resized-211x211.jpg 211w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/PW-podcast-logo-STORIES-resized-1024x1024.jpg 1024w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/PW-podcast-logo-STORIES-resized-317x317.jpg 317w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/PW-podcast-logo-STORIES-resized-768x768.jpg 768w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/PW-podcast-logo-STORIES-resized-1536x1536.jpg 1536w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/PW-podcast-logo-STORIES-resized-400x400.jpg 400w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/PW-podcast-logo-STORIES-resized-410x410.jpg 410w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/PW-podcast-logo-STORIES-resized-635x635.jpg 635w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/PW-podcast-logo-STORIES-resized-197x197.jpg 197w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/PW-podcast-logo-STORIES-resized-250x250.jpg 250w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/PW-podcast-logo-STORIES-resized-90x90.jpg 90w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/PW-podcast-logo-STORIES-resized-193x193.jpg 193w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/PW-podcast-logo-STORIES-resized-128x128.jpg 128w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/PW-podcast-logo-STORIES-resized-196x196.jpg 196w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/PW-podcast-logo-STORIES-resized-412x412.jpg 412w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/PW-podcast-logo-STORIES-resized-24x24.jpg 24w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/PW-podcast-logo-STORIES-resized-48x48.jpg 48w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/PW-podcast-logo-STORIES-resized-96x96.jpg 96w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/PW-podcast-logo-STORIES-resized-300x300.jpg 300w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/PW-podcast-logo-STORIES-resized.jpg 2000w" sizes="(max-width: 150px) 100vw, 150px" /> <div class="podcast-details"> <h4>Physics World Stories</h4> </div> </a> </div> </div> <div class="col__border-top footer__grid-col--3"> <h4 class="footer__heading">Explore</h4> <div class="menu-footer-1-container"><ul id="menu-footer-1" class="menu"><li id="menu-item-65637" class="menu-item menu-item-type-post_type menu-item-object-page menu-item-65637"><a href="https://physicsworld.com/p/about-us/">About us</a></li> <li id="menu-item-65638" class="menu-item menu-item-type-post_type menu-item-object-page menu-item-65638"><a href="https://physicsworld.com/p/our-team/">Our team</a></li> <li id="menu-item-65639" class="menu-item menu-item-type-post_type menu-item-object-page menu-item-65639"><a href="https://physicsworld.com/p/our-portfolio/">Our portfolio</a></li> <li id="menu-item-65640" class="menu-item menu-item-type-post_type menu-item-object-page menu-item-65640"><a href="https://physicsworld.com/p/advertising/">Advertising</a></li> <li id="menu-item-67467" class="menu-item menu-item-type-post_type menu-item-object-page menu-item-67467"><a href="https://physicsworld.com/p/contact-us/">Contact us</a></li> <li id="menu-item-67496" class="menu-item menu-item-type-custom menu-item-object-custom menu-item-67496"><a rel="noreferrer" href="mailto:pwld@ioppublishing.org">Feedback</a></li> </ul></div> </div> <div class="col__border-top footer__grid-col--4"> <h4 class="footer__heading">More information</h4> <div class="menu-footer-2-container"><ul id="menu-footer-2" class="menu"><li id="menu-item-65641" class="menu-item menu-item-type-custom menu-item-object-custom menu-item-65641"><a rel="noreferrer" href="http://www.iop.org/">Institute of Physics</a></li> <li id="menu-item-67295" class="menu-item menu-item-type-custom menu-item-object-custom menu-item-67295"><a rel="noreferrer" href="https://membership.iop.org/">Join the Institute</a></li> <li id="menu-item-66155" class="menu-item menu-item-type-custom menu-item-object-custom menu-item-66155"><a rel="noreferrer" href="https://www.iop.org/slavery-and-human-trafficking-statement-financial-year-ending-31-december-2020">Modern Slavery Act</a></li> <li id="menu-item-66151" class="menu-item menu-item-type-custom menu-item-object-custom menu-item-66151"><a rel="noreferrer" href="https://physicsworld.com/p/cookies-privacy-policy/">Privacy and cookies</a></li> <li id="menu-item-65642" class="menu-item menu-item-type-custom menu-item-object-custom menu-item-65642"><a rel="noreferrer" href="http://ioppublishing.org/">IOP Publishing</a></li> <li id="menu-item-66154" class="menu-item menu-item-type-custom menu-item-object-custom menu-item-66154"><a rel="noreferrer" href="http://ioppublishing.org/copyright/">Copyright</a></li> <li id="menu-item-66153" class="menu-item menu-item-type-custom menu-item-object-custom menu-item-66153"><a rel="noreferrer" href="http://ioppublishing.org/legal-statements/terms-conditions/">Terms and conditions</a></li> <li id="menu-item-66152" class="menu-item menu-item-type-custom menu-item-object-custom menu-item-66152"><a rel="noreferrer" href="http://ioppublishing.org/legal-statements/disclaimer/">Disclaimer</a></li> </ul></div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <button class="back-to-top">Back to top</button> </footer> <script id="js-onesignal-ga"> "use strict"; window.OneSignal = window.OneSignal || []; // In some browsers the console might be undefined const log = function (message) { console && console.log(message); }; const callback = function (payload) { log("OneSignal notification opened!"); OneSignal.getUserId(function (user_id) { ga("send", { hitType: "event", eventCategory: 'OSNotification', eventAction: 'u_id ' + user_id, eventLabel: 'n_id ' + payload.id }); }); // Allow future opens to also trigger the callback OneSignal.addListenerForNotificationOpened(callback); }; // Defer function until OneSignal has finished loading OneSignal.push(function () { log("OneSignal loaded!"); // Listen for notification opened OneSignal.addListenerForNotificationOpened(callback); }); </script> <script src="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/plugins/leaky-paywall/js/micromodal.min.js?ver=4.21.5" id="zeen101_micromodal-js"></script> <script id="leaky_paywall_validate-js-extra"> var leaky_paywall_validate_ajax = {"ajaxurl":"\/wp-admin\/admin-ajax.php","register_nonce":"f4150ce6e4","password_text":"Passwords do not match."}; </script> <script src="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/plugins/leaky-paywall/js/leaky-paywall-validate.js?ver=4.21.5" id="leaky_paywall_validate-js"></script> <script id="leaky_paywall_script-js-extra"> var leaky_paywall_script_ajax = {"ajaxurl":"\/wp-admin\/admin-ajax.php","stripe_pk":""}; </script> <script src="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/plugins/leaky-paywall/js/script.js?ver=4.21.5" id="leaky_paywall_script-js"></script> <script id="nine3-script-js-extra"> var nine3 = {"ajaxurl":"https:\/\/physicsworld.com\/wp-admin\/admin-ajax.php","nonce":"c0c596a32d","marker":"https:\/\/physicsworld.com\/wp-content\/themes\/iopp\/images\/marker.png","debug":""}; </script> <script src="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/themes/iopp/dist/js/main.07e93a0f6d984f4fc58037a5e7bc9a89.js?ver=6.6.1" id="nine3-script-js"></script> <script src="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/themes/iopp/static/js/sticky.min.js?ver=1645453936640" id="stickykit-js"></script> <script src="https://cdn.jsdelivr.net/gh/mathjax/MathJax@2.7.1/MathJax.js?config=MML_CHTML&ver=1645453936640" id="mathjax-js"></script> <script src="https://cdn.onesignal.com/sdks/OneSignalSDK.js?ver=1.0.0" id="remote_sdk-js" async data-wp-strategy="async"></script> </body> </html>