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.sidebar-below{padding:0.3em 0.8em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-below{border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-navbar{text-align:right;font-size:115%;padding:0 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:left;font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6em;font-size:105%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title-c{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:center;margin:0 3.3em}@media(max-width:640px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"> Epidemiology is the study and analysis of the distribution (who, when, and where), patterns and <a href="/wiki/Risk_factor_(epidemiology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Risk factor (epidemiology)">determinants</a> of health and disease conditions in a defined <a href="/wiki/Population" title="Population">population</a>, and application of this knowledge to prevent diseases. It is a cornerstone of <a href="/wiki/Public_health" title="Public health">public health</a>, and shapes policy decisions and <a href="/wiki/Evidence-based_practice" title="Evidence-based practice">evidence-based practice</a> by identifying <a href="/wiki/Risk_factor_(epidemiology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Risk factor (epidemiology)">risk factors</a> for disease and targets for <a href="/wiki/Preventive_healthcare" title="Preventive healthcare">preventive healthcare</a>. Epidemiologists help with study design, collection, and <a href="/wiki/Statistical_analysis" class="mw-redirect" title="Statistical analysis">statistical analysis</a> of data, amend interpretation and dissemination of results (including <a href="/wiki/Peer_review" title="Peer review">peer review</a> and occasional <a href="/wiki/Systematic_review" title="Systematic review">systematic review</a>). Epidemiology has helped develop <a href="/wiki/Methodology" title="Methodology">methodology</a> used in <a href="/wiki/Clinical_research" title="Clinical research">clinical research</a>, <a href="/wiki/Public_health" title="Public health">public health</a> studies, and, to a lesser extent, <a href="/wiki/Basic_research" title="Basic research">basic research</a> in the biological sciences.<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a> Major areas of epidemiological study include disease causation, <a href="/wiki/Transmission_(medicine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Transmission (medicine)">transmission</a>, <a href="/wiki/Outbreak" class="mw-redirect" title="Outbreak">outbreak</a> investigation, <a href="/wiki/Disease_surveillance" title="Disease surveillance">disease surveillance</a>, <a href="/wiki/Environmental_epidemiology" title="Environmental epidemiology">environmental epidemiology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Forensic_epidemiology" title="Forensic epidemiology">forensic epidemiology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Occupational_epidemiology" title="Occupational epidemiology">occupational epidemiology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Screening_(medicine)" title="Screening (medicine)">screening</a>, <a href="/wiki/Biomonitoring" title="Biomonitoring">biomonitoring</a>, and comparisons of treatment effects such as in <a href="/wiki/Clinical_trials" class="mw-redirect" title="Clinical trials">clinical trials</a>. Epidemiologists rely on other scientific disciplines like <a href="/wiki/Biology" title="Biology">biology</a> to better understand disease processes, <a href="/wiki/Statistics" title="Statistics">statistics</a> to make efficient use of the data and draw appropriate conclusions, <a href="/wiki/Social_science" title="Social science">social sciences</a> to better understand proximate and distal causes, and <a href="/wiki/Engineering" title="Engineering">engineering</a> for <a href="/wiki/Exposure_assessment" title="Exposure assessment">exposure assessment</a>. Epidemiology, literally meaning "the study of what is upon the people", is derived from <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a> epi 'upon, among' <a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_rhetorical_terms#Demos" title="Glossary of rhetorical terms">demos</a> 'people, district' and <a href="/wiki/Logos" title="Logos">logos</a> 'study, word, discourse', suggesting that it applies only to human populations. However, the term is widely used in studies of zoological populations (veterinary epidemiology), although the term "<a href="/wiki/Epizoology" class="mw-redirect" title="Epizoology">epizoology</a>" is available, and it has also been applied to studies of plant populations (botanical or <a href="/wiki/Plant_disease_epidemiology" title="Plant disease epidemiology">plant disease epidemiology</a>).<a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a> The distinction between "epidemic" and "endemic" was first drawn by <a href="/wiki/Hippocrates" title="Hippocrates">Hippocrates</a>,<a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a> to distinguish between diseases that are "visited upon" a population (epidemic) from those that "reside within" a population (endemic).<a href="#cite_note-Carol_Buck_1998_p3-4">[4]</a> The term "epidemiology" appears to have first been used to describe the study of epidemics in 1802 by the Spanish physician <a href="/w/index.php?title=Joaqu%C3%ADn_de_Villalba&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Joaquín de Villalba (page does not exist)">Joaquín de Villalba</a> [<a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joaqu%C3%ADn_de_Villalba" class="extiw" title="es:Joaquín de Villalba">es</a>] in Epidemiología Española.<a href="#cite_note-Carol_Buck_1998_p3-4">[4]</a> Epidemiologists also study the interaction of diseases in a population, a condition known as a <a href="/wiki/Syndemic" title="Syndemic">syndemic</a>. The term epidemiology is now widely applied to cover the description and causation of not only epidemic, infectious disease, but of disease in general, including related conditions. Some examples of topics examined through epidemiology include as high blood pressure, mental illness and <a href="/wiki/Obesity" title="Obesity">obesity</a>. Therefore, this epidemiology is based upon how the pattern of the disease causes change in the function of human beings. <div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none"><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Contents</h2><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></div> <ul> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#History">1 History</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-2"><a href="#Modern_era">1.1 Modern era</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3"><a href="#21st_century">1.2 21st century</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-4"><a href="#Types_of_studies">2 Types of studies</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-5"><a href="#Case_series">2.1 Case series</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-6"><a href="#Case-control_studies">2.2 Case-control studies</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-7"><a href="#Cohort_studies">2.3 Cohort studies</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-8"><a href="#Causal_inference">3 Causal inference</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-9"><a href="#Bradford_Hill_criteria">3.1 Bradford Hill criteria</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-10"><a href="#Legal_interpretation">3.2 Legal interpretation</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-11"><a href="#Population-based_health_management">4 Population-based health management</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-12"><a href="#Applied_field_epidemiology">5 Applied field epidemiology</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-13"><a href="#Humanitarian_context">5.1 Humanitarian context</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-14"><a href="#Characterization,_validity,_and_bias">6 Characterization, validity, and bias</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-15"><a href="#Epidemic_wave">6.1 Epidemic wave</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-16"><a href="#Validities">6.2 Validities</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-17"><a href="#Random_error">6.3 Random error</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-18"><a href="#Systematic_error">6.4 Systematic error</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-19"><a href="#Selection_bias">6.4.1 Selection bias</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-20"><a href="#Information_bias">6.4.2 Information bias</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-21"><a href="#Design-related_bias">6.4.3 Design-related bias</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-22"><a href="#Confounding">6.4.4 Confounding</a></li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-23"><a href="#The_profession">7 The profession</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-24"><a href="#COVID-19">7.1 COVID-19</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-25"><a href="#See_also">8 See also</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-26"><a href="#References">9 References</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-27"><a href="#Citations">9.1 Citations</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-28"><a href="#Sources">9.2 Sources</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-29"><a href="#External_links">10 External links</a></li> </ul> </div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(1)"><h2 id="History">History</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Epidemiology&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-1 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-1"> The Greek physician <a href="/wiki/Hippocrates" title="Hippocrates">Hippocrates</a>, taught by Democritus, was known as the father of <a href="/wiki/Medicine" title="Medicine">medicine</a>,<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a> sought a logic to sickness; he is the first person known to have examined the relationships between the occurrence of disease and environmental influences.<a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> Hippocrates believed sickness of the human body to be caused by an imbalance of the four <a href="/wiki/Humorism" title="Humorism">humors</a> (black bile, yellow bile, blood, and phlegm). The cure to the sickness was to remove or add the humor in question to balance the body. This belief led to the application of bloodletting and dieting in medicine.<a href="#cite_note-Merril,_Ray_M._2010-8">[8]</a> He coined the terms <a href="/wiki/Endemic_(epidemiology)" title="Endemic (epidemiology)">endemic</a> (for diseases usually found in some places but not in others) and <a href="/wiki/Epidemic" title="Epidemic">epidemic</a> (for diseases that are seen at some times but not others).<a href="#cite_note-hip-9">[9]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Modern_era">Modern era</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Epidemiology&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Modern era" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/History_of_emerging_infectious_diseases" class="mw-redirect" title="History of emerging infectious diseases">History of emerging infectious diseases</a></div> In the middle of the 16th century, a doctor from <a href="/wiki/Verona" title="Verona">Verona</a> named <a href="/wiki/Girolamo_Fracastoro" title="Girolamo Fracastoro">Girolamo Fracastoro</a> was the first to propose a theory that the very small, unseeable, particles that cause disease were alive. They were considered to be able to spread by air, multiply by themselves and to be destroyable by fire. In this way he refuted <a href="/wiki/Galen" title="Galen">Galen</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Miasma_theory_of_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Miasma theory of disease">miasma theory</a> (poison gas in sick people). In 1543 he wrote a book <a href="/wiki/De_contagione_et_contagiosis_morbis" class="mw-redirect" title="De contagione et contagiosis morbis">De contagione et contagiosis morbis</a>, in which he was the first to promote personal and environmental <a href="/wiki/Hygiene" title="Hygiene">hygiene</a> to prevent disease. The development of a sufficiently powerful microscope by <a href="/wiki/Antonie_van_Leeuwenhoek" title="Antonie van Leeuwenhoek">Antonie van Leeuwenhoek</a> in 1675 provided visual evidence of living particles consistent with a <a href="/wiki/Germ_theory_of_disease" title="Germ theory of disease">germ theory of disease</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] During the <a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming dynasty</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Wu_Youke&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Wu Youke (page does not exist)">Wu Youke</a> (1582–1652) developed the idea that some diseases were caused by transmissible agents, which he called Li Qi (戾气 or pestilential factors) when he observed various epidemics rage around him between 1641 and 1644.<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> His book Wen Yi Lun (瘟疫论, Treatise on Pestilence/Treatise of Epidemic Diseases) can be regarded as the main etiological work that brought forward the concept.<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a> His concepts were still being considered in analysing SARS outbreak by WHO in 2004 in the context of traditional Chinese medicine.<a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a> Another pioneer, <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Sydenham" title="Thomas Sydenham">Thomas Sydenham</a> (1624–1689), was the first to distinguish the fevers of Londoners in the later 1600s. His theories on cures of fevers met with much resistance from traditional physicians at the time. He was not able to find the initial cause of the <a href="/wiki/Smallpox" title="Smallpox">smallpox</a> fever he researched and treated.<a href="#cite_note-Merril,_Ray_M._2010-8">[8]</a> <a href="/wiki/John_Graunt" title="John Graunt">John Graunt</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Haberdasher" title="Haberdasher">haberdasher</a> and amateur statistician, published Natural and Political Observations ... upon the Bills of Mortality in 1662. In it, he analysed the mortality rolls in <a href="/wiki/London" title="London">London</a> before the <a href="/wiki/Great_Plague_of_London" title="Great Plague of London">Great Plague</a>, presented one of the first <a href="/wiki/Life_tables" class="mw-redirect" title="Life tables">life tables</a>, and reported time trends for many diseases, new and old. He provided statistical evidence for many theories on disease, and also refuted some widespread ideas on them.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Snow-cholera-map.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Snow-cholera-map.jpg/350px-Snow-cholera-map.jpg" decoding="async" width="350" height="342" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="889" data-file-height="869"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 350px;height: 342px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Snow-cholera-map.jpg/350px-Snow-cholera-map.jpg" data-width="350" data-height="342" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Snow-cholera-map.jpg/525px-Snow-cholera-map.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Snow-cholera-map.jpg/700px-Snow-cholera-map.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Original map by <a href="/wiki/John_Snow_(physician)" class="mw-redirect" title="John Snow (physician)">John Snow</a> showing the <a href="/wiki/Cluster_(epidemiology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Cluster (epidemiology)">clusters</a> of cholera cases in the <a href="/wiki/1854_Broad_Street_cholera_outbreak" title="1854 Broad Street cholera outbreak">London epidemic of 1854</a></figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/John_Snow_(physician)" class="mw-redirect" title="John Snow (physician)">John Snow</a> is famous for his investigations into the causes of the 19th-century <a href="/wiki/Cholera" title="Cholera">cholera</a> epidemics, and is also known as the father of (modern) Epidemiology.<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a> He began with noticing the significantly higher death rates in two areas supplied by Southwark Company. His identification of the <a href="/wiki/Broadwick_Street" title="Broadwick Street">Broad Street</a> pump as the cause of the Soho epidemic is considered the classic example of epidemiology. Snow used chlorine in an attempt to clean the water and removed the handle; this ended the outbreak. This has been perceived as a major event in the history of <a href="/wiki/Public_health" title="Public health">public health</a> and regarded as the founding event of the science of epidemiology, having helped shape public health policies around the world.<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a> However, Snow's research and preventive measures to avoid further outbreaks were not fully accepted or put into practice until after his death due to the prevailing <a href="/wiki/Miasma_theory" title="Miasma theory">Miasma Theory</a> of the time, a model of disease in which poor air quality was blamed for illness. This was used to rationalize high rates of infection in impoverished areas instead of addressing the underlying issues of poor nutrition and sanitation, and was proven false by his work.<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a> Other pioneers include Danish physician <a href="/w/index.php?title=Peter_Anton_Schleisner&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Peter Anton Schleisner (page does not exist)">Peter Anton Schleisner</a>, who in 1849 related his work on the prevention of the epidemic of <a href="/wiki/Neonatal_tetanus" title="Neonatal tetanus">neonatal tetanus</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Vestmanna_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Vestmanna Islands">Vestmanna Islands</a> in <a href="/wiki/Iceland" title="Iceland">Iceland</a>.<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a> Another important pioneer was <a href="/wiki/Hungary" title="Hungary">Hungarian</a> physician <a href="/wiki/Ignaz_Semmelweis" title="Ignaz Semmelweis">Ignaz Semmelweis</a>, who in 1847 brought down infant mortality at a Vienna hospital by instituting a disinfection procedure. His findings were published in 1850, but his work was ill-received by his colleagues, who discontinued the procedure. Disinfection did not become widely practiced until British surgeon <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Lister,_1st_Baron_Lister" class="mw-redirect" title="Joseph Lister, 1st Baron Lister">Joseph Lister</a> 'discovered' <a href="/wiki/Antiseptics" class="mw-redirect" title="Antiseptics">antiseptics</a> in 1865 in light of the work of <a href="/wiki/Louis_Pasteur" title="Louis Pasteur">Louis Pasteur</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] In the early 20th century, mathematical methods were introduced into epidemiology by <a href="/wiki/Ronald_Ross" title="Ronald Ross">Ronald Ross</a>, <a href="/wiki/Janet_Lane-Claypon" title="Janet Lane-Claypon">Janet Lane-Claypon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anderson_Gray_McKendrick" title="Anderson Gray McKendrick">Anderson Gray McKendrick</a>, and others.<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a><a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a><a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a> In a parallel development during the 1920s, German-Swiss pathologist <a href="/wiki/Max_Askanazy" title="Max Askanazy">Max Askanazy</a> and others founded the International Society for Geographical Pathology to systematically investigate the geographical pathology of cancer and other non-infectious diseases across populations in different regions. After World War II, <a href="/wiki/Richard_Doll" title="Richard Doll">Richard Doll</a> and other non-pathologists joined the field and advanced methods to study cancer, a disease with patterns and mode of occurrences that could not be suitably studied with the methods developed for epidemics of infectious diseases. Geography pathology eventually combined with infectious disease epidemiology to make the field that is epidemiology today.<a href="#cite_note-cancer-24">[24]</a> Another breakthrough was the 1954 publication of the results of a <a href="/wiki/British_Doctors_Study" title="British Doctors Study">British Doctors Study</a>, led by <a href="/wiki/Richard_Doll" title="Richard Doll">Richard Doll</a> and <a href="/wiki/Austin_Bradford_Hill" title="Austin Bradford Hill">Austin Bradford Hill</a>, which lent very strong statistical support to the link between <a href="/wiki/Tobacco_smoking" title="Tobacco smoking">tobacco smoking</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lung_cancer" title="Lung cancer">lung cancer</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] In the late 20th century, with the advancement of biomedical sciences, a number of molecular markers in blood, other biospecimens and environment were identified as predictors of development or risk of a certain disease. Epidemiology research to examine the relationship between these <a href="/wiki/Biomarker" title="Biomarker">biomarkers</a> analyzed at the molecular level and disease was broadly named "<a href="/wiki/Molecular_epidemiology" title="Molecular epidemiology">molecular epidemiology</a>". Specifically, "<a href="/wiki/Genetic_epidemiology" title="Genetic epidemiology">genetic epidemiology</a>" has been used for epidemiology of germline genetic variation and disease. Genetic variation is typically determined using DNA from peripheral blood leukocytes.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="21st_century">21st century</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Epidemiology&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: 21st century" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> Since the 2000s, <a href="/wiki/Genome-wide_association_study" title="Genome-wide association study">genome-wide association studies</a> (GWAS) have been commonly performed to identify genetic risk factors for many diseases and health conditions.<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a> While most molecular epidemiology studies are still using conventional disease <a href="/wiki/Diagnosis" title="Diagnosis">diagnosis</a> and classification systems, it is increasingly recognized that disease progression represents inherently heterogeneous processes differing from person to person. Conceptually, each individual has a unique disease process different from any other individual ("the unique disease principle"),<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a> considering uniqueness of the <a href="/wiki/Exposome" title="Exposome">exposome</a> (a totality of endogenous and exogenous / environmental exposures) and its unique influence on molecular pathologic process in each individual. Studies to examine the relationship between an exposure and molecular pathologic signature of disease (particularly <a href="/wiki/Cancer" title="Cancer">cancer</a>) became increasingly common throughout the 2000s. However, the use of <a href="/wiki/Molecular_pathology" title="Molecular pathology">molecular pathology</a> in epidemiology posed unique challenges, including lack of research guidelines and standardized <a href="/wiki/Statistics" title="Statistics">statistical</a> methodologies, and paucity of interdisciplinary experts and training programs.<a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a> Furthermore, the concept of disease heterogeneity appears to conflict with the long-standing premise in epidemiology that individuals with the same disease name have similar etiologies and disease processes. To resolve these issues and advance population health science in the era of molecular <a href="/wiki/Precision_medicine" class="mw-redirect" title="Precision medicine">precision medicine</a>, "molecular pathology" and "epidemiology" was integrated to create a new interdisciplinary field of "<a href="/wiki/Molecular_pathological_epidemiology" title="Molecular pathological epidemiology">molecular pathological epidemiology</a>" (MPE),<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a><a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a> defined as "epidemiology of molecular pathology and heterogeneity of disease". In MPE, investigators analyze the relationships between (A) environmental, dietary, lifestyle and genetic factors; (B) alterations in cellular or extracellular molecules; and (C) evolution and progression of disease. A better understanding of heterogeneity of disease <a href="/wiki/Pathogenesis" title="Pathogenesis">pathogenesis</a> will further contribute to elucidate <a href="/wiki/Etiology" title="Etiology">etiologies</a> of disease. The MPE approach can be applied to not only neoplastic diseases but also non-neoplastic diseases.<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a> The concept and paradigm of MPE have become widespread in the 2010s.<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a><a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a><a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a><a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a><a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a><a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#Bundling_citations" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">excessive citations</a>] By 2012, it was recognized that many pathogens' <a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">evolution</a> is rapid enough to be highly relevant to epidemiology, and that therefore much could be gained from an interdisciplinary approach to infectious disease integrating epidemiology and <a href="/wiki/Molecular_evolution" title="Molecular evolution">molecular evolution</a> to "inform control strategies, or even patient treatment."<a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a><a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> Modern epidemiological studies can use advanced statistics and <a href="/wiki/Machine_learning" title="Machine learning">machine learning</a> to create <a href="/wiki/Predictive_modelling" title="Predictive modelling">predictive models</a> as well as to define treatment effects.<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a><a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a> There is increasing recognition that a wide range of modern data sources, many not originating from healthcare or epidemiology, can be used for epidemiological study. Such digital epidemiology can include data from internet searching, mobile phone records and retail sales of drugs.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(2)"><h2 id="Types_of_studies">Types of studies</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Epidemiology&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Types of studies" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-2 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-2"> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Epidemiologic_study_hierarchy.png" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Epidemiologic_study_hierarchy.png/220px-Epidemiologic_study_hierarchy.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="199" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="625" data-file-height="564"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 199px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Epidemiologic_study_hierarchy.png/220px-Epidemiologic_study_hierarchy.png" data-width="220" data-height="199" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Epidemiologic_study_hierarchy.png/330px-Epidemiologic_study_hierarchy.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Epidemiologic_study_hierarchy.png/440px-Epidemiologic_study_hierarchy.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Epidemiologic study hierarchy</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Study_design" class="mw-redirect" title="Study design">Study design</a></div> Epidemiologists employ a range of study designs from the observational to experimental and generally categorized as descriptive (involving the assessment of data covering time, place, and person), analytic (aiming to further examine known associations or hypothesized relationships), and experimental (a term often equated with clinical or community trials of treatments and other interventions). In observational studies, nature is allowed to "take its course", as epidemiologists observe from the sidelines. Conversely, in experimental studies, the epidemiologist is the one in control of all of the factors entering a certain case study.<a href="#cite_note-Epidemiology_2009-43">[43]</a> Epidemiological studies are aimed, where possible, at revealing unbiased relationships between <a href="/wiki/Exposure_Assessment#Exposure" class="mw-redirect" title="Exposure Assessment">exposures</a> such as alcohol or smoking, <a href="/wiki/Infections" class="mw-redirect" title="Infections">biological agents</a>, <a href="/wiki/Stress_(medicine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Stress (medicine)">stress</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Chemical_compound" title="Chemical compound">chemicals</a> to <a href="/wiki/Death" title="Death">mortality</a> or <a href="/wiki/Morbidity" class="mw-redirect" title="Morbidity">morbidity</a>. The identification of causal relationships between these exposures and outcomes is an important aspect of epidemiology. Modern epidemiologists use <a href="/wiki/Health_informatics" title="Health informatics">informatics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Infodemiology" title="Infodemiology">infodemiology</a><a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a><a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a> as tools.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>]<a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a><a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a><a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a> Observational studies have two components, descriptive and analytical. Descriptive observations pertain to the "who, what, where and when of health-related state occurrence". However, analytical observations deal more with the 'how' of a health-related event.<a href="#cite_note-Epidemiology_2009-43">[43]</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Experimental_epidemiology&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Experimental epidemiology (page does not exist)">Experimental epidemiology</a> contains three case types: randomized controlled trials (often used for a new medicine or drug testing), field trials (conducted on those at a high risk of contracting a disease), and community trials (research on social originating diseases).<a href="#cite_note-Epidemiology_2009-43">[43]</a> The term 'epidemiologic triad' is used to describe the intersection of Host, Agent, and Environment in analyzing an outbreak.<a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Case_series">Case series</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Epidemiology&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Case series" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> Case-series may refer to the qualitative study of the experience of a single patient, or small group of patients with a similar diagnosis, or to a statistical factor with the potential to produce illness with periods when they are unexposed.<a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a> The former type of study is purely descriptive and cannot be used to make inferences about the general population of patients with that disease. These types of studies, in which an astute clinician identifies an unusual feature of a disease or a patient's history, may lead to a formulation of a new hypothesis. Using the data from the series, analytic studies could be done to investigate possible causal factors. These can include case-control studies or prospective studies. A case-control study would involve matching comparable controls without the disease to the cases in the series. A prospective study would involve following the case series over time to evaluate the disease's natural history.<a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a> The latter type, more formally described as <a href="/w/index.php?title=Self-controlled_case-series&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Self-controlled case-series (page does not exist)">self-controlled case-series</a> studies, divide individual patient follow-up time into exposed and unexposed periods and use fixed-effects Poisson regression processes to compare the incidence rate of a given outcome between exposed and unexposed periods. This technique has been extensively used in the study of adverse reactions to vaccination and has been shown in some circumstances to provide statistical power comparable to that available in cohort studies.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Case-control_studies">Case-control studies</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Epidemiology&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Case-control studies" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <a href="/wiki/Case-control_study" class="mw-redirect" title="Case-control study">Case-control studies</a> select subjects based on their disease status. It is a retrospective study. A group of individuals that are disease positive (the "case" group) is compared with a group of disease negative individuals (the "control" group). The control group should ideally come from the same population that gave rise to the cases. The case-control study looks back through time at potential exposures that both groups (cases and controls) may have encountered. A 2×2 table is constructed, displaying exposed cases (A), exposed controls (B), unexposed cases (C) and unexposed controls (D). The statistic generated to measure association is the <a href="/wiki/Odds_ratio" title="Odds ratio">odds ratio</a> (OR),<a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a> which is the ratio of the odds of exposure in the cases (A/C) to the odds of exposure in the controls (B/D), i.e. OR = (AD/BC).[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th> </th> <th>Cases </th> <th>Controls </th></tr> <tr> <td>Exposed </td> <td>A </td> <td>B </td></tr> <tr> <td>Unexposed </td> <td>C </td> <td>D </td></tr></tbody></table> If the OR is significantly greater than 1, then the conclusion is "those with the disease are more likely to have been exposed", whereas if it is close to 1 then the exposure and disease are not likely associated. If the OR is far less than one, then this suggests that the exposure is a protective factor in the causation of the disease. Case-control studies are usually faster and more cost-effective than <a href="/wiki/Cohort_studies" class="mw-redirect" title="Cohort studies">cohort studies</a> but are sensitive to bias (such as <a href="/wiki/Recall_bias" title="Recall bias">recall bias</a> and <a href="/wiki/Selection_bias" title="Selection bias">selection bias</a>). The main challenge is to identify the appropriate control group; the distribution of exposure among the control group should be representative of the distribution in the population that gave rise to the cases. This can be achieved by drawing a random sample from the original population at risk. This has as a consequence that the control group can contain people with the disease under study when the disease has a high attack rate in a population.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] A major drawback for case control studies is that, in order to be considered to be statistically significant, the minimum number of cases required at the 95% confidence interval is related to the odds ratio by the equation: <dl><dd><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\text{total cases}}=A+C=1.96^{2}(1+N)\left({\frac {1}{\ln(OR)}}\right)^{2}\left({\frac {OR+2{\sqrt {OR}}+1}{\sqrt {OR}}}\right)\approx 15.5(1+N)\left({\frac {1}{\ln(OR)}}\right)^{2}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>total cases</mtext> </mrow> <mo>=</mo> <mi>A</mi> <mo>+</mo> <mi>C</mi> <mo>=</mo> <msup> <mn>1.96</mn> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mn>1</mn> <mo>+</mo> <mi>N</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <msup> <mrow> <mo>(</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mn>1</mn> <mrow> <mi>ln</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>O</mi> <mi>R</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mrow> <mo>(</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mi>O</mi> <mi>R</mi> <mo>+</mo> <mn>2</mn> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msqrt> <mi>O</mi> <mi>R</mi> </msqrt> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> <msqrt> <mi>O</mi> <mi>R</mi> </msqrt> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> <mo>≈</mo> <mn>15.5</mn> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mn>1</mn> <mo>+</mo> <mi>N</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <msup> <mrow> <mo>(</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mn>1</mn> <mrow> <mi>ln</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>O</mi> <mi>R</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\text{total cases}}=A+C=1.96^{2}(1+N)\left({\frac {1}{\ln(OR)}}\right)^{2}\left({\frac {OR+2{\sqrt {OR}}+1}{\sqrt {OR}}}\right)\approx 15.5(1+N)\left({\frac {1}{\ln(OR)}}\right)^{2}}</annotation> </semantics> </math><noscript><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/dd6169f7c8b9da7c336370942c33fa820e5f57f2" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.838ex; width:97.996ex; height:6.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\text{total cases}}=A+C=1.96^{2}(1+N)\left({\frac {1}{\ln(OR)}}\right)^{2}\left({\frac {OR+2{\sqrt {OR}}+1}{\sqrt {OR}}}\right)\approx 15.5(1+N)\left({\frac {1}{\ln(OR)}}\right)^{2}}"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 97.996ex;height: 6.843ex;vertical-align: -2.838ex;" data-mw-src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/dd6169f7c8b9da7c336370942c33fa820e5f57f2" data-alt="{\displaystyle {\text{total cases}}=A+C=1.96^{2}(1+N)\left({\frac {1}{\ln(OR)}}\right)^{2}\left({\frac {OR+2{\sqrt {OR}}+1}{\sqrt {OR}}}\right)\approx 15.5(1+N)\left({\frac {1}{\ln(OR)}}\right)^{2}}" data-class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert"> </dd></dl> where N is the ratio of cases to controls. As the odds ratio approaches 1, the number of cases required for statistical significance grows towards infinity; rendering case-control studies all but useless for low odds ratios. For instance, for an odds ratio of 1.5 and cases = controls, the table shown above would look like this: <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th> </th> <th>Cases </th> <th>Controls </th></tr> <tr> <td>Exposed </td> <td>103 </td> <td>84 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Unexposed </td> <td>84 </td> <td>103 </td></tr></tbody></table> For an odds ratio of 1.1: <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th> </th> <th>Cases </th> <th>Controls </th></tr> <tr> <td>Exposed </td> <td>1732 </td> <td>1652 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Unexposed </td> <td>1652 </td> <td>1732 </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cohort_studies">Cohort studies</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Epidemiology&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Cohort studies" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <a href="/wiki/Cohort_studies" class="mw-redirect" title="Cohort studies">Cohort studies</a> select subjects based on their exposure status. The study subjects should be at risk of the outcome under investigation at the beginning of the cohort study; this usually means that they should be disease free when the cohort study starts. The cohort is followed through time to assess their later outcome status. An example of a cohort study would be the investigation of a cohort of smokers and non-smokers over time to estimate the incidence of lung cancer. The same 2×2 table is constructed as with the case control study. However, the point estimate generated is the <a href="/wiki/Relative_risk" title="Relative risk">relative risk</a> (RR), which is the probability of disease for a person in the exposed group, Pe = A / (A + B) over the probability of disease for a person in the unexposed group, Pu = C / (C + D), i.e. RR = Pe / Pu. <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>..... </th> <th>Case </th> <th>Non-case </th> <th>Total </th></tr> <tr> <td>Exposed </td> <td>A </td> <td>B </td> <td>(A + B) </td></tr> <tr> <td>Unexposed </td> <td>C </td> <td>D </td> <td>(C + D) </td></tr></tbody></table> As with the OR, a RR greater than 1 shows association, where the conclusion can be read "those with the exposure were more likely to develop the disease." Prospective studies have many benefits over case control studies. The RR is a more powerful effect measure than the OR, as the OR is just an estimation of the RR, since true incidence cannot be calculated in a case control study where subjects are selected based on disease status. Temporality can be established in a prospective study, and confounders are more easily controlled for. However, they are more costly, and there is a greater chance of losing subjects to follow-up based on the long time period over which the cohort is followed. Cohort studies also are limited by the same equation for number of cases as for cohort studies, but, if the base incidence rate in the study population is very low, the number of cases required is reduced by <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1154941027">.mw-parser-output .frac{white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output .frac .num,.mw-parser-output .frac .den{font-size:80%;line-height:0;vertical-align:super}.mw-parser-output .frac .den{vertical-align:sub}.mw-parser-output .sr-only{border:0;clip:rect(0,0,0,0);clip-path:polygon(0px 0px,0px 0px,0px 0px);height:1px;margin:-1px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;position:absolute;width:1px}</style>1⁄2. </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(3)"><h2 id="Causal_inference">Causal inference</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Epidemiology&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Causal inference" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-3 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-3"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Causal_inference" title="Causal inference">Causal inference</a></div> Although epidemiology is sometimes viewed as a collection of statistical tools used to elucidate the associations of exposures to health outcomes, a deeper understanding of this science is that of discovering causal relationships. "<a href="/wiki/Correlation_does_not_imply_causation" title="Correlation does not imply causation">Correlation does not imply causation</a>" is a common theme for much of the epidemiological literature. For epidemiologists, the key is in the term <a href="/wiki/Inference" title="Inference">inference</a>. Correlation, or at least association between two variables, is a necessary but not sufficient criterion for the inference that one variable causes the other. Epidemiologists use gathered data and a broad range of biomedical and psychosocial theories in an iterative way to generate or expand theory, to test hypotheses, and to make educated, informed assertions about which relationships are causal, and about exactly how they are causal. Epidemiologists emphasize that the "one cause – one effect" understanding is a simplistic mis-belief.<a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a> Most outcomes, whether disease or death, are caused by a chain or web consisting of many component causes.<a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a> Causes can be distinguished as necessary, sufficient or probabilistic conditions. If a necessary condition can be identified and controlled (e.g., antibodies to a disease agent, energy in an injury), the harmful outcome can be avoided (Robertson, 2015). One tool regularly used to conceptualize the multicausality associated with disease is the <a href="/wiki/Causal_pie_model" title="Causal pie model">causal pie model</a>.<a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bradford_Hill_criteria">Bradford Hill criteria</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Epidemiology&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Bradford Hill criteria" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Bradford_Hill_criteria" title="Bradford Hill criteria">Bradford Hill criteria</a></div> In 1965, <a href="/wiki/Austin_Bradford_Hill" title="Austin Bradford Hill">Austin Bradford Hill</a> proposed a series of considerations to help assess evidence of causation,<a href="#cite_note-bh65-56">[56]</a> which have come to be commonly known as the "<a href="/wiki/Bradford_Hill_criteria" title="Bradford Hill criteria">Bradford Hill criteria</a>". In contrast to the explicit intentions of their author, Hill's considerations are now sometimes taught as a checklist to be implemented for assessing causality.<a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a> Hill himself said "None of my nine viewpoints can bring indisputable evidence for or against the cause-and-effect hypothesis and none can be required sine qua non."<a href="#cite_note-bh65-56">[56]</a> <ol><li>Strength of Association: A small association does not mean that there is not a causal effect, though the larger the association, the more likely that it is causal.<a href="#cite_note-bh65-56">[56]</a></li> <li>Consistency of Data: Consistent findings observed by different persons in different places with different samples strengthens the likelihood of an effect.<a href="#cite_note-bh65-56">[56]</a></li> <li>Specificity: Causation is likely if a very specific population at a specific site and disease with no other likely explanation. The more specific an association between a factor and an effect is, the bigger the probability of a causal relationship.<a href="#cite_note-bh65-56">[56]</a></li> <li>Temporality: The effect has to occur after the cause (and if there is an expected delay between the cause and expected effect, then the effect must occur after that delay).<a href="#cite_note-bh65-56">[56]</a></li> <li>Biological gradient: Greater exposure should generally lead to greater incidence of the effect. However, in some cases, the mere presence of the factor can trigger the effect. In other cases, an inverse proportion is observed: greater exposure leads to lower incidence.<a href="#cite_note-bh65-56">[56]</a></li> <li>Plausibility: A plausible mechanism between cause and effect is helpful (but Hill noted that knowledge of the mechanism is limited by current knowledge).<a href="#cite_note-bh65-56">[56]</a></li> <li>Coherence: Coherence between epidemiological and laboratory findings increases the likelihood of an effect. However, Hill noted that "... lack of such [laboratory] evidence cannot nullify the epidemiological effect on associations".<a href="#cite_note-bh65-56">[56]</a></li> <li>Experiment: "Occasionally it is possible to appeal to experimental evidence".<a href="#cite_note-bh65-56">[56]</a></li> <li>Analogy: The effect of similar factors may be considered.<a href="#cite_note-bh65-56">[56]</a></li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Legal_interpretation">Legal interpretation</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Epidemiology&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Legal interpretation" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <a href="/wiki/Epidemiological_study" class="mw-redirect" title="Epidemiological study">Epidemiological studies</a> can only go to prove that an agent could have caused, but not that it did cause, an effect in any particular case: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">Epidemiology is concerned with the <a href="/wiki/Incidence_(epidemiology)" title="Incidence (epidemiology)">incidence</a> of disease in populations and does not address the question of the cause of an individual's disease. This question, sometimes referred to as specific causation, is beyond the domain of the science of epidemiology. Epidemiology has its limits at the point where an inference is made that the relationship between an agent and a disease is causal (general causation) and where the magnitude of excess risk attributed to the agent has been determined; that is, epidemiology addresses whether an agent can cause disease, not whether an agent did cause a specific plaintiff's disease.<a href="#cite_note-green-58">[58]</a></blockquote> In United States law, epidemiology alone cannot prove that a causal association does not exist in general. Conversely, it can be (and is in some circumstances) taken by US courts, in an individual case, to justify an inference that a causal association does exist, based upon a balance of <a href="/wiki/Probability" title="Probability">probability</a>. The subdiscipline of forensic epidemiology is directed at the investigation of specific causation of disease or injury in individuals or groups of individuals in instances in which causation is disputed or is unclear, for presentation in legal settings. </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(4)"><h2 id="Population-based_health_management">Population-based health management</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Epidemiology&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Population-based health management" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-4 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-4"> Epidemiological practice and the results of epidemiological analysis make a significant contribution to emerging population-based health management frameworks. Population-based health management encompasses the ability to: <ul><li>Assess the health states and health needs of a target population;</li> <li>Implement and evaluate interventions that are designed to improve the health of that population; and</li> <li>Efficiently and effectively provide care for members of that population in a way that is consistent with the community's cultural, policy and health resource values.</li></ul> Modern population-based health management is complex, requiring a multiple set of skills (medical, political, technological, mathematical, etc.) of which epidemiological practice and analysis is a core component, that is unified with management science to provide efficient and effective health care and health guidance to a population. This task requires the forward-looking ability of modern risk management approaches that transform health risk factors, incidence, prevalence and mortality statistics (derived from epidemiological analysis) into management metrics that not only guide how a health system responds to current population health issues but also how a health system can be managed to better respond to future potential population health issues.<a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a> Examples of organizations that use population-based health management that leverage the work and results of epidemiological practice include Canadian Strategy for Cancer Control, Health Canada Tobacco Control Programs, Rick Hansen Foundation, Canadian Tobacco Control Research Initiative.<a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a><a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a><a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a> Each of these organizations uses a population-based health management framework called Life at Risk that combines epidemiological quantitative analysis with demographics, health agency operational research and economics to perform: <ul><li>Population Life Impacts Simulations: Measurement of the future potential impact of disease upon the population with respect to new disease cases, prevalence, premature death as well as potential years of life lost from disability and death;</li> <li>Labour Force Life Impacts Simulations: Measurement of the future potential impact of disease upon the labour force with respect to new disease cases, prevalence, premature death and potential years of life lost from disability and death;</li> <li>Economic Impacts of Disease Simulations: Measurement of the future potential impact of disease upon private sector disposable income impacts (wages, corporate profits, private health care costs) and public sector disposable income impacts (personal income tax, corporate income tax, consumption taxes, <a href="/wiki/Publicly_funded_health_care" title="Publicly funded health care">publicly funded health care</a> costs).</li></ul> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(5)"><h2 id="Applied_field_epidemiology">Applied field epidemiology</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Epidemiology&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Applied field epidemiology" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-5 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-5"> Applied epidemiology is the practice of using epidemiological methods to protect or improve the health of a population. Applied field epidemiology can include investigating communicable and non-communicable disease outbreaks, mortality and morbidity rates, and nutritional status, among other indicators of health, with the purpose of communicating the results to those who can implement appropriate policies or disease control measures. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Humanitarian_context">Humanitarian context</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Epidemiology&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Humanitarian context" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> As the surveillance and reporting of diseases and other health factors become increasingly difficult in humanitarian crisis situations, the methodologies used to report the data are compromised. One study found that less than half (42.4%) of nutrition surveys sampled from humanitarian contexts correctly calculated the prevalence of malnutrition and only one-third (35.3%) of the surveys met the criteria for quality. Among the mortality surveys, only 3.2% met the criteria for quality. As nutritional status and mortality rates help indicate the severity of a crisis, the tracking and reporting of these health factors is crucial. Vital registries are usually the most effective ways to collect data, but in humanitarian contexts these registries can be non-existent, unreliable, or inaccessible. As such, mortality is often inaccurately measured using either prospective demographic surveillance or retrospective mortality surveys. Prospective demographic surveillance requires much manpower and is difficult to implement in a spread-out population. Retrospective mortality surveys are prone to selection and reporting biases. Other methods are being developed, but are not common practice yet.<a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a><a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a><a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a><a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(6)"><h2 id="Characterization,_validity,_and_bias">Characterization, validity, and bias</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Epidemiology&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Characterization, validity, and bias" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-6 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-6"> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Epidemic_wave">Epidemic wave</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Epidemiology&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Epidemic wave" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> The concept of waves in epidemics has implications especially for <a href="/wiki/Infection" title="Infection">communicable diseases</a>. A working definition for the term "epidemic wave" is based on two key features: 1) it comprises periods of upward or downward trends, and 2) these increases or decreases must be substantial and sustained over a period of time, in order to distinguish them from minor fluctuations or reporting errors.<a href="#cite_note-Zhang-67">[67]</a> The use of a consistent scientific definition is to provide a consistent language that can be used to communicate about and understand the progression of the COVID-19 pandemic, which would aid healthcare organizations and policymakers in resource planning and allocation. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Validities">Validities</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Epidemiology&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Validities" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> Different fields in epidemiology have different levels of validity. One way to assess the validity of findings is the ratio of false-positives (claimed effects that are not correct) to false-negatives (studies which fail to support a true effect). In <a href="/wiki/Genetic_epidemiology" title="Genetic epidemiology">genetic epidemiology</a>, candidate-gene studies may produce over 100 false-positive findings for each false-negative. By contrast genome-wide association appear close to the reverse, with only one false positive for every 100 or more false-negatives.<a href="#cite_note-Ioannides2011-68">[68]</a> This ratio has improved over time in genetic epidemiology, as the field has adopted stringent criteria. By contrast, other epidemiological fields have not required such rigorous reporting and are much less reliable as a result.<a href="#cite_note-Ioannides2011-68">[68]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Random_error">Random error</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Epidemiology&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Random error" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> Random error is the result of fluctuations around a true value because of sampling variability. Random error is just that: random. It can occur during data collection, coding, transfer, or analysis. Examples of random errors include poorly worded questions, a misunderstanding in interpreting an individual answer from a particular respondent, or a typographical error during coding. Random error affects measurement in a transient, inconsistent manner and it is impossible to correct for random error. There is a random error in all sampling procedures – <a href="/wiki/Sampling_error" title="Sampling error">sampling error</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Precision in epidemiological variables is a measure of random error. Precision is also inversely related to random error, so that to reduce random error is to increase precision. Confidence intervals are computed to demonstrate the precision of relative risk estimates. The narrower the confidence interval, the more precise the relative risk estimate. There are two basic ways to reduce random error in an <a href="/wiki/Epidemiological_study" class="mw-redirect" title="Epidemiological study">epidemiological study</a>. The first is to increase the sample size of the study. In other words, add more subjects to your study. The second is to reduce the variability in measurement in the study. This might be accomplished by using a more precise measuring device or by increasing the number of measurements. Note, that if sample size or number of measurements are increased, or a more precise measuring tool is purchased, the costs of the study are usually increased. There is usually an uneasy balance between the need for adequate precision and the practical issue of study cost. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Systematic_error">Systematic error</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Epidemiology&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Systematic error" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> A systematic error or bias occurs when there is a difference between the true value (in the population) and the observed value (in the study) from any cause other than sampling variability. An example of systematic error is if, unknown to you, the <a href="/wiki/Pulse_oximeter" class="mw-redirect" title="Pulse oximeter">pulse oximeter</a> you are using is set incorrectly and adds two points to the true value each time a measurement is taken. The measuring device could be <a href="/wiki/Accuracy_and_precision" title="Accuracy and precision">precise but not accurate</a>. Because the error happens in every instance, it is systematic. Conclusions you draw based on that data will still be incorrect. But the error can be reproduced in the future (e.g., by using the same mis-set instrument). A mistake in coding that affects all responses for that particular question is another example of a systematic error. The validity of a study is dependent on the degree of systematic error. Validity is usually separated into two components: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Internal_validity" title="Internal validity">Internal validity</a> is dependent on the amount of error in measurements, including exposure, disease, and the associations between these variables. Good internal validity implies a lack of error in measurement and suggests that inferences may be drawn at least as they pertain to the subjects under study.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/External_validity" title="External validity">External validity</a> pertains to the process of generalizing the findings of the study to the population from which the sample was drawn (or even beyond that population to a more universal statement). This requires an understanding of which conditions are relevant (or irrelevant) to the generalization. Internal validity is clearly a prerequisite for external validity.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Selection_bias">Selection bias</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Epidemiology&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Selection bias" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <a href="/wiki/Selection_bias" title="Selection bias">Selection bias</a> occurs when study subjects are selected or become part of the study as a result of a third, unmeasured variable which is associated with both the exposure and outcome of interest.<a href="#cite_note-Hern%C3%A1n2004-69">[69]</a> For instance, it has repeatedly been noted that cigarette smokers and non smokers tend to differ in their study participation rates. (Sackett D cites the example of Seltzer et al., in which 85% of non smokers and 67% of smokers returned mailed questionnaires.)<a href="#cite_note-Sackett_D._Bias_in_analytic_research._J_Chron_Dis_1979;_vol._32:51%E2%80%9363.-70">[70]</a> Such a difference in response will not lead to bias if it is not also associated with a systematic difference in outcome between the two response groups. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Information_bias">Information bias</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Epidemiology&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Information bias" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <a href="/wiki/Information_bias_(epidemiology)" title="Information bias (epidemiology)">Information bias</a> is bias arising from systematic error in the assessment of a variable.<a href="#cite_note-Rothman2002-71">[71]</a> An example of this is recall bias. A typical example is again provided by Sackett in his discussion of a study examining the effect of specific exposures on fetal health: "in questioning mothers whose recent pregnancies had ended in fetal death or malformation (cases) and a matched group of mothers whose pregnancies ended normally (controls) it was found that 28% of the former, but only 20% of the latter, reported exposure to drugs which could not be substantiated either in earlier prospective interviews or in other health records".<a href="#cite_note-Sackett_D._Bias_in_analytic_research._J_Chron_Dis_1979;_vol._32:51%E2%80%9363.-70">[70]</a> In this example, recall bias probably occurred as a result of women who had had miscarriages having an apparent tendency to better recall and therefore report previous exposures. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Design-related_bias">Design-related bias</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Epidemiology&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Design-related bias" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> Next to sample- and variable-related bias, bias can also arise from an imperfect study design. One example is immortal time bias, where during study period, there is some interval during which the outcome event cannot occur (making these individual "immortal").<a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a><a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Confounding">Confounding</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Epidemiology&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Confounding" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <a href="/wiki/Confounding" title="Confounding">Confounding</a> has traditionally been defined as bias arising from the co-occurrence or mixing of effects of extraneous factors, referred to as confounders, with the main effect(s) of interest.<a href="#cite_note-Rothman2002-71">[71]</a><a href="#cite_note-Greenland-74">[74]</a> A more recent definition of confounding invokes the notion of counterfactual effects.<a href="#cite_note-Greenland-74">[74]</a> According to this view, when one observes an outcome of interest, say Y=1 (as opposed to Y=0), in a given population A which is entirely exposed (i.e. exposure X = 1 for every unit of the population) the risk of this event will be RA1. The counterfactual or unobserved risk RA0 corresponds to the risk which would have been observed if these same individuals had been unexposed (i.e. X = 0 for every unit of the population). The true effect of exposure therefore is: RA1 − RA0 (if one is interested in risk differences) or RA1/RA0 (if one is interested in relative risk). Since the counterfactual risk RA0 is unobservable we approximate it using a second population B and we actually measure the following relations: RA1 − RB0 or RA1/RB0. In this situation, confounding occurs when RA0 ≠ RB0.<a href="#cite_note-Greenland-74">[74]</a> (NB: Example assumes binary outcome and exposure variables.) Some epidemiologists prefer to think of confounding separately from common categorizations of bias since, unlike selection and information bias, confounding stems from real causal effects.<a href="#cite_note-Hern%C3%A1n2004-69">[69]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(7)"><h2 id="The_profession">The profession</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Epidemiology&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: The profession" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-7 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-7"> Few universities have offered epidemiology as a course of study at the undergraduate level.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] An undergraduate program exists at <a href="/wiki/Johns_Hopkins_University" title="Johns Hopkins University">Johns Hopkins University</a> in which students who major in public health can take graduate-level courses—including epidemiology—during their senior year at the <a href="/wiki/Bloomberg_School_of_Public_Health" class="mw-redirect" title="Bloomberg School of Public Health">Bloomberg School of Public Health</a>.<a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a> In addition to its master's and doctoral degrees in epidemiology, the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Michigan_School_of_Public_Health" title="University of Michigan School of Public Health">University of Michigan School of Public Health</a> has offered undergraduate degree programs since 2017 that include coursework in epidemiology.<a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a><a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a> Although epidemiologic research is conducted by individuals from diverse disciplines, variable levels of training in epidemiologic methods are provided during <a href="/wiki/Pharmacy_school" title="Pharmacy school">pharmacy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Medical_education" title="Medical education">medical</a>, <a href="/wiki/Veterinary_education" title="Veterinary education">veterinary</a>, <a href="/wiki/Social_work#Theoretical_models_and_practices" title="Social work">social work</a>, <a href="/wiki/Podiatric_medical_school" title="Podiatric medical school">podiatry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Public_health_nursing" title="Public health nursing">nursing</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Physical_Therapy#Professional_degree_(entry-level)" title="Doctor of Physical Therapy">physical therapy</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Psychologist#United_States" title="Psychologist">clinical psychology</a> doctoral programs in addition to the formal training master's and doctoral students in public health fields receive. As public health practitioners, epidemiologists work in a number of different settings. Some epidemiologists work "in the field" (i.e., in the community; commonly[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch">according to whom?</a>] in a public health service), and are often at the forefront of investigating and combating disease outbreaks.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Others work for non-profit organizations, universities, hospitals, or larger government entities (e.g., state and local health departments in the United States), ministries of health, <a href="/wiki/M%C3%A9decins_Sans_Fronti%C3%A8res" title="Médecins Sans Frontières">Doctors without Borders</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Centers_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention" title="Centers for Disease Control and Prevention">Centers for Disease Control and Prevention</a> (CDC), the <a href="/wiki/Health_Protection_Agency" title="Health Protection Agency">Health Protection Agency</a>, the <a href="/wiki/World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization">World Health Organization</a> (WHO), or the <a href="/wiki/Public_Health_Agency_of_Canada" title="Public Health Agency of Canada">Public Health Agency of Canada</a>. Epidemiologists can also work in for-profit organizations (e.g., pharmaceutical and medical device companies) in groups such as market research or clinical development. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="COVID-19">COVID-19</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Epidemiology&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: COVID-19" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> An April 2020 <a href="/wiki/University_of_Southern_California" title="University of Southern California">University of Southern California</a> article noted that, "The <a href="/wiki/Coronavirus_epidemic" class="mw-redirect" title="Coronavirus epidemic">coronavirus epidemic</a>... thrust epidemiology – the study of the incidence, distribution and control of disease in a population – to the forefront of scientific disciplines across the globe and even made temporary celebrities out of some of its practitioners."<a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(8)"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Epidemiology&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: See also" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-8 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-8"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1266661725">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><noscript><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/WHO_Rod.svg/12px-WHO_Rod.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="28" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="107" data-file-height="250"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 12px;height: 28px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/WHO_Rod.svg/12px-WHO_Rod.svg.png" data-alt="icon" data-width="12" data-height="28" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/WHO_Rod.svg/18px-WHO_Rod.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/WHO_Rod.svg/24px-WHO_Rod.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Medicine" title="Portal:Medicine">Medicine portal</a></li></ul> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Age_adjustment" title="Age adjustment">Age adjustment</a> – Technique used to compare populations with different age profiles</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caerphilly_Heart_Disease_Study" title="Caerphilly Heart Disease Study">Caerphilly Heart Disease Study</a> – Medical research project</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centre_for_Research_on_the_Epidemiology_of_Disasters" title="Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters">Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters</a> (<abbr>CRED</abbr>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centro_Studi_GISED" title="Centro Studi GISED">Centro Studi GISED</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circulation_plan" title="Circulation plan">Circulation plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contact_tracing" title="Contact tracing">Contact tracing</a> – Finding and identifying people in contact with someone with an infectious disease</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_community_size" title="Critical community size">Critical community size</a> – Minimum size of a closed population within which a pathogen can persist indefinitely</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disease_cluster" title="Disease cluster">Disease cluster</a> – Large incidence of a medical condition in a particular location or time frame</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disease_diffusion_mapping" title="Disease diffusion mapping">Disease diffusion mapping</a> – Map of disease risk for a region</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compartmental_models_in_epidemiology" title="Compartmental models in epidemiology">Compartmental models in epidemiology</a> – Type of mathematical model used for infectious diseases</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epidemiological_method" title="Epidemiological method">Epidemiological method</a> – Scientific method in the specific field</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epidemiological_transition" title="Epidemiological transition">Epidemiological transition</a> – A term in demography</li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Centre_for_Disease_Prevention_and_Control" title="European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control">European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control</a> – Agency of the European Union</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hispanic_paradox" title="Hispanic paradox">Hispanic paradox</a> – Epidemiological finding</li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Society_for_Pharmacoepidemiology" title="International Society for Pharmacoepidemiology">International Society for Pharmacoepidemiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Job-exposure_matrix" title="Job-exposure matrix">Job-exposure matrix</a> – means of estimating a person's history of occupational exposurePages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_modelling_of_infectious_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Mathematical modelling of infectious disease">Mathematical modelling of infectious disease</a> – Using mathematical models to understand infectious disease transmissionPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mendelian_randomization" title="Mendelian randomization">Mendelian randomization</a> – Statistical method in genetic epidemiology</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_epidemiology" title="Occupational epidemiology">Occupational epidemiology</a> – Epidemiology of workplaces diseases</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Predictive_analytics" title="Predictive analytics">Predictive analytics</a> – Statistical techniques analyzing facts to make predictions about unknown events</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Society_for_Occupational_Health_Psychology" title="Society for Occupational Health Psychology">Society for Occupational Health Psychology</a> – American occupational health psychology organization</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Race_and_health" title="Race and health">Population groups in biomedicine</a> – Health based on racial identity</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spatial_epidemiology" title="Spatial epidemiology">Spatial epidemiology</a> – subfield of health geography focused on the study of the spatial distribution of health outcomesPages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Study_of_Health_in_Pomerania" title="Study of Health in Pomerania">Study of Health in Pomerania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Targeted_immunization_strategies" title="Targeted immunization strategies">Targeted immunization strategies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_planning" title="Urban planning">Urban planning</a> – Technical and political process of land use and urban design</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whitehall_Study" title="Whitehall Study">Whitehall Study</a> – Health study of British civil servants</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoonosis" title="Zoonosis">Zoonosis</a> – Disease that can be transmitted from other species to humans</li></ul> </div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(9)"><h2 id="References">References</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Epidemiology&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: References" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-9 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-9"> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Epidemiology&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Citations" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFPorta2014" class="citation book cs1">Porta M (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://global.oup.com/academic/product/a-dictionary-of-epidemiology-9780199976737?cc=us&lang=en">A Dictionary of Epidemiology</a> (6th ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-997673-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-997673-7"><bdi>978-0-19-997673-7</bdi></a>. Retrieved 16 July 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Dictionary+of+Epidemiology&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=6th&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0-19-997673-7&rft.aulast=Porta&rft.aufirst=Miquel&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fglobal.oup.com%2Facademic%2Fproduct%2Fa-dictionary-of-epidemiology-9780199976737%3Fcc%3Dus%26lang%3Den&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEpidemiology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNutter1999" class="citation journal cs1">Nutter F Jr (1999). 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Retrieved 11 June 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Ask+the+Expert%3A+The+Epidemiology+of+COVID-19&rft.pub=SCUSM&rft.aulast=Hiro&rft.aufirst=Brian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnews.csusm.edu%2Fask-the-expert-deborah-morton%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEpidemiology" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources">Sources</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Epidemiology&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Sources" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/David_Clayton" title="David Clayton">Clayton, David</a> and Michael Hills (1993) Statistical Models in Epidemiology Oxford University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-852221-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-852221-5">0-19-852221-5</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miquel_Porta" title="Miquel Porta">Miquel Porta</a>, editor (2014) "A dictionary of epidemiology", 6th edn, New York: Oxford University Press. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://global.oup.com/academic/product/a-dictionary-of-epidemiology-9780199976737?cc=us&lang=en">A Dictionary of Epidemiology</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170711233713/https://global.oup.com/academic/product/a-dictionary-of-epidemiology-9780199976737?cc=us&lang=en">Archived</a> 11 July 2017 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li>Morabia, Alfredo, editor. (2004) A History of Epidemiologic Methods and Concepts. Basel, Birkhauser Verlag. Part I. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Hgnnhu1ym-8C">A History of Epidemiologic Methods and Concepts</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220630015958/https://books.google.com/books?id=Hgnnhu1ym-8C&printsec=frontcover">Archived</a> 30 June 2022 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.springer.com/public+health/book/978-3-7643-6818-0">A History of Epidemiologic Methods and Concepts</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110703131648/http://www.springer.com/public+health/book/978-3-7643-6818-0">Archived</a> 3 July 2011 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li>Smetanin P, Kobak P, Moyer C, Maley O (2005). "The Risk Management of Tobacco Control Research Policy Programs" The World Conference on Tobacco OR Health Conference, 12–15 July 2006, Washington DC.</li> <li>Szklo M, Nieto FJ (2002). "Epidemiology: beyond the basics", Aspen Publishers.</li> <li>Robertson LS (2015). Injury Epidemiology: Fourth Edition. Free online at <code>nanlee.net</code></li> <li>Rothman K., <a href="/wiki/Sander_Greenland" title="Sander Greenland">Sander Greenland</a>, Lash T., editors (2008). "Modern Epidemiology", 3rd Edition, Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7817-5564-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-7817-5564-6">0-7817-5564-6</a>, <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7817-5564-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7817-5564-1">978-0-7817-5564-1</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130518044530/https://skydrive.live.com/?cid=ec4d1867f6389ec0&id=EC4D1867F6389EC0%21183">Olsen J, Christensen K, Murray J, Ekbom A. An Introduction to Epidemiology for Health Professionals. New York: Springer Science+Business Media; 2010</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4419-1497-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4419-1497-2">978-1-4419-1497-2</a></li></ul> </div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(10)"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Epidemiology&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: External links" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-10 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-10"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 30px;height: 40px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" data-alt="" data-width="30" data-height="40" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Epidemiology" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Epidemiology">Epidemiology</a>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/40px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 40px;height: 40px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/40px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png" data-alt="" data-width="40" data-height="40" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/60px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/80px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Look up <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/epidemiology" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:epidemiology">epidemiology</a> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:The_Wikipedia_Library" title="Wikipedia:The Wikipedia Library">Library resources</a> about epidemiology <hr></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Epidemiology">Resources in your library</a></li> </ul></div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hpa.org.uk">The Health Protection Agency</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070129123642/http://www.hpa.org.uk/">Archived</a> 29 January 2007 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://biostats.bepress.com/">The Collection of Biostatistics Research Archive</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211024171703/https://biostats.bepress.com/">Archived</a> 24 October 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110726171127/http://www.iea-europe.org/index.htm">European Epidemiological Federation</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bmj.com/about-bmj/resources-readers/publications/epidemiology-uninitiated">'Epidemiology for the Uninitiated'</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190321191234/https://www.bmj.com/about-bmj/resources-readers/publications/epidemiology-uninitiated">Archived</a> 21 March 2019 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> by D. Coggon, G. Rose, D.J.P. Barker, <a href="/wiki/British_Medical_Journal" class="mw-redirect" title="British Medical Journal">British Medical Journal</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.epidem.com">Epidem.com</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20010924091113/http://epidem.com/">Archived</a> 24 September 2001 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> – <a href="/wiki/Epidemiology_(journal)" title="Epidemiology (journal)">Epidemiology</a> (peer-reviewed scientific journal that publishes original research on epidemiologic topics)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK7993/">'Epidemiology'</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210429152443/https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK7993/">Archived</a> 29 April 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> – In: Philip S. Brachman, <a href="/wiki/Medical_Microbiology" class="mw-redirect" title="Medical Microbiology">Medical Microbiology</a> (fourth edition), US <a href="/wiki/National_Center_for_Biotechnology_Information" title="National Center for Biotechnology Information">National Center for Biotechnology Information</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071104183725/http://vlab.infotech.monash.edu.au/simulations/cellular-automata/epidemic/">Monash Virtual Laboratory</a> – Simulations of epidemic spread across a landscape</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dceg.cancer.gov/">Division of Cancer Epidemiology and Genetics, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090812223649/http://dceg.cancer.gov/">Archived</a> 12 August 2009 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cred.be">Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100315094506/http://www.cred.be/">Archived</a> 15 March 2010 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> – A <a href="/wiki/World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization">WHO</a> collaborating centre</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180405101243/http://www.epidemiology.ch/history/PeopleEpidemiologyLibrary.html">People's Epidemiology Library</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/32113704">Epidemiology of COVID-19 outbreak</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200328061221/https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/32113704">Archived</a> 28 March 2020 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div>    </section></div> <noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=mobile&type=1x1&usesul3=0" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Epidemiology&oldid=1268755772">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Epidemiology&oldid=1268755772</a>"</div></div> </div> <div class="post-content" id="page-secondary-actions"> </div> </main> <footer class="mw-footer minerva-footer" role="contentinfo"> <a class="last-modified-bar" href="/w/index.php?title=Epidemiology&action=history"> <div class="post-content last-modified-bar__content"> Last edited on 11 January 2025, at 11:00 </div> </a> <div class="post-content footer-content"> <div id='mw-data-after-content'> <div class="read-more-container"></div> </div> <div id="p-lang"> <h4>Languages</h4> <section> <ul id="p-variants" class="minerva-languages"></ul> <ul class="minerva-languages"><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epidemiologie" title="Epidemiologie – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Epidemiologie" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%88%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%A6%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="وبائيات – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="وبائيات" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epidemiologiya" title="Epidemiologiya – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Epidemiologiya" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%97%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0_%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9E%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8" title="রোগবিস্তার বিজ্ঞান – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="রোগবিস্তার বিজ্ঞান" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Li%C3%BB-h%C3%AAng-p%C4%93%E2%81%BF-ha%CC%8Dk" title="Liû-hêng-pēⁿ-ha̍k – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Liû-hêng-pēⁿ-ha̍k" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BF%D1%96%D0%B4%D1%8D%D0%BC%D1%96%D1%8F%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Эпідэміялогія – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Эпідэміялогія" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BF%D1%96%D0%B4%D1%8D%D0%BC%D1%96%D1%8F%D0%BB%D1%91%D0%B3%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Эпідэміялёгія – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Эпідэміялёгія" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epidemyolohiya" title="Epidemyolohiya – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Epidemyolohiya" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bikol Central</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%BF%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Епидемиология – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Епидемиология" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epidemiologija" title="Epidemiologija – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Epidemiologija" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epidemiologia" title="Epidemiologia – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Epidemiologia" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epidemiologie" title="Epidemiologie – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Epidemiologie" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epidemiologi" title="Epidemiologi – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Epidemiologi" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epidemiologie" title="Epidemiologie – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Epidemiologie" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epidemioloogia" title="Epidemioloogia – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Epidemioloogia" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%95%CF%80%CE%B9%CE%B4%CE%B7%CE%BC%CE%B9%CE%BF%CE%BB%CE%BF%CE%B3%CE%AF%CE%B1" title="Επιδημιολογία – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Επιδημιολογία" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epidemiolog%C3%ADa" title="Epidemiología – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Epidemiología" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epidemiologio" title="Epidemiologio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Epidemiologio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epidemiologia" title="Epidemiologia – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Epidemiologia" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%87%D9%85%D9%87%E2%80%8C%DA%AF%DB%8C%D8%B1%D8%B4%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B3%DB%8C" title="همه‌گیرشناسی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="همه‌گیرشناسی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89pid%C3%A9miologie" title="Épidémiologie – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Épidémiologie" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eipid%C3%A9imeola%C3%ADocht" title="Eipidéimeolaíocht – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Eipidéimeolaíocht" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epidemiolox%C3%ADa" title="Epidemioloxía – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Epidemioloxía" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%97%AD%ED%95%99_(%EC%9D%98%ED%95%99)" title="역학 (의학) – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="역학 (의학)" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%80%D5%A1%D5%B4%D5%A1%D5%B3%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%A2%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Համաճարակաբանություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Համաճարակաբանություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8" title="महामारी विज्ञान – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="महामारी विज्ञान" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epidemiologija" title="Epidemiologija – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Epidemiologija" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epidemiologi" title="Epidemiologi – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Epidemiologi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epidemiologia" title="Epidemiologia – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Epidemiologia" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epidemiologia" title="Epidemiologia – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Epidemiologia" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%A4%D7%99%D7%93%D7%9E%D7%99%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%92%D7%99%D7%94" title="אפידמיולוגיה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="אפידמיולוגיה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%B8%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%82%E0%B2%95%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B0%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%AE%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%95_%E0%B2%B0%E0%B3%8B%E0%B2%97%E0%B2%B5%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%9C%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%9E%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%A8" title="ಸಾಂಕ್ರಾಮಿಕ ರೋಗವಿಜ್ಞಾನ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಸಾಂಕ್ರಾಮಿಕ ರೋಗವಿಜ್ಞಾನ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target">ಕನ್ನಡ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%94%E1%83%9E%E1%83%98%E1%83%93%E1%83%94%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9A%E1%83%9D%E1%83%92%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="ეპიდემიოლოგია – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ეპიდემიოლოგია" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BF%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Эпидемиология – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Эпидемиология" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ep%C3%AEdem%C3%AEoloj%C3%AE" title="Epîdemîolojî – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Epîdemîolojî" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BF%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Эпидемиология – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Эпидемиология" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epidemiolo%C4%A3ija" title="Epidemioloģija – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Epidemioloģija" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epidemiologija" title="Epidemiologija – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Epidemiologija" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C3%A1rv%C3%A1nytan" title="Járványtan – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Járványtan" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%BF%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Епидемиологија – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Епидемиологија" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B8%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%82%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%AE%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%B0%E0%B5%8B%E0%B4%97%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%9C%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%9E%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%A8%E0%B5%80%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%82" title="സാംക്രമികരോഗവിജ്ഞാനീയം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="സാംക്രമികരോഗവിജ്ഞാനീയം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%8A%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%AF%D9%8A%D9%85%D9%8A%D9%88%D9%84%D9%88%D8%AC%D9%8A%D8%A7" title="ايبيديميولوجيا – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="ايبيديميولوجيا" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epidemiologi" title="Epidemiologi – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Epidemiologi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-min mw-list-item"><a href="https://min.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epidemiologi" title="Epidemiologi – Minangkabau" lang="min" hreflang="min" data-title="Epidemiologi" data-language-autonym="Minangkabau" data-language-local-name="Minangkabau" class="interlanguage-link-target">Minangkabau</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epidemiologie" title="Epidemiologie – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Epidemiologie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8" title="महामारी विज्ञान – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="महामारी विज्ञान" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%96%AB%E5%AD%A6" title="疫学 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="疫学" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epidemiologi" title="Epidemiologi – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Epidemiologi" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epidemiologiya" title="Epidemiologiya – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Epidemiologiya" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%BE%D9%8A%DA%89%D9%8A%D9%85%D9%88%D9%84%D9%88%DA%98%D9%8A" title="اپيډيمولوژي – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="اپيډيمولوژي" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epidemiologia" title="Epidemiologia – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Epidemiologia" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epidemiologia" title="Epidemiologia – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Epidemiologia" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epidemiologie" title="Epidemiologie – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Epidemiologie" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BF%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Эпидемиология – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Эпидемиология" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa mw-list-item"><a href="https://sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D" title="रोगशास्त्रम् – Sanskrit" lang="sa" hreflang="sa" data-title="रोगशास्त्रम्" data-language-autonym="संस्कृतम्" data-language-local-name="Sanskrit" class="interlanguage-link-target">संस्कृतम्</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epidemiologjia" title="Epidemiologjia – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Epidemiologjia" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B7%80%E0%B7%83%E0%B6%82%E0%B6%9C%E0%B6%AD%E0%B7%80%E0%B7%9A%E0%B6%AF%E0%B6%BA" title="වසංගතවේදය – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="වසංගතවේදය" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target">සිංහල</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epidemiology" title="Epidemiology – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Epidemiology" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%8A%D9%BE%D9%8A%DA%8A%D9%8A%D9%85%D9%8A%D9%88%D9%84%D9%88%D8%AC%D9%8A" title="ايپيڊيميولوجي – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="ايپيڊيميولوجي" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target">سنڌي</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epidemiol%C3%B3gia" title="Epidemiológia – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Epidemiológia" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epidemiologija" title="Epidemiologija – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Epidemiologija" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%BF%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Епидемиологија – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Епидемиологија" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epidemiologija" title="Epidemiologija – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Epidemiologija" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epidemiologia" title="Epidemiologia – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Epidemiologia" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epidemiologi" title="Epidemiologi – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Epidemiologi" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epidemiyolohiya" title="Epidemiyolohiya – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Epidemiyolohiya" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%A8%E0%AF%8B%E0%AE%AF%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D" title="நோய்ப்பரவலியல் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="நோய்ப்பரவலியல்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kab mw-list-item"><a href="https://kab.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tasensakrart" title="Tasensakrart – Kabyle" lang="kab" hreflang="kab" data-title="Tasensakrart" data-language-autonym="Taqbaylit" data-language-local-name="Kabyle" class="interlanguage-link-target">Taqbaylit</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BF%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Эпидемиология – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Эпидемиология" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Татарча / tatarça</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B0%E0%B8%9A%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%94" title="วิทยาการระบาด – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="วิทยาการระบาด" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epidemiyoloji" title="Epidemiyoloji – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Epidemiyoloji" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%BF%D1%96%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BC%D1%96%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Епідеміологія – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Епідеміологія" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epidemio%C5%82ozia" title="Epidemiołozia – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Epidemiołozia" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venetian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vèneto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%E1%BB%8Bch_t%E1%BB%85_h%E1%BB%8Dc" title="Dịch tễ học – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Dịch tễ học" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wa mw-list-item"><a href="https://wa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Min%C3%AAyolodjince" title="Minêyolodjince – Walloon" lang="wa" hreflang="wa" data-title="Minêyolodjince" data-language-autonym="Walon" data-language-local-name="Walloon" class="interlanguage-link-target">Walon</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epidemiyolohiya" title="Epidemiyolohiya – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Epidemiyolohiya" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target">Winaray</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B5%81%E8%A1%8C%E7%97%85%E5%AD%A6" title="流行病学 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="流行病学" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yo mw-list-item"><a href="https://yo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%8Cm%E1%BB%8D%CC%80_%C3%A0j%C3%A0k%C3%A1l%E1%BA%B9%CC%80-%C3%A0r%C3%B9n" title="Ìmọ̀ àjàkálẹ̀-àrùn – Yoruba" lang="yo" hreflang="yo" data-title="Ìmọ̀ àjàkálẹ̀-àrùn" data-language-autonym="Yorùbá" data-language-local-name="Yoruba" class="interlanguage-link-target">Yorùbá</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B5%81%E8%A1%8C%E7%97%85%E5%AD%B8" title="流行病學 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="流行病學" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B5%81%E8%A1%8C%E7%97%85%E5%AD%A6" title="流行病学 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="流行病学" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li></ul> </section> </div> <div class="minerva-footer-logo"><img src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" alt="Wikipedia" width="120" height="18" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"/> </div> <ul id="footer-info" class="footer-info hlist hlist-separated"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was 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