CINXE.COM
Noodles of fun as UK researchers create the world's thinnest spaghetti – Physics World
<!DOCTYPE html> <html lang="en-GB"> <head> <meta charset="UTF-8"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=device-width, initial-scale=1"> <meta http-equiv="Referrer-Policy" content="origin, strict-origin-when-cross-origin"> <link rel="profile" href="http://gmpg.org/xfn/11"> <link rel="pingback" href="https://physicsworld.com/xmlrpc.php"> <link rel="preconnect" href="https://use.typekit.net" crossorigin /> <link rel="preload" href="https://cdn-cookieyes.com/client_data/32a66075cd31d8fea8d5fadf/script.js" as="script" /> <link rel="preconnect" href="https://www.googletagmanager.com" crossorigin /> <link rel="preconnect" href="https://cdn.ampproject.org" crossorigin /> <link rel="preconnect" href="https://in.hotjar.com" crossorigin /> <meta http-equiv="X-UA-Compatible" content="IE=edge" > <!-- webkit FranklinGothicURW start --> <script src="//use.typekit.net/mfv1unu.js"></script> <script>try{Typekit.load({ async: true, active: function() { jQuery('body').addClass('typekit'); } });}catch(e){}</script> <!-- webkit FranklinGothicURW end --> <link href="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/themes/iopp/static/css/font-awesome.min.css" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" /> <!-- Google Tag Manager --> <script>(function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start': new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0], j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src= 'https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f); })(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-TQRT9K38');</script> <!-- End Google Tag Manager --> <meta name='robots' content='index, follow, max-image-preview:large, max-snippet:-1, max-video-preview:-1' /> <!-- This site is optimized with the Yoast SEO plugin v23.8 - https://yoast.com/wordpress/plugins/seo/ --> <title>Noodles of fun as UK researchers create the world's thinnest spaghetti – Physics World</title> <link rel="canonical" href="https://physicsworld.com/a/noodles-of-fun-as-uk-researchers-create-the-worlds-thinnest-spaghetti/" /> <meta property="og:locale" content="en_GB" /> <meta property="og:type" content="article" /> <meta property="og:title" content="Noodles of fun as UK researchers create the world's thinnest spaghetti – Physics World" /> <meta property="og:description" content="At 372 nanometres, the “nanopasta” is not for consumption" /> <meta property="og:url" content="https://physicsworld.com/noodles-of-fun-as-uk-researchers-create-the-worlds-thinnest-spaghetti/" /> <meta property="og:site_name" content="Physics World" /> <meta property="article:publisher" content="https://www.facebook.com/physicsworld/" /> <meta property="article:published_time" content="2024-11-22T15:30:54+00:00" /> <meta property="article:modified_time" content="2024-11-22T16:03:03+00:00" /> <meta property="og:image" content="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/Low-Res_spaghetti-closeup.webp" /> <meta property="og:image:width" content="700" /> <meta property="og:image:height" content="525" /> <meta property="og:image:type" content="image/webp" /> <meta name="author" content="Michael Banks" /> <meta name="twitter:card" content="summary_large_image" /> <meta name="twitter:creator" content="@PhysicsWorld" /> <meta name="twitter:site" content="@PhysicsWorld" /> <script type="application/ld+json" class="yoast-schema-graph">{"@context":"https://schema.org","@graph":[{"@type":"WebPage","@id":"https://physicsworld.com/noodles-of-fun-as-uk-researchers-create-the-worlds-thinnest-spaghetti/","url":"https://physicsworld.com/noodles-of-fun-as-uk-researchers-create-the-worlds-thinnest-spaghetti/","name":"Noodles of fun as UK researchers create the world's thinnest spaghetti – Physics World","isPartOf":{"@id":"https://physicsworld.com/#website"},"primaryImageOfPage":{"@id":"https://physicsworld.com/noodles-of-fun-as-uk-researchers-create-the-worlds-thinnest-spaghetti/#primaryimage"},"image":{"@id":"https://physicsworld.com/noodles-of-fun-as-uk-researchers-create-the-worlds-thinnest-spaghetti/#primaryimage"},"thumbnailUrl":"https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/Low-Res_spaghetti-closeup.webp","datePublished":"2024-11-22T15:30:54+00:00","dateModified":"2024-11-22T16:03:03+00:00","author":{"@id":"https://physicsworld.com/#/schema/person/b18b4a35db3bfcd6d7495bdf9b9c0b01"},"breadcrumb":{"@id":"https://physicsworld.com/noodles-of-fun-as-uk-researchers-create-the-worlds-thinnest-spaghetti/#breadcrumb"},"inLanguage":"en-GB","potentialAction":[{"@type":"ReadAction","target":["https://physicsworld.com/noodles-of-fun-as-uk-researchers-create-the-worlds-thinnest-spaghetti/"]}]},{"@type":"ImageObject","inLanguage":"en-GB","@id":"https://physicsworld.com/noodles-of-fun-as-uk-researchers-create-the-worlds-thinnest-spaghetti/#primaryimage","url":"https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/Low-Res_spaghetti-closeup.webp","contentUrl":"https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/Low-Res_spaghetti-closeup.webp","width":700,"height":525,"caption":"Penne for your thoughts: not visible with the naked eye, the spaghetti is only 372 nanometres across (courtesy: Beatrice Britton / Adam Clancy)"},{"@type":"BreadcrumbList","@id":"https://physicsworld.com/noodles-of-fun-as-uk-researchers-create-the-worlds-thinnest-spaghetti/#breadcrumb","itemListElement":[{"@type":"ListItem","position":1,"name":"Home","item":"https://physicsworld.com/"},{"@type":"ListItem","position":2,"name":"Noodles of fun as UK researchers create the world's thinnest spaghetti"}]},{"@type":"WebSite","@id":"https://physicsworld.com/#website","url":"https://physicsworld.com/","name":"Physics World","description":"","potentialAction":[{"@type":"SearchAction","target":{"@type":"EntryPoint","urlTemplate":"https://physicsworld.com/?s={search_term_string}"},"query-input":{"@type":"PropertyValueSpecification","valueRequired":true,"valueName":"search_term_string"}}],"inLanguage":"en-GB"},{"@type":"Person","@id":"https://physicsworld.com/#/schema/person/b18b4a35db3bfcd6d7495bdf9b9c0b01","name":"Michael Banks","image":{"@type":"ImageObject","inLanguage":"en-GB","@id":"https://physicsworld.com/#/schema/person/image/","url":"https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/01/michael-banks-square-96x96.jpg","contentUrl":"https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/01/michael-banks-square-96x96.jpg","caption":"Michael Banks"},"description":"I am news editor of Physics World magazine. I also contribute regularly to the website and work on the Physics World special report programme. I joined Physics World in 2008 after completing a PhD in condensed-matter physics at the Max Planck Institute for Solid State Research in Stuttgart, Germany. I mostly cover the development of physics facilities around the world. Outside work, over the past couple of years I have become particularly adept at changing nappies.","url":"https://physicsworld.com/author/michael-banks/"}]}</script> <!-- / Yoast SEO plugin. --> <meta name="oas:article-type" content="blog" /> <meta name="oas:category" content="materials" /> <meta name="oas:article-topic" content="materials" /> <meta name="oas:article-id" content="118382" /><link rel='dns-prefetch' href='//cdn.jsdelivr.net' /> <link rel='dns-prefetch' href='//players.brightcove.net' /> <link rel='stylesheet' id='wp-block-library-css' href='https://physicsworld.com/wp-includes/css/dist/block-library/style.min.css?ver=6.6.1' type='text/css' media='all' /> <style id='safe-svg-svg-icon-style-inline-css' type='text/css'> .safe-svg-cover{text-align:center}.safe-svg-cover .safe-svg-inside{display:inline-block;max-width:100%}.safe-svg-cover svg{height:100%;max-height:100%;max-width:100%;width:100%} </style> <style id='powerpress-player-block-style-inline-css' type='text/css'> </style> <style id='classic-theme-styles-inline-css' type='text/css'> /*! This file is auto-generated */ .wp-block-button__link{color:#fff;background-color:#32373c;border-radius:9999px;box-shadow:none;text-decoration:none;padding:calc(.667em + 2px) calc(1.333em + 2px);font-size:1.125em}.wp-block-file__button{background:#32373c;color:#fff;text-decoration:none} </style> <style id='global-styles-inline-css' type='text/css'> :root{--wp--preset--aspect-ratio--square: 1;--wp--preset--aspect-ratio--4-3: 4/3;--wp--preset--aspect-ratio--3-4: 3/4;--wp--preset--aspect-ratio--3-2: 3/2;--wp--preset--aspect-ratio--2-3: 2/3;--wp--preset--aspect-ratio--16-9: 16/9;--wp--preset--aspect-ratio--9-16: 9/16;--wp--preset--color--black: #000000;--wp--preset--color--cyan-bluish-gray: #abb8c3;--wp--preset--color--white: #ffffff;--wp--preset--color--pale-pink: #f78da7;--wp--preset--color--vivid-red: #cf2e2e;--wp--preset--color--luminous-vivid-orange: #ff6900;--wp--preset--color--luminous-vivid-amber: #fcb900;--wp--preset--color--light-green-cyan: #7bdcb5;--wp--preset--color--vivid-green-cyan: #00d084;--wp--preset--color--pale-cyan-blue: #8ed1fc;--wp--preset--color--vivid-cyan-blue: #0693e3;--wp--preset--color--vivid-purple: #9b51e0;--wp--preset--gradient--vivid-cyan-blue-to-vivid-purple: linear-gradient(135deg,rgba(6,147,227,1) 0%,rgb(155,81,224) 100%);--wp--preset--gradient--light-green-cyan-to-vivid-green-cyan: linear-gradient(135deg,rgb(122,220,180) 0%,rgb(0,208,130) 100%);--wp--preset--gradient--luminous-vivid-amber-to-luminous-vivid-orange: linear-gradient(135deg,rgba(252,185,0,1) 0%,rgba(255,105,0,1) 100%);--wp--preset--gradient--luminous-vivid-orange-to-vivid-red: linear-gradient(135deg,rgba(255,105,0,1) 0%,rgb(207,46,46) 100%);--wp--preset--gradient--very-light-gray-to-cyan-bluish-gray: linear-gradient(135deg,rgb(238,238,238) 0%,rgb(169,184,195) 100%);--wp--preset--gradient--cool-to-warm-spectrum: linear-gradient(135deg,rgb(74,234,220) 0%,rgb(151,120,209) 20%,rgb(207,42,186) 40%,rgb(238,44,130) 60%,rgb(251,105,98) 80%,rgb(254,248,76) 100%);--wp--preset--gradient--blush-light-purple: linear-gradient(135deg,rgb(255,206,236) 0%,rgb(152,150,240) 100%);--wp--preset--gradient--blush-bordeaux: linear-gradient(135deg,rgb(254,205,165) 0%,rgb(254,45,45) 50%,rgb(107,0,62) 100%);--wp--preset--gradient--luminous-dusk: linear-gradient(135deg,rgb(255,203,112) 0%,rgb(199,81,192) 50%,rgb(65,88,208) 100%);--wp--preset--gradient--pale-ocean: linear-gradient(135deg,rgb(255,245,203) 0%,rgb(182,227,212) 50%,rgb(51,167,181) 100%);--wp--preset--gradient--electric-grass: linear-gradient(135deg,rgb(202,248,128) 0%,rgb(113,206,126) 100%);--wp--preset--gradient--midnight: linear-gradient(135deg,rgb(2,3,129) 0%,rgb(40,116,252) 100%);--wp--preset--font-size--small: 13px;--wp--preset--font-size--medium: 20px;--wp--preset--font-size--large: 36px;--wp--preset--font-size--x-large: 42px;--wp--preset--spacing--20: 0.44rem;--wp--preset--spacing--30: 0.67rem;--wp--preset--spacing--40: 1rem;--wp--preset--spacing--50: 1.5rem;--wp--preset--spacing--60: 2.25rem;--wp--preset--spacing--70: 3.38rem;--wp--preset--spacing--80: 5.06rem;--wp--preset--shadow--natural: 6px 6px 9px rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.2);--wp--preset--shadow--deep: 12px 12px 50px rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.4);--wp--preset--shadow--sharp: 6px 6px 0px rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.2);--wp--preset--shadow--outlined: 6px 6px 0px -3px rgba(255, 255, 255, 1), 6px 6px rgba(0, 0, 0, 1);--wp--preset--shadow--crisp: 6px 6px 0px rgba(0, 0, 0, 1);}:where(.is-layout-flex){gap: 0.5em;}:where(.is-layout-grid){gap: 0.5em;}body .is-layout-flex{display: flex;}.is-layout-flex{flex-wrap: wrap;align-items: center;}.is-layout-flex > :is(*, div){margin: 0;}body .is-layout-grid{display: grid;}.is-layout-grid > :is(*, div){margin: 0;}:where(.wp-block-columns.is-layout-flex){gap: 2em;}:where(.wp-block-columns.is-layout-grid){gap: 2em;}:where(.wp-block-post-template.is-layout-flex){gap: 1.25em;}:where(.wp-block-post-template.is-layout-grid){gap: 1.25em;}.has-black-color{color: var(--wp--preset--color--black) !important;}.has-cyan-bluish-gray-color{color: var(--wp--preset--color--cyan-bluish-gray) !important;}.has-white-color{color: var(--wp--preset--color--white) !important;}.has-pale-pink-color{color: var(--wp--preset--color--pale-pink) !important;}.has-vivid-red-color{color: var(--wp--preset--color--vivid-red) !important;}.has-luminous-vivid-orange-color{color: var(--wp--preset--color--luminous-vivid-orange) !important;}.has-luminous-vivid-amber-color{color: var(--wp--preset--color--luminous-vivid-amber) !important;}.has-light-green-cyan-color{color: var(--wp--preset--color--light-green-cyan) !important;}.has-vivid-green-cyan-color{color: var(--wp--preset--color--vivid-green-cyan) !important;}.has-pale-cyan-blue-color{color: var(--wp--preset--color--pale-cyan-blue) !important;}.has-vivid-cyan-blue-color{color: var(--wp--preset--color--vivid-cyan-blue) !important;}.has-vivid-purple-color{color: var(--wp--preset--color--vivid-purple) !important;}.has-black-background-color{background-color: var(--wp--preset--color--black) !important;}.has-cyan-bluish-gray-background-color{background-color: var(--wp--preset--color--cyan-bluish-gray) !important;}.has-white-background-color{background-color: var(--wp--preset--color--white) !important;}.has-pale-pink-background-color{background-color: var(--wp--preset--color--pale-pink) !important;}.has-vivid-red-background-color{background-color: var(--wp--preset--color--vivid-red) !important;}.has-luminous-vivid-orange-background-color{background-color: var(--wp--preset--color--luminous-vivid-orange) !important;}.has-luminous-vivid-amber-background-color{background-color: var(--wp--preset--color--luminous-vivid-amber) !important;}.has-light-green-cyan-background-color{background-color: var(--wp--preset--color--light-green-cyan) !important;}.has-vivid-green-cyan-background-color{background-color: var(--wp--preset--color--vivid-green-cyan) !important;}.has-pale-cyan-blue-background-color{background-color: var(--wp--preset--color--pale-cyan-blue) !important;}.has-vivid-cyan-blue-background-color{background-color: var(--wp--preset--color--vivid-cyan-blue) !important;}.has-vivid-purple-background-color{background-color: var(--wp--preset--color--vivid-purple) !important;}.has-black-border-color{border-color: var(--wp--preset--color--black) !important;}.has-cyan-bluish-gray-border-color{border-color: var(--wp--preset--color--cyan-bluish-gray) !important;}.has-white-border-color{border-color: var(--wp--preset--color--white) !important;}.has-pale-pink-border-color{border-color: var(--wp--preset--color--pale-pink) !important;}.has-vivid-red-border-color{border-color: var(--wp--preset--color--vivid-red) !important;}.has-luminous-vivid-orange-border-color{border-color: var(--wp--preset--color--luminous-vivid-orange) !important;}.has-luminous-vivid-amber-border-color{border-color: var(--wp--preset--color--luminous-vivid-amber) !important;}.has-light-green-cyan-border-color{border-color: var(--wp--preset--color--light-green-cyan) !important;}.has-vivid-green-cyan-border-color{border-color: var(--wp--preset--color--vivid-green-cyan) !important;}.has-pale-cyan-blue-border-color{border-color: var(--wp--preset--color--pale-cyan-blue) !important;}.has-vivid-cyan-blue-border-color{border-color: var(--wp--preset--color--vivid-cyan-blue) !important;}.has-vivid-purple-border-color{border-color: var(--wp--preset--color--vivid-purple) !important;}.has-vivid-cyan-blue-to-vivid-purple-gradient-background{background: var(--wp--preset--gradient--vivid-cyan-blue-to-vivid-purple) !important;}.has-light-green-cyan-to-vivid-green-cyan-gradient-background{background: var(--wp--preset--gradient--light-green-cyan-to-vivid-green-cyan) !important;}.has-luminous-vivid-amber-to-luminous-vivid-orange-gradient-background{background: var(--wp--preset--gradient--luminous-vivid-amber-to-luminous-vivid-orange) !important;}.has-luminous-vivid-orange-to-vivid-red-gradient-background{background: var(--wp--preset--gradient--luminous-vivid-orange-to-vivid-red) !important;}.has-very-light-gray-to-cyan-bluish-gray-gradient-background{background: var(--wp--preset--gradient--very-light-gray-to-cyan-bluish-gray) !important;}.has-cool-to-warm-spectrum-gradient-background{background: var(--wp--preset--gradient--cool-to-warm-spectrum) !important;}.has-blush-light-purple-gradient-background{background: var(--wp--preset--gradient--blush-light-purple) !important;}.has-blush-bordeaux-gradient-background{background: var(--wp--preset--gradient--blush-bordeaux) !important;}.has-luminous-dusk-gradient-background{background: var(--wp--preset--gradient--luminous-dusk) !important;}.has-pale-ocean-gradient-background{background: var(--wp--preset--gradient--pale-ocean) !important;}.has-electric-grass-gradient-background{background: var(--wp--preset--gradient--electric-grass) !important;}.has-midnight-gradient-background{background: var(--wp--preset--gradient--midnight) !important;}.has-small-font-size{font-size: var(--wp--preset--font-size--small) !important;}.has-medium-font-size{font-size: var(--wp--preset--font-size--medium) !important;}.has-large-font-size{font-size: var(--wp--preset--font-size--large) !important;}.has-x-large-font-size{font-size: var(--wp--preset--font-size--x-large) !important;} :where(.wp-block-post-template.is-layout-flex){gap: 1.25em;}:where(.wp-block-post-template.is-layout-grid){gap: 1.25em;} :where(.wp-block-columns.is-layout-flex){gap: 2em;}:where(.wp-block-columns.is-layout-grid){gap: 2em;} :root :where(.wp-block-pullquote){font-size: 1.5em;line-height: 1.6;} </style> <link rel='stylesheet' id='nine3-style-css' href='https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/themes/iopp/dist/css/main.d85b8b6e29494c1a81f4c002bb8e1b11.css?ver=6.6.1' type='text/css' media='all' /> <link rel='stylesheet' id='brightcove-pip-css-css' href='https://players.brightcove.net/videojs-pip/1/videojs-pip.css?ver=2.8.7' type='text/css' media='all' /> <link rel='stylesheet' id='brightcove-playlist-css' href='https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/plugins/brightcove-video-connect/assets/css/brightcove_playlist.min.css?ver=2.8.7' type='text/css' media='all' /> <script src="https://physicsworld.com/wp-includes/js/jquery/jquery.min.js?ver=3.7.1" id="jquery-core-js"></script> <script src="https://physicsworld.com/wp-includes/js/jquery/jquery-migrate.min.js?ver=3.4.1" id="jquery-migrate-js"></script> <script id="real3d-flipbook-forntend-js-extra"> var rootFolder = ["https:\/\/physicsworld.com\/wp-content\/plugins\/real3d-flipbook\/"]; </script> <script src="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/plugins/real3d-flipbook/js/frontend.js?ver=3.61" id="real3d-flipbook-forntend-js"></script> <link rel="https://api.w.org/" href="https://physicsworld.com/wp-json/" /><link rel="alternate" title="JSON" type="application/json" href="https://physicsworld.com/wp-json/wp/v2/posts/118382" /><link rel="EditURI" type="application/rsd+xml" title="RSD" href="https://physicsworld.com/xmlrpc.php?rsd" /> <link rel='shortlink' href='https://physicsworld.com/?p=118382' /> <link rel="alternate" title="oEmbed (JSON)" type="application/json+oembed" href="https://physicsworld.com/wp-json/oembed/1.0/embed?url=https%3A%2F%2Fphysicsworld.com%2Fa%2Fnoodles-of-fun-as-uk-researchers-create-the-worlds-thinnest-spaghetti%2F" /> <link rel="alternate" title="oEmbed (XML)" type="text/xml+oembed" href="https://physicsworld.com/wp-json/oembed/1.0/embed?url=https%3A%2F%2Fphysicsworld.com%2Fa%2Fnoodles-of-fun-as-uk-researchers-create-the-worlds-thinnest-spaghetti%2F&format=xml" /> <script id="dzsap-main-settings" type="application/json">{"dzsap_site_url":"https:\/\/physicsworld.com\/","pluginurl":"https:\/\/physicsworld.com\/wp-content\/plugins\/dzs-zoomsounds\/audioplayer\/","dzsap_curr_user":0,"version":"6.50","ajax_url":"https:\/\/physicsworld.com\/wp-admin\/admin-ajax.php","action_received_time_total":"send_total_time"}</script> <script type="text/javascript"><!-- function powerpress_pinw(pinw_url){window.open(pinw_url, 'PowerPressPlayer','toolbar=0,status=0,resizable=1,width=460,height=320'); return false;} //--> </script> <!-- Stream WordPress user activity plugin v4.0.2 --> <meta name="onesignal" content="wordpress-plugin"/> <script> window.OneSignal = window.OneSignal || []; OneSignal.push( function() { OneSignal.SERVICE_WORKER_UPDATER_PATH = "OneSignalSDKUpdaterWorker.js.php"; OneSignal.SERVICE_WORKER_PATH = "OneSignalSDKWorker.js.php"; OneSignal.SERVICE_WORKER_PARAM = { scope: "/" }; OneSignal.setDefaultNotificationUrl("https://physicsworld.com"); var oneSignal_options = {}; window._oneSignalInitOptions = oneSignal_options; oneSignal_options['wordpress'] = true; oneSignal_options['appId'] = '7322d010-59eb-4b97-8b58-47d4ecec27f1'; oneSignal_options['allowLocalhostAsSecureOrigin'] = true; oneSignal_options['welcomeNotification'] = { }; oneSignal_options['welcomeNotification']['title'] = "Physics World"; oneSignal_options['welcomeNotification']['message'] = ""; oneSignal_options['path'] = "https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/plugins/onesignal-free-web-push-notifications/sdk_files/"; oneSignal_options['promptOptions'] = { }; oneSignal_options['notifyButton'] = { }; oneSignal_options['notifyButton']['enable'] = true; oneSignal_options['notifyButton']['position'] = 'bottom-right'; oneSignal_options['notifyButton']['theme'] = 'default'; oneSignal_options['notifyButton']['size'] = 'medium'; oneSignal_options['notifyButton']['showCredit'] = true; oneSignal_options['notifyButton']['text'] = {}; OneSignal.init(window._oneSignalInitOptions); OneSignal.showSlidedownPrompt(); }); function documentInitOneSignal() { var oneSignal_elements = document.getElementsByClassName("OneSignal-prompt"); var oneSignalLinkClickHandler = function(event) { OneSignal.push(['registerForPushNotifications']); event.preventDefault(); }; for(var i = 0; i < oneSignal_elements.length; i++) oneSignal_elements[i].addEventListener('click', oneSignalLinkClickHandler, false); } if (document.readyState === 'complete') { documentInitOneSignal(); } else { window.addEventListener("load", function(event){ documentInitOneSignal(); }); } </script> <!-- Hotjar Tracking Code for physicsworld.com --> <script> (function(h,o,t,j,a,r){ h.hj=h.hj||function(){(h.hj.q=h.hj.q||[]).push(arguments)}; h._hjSettings={hjid:788234,hjsv:6}; a=o.getElementsByTagName('head')[0]; r=o.createElement('script');r.async=1; r.src=t+h._hjSettings.hjid+j+h._hjSettings.hjsv; a.appendChild(r); })(window,document,'https://static.hotjar.com/c/hotjar-','.js?sv='); /* Hotjar user attributes */ window.hj( 'identify', null, { Language: window.navigator.language, }); </script> <script async src="https://securepubads.g.doubleclick.net/tag/js/gpt.js"></script> <script> "use strict"; /** * Returns the OpenGraph type of this page (as set by Yoast) * * Cannot use `getMetaContent` for this as it uses the "property" attribute * instead of the expected "name". * * @return {string} OpenGraph type */ function getOgType() { let og_type = document.querySelector('meta[property="og:type"]'); return ( og_type && og_type.content ? og_type.content : '' ); } /** * Returns the content attribute of the named <meta> tag * * @param {string} name - Meta name * @return {string} Meta content */ function getMetaContent( name ) { let element = document.querySelector('meta[name="' + name + '"]'); return element ? element.content : ''; } /** * Defines a GA slot only if the slot actually exists * * @param {string} ref - Slot reference * @param {Array} dimensions - Target dimensions * @param {string} slot_id - Element ID * @param {PubAdsService} service - Service to bind to */ function defineIfSlot(ref, dimensions, slot_id, service) { const element = document.getElementById(slot_id); // No ad slot if (!element) return; return googletag.defineSlot(ref, dimensions, slot_id).addService(service); } window.googletag = ( window.googletag || { cmd: [] } ); googletag.cmd.push( function() { const pubads = googletag.pubads(); // Conditionally define slots only if the element actually exists defineIfSlot('/21821800277/pw/pw_r2_ap', [300, 250], 'div-gpt-ad-1567436410454-0', pubads); defineIfSlot('/21821800277/pw/pw_m_ap', [[300,250]], 'div-gpt-ad-3759129-1', pubads); defineIfSlot('/21821800277/pw/pw_x01_gs', [[160,60]], 'div-gpt-ad-3759129-2', pubads); defineIfSlot('/21821800277/pw/pw_x02_gs', [[160,60]], 'div-gpt-ad-3759129-3', pubads); defineIfSlot('/21821800277/pw/pw_x03_gs', [[160,60]], 'div-gpt-ad-3759129-4', pubads); defineIfSlot('/21821800277/pw/pw_x04_gs', [[160,60]], 'div-gpt-ad-3759129-5', pubads); defineIfSlot('/21821800277/pw/pw_x05_gs', [[160,60]], 'div-gpt-ad-3759129-6', pubads); defineIfSlot('/21821800277/pw/pw_x06_gs', [[160,60]], 'div-gpt-ad-3759129-7', pubads); defineIfSlot('/21821800277/pw/pw_r_ap', [300, 250], 'div-gpt-ad-1563268425067-0', pubads); defineIfSlot('/21821800277/pw/pw_r1_ap', [[300,250]], 'div-gpt-ad-3759129-11', pubads); defineIfSlot('/21821800277/pw/pw_x10_ss', [[160,60]], 'div-gpt-ad-3759129-12', pubads); defineIfSlot('/21821800277/pw/pw_x11_ss', [[160,60]], 'div-gpt-ad-3759129-13', pubads); defineIfSlot('/21821800277/pw/pw_x12_ss', [[160,60]], 'div-gpt-ad-3759129-14', pubads); defineIfSlot('/21821800277/pw/pw_x13_ss', [[160,60]], 'div-gpt-ad-3759129-15', pubads); defineIfSlot('/21821800277/pw/pw_x14_ss', [160, 60], 'div-gpt-ad-1563269243507-0', pubads); defineIfSlot('/21821800277/pw/pw_x15_ss', [[160,60]], 'div-gpt-ad-3759129-17', pubads); const leaderboard = googletag.sizeMapping() .addSize([970, 0], [[970, 90], [728, 90]]) // Larger screen ads .addSize([768, 0], [[728, 90]]) // Smaller (laptop) screen ads .addSize([0, 0], [[300, 250], [320, 50]]) // Mobile screen ads .build(); // Homepage & listing ads const t_1 = defineIfSlot('/21821800277/pw/pw_t_hp', [[970,90],[728,90],[729,90],[300,250],[320,50]], 'div-gpt-ad-3759129-18', pubads); const t_2 = defineIfSlot('/21821800277/pw/pw_t1_hp', [[970,90],[728,90],[729,90],[300,250],[320,50]], 'div-gpt-ad-3759129-19', pubads); const t_3 = defineIfSlot('/21821800277/pw/pw_t2_hp', [[970,90],[728,90],[729,90],[300,250],[320,50]], 'div-gpt-ad-3759129-20', pubads); // Only map if they actually exist t_1 && t_1.defineSizeMapping(leaderboard); t_2 && t_2.defineSizeMapping(leaderboard); t_3 && t_3.defineSizeMapping(leaderboard); // Search results const headerSize = googletag.sizeMapping() .addSize([970, 0], [[970, 90]]) .addSize([0, 0], [[320, 50]]) .build() // Header ad (always appears) googletag.defineSlot('/21821800277/pw/pw_h_sw', [[970,90], [320, 50]], 'div-gpt-ad-5400963-20').defineSizeMapping(headerSize).addService(pubads); // Only apply targeting if values exist const article_og = getOgType(); if ( article_og ) { pubads.setTargeting( "articleTag", article_og ); } const article_type = getMetaContent( "oas:article-type" ); if ( article_type ) { pubads.setTargeting( "articleType", article_type ); } const article_category = getMetaContent( "oas:category" ); if ( article_category ) { pubads.setTargeting( "category", article_category ); } const article_sub = getMetaContent( "oas:sub-category" ); if ( article_sub ) { pubads.setTargeting( "subCategory", article_sub ); } pubads.setTargeting( "articleId", "118382" ); // Add class to body if ads are visible pubads.addEventListener( "impressionViewable", function () { document.body.classList.add("has-ads"); }); pubads.enableSingleRequest(); pubads.collapseEmptyDivs(); // Start! googletag.enableServices(); }); </script> <!-- <style> div.advert::after { content:'Advertisement'; display:block; text-align: left; font-size:12px; color: #9B9B9B; } </style> --> </head> <body class="post-template-default single single-post postid-118382 single-format-standard category-materials not-logged-in"> <a class="sr-only" href="#main-content">Skip to main content</a> <!-- Google Tag Manager (noscript) --> <noscript aria-hidden="true"> <iframe src="https://www.googletagmanager.com/ns.html?id=GTM-TQRT9K38" height="0" width="0" style="display:none;visibility:hidden" > </iframe> </noscript> <!-- End Google Tag Manager (noscript) --> <header class="physics-world-nav"> <span class="mpu align-none" aria-hidden="true"> <div id='div-gpt-ad-5400963-20' class="advert"> <!-- remove class advert__fallback 14/03/24 as requested by Alison --> <script> googletag.cmd.push(function() { googletag.display('div-gpt-ad-5400963-20'); }); </script> </div> </span> <div class="top-bar"> <div class="top-bar__left"> <a href="https://ioppublishing.org/" class="top-bar__logo" target="_blank" rel="noopener"> <img src="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/themes/iopp/static/img/iop-publishing-logo-white.png" width="198" height="31" alt="" /> <span class="sr-only">IOP Publishing site</span> </a> </div> <button class="top-bar__menu--mobile"> Menu </button> <div class="top-bar__right"> <div class="top-bar__user"> <ul class="top-bar__links"> <li><button class="sign-in-btn"><span class="top-bar__icon"></span>Sign in</button></li> <li><button class="register-btn">Register</button></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <div class="physics-world-nav__wrapper"> <div class="physics-world-nav__left"> <a href="https://physicsworld.com" class="physics-world-nav__logo"> <span class="sr-only">Back to homepage</span> <img src="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/themes/iopp/static/img/svg/logo-materials.svg" alt="" width="217" height="40" /> </a> </div> <div class="physics-world-nav__right"> <nav class="nav-items__wrapper"> <button class="physics-world-nav__dropdown">Topics</button> <div class="topic-dropdown" aria-expanded="false"> <div class="wrapper"> <div class="topic-content-container"> <div><img width="798" height="449" src="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/KR-centred-abstract-torus-of-lights-1024x576.jpg" class="attachment-large size-large" alt="" decoding="async" fetchpriority="high" srcset="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/KR-centred-abstract-torus-of-lights-1024x576.jpg 1024w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/KR-centred-abstract-torus-of-lights-211x119.jpg 211w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/KR-centred-abstract-torus-of-lights-317x178.jpg 317w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/KR-centred-abstract-torus-of-lights-768x432.jpg 768w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/KR-centred-abstract-torus-of-lights-711x400.jpg 711w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/KR-centred-abstract-torus-of-lights-732x412.jpg 732w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/KR-centred-abstract-torus-of-lights-720x405.jpg 720w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/KR-centred-abstract-torus-of-lights-635x357.jpg 635w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/KR-centred-abstract-torus-of-lights-350x197.jpg 350w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/KR-centred-abstract-torus-of-lights-257x145.jpg 257w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/KR-centred-abstract-torus-of-lights-300x169.jpg 300w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/KR-centred-abstract-torus-of-lights-160x90.jpg 160w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/KR-centred-abstract-torus-of-lights-128x72.jpg 128w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/KR-centred-abstract-torus-of-lights.jpg 1200w" sizes="(max-width: 798px) 100vw, 798px" /><h2>Browse articles by topic</h2></div> <ul class="topic-dropdown__list"> <li> <a href="https://physicsworld.com/c/astronomy-space/"> <span class="topic-dropdown__icon" style="background-color:;"> <img src="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/08/Astronomy_and_space_164193.svg" alt="" loading="lazy" /> </span> <span class="topic-dropdown__title">Astronomy and space</span> </a> </li> <li> <a href="https://physicsworld.com/c/atomic-molecular/"> <span class="topic-dropdown__icon" style="background-color:;"> <img src="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/08/Atomic_and_molecular__774E92.svg" alt="" loading="lazy" /> </span> <span class="topic-dropdown__title">Atomic and molecular</span> </a> </li> <li> <a href="https://physicsworld.com/c/biophysics-bioengineering/"> <span class="topic-dropdown__icon" style="background-color:;"> <img src="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/08/Biophysics_and_bioengineering__05958E-1.svg" alt="" loading="lazy" /> </span> <span class="topic-dropdown__title">Biophysics and bioengineering</span> </a> </li> <li> <a href="https://physicsworld.com/c/condensed-matter/"> <span class="topic-dropdown__icon" style="background-color:;"> <img src="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/08/Condensed_matter__774E92.svg" alt="" loading="lazy" /> </span> <span class="topic-dropdown__title">Condensed matter</span> </a> </li> <li> <a href="https://physicsworld.com/c/culture-history-society/"> <span class="topic-dropdown__icon" style="background-color:;"> <img src="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/03/Culture.svg" alt="" loading="lazy" /> </span> <span class="topic-dropdown__title">Culture, history and society</span> </a> </li> <li> <a href="https://physicsworld.com/c/environment-energy/"> <span class="topic-dropdown__icon" style="background-color:;"> <img src="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/08/Environment_and_energy__85AD21-1.svg" alt="" loading="lazy" /> </span> <span class="topic-dropdown__title">Environment and energy</span> </a> </li> <li> <a href="https://physicsworld.com/c/instrumentation-measurement/"> <span class="topic-dropdown__icon" style="background-color:;"> <img src="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/08/Instrumentation_and_measurement__9D9D9C.svg" alt="" loading="lazy" /> </span> <span class="topic-dropdown__title">Instrumentation and measurement</span> </a> </li> <li> <a href="https://physicsworld.com/c/materials/"> <span class="topic-dropdown__icon" style="background-color:;"> <img src="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/08/Materials__0085C8.svg" alt="" loading="lazy" /> </span> <span class="topic-dropdown__title">Materials</span> </a> </li> <li> <a href="https://physicsworld.com/c/mathematics-computation/"> <span class="topic-dropdown__icon" style="background-color:;"> <img src="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/08/Mathematics_and_computation__EC660F.svg" alt="" loading="lazy" /> </span> <span class="topic-dropdown__title">Mathematics and computation</span> </a> </li> <li> <a href="https://physicsworld.com/c/medical-physics/"> <span class="topic-dropdown__icon" style="background-color:;"> <img src="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/08/Medical_physics__05958.svg" alt="" loading="lazy" /> </span> <span class="topic-dropdown__title">Medical physics</span> </a> </li> <li> <a href="https://physicsworld.com/c/optics-photonics/"> <span class="topic-dropdown__icon" style="background-color:;"> <img src="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/08/Optics_and_photonics__774E92.svg" alt="" loading="lazy" /> </span> <span class="topic-dropdown__title">Optics and photonics</span> </a> </li> <li> <a href="https://physicsworld.com/c/particle-nuclear/"> <span class="topic-dropdown__icon" style="background-color:;"> <img src="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/08/Particle_and_nuclear__774E92.svg" alt="" loading="lazy" /> </span> <span class="topic-dropdown__title">Particle and nuclear</span> </a> </li> <li> <a href="https://physicsworld.com/c/people/"> <span class="topic-dropdown__icon" style="background-color:;"> <img src="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/10/People-icon-purple.svg" alt="" loading="lazy" /> </span> <span class="topic-dropdown__title">People</span> </a> </li> <li> <a href="https://physicsworld.com/c/quantum/"> <span class="topic-dropdown__icon" style="background-color:;"> <img src="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/08/Quantum__774E92.svg" alt="" loading="lazy" /> </span> <span class="topic-dropdown__title">Quantum</span> </a> </li> <li> <a href="https://physicsworld.com/c/scientific-enterprise/"> <span class="topic-dropdown__icon" style="background-color:;"> <img src="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/03/Enterprise-cogs.svg" alt="" loading="lazy" /> </span> <span class="topic-dropdown__title">Scientific enterprise</span> </a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> <!-- <button class="topic-dropdown__view-more"> <span>View more</span> </button> --> </div> <div class='primary-nav'><ul class='menu'><li class='menu-item-has-children'><button class='menu-item-button' aria-expanded='false'>Latest content</button><ul class='sub-menu'><li class='menu-item__featured-content'><div><img width="798" height="394" src="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/big-data-concept-2055335264-shutterstock_greenbutterfly-WEB-1024x506.jpg" class="attachment-large size-large" alt="" decoding="async" srcset="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/big-data-concept-2055335264-shutterstock_greenbutterfly-WEB-1024x506.jpg 1024w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/big-data-concept-2055335264-shutterstock_greenbutterfly-WEB-211x104.jpg 211w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/big-data-concept-2055335264-shutterstock_greenbutterfly-WEB-317x157.jpg 317w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/big-data-concept-2055335264-shutterstock_greenbutterfly-WEB-768x380.jpg 768w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/big-data-concept-2055335264-shutterstock_greenbutterfly-WEB-809x400.jpg 809w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/big-data-concept-2055335264-shutterstock_greenbutterfly-WEB-732x362.jpg 732w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/big-data-concept-2055335264-shutterstock_greenbutterfly-WEB-720x356.jpg 720w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/big-data-concept-2055335264-shutterstock_greenbutterfly-WEB-635x314.jpg 635w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/big-data-concept-2055335264-shutterstock_greenbutterfly-WEB-350x173.jpg 350w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/big-data-concept-2055335264-shutterstock_greenbutterfly-WEB-257x127.jpg 257w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/big-data-concept-2055335264-shutterstock_greenbutterfly-WEB-300x148.jpg 300w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/big-data-concept-2055335264-shutterstock_greenbutterfly-WEB-160x79.jpg 160w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/big-data-concept-2055335264-shutterstock_greenbutterfly-WEB-128x63.jpg 128w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/big-data-concept-2055335264-shutterstock_greenbutterfly-WEB.jpg 1200w" sizes="(max-width: 798px) 100vw, 798px" /><h2>Browse articles by content type</h2></div></li><li><h2>Short reads</h2><ul class='sub-menu'><li><a href='https://physicsworld.com/l/research-updates/'>Research updates</a></li><li><a href='https://physicsworld.com/l/news/'>News</a></li><li><a href='https://physicsworld.com/l/blog/'>Blog</a></li><li><a href='https://physicsworld.com/l/innovation-showcases/'>Innovation showcases</a></li><li><a href='https://physicsworld.com/events/'>Events</a></li></ul></li><li><h2>Long reads</h2><ul class='sub-menu'><li><a href='https://physicsworld.com/l/features/'>Features</a></li><li><a href='https://physicsworld.com/l/opinion-reviews/'>Opinion and reviews</a></li><li><a href='https://physicsworld.com/l/interviews/'>Interviews</a></li><li><a href='https://physicsworld.com/l/analysis/'>Analysis</a></li></ul></li><li><h2>Multimedia</h2><ul class='sub-menu'><li><a href='https://physicsworld.com/l/audio/'>Podcasts</a></li><li><a href='https://physicsworld.com/l/videos/'>Video</a></li><li><a href='https://physicsworld.com/l/webinars/'>Webinars</a></li></ul></li></ul></li><li class=''><a href='https://physicsworld.com/p/magazine/archive/'>Magazine</a></li><li class=''><a href='https://physicsworld.com/p/physics-world-live/'>Physics World Live</a></li></ul></div> <a href="https://www.physicsworldjobs.com" target="_blank" class="nav__link-img link-img--pw-jobs"> <span class='screen-reader-text'>IOP Physics World Jobs logo</span> <svg width="121" height="18" fill="none" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g clip-path="url(#a)"><path fill-rule="evenodd" clip-rule="evenodd" d="M84.433 9.612V7.308c0-.324-.105-.792-.281-1.08-.352-.864-1.02-1.44-1.97-1.44-1.971 0-2.183 2.52-2.183 4.032 0 1.584.176 4.176 2.288 4.176.492 0 .915-.144 1.302-.468.844-.72.844-1.836.844-2.916Zm1.478 4.428h-1.337V12.6c-.598 1.116-1.443 1.656-2.71 1.656-2.815 0-3.554-2.88-3.554-5.256 0-2.34.775-5.508 3.59-5.508 1.196 0 2.006.504 2.533 1.62V.9h1.478v13.14Z" fill="#9460A4"/><path d="M8.879 8.783c0-2.124-.563-5.22-3.237-5.22-1.197 0-1.725.72-2.288 1.692V3.707H.75V17.53h2.78v-4.248c.528.613 1.091.937 1.936.937 2.815-.037 3.413-3.133 3.413-5.436Zm-2.92-.072c0 .755.034 2.34-.388 2.987-.211.36-.457.468-.88.468-1.302 0-1.196-1.296-1.196-2.268v-2.52c0-.864.211-1.907 1.267-1.907 1.302 0 1.196 2.196 1.196 3.095v.144ZM17.29 14.04V7.164c0-1.908-.211-3.672-2.534-3.672-1.126 0-1.83.324-2.463 1.296V.9H9.478v13.14h2.815V7.488c0-.936.105-1.728 1.196-1.728 1.056 0 .986.792.986 1.692v6.588h2.815ZM25.207 3.709H22.78l-1.302 6.3-1.372-6.3H17.29l2.885 10.152c-.317 1.116-.492 1.476-1.654 1.476a5.65 5.65 0 0 1-.81-.072v2.268c.423.108.81.18 1.197.18 2.288 0 2.71-1.62 3.273-3.492l3.026-10.512ZM32.387 10.872c0-2.016-1.408-2.592-2.992-3.168-.316-.108-.95-.324-1.267-.54-.281-.216-.422-.468-.422-.864 0-.54.352-.9.88-.9.88 0 1.232.648 1.478 1.404l2.006-.612c-.458-1.764-1.654-2.7-3.414-2.7-1.935 0-3.59 1.188-3.59 3.276 0 1.944 1.409 2.7 3.027 3.24.352.108.88.288 1.197.504.317.216.422.468.422.864 0 .684-.528.936-1.09.936-.986 0-1.408-.612-1.62-1.548l-2.217.36c.317 2.196 1.69 3.06 3.801 3.06 2.006.072 3.8-1.08 3.8-3.312ZM35.8 3.709h-2.816v10.332H35.8V3.709ZM35.8.9h-2.816v1.908H35.8V.9ZM44.527 10.188l-2.64-.18c-.035.792-.175 1.908-1.16 1.908-1.373 0-1.338-2.232-1.338-3.168 0-.972.035-3.096 1.408-3.096.95 0 1.055 1.224 1.09 1.944l2.64-.108c-.106-1.224-.211-2.052-1.091-2.952-.774-.792-1.654-1.044-2.71-1.044-3.132 0-4.187 2.52-4.187 5.364 0 2.772.914 5.4 4.047 5.4 2.568 0 3.66-1.584 3.94-4.068ZM52.34 10.872c0-2.016-1.408-2.592-2.992-3.168-.316-.108-.95-.324-1.267-.54-.281-.216-.422-.468-.422-.864 0-.54.352-.9.88-.9.88 0 1.231.648 1.478 1.404l2.006-.612c-.458-1.764-1.654-2.7-3.414-2.7-1.935 0-3.59 1.188-3.59 3.276 0 1.944 1.408 2.7 3.027 3.24.352.108.88.288 1.197.504.316.216.422.468.422.864 0 .684-.528.936-1.09.936-.986 0-1.409-.612-1.62-1.548l-2.217.36c.317 2.196 1.69 3.06 3.8 3.06 2.007.072 3.802-1.08 3.802-3.312Z" class="svg-fill-colour"/><path fill-rule="evenodd" clip-rule="evenodd" d="M63.002 3.709h-1.231l-1.83 7.848-1.865-7.848h-1.091l-1.69 7.74-1.759-7.74h-1.478l2.499 10.332h1.372l1.619-7.272 1.724 7.272h1.267l2.463-10.332ZM70.568 9c0-2.664-.739-5.58-3.87-5.58-3.062 0-3.872 2.844-3.872 5.472 0 2.628.81 5.436 3.836 5.436 3.027 0 3.906-2.7 3.906-5.328Zm-1.654-.108c0 1.476-.21 4.14-2.217 4.14-2.005 0-2.217-2.664-2.217-4.176s.247-4.14 2.217-4.14c2.006 0 2.217 2.664 2.217 4.176ZM75.495 5.184V3.456c-.106-.036-.211-.036-.352-.036-.563 0-1.055.288-1.443.612-.598.54-.809 1.08-1.09 1.836v-2.16h-1.338V14.04h1.513V8.712c0-1.584.458-3.564 2.358-3.564.07 0 .246 0 .352.036Z" fill="#9460A4"/><path d="M77.712.9h-1.513v13.14h1.513V.9Z" fill="#9460A4"/><path d="M89.395.9h-.352v15.948h.352V.9ZM92.844 16.848c-.422 0-.774-.072-1.161-.18v-1.26c.351.108.668.18 1.02.18 1.161 0 1.161-.828 1.161-1.764V3.924h1.478v9c.036 1.944 0 3.924-2.498 3.924ZM93.829 2.7V.9h1.619v1.8h-1.619ZM100.339 14.545c-3.026 0-3.836-2.808-3.836-5.436s.81-5.472 3.871-5.472c3.132 0 3.871 2.88 3.871 5.58-.035 2.592-.915 5.328-3.906 5.328Zm0-9.612c-1.97 0-2.217 2.628-2.217 4.14 0 1.512.211 4.176 2.217 4.176 1.971 0 2.217-2.664 2.217-4.14 0-1.512-.211-4.176-2.217-4.176ZM108.926 14.473c-1.372 0-1.935-.432-2.569-1.656-.14.468-.246.972-.387 1.44h-.774V.29h1.478v5.004c.633-1.008 1.337-1.584 2.569-1.584 2.815 0 3.519 2.988 3.519 5.328 0 2.628-.809 5.436-3.836 5.436Zm.035-9.468c-1.654 0-2.252 1.836-2.252 3.276v1.584c0 1.584.317 3.348 2.217 3.348 2.112 0 2.182-2.628 2.182-4.212 0-1.62-.07-3.996-2.147-3.996ZM116.739 14.544c-2.006 0-3.203-.936-3.625-2.952l1.408-.324c.281 1.332.985 1.98 2.322 1.98.986 0 2.041-.54 2.041-1.692 0-1.872-3.237-1.728-4.504-2.88a2.592 2.592 0 0 1-.845-1.908c0-1.872 1.549-3.096 3.308-3.096.915 0 1.795.324 2.428 1.008.423.468.563.972.739 1.62l-1.302.324c-.316-.972-.879-1.656-1.97-1.656-.915 0-1.725.576-1.725 1.584 0 .828.599 1.224 1.302 1.476 1.725.54 4.118 1.008 4.118 3.384-.036 2.052-1.83 3.132-3.695 3.132Z" class="svg-fill-colour"/></g><defs><clipPath id="a"><path fill="#fff" transform="translate(.75)" d="M0 0h120v18H0z"/></clipPath></defs></svg> </a> </nav> <button class="physics-world-nav__search-btn"> <i class="fa fa-search" aria-hidden="true"></i> Search<span class="sr-only">Open Search Dialog</span> </button> </div> </div> <div class="homepage-search" aria-expanded="false"> <form action="https://physicsworld.com"> <label for="input-home-search">Search by content type, topic, person, research area and more</label> <div class="homepage-search__form-container"> <input id="input-home-search" type="search" name="s" placeholder="Search..." value="" /> <button type="submit"> <i class="fa fa-search" aria-hidden="true"></i>Search<span class="sr-only">Submit search</span> </button> </div> </form> </div> <div class="other-sites"> <ul class="items"> <li> <a href="https://ioppublishing.org" target="_blank" rel="noopener"> IOP Publishing </a> </li> </ul> <ul class="top-bar__social"> <li> <a href="https://www.facebook.com/physicsworld/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer"> <i class="fa fa-facebook" aria-hidden="true"></i> <span class="sr-only">Follow us on Facebook</span> </a> </li> <li> <a href="https://twitter.com/PhysicsWorld" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer"> <i class="fa fa-twitter" aria-hidden="true"></i> <span class="sr-only">Follow us on Twitter</span> </a> </li> <li> <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/company/physics-world" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer"> <i class="fa fa-linkedin" aria-hidden="true"></i> <span class="sr-only">Follow us on LinkedIn</span> </a> </li> <li> <a href="https://www.youtube.com/PhysicsWorldTV" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer"> <i class="fa fa-youtube-play" aria-hidden="true"></i> <span class="sr-only">Watch us on Youtube</span> </a> </li> <li> <a href="https://physicsworld.com/feed" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer"> <i class="fa fa-rss" aria-hidden="true"></i> <span class="sr-only">RSS Feed</span> </a> </li> </ul> <ul class="items"> <li> <a href="https://www.physicsworldjobs.com/" target="_blank" rel="noopener"> Jobs </a> </li> </ul> </div> </header> <div class="popup sign-in"> <div class="popup__tabs"> <button class="popup__tab popup__tab--active" data-tab="0">Sign in</button> </h4> <button class="popup__tab" data-tab="1">Register</button> <i class="fa fa-times-circle btn--close popup__close"></i> </div> <div class="popup__content"> <div class="sign-in__content popup__row popup__row--active ajax_container"> <form action="#" method="POST" data-ajax="login" class="login-form ajax__content" data-dest=".sign-in__content" data-keep="1"> <div class="flex flex--rows popup__row__content"> <div class="popup__col"> <input type="hidden" name="redirect" value="https://physicsworld.com/a/noodles-of-fun-as-uk-researchers-create-the-worlds-thinnest-spaghetti"> <input type="hidden" name="page" value="https://physicsworld.com/a/noodles-of-fun-as-uk-researchers-create-the-worlds-thinnest-spaghetti"> <ul class="sign-in__inputs"> <li> <label for="input-signin-email">Enter e-mail address</label> <input id="input-signin-email" type="email" name="user-email" required oninvalid="this.setCustomValidity('Please enter a valid e-mail address')" oninput="this.setCustomValidity('')"/> </li> <li class="password-input"> <label for="input-signin-password">Enter password</label> <input type="password" name="user-password" id="input-signin-password" class="password-field" required oninvalid="this.setCustomValidity('Please enter a password')" oninput="this.setCustomValidity('')"/> <input type="checkbox" name="password" id="show-pw" /> <label for="show-pw" class="password-label">Show</label> </li> <li> <div> <input type="checkbox" name="remember-me" id="form-checkbox" class="form-checkbox" /> <label for="form-checkbox"><span></span>Remember me</label> </div> <div> <a href="#" class="forgot-btn">Forgot your password?</a> </div> </li> </ul> <aside class="register__benefits"> <strong>Are you an IOP member?</strong> <p>Sign into your <em>Physics World</em> account to get access to all available digital issues of the monthly magazine. Your <em>Physics World</em> account is separate to any IOP accounts you may have</p> </aside> </div> <div class="popup__col"> <div class="field__attempts"> <strong>Sign in to</strong> <ul> <li>Access more than 20 years of online content</li> <li>Manage which e-mail newsletters you want to receive</li> <li>Read about the big breakthroughs and innovations across 13 scientific topics</li> <li>Explore the key issues and trends within the global scientific community</li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <div class="popup__actions"> <input type="submit" value="Sign in" class="btn btn--green" /> </div> </form> </div> <div class="register__form popup__row"> <form action="/" class="form-register ajax__content " method="POST" data-ajax="register" data-dest=".register__form" data-keep="1"> <div class="flex flex--rows popup__row__content"> <ul class="register__email gutter "> <li class="col-xs-12 col-sm-6"> <label for="input-register-email">Enter e-mail address</label> <input id="input-register-email" type="email" name="user-email" required oninvalid="this.setCustomValidity('Please enter a valid e-mail address')" oninput="this.setCustomValidity('')"/> <div class="tooltip"> <span class="fa fa-question-circle"></span> <span class="tooltip__content">This e-mail address will be used to create your account</span> </div> <aside class="register__benefits"> <strong>Are you an IOP member?</strong> <p>Create a <em>Physics World</em> account to get access to all available digital issues of the monthly magazine. Your <em>Physics World</em> account is separate to any IOP accounts you may have.</p> <p><strong>Note:</strong> The verification e-mail to complete your account registration should arrive immediately. However, in some cases it takes longer. Don't forget to check your spam folder.</p> <p>If you haven't received the e-mail in 24 hours, please contact <a href="mailto:customerservices@ioppublishing.org">customerservices@ioppublishing.org</a>.</p> </aside> </li> <li class="register__info col-xs-12 col-sm-6"> <strong>Registration is free, quick and easy</strong> <br /> <ul> <li>Access more than 20 years of online content</li> <li>Choose which e-mail newsletters you want to receive</li> <li>Read about the big breakthroughs and innovations across 13 scientific topics</li> <li>Explore the key issues and trends within the global scientific community</li> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> <div class="popup__actions"> <input type="submit" value="Register" class="btn btn--green" /> </div> </form> </div> </div> </div> <div class="popup forgot-password "> <div class="popup__tabs"> <h4 class="popup__tab popup__tab--full">Reset your password</h4> <i class="fa fa-times-circle btn--close popup__close"></i> </div> <div class="popup__content forgot-parent ajax__container"> <form class="popup__row popup__row--active ajax__content forgot-form " action="/" method="POST" data-ajax="forgot" data-dest=".forgot-parent" data-keep="1"> <div class="popup__row__content"> <p>Please enter the e-mail address you used to register to reset your password</p> <p><strong>Note:</strong> The verification e-mail to change your password should arrive immediately. However, in some cases it takes longer. Don't forget to check your spam folder.</p> <p>If you haven't received the e-mail in 24 hours, please contact <a href="mailto:customerservices@ioppublishing.org">customerservices@ioppublishing.org</a></p> <label for="input-ajax-forgotten-email">Enter e-mail address</label> <input id="input-ajax-forgotten-email" type="email" name="user-email" required oninvalid="this.setCustomValidity('Please enter a valid e-mail address')" oninput="this.setCustomValidity('')"/> </div> <div class="popup__actions"> <input type="submit" value="Reset my password" class="btn btn--green" /> </div> </form> <div class="ajax__content forgot__message popup__row--active"> </div> </div> </div> <div class="popup popup-message autoclose "> <div class="popup__tabs"> <h4 class="popup__tab popup__tab--full">Registration complete</h4> <i class="fa fa-times-circle btn--close popup__close"></i> </div> <div class="popup__content ajax__container"> <div class="popup__row__content"> <p><strong>Thank you for registering with <em>Physics World</em></strong><br /> If you'd like to change your details at any time, please visit My account</p> </div> <div class="popup__actions"> <a class="btn btn--green" href="/">Close</a> </div> </div> </div> <!-- Overlay --> <div class="overlay "></div> <main class="site-window" id="main-content"> <div class="type-bar category-background-color"> <div class="type-bar__icon"> <img src="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/08/Materials__0085C8.svg" alt="Materials" loading="lazy" /> </div> <h1 class="type-bar__heading"> <a href="https://physicsworld.com/c/materials/">Materials</a> </h1> </div> <style> .category-background-color { background-color: #1487c9; } .category-border-color { border-color: #1487c9; } .category-text-color { color: #1487c9; } .the-content a, .share-panel a { color: #1487c9!important; } .share-panel a:hover { border-color: #1487c9!important; } .author-byline__info a { color: #1487c9!important; } .entry-content blockquote::before { color: #1487c9!important; } .entry-content figure { color: #1487c9!important; } </style> <div class="wrapper"> <div class="row single-content"> <div class="col-md-1 share-sticky"> <ul class="share-panel"> <li> <a href="https://www.facebook.com/sharer/sharer.php?u=https://physicsworld.com/a/noodles-of-fun-as-uk-researchers-create-the-worlds-thinnest-spaghetti/" aria-label="Share on Facebook"><i class="fa fa-facebook" aria-hidden="true"></i></a> </li> <li> <a href="https://twitter.com/intent/tweet?text=At 372 nanometres, the “nanopasta” is not for consumption https://physicsworld.com/a/noodles-of-fun-as-uk-researchers-create-the-worlds-thinnest-spaghetti/" aria-label="Share on Twitter"> <svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" shape-rendering="geometricPrecision" text-rendering="geometricPrecision" image-rendering="optimizeQuality" fill-rule="evenodd" clip-rule="evenodd" viewBox="0 0 512 462.799"><path fill-rule="nonzero" fill="currentColor" d="M403.229 0h78.506L310.219 196.04 512 462.799H354.002L230.261 301.007 88.669 462.799h-78.56l183.455-209.683L0 0h161.999l111.856 147.88L403.229 0zm-27.556 415.805h43.505L138.363 44.527h-46.68l283.99 371.278z"/></svg> </a> </li> <li> <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/sharing/share-offsite/?url=https%3A%2F%2Fphysicsworld.com%2Fa%2Fnoodles-of-fun-as-uk-researchers-create-the-worlds-thinnest-spaghetti%2F" aria-label="Share on LinkedIn" rel="noopener"><i class="fa fa-linkedin" aria-hidden="true"></i></a> </li> <li> <a href="mailto:?subject=Physics%20World:%20Noodles%20of%20fun%20as%20UK%20researchers%20create%20the%20world’s%20thinnest%20spaghetti&body=I%20thought%20you%20might%20be%20interested%20in%20this%20Physics%20World%20article:%20%20https://physicsworld.com/a/noodles-of-fun-as-uk-researchers-create-the-worlds-thinnest-spaghetti/" aria-label="Share by Email"><i class="fa fa-envelope-o" aria-hidden="true"></i></a> </li> <li> <a href="#" onclick="window.print();return false;"><i class="fa fa-print" aria-hidden="true"></i></a> </li> <!-- <li> <a href="https://physicsworld.com/a/noodles-of-fun-as-uk-researchers-create-the-worlds-thinnest-spaghetti/?print-pdf=1" download><i class="fa fa-file" aria-hidden="true"></i></a> </li> --> </ul> </div> <div class="col-md-7 col-sm-7 the-content equalize-sidebar"> <ul class="hero-top-banner__category"> <li><a href="https://physicsworld.com/c/materials/" style="color: #1487c9;">Materials</a></li> <li><a href="https://physicsworld.com/l/blog/" style="color: #1487c9;">Blog</a></li> </ul> <div class="single-header single-sponsored-header"> <h1 class="single-header__heading">Noodles of fun as UK researchers create the world’s thinnest spaghetti</h1> <div class="single-header__meta"> 22 Nov 2024 <a href="https://physicsworld.com/author/michael-banks/">Michael Banks</a> </div> </div> <article id="post-118382" class="post-118382 post type-post status-publish format-standard has-post-thumbnail hentry category-materials article-type-blog"> <div class="entry-content"> <!-- Issue information --> <!-- Standfirst --> <!-- Thumbnail --> <figure class="thumbnail" style="color: #1487c9"> <a href="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/Low-Res_spaghetti-closeup.webp" data-fancybox data-src="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/Low-Res_spaghetti-closeup.webp" data-caption="Penne for your thoughts: not visible with the naked eye, the spaghetti is only 372 nanometres across (courtesy: Beatrice Britton / Adam Clancy)"> <img src="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/Low-Res_spaghetti-closeup-635x476.webp" srcset=" https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/Low-Res_spaghetti-closeup.webp 700w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/Low-Res_spaghetti-closeup-635x476.webp 635w" sizes="(max-width: 768px) 100vw, 635w" alt="thinnest pasta" title="Low-Res_spaghetti closeup" width="635" height="476" /> </a> <script type="application/json"> "Penne for your thoughts: not visible with the naked eye, the spaghetti is only 372 nanometres across (courtesy: Beatrice Britton \/ Adam Clancy)" </script> <figcaption>Penne for your thoughts: not visible with the naked eye, the spaghetti is only 372 nanometres across (courtesy: Beatrice Britton / Adam Clancy)</figcaption> </figure> <p>While spaghetti might have a diameter of a couple of millimetres and <em>capelli d’angelo </em>(angel hair) is around 0.8 mm, the thinnest known pasta to date is thought to be <em>su filindeu </em>(threads of God), which is made by hand in Sardinia, Italy, and is about 0.4 mm in diameter.</p> <p>That is, however, until <a href="https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlelanding/2024/na/d4na00601a#:~:text=Nanopasta%3A%20electrospinning%20nanofibers%20of%20white%20flour%E2%80%A0&text=By%20dissolving%2017%20wt%25%20flour,372%20nm%20fibers%20of%20pasta.">researchers in the UK created</a> spaghetti coming in at a mindboggling 372 nanometres (0.000372 mm) across (<em>Nanoscale Adv.</em> <a href="https://doi.org/10.1039/D4NA00601A">doi:10.1039/D4NA00601A</a>).</p> <span class="mpu align-right" aria-hidden="true"><div id='div-gpt-ad-3759129-1'class="advert" > <script> googletag.cmd.push(function() { googletag.display('div-gpt-ad-3759129-1'); }); </script> </div></span> <p>About 200 times thinner than a human hair, the “nanopasta” is made using a technique called electrospinning, in which the threads of flour and liquid were pulled through the tip of a needle by an electric charge.</p> <p>“To make spaghetti, you push a mixture of water and flour through metal holes,” notes <a href="https://www.ucl.ac.uk/chemistry/people/adam-clancy">Adam Clancy</a> from University College London (UCL). “In our study, we did the same except we pulled our flour mixture through with an electrical charge. It’s literally spaghetti but much smaller.”</p> <p>While each individual strand is too thin to see directly with the human eye or with a visible light microscope, they used the threads to form a mat of nanofibers about two centimetres across, creating in effect a mini lasagne sheet.<article class='editors-pick'> <a href='https://physicsworld.com/a/how-to-cook-pasta-the-scientific-way/'> <div class='editors-pick__image'> <div class='editors-pick__more'>Read more</div> <img decoding="async" width="160" height="90" src="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/10/Pasta-types-1027777328-iStock_Rawf8-160x90.jpg" class="attachment-list-image size-list-image wp-post-image" alt="Photo of pasta varieties" srcset="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/10/Pasta-types-1027777328-iStock_Rawf8-160x90.jpg 160w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/10/Pasta-types-1027777328-iStock_Rawf8-317x177.jpg 317w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/10/Pasta-types-1027777328-iStock_Rawf8-211x118.jpg 211w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/10/Pasta-types-1027777328-iStock_Rawf8-768x429.jpg 768w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/10/Pasta-types-1027777328-iStock_Rawf8-1024x572.jpg 1024w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/10/Pasta-types-1027777328-iStock_Rawf8-716x400.jpg 716w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/10/Pasta-types-1027777328-iStock_Rawf8-720x402.jpg 720w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/10/Pasta-types-1027777328-iStock_Rawf8-635x355.jpg 635w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/10/Pasta-types-1027777328-iStock_Rawf8-350x196.jpg 350w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/10/Pasta-types-1027777328-iStock_Rawf8-300x168.jpg 300w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/10/Pasta-types-1027777328-iStock_Rawf8-257x144.jpg 257w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/10/Pasta-types-1027777328-iStock_Rawf8-128x72.jpg 128w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/10/Pasta-types-1027777328-iStock_Rawf8-732x409.jpg 732w" sizes="(max-width: 160px) 100vw, 160px" /> </div> <h4 class='editors-pick__title'><p>Don’t go boiling mad when you discover these scientific secrets to perfect pasta!</p> </h4> </a> </article></p> <p>The researchers are now investigating how the starch-based nanofibers could be used for medical purposes such as wound dressing, for scaffolds in tissue regrowth and even in drug delivery. “We want to know, for instance, how quickly it disintegrates, how it interacts with cells, and if you could produce it at scale,” says UCL materials scientist <a href="https://www.ucl.ac.uk/pharmacy/people/professor-gareth-williams">Gareth Williams</a>.</p> <p>But don’t expect to see nanopasta hitting the supermarket shelves anytime soon. “I don’t think it’s useful as pasta, sadly, as it would overcook in less than a second, before you could take it out of the pan,” adds Williams. And no-one like rubbery pasta.</p> <div class="wrapper clearfix"> <div class="ajax__container fullwidth-newsletter-sign-up events-register-sign-up" style="border-color: #1487c9"> <form method="post" enctype="multipart/form-data" data-ajax="register" data-dest=".fullwidth-newsletter-sign-up"> <input type="hidden" name="signup" value="1"> <input type="hidden" name="shortform" value="1"> <input type="hidden" name="url" value="https://physicsworld.com/a/noodles-of-fun-as-uk-researchers-create-the-worlds-thinnest-spaghetti"> <div class="fullwidth-newsletter-sign-up__email"> <div class="gf_browser_chrome gform_wrapper" id="gform_wrapper_1"> <div class="gform_heading"> <h3 class="gform_title">Want to read more?</h3> <span class="gform_description">Registration is free, quick and easy</span> <p><strong>Note:</strong> The verification e-mail to complete your account registration should arrive immediately. However, in some cases it takes longer. Don't forget to check your spam folder.</p> <p>If you haven't received the e-mail in 24 hours, please contact <a href="mailto:customerservices@ioppublishing.org">customerservices@ioppublishing.org</a>.</p> </div> <div class="gform_body"> <ul id="gform_fields_1" class="gform_fields right_label form_sublabel_below description_below"> <li id="field_1_1" class="gfield field_sublabel_below field_description_below gfield_visibility_visible"> <label class="gfield_label" for="user-email">E-mail Address</label> <div class="ginput_container ginput_container_email"> <input name="user-email" id="user-email" type="email" value="" class="medium" placeholder="E-mail address" required oninvalid="this.setCustomValidity('Please enter a valid e-mail address')" oninput="this.setCustomValidity('')"> </div> </li> </ul> </div> <div class="gform_footer right_label"> <button type="submit" id="register-signup" class="gform_button button button-registration-short" style="background: #1487c9">Register</button> </div> </div> </div> <div class="clearfix"> </div> </form> </div> </div> <div class="clearfix"> </div> </div><!-- .entry-content --> </article><!-- #post-## --> <div class="author-byline"> <div class="author-byline__image object-fit-element"> <img width="96" height="96" src="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/01/michael-banks-square-96x96.jpg" class="avatar avatar-96 photo" alt="" decoding="async" loading="lazy" srcset="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/01/michael-banks-square-96x96.jpg 96w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/01/michael-banks-square-211x211.jpg 211w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/01/michael-banks-square-317x317.jpg 317w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/01/michael-banks-square-768x768.jpg 768w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/01/michael-banks-square-400x400.jpg 400w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/01/michael-banks-square-410x410.jpg 410w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/01/michael-banks-square-635x635.jpg 635w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/01/michael-banks-square-197x197.jpg 197w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/01/michael-banks-square-250x250.jpg 250w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/01/michael-banks-square-90x90.jpg 90w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/01/michael-banks-square-193x193.jpg 193w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/01/michael-banks-square-128x128.jpg 128w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/01/michael-banks-square-196x196.jpg 196w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/01/michael-banks-square-412x412.jpg 412w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/01/michael-banks-square-24x24.jpg 24w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/01/michael-banks-square-48x48.jpg 48w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/01/michael-banks-square-150x150.jpg 150w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/01/michael-banks-square-300x300.jpg 300w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/01/michael-banks-square.jpg 1000w" sizes="(max-width: 96px) 100vw, 96px" /> </div> <div class="author-byline__info"> <span> <a href="https://physicsworld.com/author/michael-banks/" class="author-byline__author">Michael Banks</a> is news editor of <em>Physics World</em> magazine </span> </div> </div> </div> <div id="secondary" class="iopp-sidebar col-md-4 col-sm-5 col-xs-12 equalize-sidebar" role="complementary"> <div class="mpu-300x250"> <span class="mpu align-none" aria-hidden="true"><div id='div-gpt-ad-1563268425067-0' class="advert" > <script> googletag.cmd.push(function() { googletag.display('div-gpt-ad-1563268425067-0'); }); </script> </div></span></div> <div class="key-suppliers wrapper"> <ul> <li> <span class="mpu align-none" aria-hidden="true"><div id='div-gpt-ad-3759129-2'> <script> googletag.cmd.push(function() { googletag.display('div-gpt-ad-3759129-2'); }); </script> </div></span> </li> <li> <span class="mpu align-none" aria-hidden="true"><div id='div-gpt-ad-3759129-3'> <script> googletag.cmd.push(function() { googletag.display('div-gpt-ad-3759129-3'); }); </script> </div></span> </li> <li> <span class="mpu align-none" aria-hidden="true"><div id='div-gpt-ad-3759129-4'> <script> googletag.cmd.push(function() { googletag.display('div-gpt-ad-3759129-4'); }); </script> </div></span> </li> <li> <span class="mpu align-none" aria-hidden="true"><div id='div-gpt-ad-3759129-5'> <script> googletag.cmd.push(function() { googletag.display('div-gpt-ad-3759129-5'); }); </script> </div></span> </li> </ul> </div> <div class="mpu-300x250"> <span class="mpu align-none" aria-hidden="true"><div id='div-gpt-ad-1567436410454-0' class="advert" > <script> googletag.cmd.push(function() { googletag.display('div-gpt-ad-1567436410454-0'); }); </script> </div></span> </div> <div class="sticky-me" role="complementary"> <div class="mpu-300x250 mpu-300x250--internal"> <article class="journal-ad"> <a href="https://physicsworld.com/p/magazine/archive/physics-world-careers-2024/"> <div class="journal-ad__image object-fit-element"> <img width="311" height="197" src="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/02/Marketing-tile-311x197.jpg" class="attachment-1-3-cols size-1-3-cols wp-post-image" alt="" decoding="async" loading="lazy" srcset="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/02/Marketing-tile-311x197.jpg 311w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/02/Marketing-tile-211x134.jpg 211w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/02/Marketing-tile-317x201.jpg 317w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/02/Marketing-tile-768x487.jpg 768w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/02/Marketing-tile-631x400.jpg 631w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/02/Marketing-tile-650x412.jpg 650w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/02/Marketing-tile-647x410.jpg 647w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/02/Marketing-tile-635x402.jpg 635w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/02/Marketing-tile-257x163.jpg 257w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/02/Marketing-tile-300x190.jpg 300w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/02/Marketing-tile-142x90.jpg 142w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/02/Marketing-tile-128x81.jpg 128w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/02/Marketing-tile.jpg 800w" sizes="(max-width: 311px) 100vw, 311px" /> <div class="journal-ad__content"> </div> </div> <div class="journal-ad__info" style="background-color: #b2b6c7"> <h3 class="journal-ad__title" >Physics World Careers</h3> <p>Providing valuable careers advice and a comprehensive employer directory</p> </div> </a> </article> </div> <div class="mpu-300x250"> <span class="mpu align-none" aria-hidden="true"><div id='div-gpt-ad-3759129-11' class="advert"> <script> googletag.cmd.push(function() { googletag.display('div-gpt-ad-3759129-11'); }); </script> </div></span></div> </div> </div><!-- #secondary --> </div> <!-- Read NEXT --> <div class="read"> <div class="read--prev"> <a href="https://physicsworld.com/a/martin-rees-carlo-rovelli-and-steven-weinberg-tackle-big-questions-to-mark-oxford-anniversary/" class="read__title">Read previous</a> <ul class="hero-top-banner__category"> <li><a href="https://physicsworld.com/c/culture-history-society/" style="color: #ca991b;">Culture, history and society</a></li> <li><a href="https://physicsworld.com/l/blog/" style="color: #ca991b;">Blog</a></li> </ul> <a href="https://physicsworld.com/a/martin-rees-carlo-rovelli-and-steven-weinberg-tackle-big-questions-to-mark-oxford-anniversary/"><h4 class="read__post-title">Martin Rees, Carlo Rovelli and Steven Weinberg tackle big questions to mark Oxford anniversary</h4></a> </div> <div class="read--next"> </div> </div> <!-- Related --> <div class="row hide-for-printer"> <div class="col-md-12"> <div class="section-breaks"> <h2 class="section-breaks__heading">Discover more from Physics World</h2> </div> <div class="row"> <div class="col-md-4"> <article class="article article--c"> <a href="https://physicsworld.com/a/unlocking-the-future-of-materials-science-with-magnetic-microscopy/" class="article__image object-fit-element"> <img width="315" height="197" src="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/10/iStock-873546438_800-315x197.jpg" class="attachment-1-3-cols size-1-3-cols wp-post-image" alt="" loading="lazy" decoding="async" srcset="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/10/iStock-873546438_800-315x197.jpg 315w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/10/iStock-873546438_800-211x132.jpg 211w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/10/iStock-873546438_800-317x198.jpg 317w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/10/iStock-873546438_800-768x480.jpg 768w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/10/iStock-873546438_800-640x400.jpg 640w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/10/iStock-873546438_800-659x412.jpg 659w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/10/iStock-873546438_800-656x410.jpg 656w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/10/iStock-873546438_800-635x397.jpg 635w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/10/iStock-873546438_800-257x161.jpg 257w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/10/iStock-873546438_800-300x188.jpg 300w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/10/iStock-873546438_800-144x90.jpg 144w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/10/iStock-873546438_800-128x80.jpg 128w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/10/iStock-873546438_800.jpg 800w" sizes="(max-width: 315px) 100vw, 315px" /> <span class="icon icon--webinars"></span> </a> <div class="article__info"> <ul class="hero-top-banner__category"> <ul class="hero-top-banner__category category--has-background-color"> <li><a href="https://physicsworld.com/c/materials/" style="background: #1487c9;">Materials</a></li> <li><a href="https://physicsworld.com/l/webinars/" style="background: #1487c9;">Webinar</a></li> <li><span style="background: #1487c9">SPONSORED</span></li> </ul> </ul> <h3 class="article__title"> <a href="https://physicsworld.com/a/unlocking-the-future-of-materials-science-with-magnetic-microscopy/"> <span>Unlocking the future of materials science with magnetic microscopy</span> </a> </h3> </div> </article> </div> <div class="col-md-4"> <article class="article article--c"> <a href="https://physicsworld.com/a/top-tips-for-physics-outreach-from-a-prize-winner-making-graphene-more-sustainable/" class="article__image object-fit-element"> <img width="350" height="197" src="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/Joanne-and-Burcu-list-350x197.jpg" class="attachment-1-3-cols size-1-3-cols wp-post-image" alt="Joanne and Burcu list" loading="lazy" decoding="async" srcset="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/Joanne-and-Burcu-list-350x197.jpg 350w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/Joanne-and-Burcu-list-211x118.jpg 211w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/Joanne-and-Burcu-list-1024x575.jpg 1024w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/Joanne-and-Burcu-list-317x178.jpg 317w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/Joanne-and-Burcu-list-768x431.jpg 768w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/Joanne-and-Burcu-list-713x400.jpg 713w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/Joanne-and-Burcu-list-732x412.jpg 732w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/Joanne-and-Burcu-list-720x404.jpg 720w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/Joanne-and-Burcu-list-635x356.jpg 635w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/Joanne-and-Burcu-list-257x144.jpg 257w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/Joanne-and-Burcu-list-300x168.jpg 300w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/Joanne-and-Burcu-list-160x90.jpg 160w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/Joanne-and-Burcu-list-128x72.jpg 128w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/Joanne-and-Burcu-list.jpg 1185w" sizes="(max-width: 350px) 100vw, 350px" /> <span class="icon icon--audio"></span> </a> <div class="article__info"> <ul class="hero-top-banner__category"> <ul class="hero-top-banner__category category--has-background-color"> <li><a href="https://physicsworld.com/c/people/education-outreach/" style="background: #764992;">Education and outreach</a></li> <li><a href="https://physicsworld.com/l/audio/" style="background: #764992;">Podcasts</a></li> </ul> </ul> <h3 class="article__title"> <a href="https://physicsworld.com/a/top-tips-for-physics-outreach-from-a-prize-winner-making-graphene-more-sustainable/"> <span>Top tips for physics outreach from a prize winner, making graphene more sustainable</span> </a> </h3> </div> </article> </div> <div class="col-md-4"> <article class="article article--c"> <a href="https://physicsworld.com/a/venkat-srinivasan-batteries-are-largely-bipartisan/" class="article__image object-fit-element"> <img width="271" height="197" src="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/Srinivasan-head-shot-smallest-size-271x197.jpg" class="attachment-1-3-cols size-1-3-cols wp-post-image" alt="Photo of Venkat Srinivasan" loading="lazy" decoding="async" srcset="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/Srinivasan-head-shot-smallest-size-271x197.jpg 271w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/Srinivasan-head-shot-smallest-size-211x153.jpg 211w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/Srinivasan-head-shot-smallest-size-1024x743.jpg 1024w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/Srinivasan-head-shot-smallest-size-317x230.jpg 317w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/Srinivasan-head-shot-smallest-size-768x557.jpg 768w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/Srinivasan-head-shot-smallest-size-1536x1115.jpg 1536w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/Srinivasan-head-shot-smallest-size-2048x1486.jpg 2048w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/Srinivasan-head-shot-smallest-size-551x400.jpg 551w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/Srinivasan-head-shot-smallest-size-568x412.jpg 568w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/Srinivasan-head-shot-smallest-size-565x410.jpg 565w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/Srinivasan-head-shot-smallest-size-635x461.jpg 635w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/Srinivasan-head-shot-smallest-size-257x186.jpg 257w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/Srinivasan-head-shot-smallest-size-300x218.jpg 300w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/Srinivasan-head-shot-smallest-size-124x90.jpg 124w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/Srinivasan-head-shot-smallest-size-128x93.jpg 128w" sizes="(max-width: 271px) 100vw, 271px" /> <span class="icon icon--interviews"></span> </a> <div class="article__info"> <ul class="hero-top-banner__category"> <ul class="hero-top-banner__category category--has-background-color"> <li><a href="https://physicsworld.com/c/materials/materials-for-energy/" style="background: #0085c8;">Materials for energy</a></li> <li><a href="https://physicsworld.com/l/interviews/" style="background: #0085c8;">Interview</a></li> </ul> </ul> <h3 class="article__title"> <a href="https://physicsworld.com/a/venkat-srinivasan-batteries-are-largely-bipartisan/"> <span>Venkat Srinivasan: ‘Batteries are largely bipartisan’</span> </a> </h3> </div> </article> </div> </div> </div> </div> <!-- Module 11: Related journal --> <!-- <div class="row hide-for-printer"> --> <!-- </div> --> <div class="row hide-for-printer"> <!-- Module 8b: Related jobs --> <div class="wrapper m08b"> <div class="row"> <div class="col-xs-6"> <div class="section-breaks"> <h2 class="section-breaks__heading">Related jobs</h2> </div> <div class="bright-recruits"> <ul class='bright-recruits__jobs'> <li class="bright-recruits__item"> <a href="https://www.physicsworldjobs.com/job/19554/postdoctoral-fellow-f-m-in-time-resolved-x-ray-science-on-the-beamline-id09/?trackid=9&utm_source=RestAPI&utm_medium=Referral" target="_blank" rel="noopener" data-id="19554" > <span class="bright-recruits__location"> France | European Synchrotron Radiation Facility </span> <h4 class="bright-recruits__title">Postdoctoral fellow (f/m) in time-resolved X-ray science on the beamline ID09</h4> </a> </li> <li class="bright-recruits__item"> <a href="https://www.physicsworldjobs.com/job/18433/international-faculty-position-uestc/?trackid=9&utm_source=RestAPI&utm_medium=Referral" target="_blank" rel="noopener" data-id="18433" > <span class="bright-recruits__location"> Chengdu | University of Electronic Science and Technology of China (UESTC) - IFFS </span> <h4 class="bright-recruits__title">International Faculty Position, UESTC</h4> </a> </li> <li class="bright-recruits__item"> <a href="https://www.physicsworldjobs.com/job/18896/assistant-professor-in-materials/?trackid=9&utm_source=RestAPI&utm_medium=Referral" target="_blank" rel="noopener" data-id="18896" > <span class="bright-recruits__location"> Santa Barbara | University of California Santa Barbara </span> <h4 class="bright-recruits__title">Assistant Professor in Materials</h4> </a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> <div class='col-xs-6'> <div class="section-breaks"> <h2 class="section-breaks__heading">Related events</h2> </div> <div class="bright-recruits"> <ul class='bright-recruits__jobs'> <li class="bright-recruits__item"> <span class="bright-recruits__location">Medical physics | Course</php></span> <a href="https://physicsworld.com/event/hybrid-teaching-course-particle-therapy/" class="bright-recruits__title related-title"> Hybrid Teaching Course Particle Therapy </a> <span class="bright-recruits__date">14 October — 29 November 2024 | Heidelberg, Germany</span> </li> <li class="bright-recruits__item"> <span class="bright-recruits__location">Materials | Virtual event</php></span> <a href="https://physicsworld.com/event/comprehensive-online-xps-esca-short-course/" class="bright-recruits__title related-title"> Comprehensive online XPS/ESCA short course </a> <span class="bright-recruits__date">24—26 March 2025</span> </li> <li class="bright-recruits__item"> <span class="bright-recruits__location">Materials | Conference</php></span> <a href="https://physicsworld.com/event/fast-ionic-transport-systems-2025/" class="bright-recruits__title related-title"> Fast ionic transport systems 2025 </a> <span class="bright-recruits__date">24—28 August 2025 | Prague, Czech Republic</span> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="row"> <!-- Module 21: Corporate Partners --> <div class='m21 wrapper'> <div class='row'> <div class="col-md-12"> <div class="corporate-partners col-md-12"> <ul> <li><span class="mpu align-none" aria-hidden="true"> <div id='div-gpt-ad-3759129-12'> <script> googletag.cmd.push(function() { googletag.display('div-gpt-ad-3759129-12'); }); </script> </div></span></li> <li><span class="mpu align-none" aria-hidden="true"><div id='div-gpt-ad-3759129-13'> <script> googletag.cmd.push(function() { googletag.display('div-gpt-ad-3759129-13'); }); </script> </div></span></li> <li><span class="mpu align-none" aria-hidden="true"><div id='div-gpt-ad-3759129-14'> <script> googletag.cmd.push(function() { googletag.display('div-gpt-ad-3759129-14'); }); </script> </div></span></li> <li><span class="mpu align-none" aria-hidden="true"><div id='div-gpt-ad-3759129-15'> <script> googletag.cmd.push(function() { googletag.display('div-gpt-ad-3759129-15'); }); </script> </div></span></li> <li><span class="mpu align-none" aria-hidden="true"><div id='div-gpt-ad-1563269243507-0' > <script> googletag.cmd.push(function() { googletag.display('div-gpt-ad-1563269243507-0'); }); </script> </div></span></li> <li><span class="mpu align-none" aria-hidden="true"><div id='div-gpt-ad-3759129-17' > <script> googletag.cmd.push(function() { googletag.display('div-gpt-ad-3759129-17'); }); </script> </div></span></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <!-- Extra modules --> </div> <div class="printer-only push-me">Copyright © 2024 by IOP Publishing Ltd and individual contributors</div> </main> <footer class="footer hide-for-printer"> <div class="wrapper"> <div class="row"> <div class="footer__container"> <div class="pw__info footer__grid-col--1"> <img src="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/themes/iopp/src/svg/pw-logo-white-red-text.svg" alt="Physics World logo" width="228px" height="42px"> <ul class="footer__social"> <li> <a href="https://www.facebook.com/physicsworld/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer" alt="Follow us on Facebook"> <i class="fa fa-facebook" aria-hidden="true"></i> <span class="sr-only">Follow us on Facebook</span> </a> </li> <li> <a href="https://twitter.com/PhysicsWorld" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer" alt="Follow us on X"> <svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" aria-hidden="true" shape-rendering="geometricPrecision" text-rendering="geometricPrecision" image-rendering="optimizeQuality" fill-rule="evenodd" clip-rule="evenodd" viewBox="0 0 512 462.799"><path fill-rule="nonzero" fill="currentColor" d="M403.229 0h78.506L310.219 196.04 512 462.799H354.002L230.261 301.007 88.669 462.799h-78.56l183.455-209.683L0 0h161.999l111.856 147.88L403.229 0zm-27.556 415.805h43.505L138.363 44.527h-46.68l283.99 371.278z"/></svg> <span class="sr-only">Follow us on X</span> </a> </li> <li> <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/company/physics-world" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer" alt="Follow us on LinkedIn"> <i class="fa fa-linkedin" aria-hidden="true"></i> <span class="sr-only">Follow us on LinkedIn</span> </a> </li> <li> <a href="https://www.youtube.com/PhysicsWorldTV" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer" alt="Watch us on Youtube"> <i class="fa fa-youtube-play" aria-hidden="true"></i> <span class="sr-only">Watch us on Youtube</span> </a> </li> <li> <a href="https://physicsworld.com/feed" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer" alt="RSS Feed"> <i class="fa fa-rss" aria-hidden="true"></i> <span class="sr-only">RSS Feed</span> </a> </li> </ul> <a href="https://physicsworld.com/account/sign-in/" class="btn btn--sign-in">Sign in</a> <a href="https://physicsworld.com/account/register/" class="btn">Register</a> </div> <div class="col__border-top footer__grid-col--2"> <h4 class="footer__heading">Our mission</h4> <p><i>Physics World</i> represents a key part of IOP Publishing’s mission to communicate world-class research and innovation to the widest possible audience. The website forms part of the <a href="https://physicsworld.com/p/our-portfolio/"><i>Physics World</i> portfolio</a>, a collection of online, digital and print information services for the global scientific community.</p> <div class="footer__podcasts"> <h4 class="footer__heading">Podcasts</h4> <a href="https://blubrry.com/physicsworldweeklypodcast/" class="footer__podcast" target="_blank" > <img width="150" height="150" src="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/PW-Podcast-WEEKLY-comp-1.jpg" class="attachment-profile_150 size-profile_150" alt="" decoding="async" loading="lazy" srcset="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/PW-Podcast-WEEKLY-comp-1.jpg 1500w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/PW-Podcast-WEEKLY-comp-1-317x317.jpg 317w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/PW-Podcast-WEEKLY-comp-1-211x211.jpg 211w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/PW-Podcast-WEEKLY-comp-1-768x768.jpg 768w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/PW-Podcast-WEEKLY-comp-1-1024x1024.jpg 1024w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/PW-Podcast-WEEKLY-comp-1-400x400.jpg 400w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/PW-Podcast-WEEKLY-comp-1-410x410.jpg 410w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/PW-Podcast-WEEKLY-comp-1-635x635.jpg 635w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/PW-Podcast-WEEKLY-comp-1-197x197.jpg 197w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/PW-Podcast-WEEKLY-comp-1-250x250.jpg 250w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/PW-Podcast-WEEKLY-comp-1-90x90.jpg 90w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/PW-Podcast-WEEKLY-comp-1-193x193.jpg 193w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/PW-Podcast-WEEKLY-comp-1-128x128.jpg 128w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/PW-Podcast-WEEKLY-comp-1-196x196.jpg 196w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/PW-Podcast-WEEKLY-comp-1-412x412.jpg 412w" sizes="(max-width: 150px) 100vw, 150px" /> <div class="podcast-details"> <h4>Physics World Weekly</h4> </div> </a> <a href="https://blubrry.com/physics_world_science_podcast/" class="footer__podcast" target="_blank" > <img width="150" height="150" src="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/PW-podcast-logo-STORIES-resized-150x150.jpg" class="attachment-profile_150 size-profile_150" alt="Physics World Stories podcast logo" decoding="async" loading="lazy" srcset="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/PW-podcast-logo-STORIES-resized-150x150.jpg 150w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/PW-podcast-logo-STORIES-resized-211x211.jpg 211w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/PW-podcast-logo-STORIES-resized-1024x1024.jpg 1024w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/PW-podcast-logo-STORIES-resized-317x317.jpg 317w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/PW-podcast-logo-STORIES-resized-768x768.jpg 768w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/PW-podcast-logo-STORIES-resized-1536x1536.jpg 1536w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/PW-podcast-logo-STORIES-resized-400x400.jpg 400w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/PW-podcast-logo-STORIES-resized-410x410.jpg 410w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/PW-podcast-logo-STORIES-resized-635x635.jpg 635w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/PW-podcast-logo-STORIES-resized-197x197.jpg 197w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/PW-podcast-logo-STORIES-resized-250x250.jpg 250w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/PW-podcast-logo-STORIES-resized-90x90.jpg 90w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/PW-podcast-logo-STORIES-resized-193x193.jpg 193w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/PW-podcast-logo-STORIES-resized-128x128.jpg 128w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/PW-podcast-logo-STORIES-resized-196x196.jpg 196w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/PW-podcast-logo-STORIES-resized-412x412.jpg 412w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/PW-podcast-logo-STORIES-resized-24x24.jpg 24w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/PW-podcast-logo-STORIES-resized-48x48.jpg 48w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/PW-podcast-logo-STORIES-resized-96x96.jpg 96w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/PW-podcast-logo-STORIES-resized-300x300.jpg 300w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/PW-podcast-logo-STORIES-resized.jpg 2000w" sizes="(max-width: 150px) 100vw, 150px" /> <div class="podcast-details"> <h4>Physics World Stories</h4> </div> </a> </div> </div> <div class="col__border-top footer__grid-col--3"> <h4 class="footer__heading">Explore</h4> <div class="menu-footer-1-container"><ul id="menu-footer-1" class="menu"><li id="menu-item-65637" class="menu-item menu-item-type-post_type menu-item-object-page menu-item-65637"><a href="https://physicsworld.com/p/about-us/">About us</a></li> <li id="menu-item-65638" class="menu-item menu-item-type-post_type menu-item-object-page menu-item-65638"><a href="https://physicsworld.com/p/our-team/">Our team</a></li> <li id="menu-item-65639" class="menu-item menu-item-type-post_type menu-item-object-page menu-item-65639"><a href="https://physicsworld.com/p/our-portfolio/">Our portfolio</a></li> <li id="menu-item-65640" class="menu-item menu-item-type-post_type menu-item-object-page menu-item-65640"><a href="https://physicsworld.com/p/advertising/">Advertising</a></li> <li id="menu-item-67467" class="menu-item menu-item-type-post_type menu-item-object-page menu-item-67467"><a href="https://physicsworld.com/p/contact-us/">Contact us</a></li> <li id="menu-item-67496" class="menu-item menu-item-type-custom menu-item-object-custom menu-item-67496"><a rel="noreferrer" href="mailto:pwld@ioppublishing.org">Feedback</a></li> </ul></div> </div> <div class="col__border-top footer__grid-col--4"> <h4 class="footer__heading">More information</h4> <div class="menu-footer-2-container"><ul id="menu-footer-2" class="menu"><li id="menu-item-65641" class="menu-item menu-item-type-custom menu-item-object-custom menu-item-65641"><a rel="noreferrer" href="http://www.iop.org/">Institute of Physics</a></li> <li id="menu-item-67295" class="menu-item menu-item-type-custom menu-item-object-custom menu-item-67295"><a rel="noreferrer" href="https://membership.iop.org/">Join the Institute</a></li> <li id="menu-item-66155" class="menu-item menu-item-type-custom menu-item-object-custom menu-item-66155"><a rel="noreferrer" href="https://www.iop.org/slavery-and-human-trafficking-statement-financial-year-ending-31-december-2020">Modern Slavery Act</a></li> <li id="menu-item-66151" class="menu-item menu-item-type-custom menu-item-object-custom menu-item-66151"><a rel="noreferrer" href="https://physicsworld.com/p/cookies-privacy-policy/">Privacy and cookies</a></li> <li id="menu-item-65642" class="menu-item menu-item-type-custom menu-item-object-custom menu-item-65642"><a rel="noreferrer" href="http://ioppublishing.org/">IOP Publishing</a></li> <li id="menu-item-66154" class="menu-item menu-item-type-custom menu-item-object-custom menu-item-66154"><a rel="noreferrer" href="http://ioppublishing.org/copyright/">Copyright</a></li> <li id="menu-item-66153" class="menu-item menu-item-type-custom menu-item-object-custom menu-item-66153"><a rel="noreferrer" href="http://ioppublishing.org/legal-statements/terms-conditions/">Terms and conditions</a></li> <li id="menu-item-66152" class="menu-item menu-item-type-custom menu-item-object-custom menu-item-66152"><a rel="noreferrer" href="http://ioppublishing.org/legal-statements/disclaimer/">Disclaimer</a></li> </ul></div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <button class="back-to-top">Back to top</button> </footer> <script id="js-onesignal-ga"> "use strict"; window.OneSignal = window.OneSignal || []; // In some browsers the console might be undefined const log = function (message) { console && console.log(message); }; const callback = function (payload) { log("OneSignal notification opened!"); OneSignal.getUserId(function (user_id) { ga("send", { hitType: "event", eventCategory: 'OSNotification', eventAction: 'u_id ' + user_id, eventLabel: 'n_id ' + payload.id }); }); // Allow future opens to also trigger the callback OneSignal.addListenerForNotificationOpened(callback); }; // Defer function until OneSignal has finished loading OneSignal.push(function () { log("OneSignal loaded!"); // Listen for notification opened OneSignal.addListenerForNotificationOpened(callback); }); </script> <script src="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/plugins/leaky-paywall/js/micromodal.min.js?ver=4.21.5" id="zeen101_micromodal-js"></script> <script id="leaky_paywall_validate-js-extra"> var leaky_paywall_validate_ajax = {"ajaxurl":"\/wp-admin\/admin-ajax.php","register_nonce":"154c1dcdf8","password_text":"Passwords do not match."}; </script> <script src="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/plugins/leaky-paywall/js/leaky-paywall-validate.js?ver=4.21.5" id="leaky_paywall_validate-js"></script> <script id="leaky_paywall_script-js-extra"> var leaky_paywall_script_ajax = {"ajaxurl":"\/wp-admin\/admin-ajax.php","stripe_pk":""}; </script> <script src="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/plugins/leaky-paywall/js/script.js?ver=4.21.5" id="leaky_paywall_script-js"></script> <script id="nine3-script-js-extra"> var nine3 = {"ajaxurl":"https:\/\/physicsworld.com\/wp-admin\/admin-ajax.php","nonce":"14158938c8","marker":"https:\/\/physicsworld.com\/wp-content\/themes\/iopp\/images\/marker.png","debug":""}; </script> <script src="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/themes/iopp/dist/js/main.07e93a0f6d984f4fc58037a5e7bc9a89.js?ver=6.6.1" id="nine3-script-js"></script> <script src="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/themes/iopp/static/js/sticky.min.js?ver=1645453936640" id="stickykit-js"></script> <script src="https://cdn.jsdelivr.net/gh/mathjax/MathJax@2.7.1/MathJax.js?config=MML_CHTML&ver=1645453936640" id="mathjax-js"></script> <script src="https://cdn.onesignal.com/sdks/OneSignalSDK.js?ver=1.0.0" id="remote_sdk-js" async data-wp-strategy="async"></script> </body> </html>