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href="/wiki/Outer_space" title="Outer space">outer space</a>. Instead of <a href="/wiki/Moisture" title="Moisture">moisture</a> and <a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a> acting as the primary corrosion causes, the materials exposed to outer space are subjected to <a href="/wiki/Vacuum" title="Vacuum">vacuum</a>, bombardment by <a href="/wiki/Ultraviolet" title="Ultraviolet">ultraviolet</a> and <a href="/wiki/X-ray" title="X-ray">X-rays</a>, <a href="/wiki/Solar_energetic_particles" title="Solar energetic particles">solar energetic particles</a> (mostly <a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron">electrons</a> and <a href="/wiki/Proton" title="Proton">protons</a> from <a href="/wiki/Solar_wind" title="Solar wind">solar wind</a>), and electromagnetic radiation.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the upper layers of the atmosphere (between 90–800 km), the atmospheric atoms, ions, and <a href="/wiki/Radical_(chemistry)" title="Radical (chemistry)">free radicals</a>, most notably <a href="/wiki/Atomic_oxygen" class="mw-redirect" title="Atomic oxygen">atomic oxygen</a>, play a major role. The concentration of atomic oxygen depends on altitude and <a href="/wiki/Space_weather" title="Space weather">solar activity</a>, as the bursts of ultraviolet radiation cause <a href="/wiki/Photodissociation" title="Photodissociation">photodissociation</a> of molecular oxygen.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Between 160 and 560 km, the atmosphere consists of about 90% atomic oxygen.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Materials">Materials</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Corrosion_in_space&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Materials"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Corrosion in space has the highest impact on spacecraft with moving parts. Early satellites tended to develop problems with seizing bearings. Now the bearings are coated with a thin layer of <a href="/wiki/Gold" title="Gold">gold</a>. </p><p>Different materials resist corrosion in space differently. Electrolytes in batteries or cooling loops can cause galvanic corrosion, general corrosion, and stress corrosion.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Aluminium" title="Aluminium">Aluminium</a> is slowly eroded by atomic oxygen, while <a href="/wiki/Gold" title="Gold">gold</a> and <a href="/wiki/Platinum" title="Platinum">platinum</a> are highly corrosion-resistant. Gold-coated foils and thin layers of gold on exposed surfaces are therefore used to protect the spacecraft from the harsh environment. Thin layers of <a href="/wiki/Silicon_dioxide" title="Silicon dioxide">silicon dioxide</a> deposited on the surfaces can also protect metals from the effects of atomic oxygen; e.g., the <a href="/wiki/Starshine_(satellite)" class="mw-redirect" title="Starshine (satellite)">Starshine 3</a> satellite aluminium front mirrors were protected that way. However, the protective layers are subject to erosion by <a href="/wiki/Micrometeorites" class="mw-redirect" title="Micrometeorites">micrometeorites</a>. </p><p>Silver builds up a layer of silver oxide, which tends to flake off and has no protective function; such gradual erosion of silver interconnects of solar cells was found to be the cause of some observed in-orbit failures.<sup id="cite_ref-envdeg_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-envdeg-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Many <a href="/wiki/Plastic" title="Plastic">plastics</a> are considerably sensitive to atomic oxygen and ionizing radiation. Coatings resistant to atomic oxygen are a common protection method, especially for plastics. <a href="/wiki/Silicone" title="Silicone">Silicone</a>-based <a href="/wiki/Paint" title="Paint">paints</a> and coatings are frequently employed, due to their excellent resistance to radiation and atomic oxygen.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the silicone durability is somewhat limited, as the surface exposed to atomic oxygen is converted to <a href="/wiki/Silica" class="mw-redirect" title="Silica">silica</a> which is brittle and tends to crack. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Solving_corrosion">Solving corrosion</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Corrosion_in_space&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Solving corrosion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The process of space corrosion is being actively investigated. One of the efforts aims to design a sensor based on <a href="/wiki/Zinc_oxide" title="Zinc oxide">zinc oxide</a>, able to measure the amount of atomic oxygen in the vicinity of the spacecraft; the sensor relies on drop of electrical conductivity of zinc oxide as it absorbs further oxygen. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2009)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Other_problems">Other problems</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Corrosion_in_space&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Other problems"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Outgassing" title="Outgassing">outgassing</a> of volatile silicones on <a href="/wiki/Low_Earth_orbit" title="Low Earth orbit">low Earth orbit</a> devices leads to presence of a cloud of contaminants around the spacecraft. Together with atomic oxygen bombardment, this may lead to gradual deposition of thin layers of carbon-containing silicon dioxide. Their poor transparency is a concern in case of optical systems and <a href="/wiki/Photovoltaic_module" class="mw-redirect" title="Photovoltaic module">solar panels</a>. Deposits of up to several micrometers were observed after 10 years of service on the solar panels of the <a href="/wiki/Mir" title="Mir">Mir</a> space station.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Other sources of problems for structures subjected to outer space are erosion and redeposition of the materials by <a href="/wiki/Sputtering" title="Sputtering">sputtering</a> caused by fast atoms and <a href="/wiki/Micrometeoroid" title="Micrometeoroid">micrometeoroids</a>. Another major concern, though of non-corrosive kind, is <a href="/wiki/Material_fatigue" class="mw-redirect" title="Material fatigue">material fatigue</a> caused by cyclical heating and cooling and associated thermal expansion mechanical stresses. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Corrosion_in_space&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Space_weathering" title="Space weathering">space weathering</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Corrosion_in_space&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-:0-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFBlockleyShyy2010" class="citation book cs1">Blockley, Richard; Shyy, Wei, eds. (2010-12-15). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/book/10.1002/9780470686652"><i>Encyclopedia of Aerospace Engineering</i></a> (1 ed.). Wiley. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2F9780470686652.eae242">10.1002/9780470686652.eae242</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-470-75440-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-470-75440-5"><bdi>978-0-470-75440-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Aerospace+Engineering&rft.edition=1&rft.pub=Wiley&rft.date=2010-12-15&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2F9780470686652.eae242&rft.isbn=978-0-470-75440-5&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fonlinelibrary.wiley.com%2Fdoi%2Fbook%2F10.1002%2F9780470686652&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACorrosion+in+space" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="5" class="citation web cs1">Martines, S. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.mendeley.com/viewer/?fileId=1230b5b3-ed3c-2eb1-17f6-77bcee066ec2&documentId=de6f31f4-8e72-33c7-9bb5-89ef8b49b822">"Analysis of LEO Radiation Environment and itsEffects on Spacecraft's Critical Electronic Dev ices"</a>. <i>Mendeley</i>. Embry Riddle Aeronautical University<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2006-06-07</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Use+of+Silicone+Adhesives+in+Space+Applications&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.adhesivesmag.com%2FCDA%2FArchives%2Fcc371eeb8aac8010VgnVCM100000f932a8c0____&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACorrosion+in+space" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-envdeg-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-envdeg_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Myer Kutz - Handbook of Environmental Degradation of Materials (2005, 0815515006)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060624082520/http://triz-journal.com/archives/1998/07/a/index.htm">"Optimizing Atomic Oxygen Resistance on Coated Substrates Using TechOptimizer"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.triz-journal.com/archives/1998/07/a/index.htm">the original</a> on 2006-06-24<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2006-06-07</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Optimizing+Atomic+Oxygen+Resistance+on+Coated+Substrates+Using+TechOptimizer&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.triz-journal.com%2Farchives%2F1998%2F07%2Fa%2Findex.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACorrosion+in+space" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBanksDe_GrohRutledgeHaytas1999" class="citation journal cs1">Banks, Bruce A.; De Groh, Kim K.; Rutledge, Sharon K.; Haytas, Christy A. (1999). 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title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:136474988">136474988</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proc.+SPIE&rft.atitle=Consequences+of+atomic+oxygen+interaction+with+silicone+and+silicone+contamination+on+surfaces+in+low+earth+orbit&rft.volume=3784&rft.pages=62&rft.date=1999&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F2060%2F19990047772&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A136474988%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1999SPIE.3784...62B&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.870.5957%23id-name%3DCiteSeerX&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1117%2F12.366725&rft.aulast=Banks&rft.aufirst=Bruce+A.&rft.au=De+Groh%2C+Kim+K.&rft.au=Rutledge%2C+Sharon+K.&rft.au=Haytas%2C+Christy+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACorrosion+in+space" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Corrosion_in_space&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.rand.org/pubs/monograph_reports/MR864.html">The Cosmos on a Shoestring: Small Spacecraft for Space and Earth Science, Appendix B: Failure in Spacecraft Systems</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.rand.org/content/dam/rand/pubs/monograph_reports/2009/MR864.pdf">PDF</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg15520981.600.html"><i>New Scientist</i> premium article: Space is corrosive</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060929053200/http://setas-www.larc.nasa.gov/LDEF/CONTAMINATION/contamination_intro.html">NASA Long Duration Exposition Facility: surface contamination in space</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist 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