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</a> <ul id="toc-Oscillation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cosmic_neutrinos" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cosmic_neutrinos"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.6 Cosmic neutrinos </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cosmic_neutrinos-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Properties_and_reactions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Properties_and_reactions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 Properties and reactions </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Properties_and_reactions-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Properties and reactions subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Properties_and_reactions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Flavor,_mass,_and_their_mixing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Flavor,_mass,_and_their_mixing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Flavor, mass, and their mixing </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Flavor,_mass,_and_their_mixing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Flavor_oscillations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Flavor_oscillations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Flavor oscillations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Flavor_oscillations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mikheyev–Smirnov–Wolfenstein_effect" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mikheyev–Smirnov–Wolfenstein_effect"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 Mikheyev–Smirnov–Wolfenstein effect </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mikheyev–Smirnov–Wolfenstein_effect-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Antineutrinos" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Antineutrinos"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4 Antineutrinos </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Antineutrinos-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Majorana_mass" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Majorana_mass"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.5 Majorana mass </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Majorana_mass-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nuclear_reactions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nuclear_reactions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.6 Nuclear reactions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nuclear_reactions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Induced_fission_and_other_disintegration_events" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Induced_fission_and_other_disintegration_events"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.7 Induced fission and other disintegration events </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Induced_fission_and_other_disintegration_events-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Types" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Types"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.8 Types </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Types-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Research" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Research"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Research </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Research-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Research subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Research-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Detectors_near_artificial_neutrino_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Detectors_near_artificial_neutrino_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Detectors near artificial neutrino sources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Detectors_near_artificial_neutrino_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gravitational_effects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gravitational_effects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Gravitational effects </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gravitational_effects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sterile_neutrino_searches" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sterile_neutrino_searches"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 Sterile neutrino searches </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sterile_neutrino_searches-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Neutrinoless_double-beta_decay_searches" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Neutrinoless_double-beta_decay_searches"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4 Neutrinoless double-beta decay searches </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Neutrinoless_double-beta_decay_searches-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cosmic_ray_neutrinos" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cosmic_ray_neutrinos"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.5 Cosmic ray neutrinos </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cosmic_ray_neutrinos-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Speed" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Speed"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.6 Speed </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Speed-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Superluminal_neutrino_glitch" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Superluminal_neutrino_glitch"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.6.1 Superluminal neutrino glitch </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Superluminal_neutrino_glitch-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mass" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mass"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.7 Mass </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mass-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Chirality" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chirality"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.8 Chirality </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Chirality-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-GSI_anomaly" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#GSI_anomaly"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.9 GSI anomaly </div> </a> <ul id="toc-GSI_anomaly-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Sources </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Sources-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Sources subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Artificial" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Artificial"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Artificial </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Artificial-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Reactor_neutrinos" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reactor_neutrinos"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1.1 Reactor neutrinos </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reactor_neutrinos-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Accelerator_neutrinos" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Accelerator_neutrinos"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1.2 Accelerator neutrinos </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Accelerator_neutrinos-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Collider_neutrinos" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Collider_neutrinos"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1.3 Collider neutrinos </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Collider_neutrinos-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nuclear_weapons" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nuclear_weapons"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1.4 Nuclear weapons </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nuclear_weapons-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Geologic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Geologic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Geologic </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Geologic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Atmospheric" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Atmospheric"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Atmospheric </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Atmospheric-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Solar" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Solar"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4 Solar </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Solar-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Supernovae" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Supernovae"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.5 Supernovae </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Supernovae-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Supernova_remnants" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Supernova_remnants"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.6 Supernova remnants </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Supernova_remnants-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Big_Bang" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Big_Bang"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.7 Big Bang </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Big_Bang-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Detection" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Detection"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Detection </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Detection-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Scientific_interest" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Scientific_interest"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Scientific interest </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Scientific_interest-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Bibliography </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Neutrino</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 92 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-92" aria-hidden="true" > 92 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutrino" title="Neutrino – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Neutrino" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D9%8A%D9%88%D8%AA%D8%B1%D9%8A%D9%86%D9%88" title="نيوترينو – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="نيوترينو" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutrino" title="Neutrino – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Neutrino" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aragonés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%89%E0%A6%9F%E0%A7%8D%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A8%27" title="নিউট্ৰিন' – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="নিউট্ৰিন'" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">অসমীয়া</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutr%C3%ADn" title="Neutrín – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Neutrín" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neytrino" title="Neytrino – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Neytrino" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D9%88%D8%AA%D8%B1%DB%8C%D9%86%D9%88" title="نوترینو – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="نوترینو" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%89%E0%A6%9F%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%8B" title="নিউট্রিনো – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="নিউট্রিনো" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutrino" title="Neutrino – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Neutrino" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B5%D0%B9%D1%82%D1%80%D1%8B%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Нейтрына – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Нейтрына" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B5%D1%83%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%BE" title="Неутрино – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Неутрино" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutrino" title="Neutrino – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Neutrino" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutr%C3%AD" title="Neutrí – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Neutrí" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutrino" title="Neutrino – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Neutrino" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutrino" title="Neutrino – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Neutrino" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ary mw-list-item"><a href="https://ary.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D9%88%D8%AA%D8%B1%D9%8A%D9%86%D9%88" title="نوترينو – Moroccan Arabic" lang="ary" hreflang="ary" data-title="نوترينو" data-language-autonym="الدارجة" data-language-local-name="Moroccan Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">الدارجة</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutrino" title="Neutrino – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Neutrino" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutriinod" title="Neutriinod – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Neutriinod" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9D%CE%B5%CF%84%CF%81%CE%AF%CE%BD%CE%BF" title="Νετρίνο – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Νετρίνο" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutrino" title="Neutrino – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Neutrino" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ne%C5%ADtrino" title="Neŭtrino – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Neŭtrino" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutrino" title="Neutrino – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Neutrino" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D9%88%D8%AA%D8%B1%DB%8C%D9%86%D9%88" title="نوترینو – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="نوترینو" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutrino" title="Neutrino – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Neutrino" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutrino" title="Neutrino – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Neutrino" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fur mw-list-item"><a href="https://fur.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutrin" title="Neutrin – Friulian" lang="fur" hreflang="fur" data-title="Neutrin" data-language-autonym="Furlan" data-language-local-name="Friulian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Furlan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neoidr%C3%ADon%C3%B3" title="Neoidríonó – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Neoidríonó" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutrino" title="Neutrino – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Neutrino" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gu mw-list-item"><a href="https://gu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AA%A8%E0%AB%8D%E0%AA%AF%E0%AB%81%E0%AA%9F%E0%AB%8D%E0%AA%B0%E0%AA%BF%E0%AA%A8%E0%AB%8B" title="ન્યુટ્રિનો – Gujarati" lang="gu" hreflang="gu" data-title="ન્યુટ્રિનો" data-language-autonym="ગુજરાતી" data-language-local-name="Gujarati" class="interlanguage-link-target">ગુજરાતી</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%A4%91%EC%84%B1%EB%AF%B8%EC%9E%90" title="중성미자 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="중성미자" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%86%D5%A5%D5%B5%D5%BF%D6%80%D5%AB%D5%B6%D5%B8" title="Նեյտրինո – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Նեյտրինո" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%9F%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8B" title="न्यूट्रिनो – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="न्यूट्रिनो" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutrino" title="Neutrino – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Neutrino" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutrino" title="Neutrino – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Neutrino" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutrino" title="Neutrino – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Neutrino" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiseind" title="Fiseind – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Fiseind" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutrino" title="Neutrino – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Neutrino" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%99%D7%98%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%A0%D7%95" title="נייטרינו – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="נייטרינו" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9C%E1%83%94%E1%83%98%E1%83%A2%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%9D" title="ნეიტრინო – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ნეიტრინო" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B5%D0%B9%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%BE" title="Нейтрино – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Нейтрино" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C3%A9trino" title="Nétrino – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Nétrino" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kriyòl gwiyannen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B5%D0%B9%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%BE" title="Нейтрино – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Нейтрино" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutrinum" title="Neutrinum – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Neutrinum" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neitr%C4%ABno" title="Neitrīno – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Neitrīno" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutrino" title="Neutrino – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Neutrino" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lëtzebuergesch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutrinas" title="Neutrinas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Neutrinas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutrino" title="Neutrino – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Neutrino" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Limburgs</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ne%C3%BCtrin" title="Neütrin – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Neütrin" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lombard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutr%C3%ADn%C3%B3" title="Neutrínó – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Neutrínó" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B5%D1%83%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%BE" title="Неутрино – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Неутрино" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%A8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AF%E0%B5%82%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%A8%E0%B5%8B" title="ന്യൂട്രിനോ – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ന്യൂട്രിനോ" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%9F%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8B" title="न्यूट्रिनो – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="न्यूट्रिनो" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutrino" title="Neutrino – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Neutrino" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%94%E1%80%BB%E1%80%B0%E1%80%91%E1%80%9B%E1%80%AE%E1%80%94%E1%80%AD%E1%80%AF" title="နျူထရီနို – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="နျူထရီနို" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target">မြန်မာဘာသာ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutrino" title="Neutrino – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Neutrino" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%9F%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8B" title="न्यूट्रिनो – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="न्यूट्रिनो" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%8B%E3%83%A5%E3%83%BC%E3%83%88%E3%83%AA%E3%83%8E" title="ニュートリノ – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ニュートリノ" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C3%B8ytrino" title="Nøytrino – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Nøytrino" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C3%B8ytrino" title="Nøytrino – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Nøytrino" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutrin%C3%B2" title="Neutrinò – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Neutrinò" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neytrino" title="Neytrino – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Neytrino" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%A8%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%8A%E0%A8%9F%E0%A9%8D%E0%A8%B0%E0%A9%80%E0%A8%A8%E0%A9%8B" title="ਨਿਊਟ੍ਰੀਨੋ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਨਿਊਟ੍ਰੀਨੋ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%DB%8C%D9%88%D9%B9%D8%B1%DB%8C%D9%86%D9%88" title="نیوٹرینو – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="نیوٹرینو" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nyuuchriino" title="Nyuuchriino – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Nyuuchriino" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Patois</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutrino" title="Neutrino – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Neutrino" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Plattdüütsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutrino" title="Neutrino – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Neutrino" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutrino" title="Neutrino – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Neutrino" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutrin" title="Neutrin – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Neutrin" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B5%D0%B9%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%BE" title="Нейтрино – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Нейтрино" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutrino" title="Neutrino – Sardinian" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Neutrino" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="Sardinian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sardu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-stq mw-list-item"><a href="https://stq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutrino" title="Neutrino – Saterland Frisian" lang="stq" hreflang="stq" data-title="Neutrino" data-language-autonym="Seeltersk" data-language-local-name="Saterland Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Seeltersk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niutr%C3%ACnu" title="Niutrìnu – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Niutrìnu" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sicilianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutrino" title="Neutrino – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Neutrino" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutr%C3%ADno" title="Neutríno – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Neutríno" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nevtrino" title="Nevtrino – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Nevtrino" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D9%88%D9%88%D8%AA%D8%B1%DB%8C%D9%86%DB%86" title="نووترینۆ – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="نووترینۆ" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B5%D1%83%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%BE" title="Неутрино – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Неутрино" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutrino" title="Neutrino – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Neutrino" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutriino" title="Neutriino – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Neutriino" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutrino" title="Neutrino – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Neutrino" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%A8%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AF%82%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8B" title="நியூட்ரினோ – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="நியூட்ரினோ" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li 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<div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Elementary particle with extremely low mass</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Neutron" title="Neutron">neutron</a>, <a href="/wiki/Neuron" title="Neuron">neuron</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Neutralino" title="Neutralino">neutralino</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Neutrino_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Neutrino (disambiguation)">Neutrino (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox"><caption class="infobox-title">Neutrino</caption><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><a href="/wiki/File:FirstNeutrinoEventAnnotated.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/FirstNeutrinoEventAnnotated.jpg/280px-FirstNeutrinoEventAnnotated.jpg" decoding="async" width="280" height="210" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/FirstNeutrinoEventAnnotated.jpg/420px-FirstNeutrinoEventAnnotated.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/FirstNeutrinoEventAnnotated.jpg/560px-FirstNeutrinoEventAnnotated.jpg 2x" data-file-width="675" data-file-height="506" /></a><div class="infobox-caption">The first use of a hydrogen <a href="/wiki/Bubble_chamber" title="Bubble chamber">bubble chamber</a> to detect neutrinos, on 13 November 1970, at <a href="/wiki/Argonne_National_Laboratory" title="Argonne National Laboratory">Argonne National Laboratory</a>. Here a neutrino hits a proton in a hydrogen atom; the collision occurs at the point where three tracks emanate on the right of the photograph.</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Particle#Composition" title="Particle">Composition</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Elementary_particle" title="Elementary particle">Elementary particle</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Particle_statistics" title="Particle statistics">Statistics</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Fermionic" class="mw-redirect" title="Fermionic">Fermionic</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Family</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Lepton" title="Lepton">Leptons</a>, antileptons</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Generation_(particle_physics)" title="Generation (particle physics)">Generation</a></th><td class="infobox-data">First ( ν e), second ( ν μ), and third ( ν τ)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Fundamental_interaction" title="Fundamental interaction">Interactions</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Weak_interaction" title="Weak interaction">Weak interaction</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gravitation" class="mw-redirect" title="Gravitation">gravitation</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Symbol</th><td class="infobox-data"> ν e , ν μ , ν τ , ν e , ν μ , ν τ</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Subatomic_particle" title="Subatomic particle">Particle</a></th><td class="infobox-data">spin: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1214402035">.mw-parser-output .sfrac{white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output .sfrac.tion,.mw-parser-output .sfrac .tion{display:inline-block;vertical-align:-0.5em;font-size:85%;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .sfrac .num{display:block;line-height:1em;margin:0.0em 0.1em;border-bottom:1px solid}.mw-parser-output .sfrac .den{display:block;line-height:1em;margin:0.1em 0.1em}.mw-parser-output .sr-only{border:0;clip:rect(0,0,0,0);clip-path:polygon(0px 0px,0px 0px,0px 0px);height:1px;margin:-1px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;position:absolute;width:1px}</style>⁠±+ 1 /2⁠ħ, <a href="/wiki/Chirality_(physics)" title="Chirality (physics)">chirality</a>: Left, <a href="/wiki/Weak_isospin" title="Weak isospin">weak isospin</a>: +<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1214402035">⁠ 1 /2⁠, <a href="/wiki/Lepton_number" title="Lepton number">lepton nr.</a>: +1, <a href="/wiki/Flavour_(particle_physics)" title="Flavour (particle physics)">"flavor"</a> in { e, μ, τ } </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Antiparticle" title="Antiparticle">Antiparticle</a></th><td class="infobox-data">spin: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1214402035">⁠±+ 1 /2⁠ħ, <a href="/wiki/Chirality_(physics)" title="Chirality (physics)">chirality</a>: Right, <a href="/wiki/Weak_isospin" title="Weak isospin">weak isospin</a>: −<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1214402035">⁠ 1 /2⁠, <a href="/wiki/Lepton_number" title="Lepton number">lepton nr.</a>: −1, <a href="/wiki/Flavour_(particle_physics)" title="Flavour (particle physics)">"flavor"</a> in { e, μ, τ } </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Theorized</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li> ν e, <a href="/wiki/Electron_neutrino" title="Electron neutrino">electron neutrino</a>: <a href="/wiki/Wolfgang_Pauli" title="Wolfgang Pauli">Wolfgang Pauli</a> (1930)</li> <li> ν μ, <a href="/wiki/Muon_neutrino" title="Muon neutrino">muon neutrino</a>: late 1940s</li> <li> ν τ, <a href="/wiki/Tau_neutrino" title="Tau neutrino">tau neutrino</a>: mid-1970s</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Discovered</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li> ν e: <a href="/wiki/Clyde_Cowan" title="Clyde Cowan">Clyde Cowan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Reines" title="Frederick Reines">Frederick Reines</a> (1956)</li> <li> ν μ: <a href="/wiki/Leon_Lederman" class="mw-redirect" title="Leon Lederman">Leon Lederman</a>, <a href="/wiki/Melvin_Schwartz" title="Melvin Schwartz">Melvin Schwartz</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jack_Steinberger" title="Jack Steinberger">Jack Steinberger</a> (1962)</li> <li> ν τ: <a href="/wiki/DONUT" title="DONUT">DONUT collaboration</a> (2000)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Types</th><td class="infobox-data">3 types: electron neutrino ( ν e), muon neutrino ( ν μ), and tau neutrino ( ν τ)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Invariant_mass" title="Invariant mass">Mass</a></th><td class="infobox-data">< 0.120 eV (< 2.14 × 10−37 kg), 95% confidence level, sum of 3 <a href="/wiki/Flavour_(particle_physics)" title="Flavour (particle physics)">"flavors"</a><a href="#cite_note-Mertens-2016-mν-1">[1]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Electric_charge" title="Electric charge">Electric charge</a></th><td class="infobox-data">0 <a href="/wiki/Elementary_charge" title="Elementary charge">e</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Spin_(physics)" title="Spin (physics)">Spin</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1214402035">⁠ 1 /2⁠ℏ</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Weak_isospin" title="Weak isospin">Weak isospin</a></th><td class="infobox-data">LH: +<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1214402035">⁠ 1 /2⁠, RH: 0</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Weak_hypercharge" title="Weak hypercharge">Weak hypercharge</a></th><td class="infobox-data">LH: −1, RH: 0</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/B-L" class="mw-redirect" title="B-L">B − L</a></th><td class="infobox-data">−1</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/X_(charge)" title="X (charge)">X</a></th><td class="infobox-data">−3</td></tr></tbody></table> A neutrino (<a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/njuːˈtriːnoʊ/</a> <a href="/wiki/Help:Pronunciation_respelling_key" title="Help:Pronunciation respelling key">new-TREE-noh</a>; denoted by the Greek letter <a href="/wiki/Nu_(letter)" title="Nu (letter)">ν</a>) is an <a href="/wiki/Elementary_particle" title="Elementary particle">elementary particle</a> that interacts via the <a href="/wiki/Weak_interaction" title="Weak interaction">weak interaction</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gravity" title="Gravity">gravity</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Close-2010-νν-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-Jayawrdh-2015-νhunt-3">[3]</a> The neutrino is so named because it is <a href="/wiki/Electric_charge" title="Electric charge">electrically</a> neutral and because its <a href="/wiki/Rest_mass" class="mw-redirect" title="Rest mass">rest mass</a> is so small (<a href="/wiki/List_of_diminutives_by_language#Italian" title="List of diminutives by language">-ino</a>) that it was long thought to be <a href="/wiki/Massless_particle" title="Massless particle">zero</a>. The rest <a href="/wiki/Mass" title="Mass">mass</a> of the neutrino is much smaller than that of the other known elementary particles (excluding <a href="/wiki/Massless_particles" class="mw-redirect" title="Massless particles">massless particles</a>).<a href="#cite_note-Mertens-2016-mν-1">[1]</a> The weak force has a very short range, the gravitational interaction is extremely weak due to the very small mass of the neutrino, and neutrinos do not participate in the <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetism" title="Electromagnetism">electromagnetic interaction</a> or the <a href="/wiki/Strong_interaction" title="Strong interaction">strong interaction</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Overbye-2020-04-15-BBν-4">[4]</a> Thus, neutrinos typically pass through normal matter unimpeded and undetected.<a href="#cite_note-Close-2010-νν-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-Jayawrdh-2015-νhunt-3">[3]</a> <a href="/wiki/Weak_interactions" class="mw-redirect" title="Weak interactions">Weak interactions</a> create neutrinos in one of three leptonic <a href="/wiki/Flavor_(particle_physics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Flavor (particle physics)">flavors</a>: <ol><li><a href="/wiki/Electron_neutrino" title="Electron neutrino">electron neutrino</a>, ν e</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muon_neutrino" title="Muon neutrino">muon neutrino</a>, ν μ</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tau_neutrino" title="Tau neutrino">tau neutrino</a>, ν τ</li></ol> Each flavor is associated with the correspondingly named charged <a href="/wiki/Lepton" title="Lepton">lepton</a>.<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a> Although neutrinos were long believed to be massless, it is now known that there are three discrete neutrino masses with different tiny values (the smallest of which could even be zero<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a>), but the three masses do not uniquely correspond to the three flavors: A neutrino created with a specific flavor is a specific mixture of all three mass states (a <a href="/wiki/Quantum_superposition" title="Quantum superposition">quantum superposition</a>). Similar to some <a href="/wiki/Neutral_particle_oscillation" title="Neutral particle oscillation">other neutral particles</a>, <a href="/wiki/Neutrino_oscillation" title="Neutrino oscillation">neutrinos oscillate</a> between different flavors in flight as a consequence. For example, an electron neutrino produced in a <a href="/wiki/Beta_decay" title="Beta decay">beta decay</a> reaction may interact in a distant detector as a muon or tau neutrino.<a href="#cite_note-Grossman-Lipkin-1997-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-Bilenky-2016-ν-osc-8">[8]</a> The three mass values are not yet known as of 2024, but laboratory experiments and <a href="/wiki/Cosmology" title="Cosmology">cosmological</a> observations have determined the differences of their squares,<a href="#cite_note-Capozzi-Lisi-Marrone-etal-2016-9">[9]</a> an upper limit on their sum (< 2.14×10−37 kg),<a href="#cite_note-Mertens-2016-mν-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-Olive-PDG-2016-Σmν-10">[10]</a> and an upper limit on the mass of the electron neutrino.<a href="#cite_note-KATRIN-2022-NatPhys-11">[11]</a> Neutrinos are <a href="/wiki/Fermion" title="Fermion">fermions</a> with <a href="/wiki/Spin-1/2" title="Spin-1/2">spin of <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1214402035">⁠ 1 /2⁠</a>. For each neutrino, there also exists a corresponding <a href="/wiki/Antiparticle" title="Antiparticle">antiparticle</a>, called an <a href="#Antineutrinos">antineutrino</a>, which also has spin of <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1214402035">⁠ 1 /2⁠ and no electric charge. Antineutrinos are distinguished from neutrinos by having opposite-signed <a href="/wiki/Lepton_number" title="Lepton number">lepton number</a> and <a href="/wiki/Weak_isospin" title="Weak isospin">weak isospin</a>, and right-handed instead of left-handed chirality. To conserve total lepton number (in nuclear beta decay), electron neutrinos only appear together with <a href="/wiki/Positron" title="Positron">positrons</a> (anti-electrons) or electron-antineutrinos, whereas electron antineutrinos only appear with electrons or electron neutrinos.<a href="#cite_note-FourPeaksAZ-ghostν-12">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-HypPhys-GSU-consℓ-13">[13]</a> Neutrinos are created by various <a href="/wiki/Radioactive_decay" title="Radioactive decay">radioactive decays</a>; the following list is not exhaustive, but includes some of those processes: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beta_decay" title="Beta decay">beta decay</a> of <a href="/wiki/Atomic_nuclei" class="mw-redirect" title="Atomic nuclei">atomic nuclei</a> or <a href="/wiki/Hadron" title="Hadron">hadrons</a></li> <li>natural <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reaction" title="Nuclear reaction">nuclear reactions</a> such as those that take place in the core of a <a href="/wiki/Star" title="Star">star</a></li> <li>artificial nuclear reactions in <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reactor" title="Nuclear reactor">nuclear reactors</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_bomb" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear bomb">nuclear bombs</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Particle_accelerator" title="Particle accelerator">particle accelerators</a></li> <li>during a <a href="/wiki/Supernova" title="Supernova">supernova</a></li> <li>during the spin-down of a <a href="/wiki/Neutron_star" title="Neutron star">neutron star</a></li> <li>when <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_ray" title="Cosmic ray">cosmic rays</a> or accelerated particle beams strike atoms</li></ul> The majority of neutrinos which are detected about the Earth are from nuclear reactions inside the Sun. At the surface of the Earth, the flux is about 65 billion (6.5×1010) <a href="/wiki/Solar_neutrino" title="Solar neutrino">solar neutrinos</a>, per second per square centimeter.<a href="#cite_note-Armitage-JILA-2003-sol-ν-14">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-Bahcall-Serenelli-Basu-2005-15">[15]</a> Neutrinos can be used for <a href="/wiki/Tomography" title="Tomography">tomography</a> of the interior of the Earth.<a href="#cite_note-Millhouse-Lipkin-2013-tomog-16">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-PINGU-2014-LoIntt-17">[17]</a> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Neutrino&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pauli's_proposal">Pauli's proposal</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Neutrino&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Pauli's proposal">edit</a>]</div> The neutrino<a href="#cite_note-18">[a]</a> was postulated first by <a href="/wiki/Wolfgang_Pauli" title="Wolfgang Pauli">Wolfgang Pauli</a> in 1930 to explain how beta decay could conserve <a href="/wiki/Conservation_of_energy" title="Conservation of energy">energy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Conservation_of_momentum" class="mw-redirect" title="Conservation of momentum">momentum</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Conservation_of_angular_momentum" class="mw-redirect" title="Conservation of angular momentum">angular momentum</a> (<a href="/wiki/Spin_(physics)" title="Spin (physics)">spin</a>). In contrast to <a href="/wiki/Niels_Bohr" title="Niels Bohr">Niels Bohr</a>, who proposed a statistical version of the conservation laws to explain the observed <a href="/wiki/Beta_decay#Neutrinos" title="Beta decay">continuous energy spectra in beta decay</a>, Pauli hypothesized an undetected particle that he called a "neutron", using the same -on ending employed for naming both the <a href="/wiki/Proton" title="Proton">proton</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron">electron</a>. He considered that the new particle was emitted from the nucleus together with the electron or beta particle in the process of beta decay and had a mass similar to the electron.<a href="#cite_note-Brown-1978-idea-ν-19">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-20">[b]</a> <a href="/wiki/James_Chadwick" title="James Chadwick">James Chadwick</a> discovered a much more massive neutral nuclear particle in 1932 and named it a <a href="/wiki/Neutron" title="Neutron">neutron</a> also, leaving two kinds of particles with the same name. The word "neutrino" entered the scientific vocabulary through <a href="/wiki/Enrico_Fermi" title="Enrico Fermi">Enrico Fermi</a>, who used it during a conference in Paris in July 1932 and at the Solvay Conference in October 1933, where Pauli also employed it. The name (the <a href="/wiki/Italian_language" title="Italian language">Italian</a> equivalent of "little neutral one") was jokingly coined by <a href="/wiki/Edoardo_Amaldi" title="Edoardo Amaldi">Edoardo Amaldi</a> during a conversation with Fermi at the Institute of Physics of via Panisperna in Rome, in order to distinguish this light neutral particle from Chadwick's heavy neutron.<a href="#cite_note-21">[19]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Fermi%27s_interaction" title="Fermi's interaction">Fermi's theory of beta decay</a>, Chadwick's large neutral particle could decay to a proton, electron, and the smaller neutral particle (now called an electron antineutrino): <dl><dd> n0 → p+ + e− + ν e </dd></dl> Fermi's paper, written in 1934,<a href="#cite_note-Fermi-1934-22">[20]</a> unified Pauli's neutrino with <a href="/wiki/Paul_Dirac" title="Paul Dirac">Paul Dirac</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Positron" title="Positron">positron</a> and <a href="/wiki/Werner_Heisenberg" title="Werner Heisenberg">Werner Heisenberg</a>'s neutron–proton model and gave a solid theoretical basis for future experimental work.<a href="#cite_note-Fermi-1934-22">[20]</a><a href="#cite_note-23">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-Close-2012-ν-24">[22]</a>: 24  By 1934, there was experimental evidence against Bohr's idea that energy conservation is invalid for beta decay: At the <a href="/wiki/Solvay_conference" class="mw-redirect" title="Solvay conference">Solvay conference</a> of that year, measurements of the energy spectra of beta particles (electrons) were reported, showing that there is a strict limit on the energy of electrons from each type of beta decay. Such a limit is not expected if the conservation of energy is invalid, in which case any amount of energy would be statistically available in at least a few decays. The natural explanation of the beta decay spectrum as first measured in 1934 was that only a limited (and conserved) amount of energy was available, and a new particle was sometimes taking a varying fraction of this limited energy, leaving the rest for the beta particle. Pauli made use of the occasion to publicly emphasize that the still-undetected "neutrino" must be an actual particle.<a href="#cite_note-Close-2012-ν-24">[22]</a>: 25  The first evidence of the reality of neutrinos came in 1938 via simultaneous cloud-chamber measurements of the electron and the recoil of the nucleus.<a href="#cite_note-25">[23]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Direct_detection">Direct detection</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Neutrino&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Direct detection">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Clyde_Cowan.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Clyde_Cowan.jpg/240px-Clyde_Cowan.jpg" decoding="async" width="240" height="297" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Clyde_Cowan.jpg/360px-Clyde_Cowan.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Clyde_Cowan.jpg/480px-Clyde_Cowan.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="989" /></a><figcaption>Fred Reines and Clyde Cowan conducting the neutrino experiment c. 1956</figcaption></figure> In 1942, <a href="/wiki/Wang_Ganchang" title="Wang Ganchang">Wang Ganchang</a> first proposed the use of <a href="/wiki/Electron_capture" title="Electron capture">beta capture</a> to experimentally detect neutrinos.<a href="#cite_note-26">[24]</a> In the 20 July 1956 issue of <a href="/wiki/Science_(journal)" title="Science (journal)">Science</a>, <a href="/wiki/Clyde_Cowan" title="Clyde Cowan">Clyde Cowan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Reines" title="Frederick Reines">Frederick Reines</a>, Francis B. "Kiko" Harrison, Herald W. Kruse, and Austin D. McGuire published confirmation that they had detected the neutrino,<a href="#cite_note-27">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-28">[26]</a> a result that was rewarded almost forty years later with the <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physics" title="Nobel Prize in Physics">1995 Nobel Prize</a>.<a href="#cite_note-29">[27]</a> In this experiment, now known as the <a href="/wiki/Cowan%E2%80%93Reines_neutrino_experiment" title="Cowan–Reines neutrino experiment">Cowan–Reines neutrino experiment</a>, antineutrinos created in a nuclear reactor by beta decay reacted with protons to produce <a href="/wiki/Neutron" title="Neutron">neutrons</a> and positrons: <dl><dd> ν e + p+ → n0 + e+ </dd></dl> The positron quickly finds an electron, and they <a href="/wiki/Annihilation" title="Annihilation">annihilate</a> each other. The two resulting <a href="/wiki/Gamma_ray" title="Gamma ray">gamma rays</a> (γ) are detectable. The neutron can be detected by its capture on an appropriate nucleus, releasing a gamma ray. The coincidence of both events—positron annihilation and neutron capture—gives a unique signature of an antineutrino interaction. In February 1965, the first neutrino found in nature was identified by a group including Frederick Reines and <a href="/wiki/Friedel_Sellschop" title="Friedel Sellschop">Friedel Sellschop</a>.<a href="#cite_note-30">[28]</a><a href="#cite_note-31">[29]</a> The experiment was performed in a specially prepared chamber at a depth of 3 km in the <a href="/wiki/East_Rand_Mine" title="East Rand Mine">East Rand ("ERPM") gold mine</a> near <a href="/wiki/Boksburg" title="Boksburg">Boksburg</a>, South Africa. A plaque in the main building commemorates the discovery. The experiments also implemented a primitive neutrino astronomy and looked at issues of neutrino physics and weak interactions.<a href="#cite_note-32">[30]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Neutrino_flavor">Neutrino flavor </h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Neutrino&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Neutrino flavor">edit</a>]</div> The antineutrino discovered by <a href="/wiki/Clyde_Cowan" title="Clyde Cowan">Clyde Cowan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Reines" title="Frederick Reines">Frederick Reines</a> was the antiparticle of the electron neutrino. In 1962, <a href="/wiki/Leon_M._Lederman" title="Leon M. Lederman">Leon M. Lederman</a>, <a href="/wiki/Melvin_Schwartz" title="Melvin Schwartz">Melvin Schwartz</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Jack_Steinberger" title="Jack Steinberger">Jack Steinberger</a> showed that more than one type of neutrino exists by first detecting interactions of the <a href="/wiki/Muon" title="Muon">muon</a> neutrino (already hypothesised with the name neutretto),<a href="#cite_note-33">[31]</a> which earned them the <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physics" title="Nobel Prize in Physics">1988 Nobel Prize in Physics</a>. When the third type of lepton, the <a href="/wiki/Tau_(particle)" title="Tau (particle)">tau</a>, was discovered in 1975 at the <a href="/wiki/Stanford_Linear_Accelerator_Center" class="mw-redirect" title="Stanford Linear Accelerator Center">Stanford Linear Accelerator Center</a>, it was also expected to have an associated neutrino (the tau neutrino). The first evidence for this third neutrino type came from the observation of missing energy and momentum in tau decays analogous to the beta decay leading to the discovery of the electron neutrino. The first detection of tau neutrino interactions was announced in 2000 by the <a href="/wiki/DONUT" title="DONUT">DONUT collaboration</a> at <a href="/wiki/Fermilab" title="Fermilab">Fermilab</a>; its existence had already been inferred by both theoretical consistency and experimental data from the <a href="/wiki/Large_Electron%E2%80%93Positron_Collider" title="Large Electron–Positron Collider">Large Electron–Positron Collider</a>.<a href="#cite_note-34">[32]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Solar_neutrino_problem">Solar neutrino problem</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Neutrino&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Solar neutrino problem">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Solar_neutrino_problem" title="Solar neutrino problem">Solar neutrino problem</a></div> In the 1960s, the now-famous <a href="/wiki/Homestake_experiment" title="Homestake experiment">Homestake experiment</a> made the first measurement of the flux of electron neutrinos arriving from the core of the Sun and found a value that was between one third and one half the number predicted by the <a href="/wiki/Standard_Solar_Model" class="mw-redirect" title="Standard Solar Model">Standard Solar Model</a>. This discrepancy, which became known as the <a href="/wiki/Solar_neutrino_problem" title="Solar neutrino problem">solar neutrino problem</a>, remained unresolved for some thirty years, while possible problems with both the experiment and the solar model were investigated, but none could be found. Eventually, it was realized that both were actually correct and that the discrepancy between them was due to neutrinos being more complex than was previously assumed. It was postulated that the three neutrinos had nonzero and slightly different masses, and could therefore oscillate into undetectable flavors on their flight to the Earth. This hypothesis was investigated by a new series of experiments, thereby opening a new major field of research that still continues. Eventual confirmation of the phenomenon of neutrino oscillation led to two Nobel prizes, one to <a href="/wiki/Raymond_Davis,_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="Raymond Davis, Jr.">R. Davis</a>, who conceived and led the Homestake experiment and <a href="/wiki/Masatoshi_Koshiba" title="Masatoshi Koshiba">Masatoshi Koshiba</a> of Kamiokande, whose work confirmed it, and one to <a href="/wiki/Takaaki_Kajita" title="Takaaki Kajita">Takaaki Kajita</a> of Super-Kamiokande and <a href="/wiki/Arthur_B._McDonald" title="Arthur B. McDonald">A.B. McDonald</a> of <a href="/wiki/Sudbury_Neutrino_Observatory" title="Sudbury Neutrino Observatory">Sudbury Neutrino Observatory</a> for their joint experiment, which confirmed the existence of all three neutrino flavors and found no deficit.<a href="#cite_note-CERN-2001-12-04-SNO-35">[33]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Oscillation">Oscillation</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Neutrino&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Oscillation">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Neutrino_oscillation" title="Neutrino oscillation">Neutrino oscillation</a></div> A practical method for investigating neutrino oscillations was first suggested by <a href="/wiki/Bruno_Pontecorvo" title="Bruno Pontecorvo">Bruno Pontecorvo</a> in 1957 using an analogy with <a href="/wiki/Kaon" title="Kaon">kaon</a> oscillations; over the subsequent 10 years, he developed the mathematical formalism and the modern formulation of vacuum oscillations. In 1985 <a href="/wiki/Stanislav_Mikheyev" title="Stanislav Mikheyev">Stanislav Mikheyev</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alexei_Smirnov_(physicist)" title="Alexei Smirnov (physicist)">Alexei Smirnov</a> (expanding on 1978 work by <a href="/wiki/Lincoln_Wolfenstein" title="Lincoln Wolfenstein">Lincoln Wolfenstein</a>) noted that flavor oscillations can be modified when neutrinos propagate through matter. This so-called <a href="/wiki/Mikheyev%E2%80%93Smirnov%E2%80%93Wolfenstein_effect" title="Mikheyev–Smirnov–Wolfenstein effect">Mikheyev–Smirnov–Wolfenstein effect</a> (MSW effect) is important to understand because many neutrinos emitted by fusion in the Sun pass through the dense matter in the <a href="/wiki/Solar_core" title="Solar core">solar core</a> (where essentially all solar fusion takes place) on their way to detectors on Earth. Starting in 1998, experiments began to show that solar and atmospheric neutrinos change flavors (see <a href="/wiki/Super-Kamiokande" title="Super-Kamiokande">Super-Kamiokande</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sudbury_Neutrino_Observatory" title="Sudbury Neutrino Observatory">Sudbury Neutrino Observatory</a>). This resolved the solar neutrino problem: the electron neutrinos produced in the Sun had partly changed into other flavors which the experiments could not detect. Although individual experiments, such as the set of solar neutrino experiments, are consistent with non-oscillatory mechanisms of neutrino flavor conversion, taken altogether, neutrino experiments imply the existence of neutrino oscillations. Especially relevant in this context are the reactor experiment <a href="/wiki/KamLAND" class="mw-redirect" title="KamLAND">KamLAND</a> and the accelerator experiments such as <a href="/wiki/MINOS" title="MINOS">MINOS</a>. The KamLAND experiment has indeed identified oscillations as the neutrino flavor conversion mechanism involved in the solar electron neutrinos. Similarly MINOS confirms the oscillation of atmospheric neutrinos and gives a better determination of the mass squared splitting.<a href="#cite_note-36">[34]</a> <a href="/wiki/Takaaki_Kajita" title="Takaaki Kajita">Takaaki Kajita</a> of Japan, and <a href="/wiki/Arthur_B._McDonald" title="Arthur B. McDonald">Arthur B. McDonald</a> of Canada, received the 2015 Nobel Prize for Physics for their landmark finding, theoretical and experimental, that neutrinos can change flavors. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cosmic_neutrinos">Cosmic neutrinos</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Neutrino&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Cosmic neutrinos">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_neutrino_background" title="Cosmic neutrino background">cosmic neutrino background</a> and <a href="/wiki/Diffuse_supernova_neutrino_background" title="Diffuse supernova neutrino background">diffuse supernova neutrino background</a></div> As well as specific sources, a general background level of neutrinos is expected to pervade the universe, theorized to occur due to two main sources. <dl><dt>Cosmic neutrino background (Big Bang originated)</dt> <dd></dd></dl> Around 1 second after the <a href="/wiki/Big_Bang" title="Big Bang">Big Bang</a>, neutrinos decoupled, giving rise to a background level of neutrinos known as the <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_neutrino_background" title="Cosmic neutrino background">cosmic neutrino background</a> (CNB). <dl><dt>Diffuse supernova neutrino background (Supernova originated)</dt> <dd></dd></dl> <a href="/wiki/Raymond_Davis,_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="Raymond Davis, Jr.">R. Davis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Masatoshi_Koshiba" title="Masatoshi Koshiba">M. Koshiba</a> were jointly awarded the 2002 Nobel Prize in Physics. Both conducted pioneering work on <a href="/wiki/Solar_neutrino" title="Solar neutrino">solar neutrino</a> detection, and Koshiba's work also resulted in the first real-time observation of neutrinos from the <a href="/wiki/SN_1987A" title="SN 1987A">SN 1987A</a> supernova in the nearby <a href="/wiki/Large_Magellanic_Cloud" title="Large Magellanic Cloud">Large Magellanic Cloud</a>. These efforts marked the beginning of <a href="/wiki/Neutrino_astronomy" title="Neutrino astronomy">neutrino astronomy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Pagliarl-Vissani-etal-2009-37">[35]</a> <a href="/wiki/SN_1987A" title="SN 1987A">SN 1987A</a> represents the only verified detection of neutrinos from a supernova. However, many stars have gone supernova in the universe, leaving a theorized <a href="/wiki/Diffuse_supernova_neutrino_background" title="Diffuse supernova neutrino background">diffuse supernova neutrino background</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Properties_and_reactions">Properties and reactions</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Neutrino&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Properties and reactions">edit</a>]</div> Neutrinos have half-integer <a href="/wiki/Spin_(physics)" title="Spin (physics)">spin</a> (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1214402035">⁠ 1 /2⁠ħ); therefore they are <a href="/wiki/Fermion" title="Fermion">fermions</a>. Neutrinos are leptons. They have only been observed to interact through the <a href="/wiki/Weak_nuclear_force" class="mw-redirect" title="Weak nuclear force">weak force</a>, although it is assumed that they also interact gravitationally. Since they have non-zero mass, theoretical considerations permit neutrinos to interact magnetically, but do not require them to. As yet there is no experimental evidence for a non-zero <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_moment" title="Magnetic moment">magnetic moment</a> in neutrinos. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Flavor,_mass,_and_their_mixing">Flavor, mass, and their mixing</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Neutrino&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Flavor, mass, and their mixing">edit</a>]</div> Weak interactions create neutrinos in one of three leptonic <a href="/wiki/Flavor_(particle_physics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Flavor (particle physics)">flavors</a>: electron neutrinos ( ν e), muon neutrinos ( ν μ), or <a href="/wiki/Tau_neutrino" title="Tau neutrino">tau neutrinos</a> ( ν τ), associated with the corresponding charged leptons, the <a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron">electron</a> ( e− ), <a href="/wiki/Muon" title="Muon">muon</a> ( μ− ), and <a href="/wiki/Tau_(particle)" title="Tau (particle)">tau</a> ( τ− ), respectively.<a href="#cite_note-Nakamura-Petcov-PDG-2016-νmix-38">[36]</a> Although neutrinos were long believed to be massless, it is now known that there are three discrete neutrino masses; each neutrino flavor state is a linear combination of the three discrete mass eigenstates. Although only differences of squares of the three mass values are known as of 2016,<a href="#cite_note-Capozzi-Lisi-Marrone-etal-2016-9">[9]</a> experiments have shown that these masses are tiny compared to any other particle. From <a href="/wiki/Cosmology" title="Cosmology">cosmological</a> measurements, it has been calculated that the sum of the three neutrino masses must be less than one-millionth that of the electron.<a href="#cite_note-Mertens-2016-mν-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-Olive-PDG-2016-Σmν-10">[10]</a> More formally, neutrino flavor <a href="/wiki/Eigenvalues_and_eigenvectors" title="Eigenvalues and eigenvectors">eigenstates</a> (creation and annihilation combinations) are not the same as the neutrino mass eigenstates (simply labeled "1", "2", and "3"). As of 2024, it is not known which of these three is the heaviest. The <a href="/wiki/Neutrino_mass_hierarchy" title="Neutrino mass hierarchy">neutrino mass hierarchy</a> consists of two possible configurations. In analogy with the mass hierarchy of the charged leptons, the configuration with mass 2 being lighter than mass 3 is conventionally called the "normal hierarchy", while in the "inverted hierarchy", the opposite would hold. Several major experimental efforts are underway to help establish which is correct.<a href="#cite_note-hierarchy-39">[37]</a> A neutrino created in a specific flavor eigenstate is in an associated specific <a href="/wiki/Quantum_superposition" title="Quantum superposition">quantum superposition</a> of all three mass eigenstates. The three masses differ so little that they cannot possibly be distinguished experimentally within any practical flight path. The proportion of each mass state in the pure flavor states produced has been found to depend profoundly on the flavor. The relationship between flavor and mass eigenstates is encoded in the <a href="/wiki/PMNS_matrix" class="mw-redirect" title="PMNS matrix">PMNS matrix</a>. Experiments have established moderate- to low-precision values for the elements of this matrix, with the single complex phase in the matrix being only poorly known, as of 2016.<a href="#cite_note-Capozzi-Lisi-Marrone-etal-2016-9">[9]</a> A non-zero mass allows neutrinos to possibly have a tiny <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_moment" title="Magnetic moment">magnetic moment</a>; if so, neutrinos would interact electromagnetically, although no such interaction has ever been observed.<a href="#cite_note-40">[38]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Flavor_oscillations">Flavor oscillations</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Neutrino&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Flavor oscillations">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Neutrino_oscillation" title="Neutrino oscillation">Neutrino oscillation</a></div> Neutrinos <a href="/wiki/Neutrino_oscillation" title="Neutrino oscillation">oscillate</a> between different flavors in flight. For example, an electron neutrino produced in a beta decay reaction may interact in a distant detector as a muon or tau neutrino, as defined by the flavor of the charged lepton produced in the detector. This oscillation occurs because the three mass state components of the produced flavor travel at slightly different speeds, so that their quantum mechanical <a href="/wiki/Wave_packet" title="Wave packet">wave packets</a> develop relative <a href="/wiki/Phase_(waves)#phase_shift" title="Phase (waves)">phase shifts</a> that change how they combine to produce a varying superposition of three flavors. Each flavor component thereby oscillates as the neutrino travels, with the flavors varying in relative strengths. The relative flavor proportions when the neutrino interacts represent the relative probabilities for that flavor of interaction to produce the corresponding flavor of charged lepton.<a href="#cite_note-Grossman-Lipkin-1997-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-Bilenky-2016-ν-osc-8">[8]</a> There are other possibilities in which neutrinos could oscillate even if they were massless: If <a href="/wiki/Lorentz_covariance" title="Lorentz covariance">Lorentz symmetry</a> were not an exact symmetry, neutrinos could experience <a href="/wiki/Lorentz-violating_neutrino_oscillations" title="Lorentz-violating neutrino oscillations">Lorentz-violating oscillations</a>.<a href="#cite_note-41">[39]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mikheyev–Smirnov–Wolfenstein_effect">Mikheyev–Smirnov–Wolfenstein effect</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Neutrino&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Mikheyev–Smirnov–Wolfenstein effect">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Mikheyev%E2%80%93Smirnov%E2%80%93Wolfenstein_effect" title="Mikheyev–Smirnov–Wolfenstein effect">Mikheyev–Smirnov–Wolfenstein effect</a></div> Neutrinos traveling through matter, in general, undergo a process analogous to <a href="/wiki/Speed_of_light#In_a_medium" title="Speed of light">light traveling through a transparent material</a>. This process is not directly observable because it does not produce <a href="/wiki/Ionizing_radiation" title="Ionizing radiation">ionizing radiation</a>, but gives rise to the <a href="/wiki/Mikheyev%E2%80%93Smirnov%E2%80%93Wolfenstein_effect" title="Mikheyev–Smirnov–Wolfenstein effect">Mikheyev–Smirnov–Wolfenstein effect</a>. Only a small fraction of the neutrino's energy is transferred to the material.<a href="#cite_note-42">[40]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Antineutrinos">Antineutrinos</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Neutrino&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Antineutrinos">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul 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a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><a href="/wiki/Antimatter" title="Antimatter">Antimatter</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><a href="/wiki/File:ElectronPositronAnnihilation.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="A Feynman diagram showing the annihilation of an electron and a positron (antielectron), creating a photon that later decays into an new electron–positron pair."><img alt="A Feynman diagram showing the annihilation of an electron and a positron (antielectron), creating a photon that later decays into an new electron–positron pair." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/ElectronPositronAnnihilation.svg/150px-ElectronPositronAnnihilation.svg.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="88" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/ElectronPositronAnnihilation.svg/225px-ElectronPositronAnnihilation.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/ElectronPositronAnnihilation.svg/300px-ElectronPositronAnnihilation.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="808" data-file-height="475" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-bottom:2px"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="padding-left:2px; background:lavender;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Antiparticle" title="Antiparticle">Antiparticles</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Positron" title="Positron">Positron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antiproton" title="Antiproton">Antiproton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antineutron" title="Antineutron">Antineutron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antihydrogen" title="Antihydrogen">Antihydrogen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antihelium" class="mw-redirect" title="Antihelium">Antihelium</a></li></ul> <a href="/wiki/Onium" title="Onium">Onia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antiprotonic_hydrogen" class="mw-redirect" title="Antiprotonic hydrogen">Antiprotonic hydrogen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antiprotonic_helium" title="Antiprotonic helium">Antiprotonic helium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muonium" title="Muonium">Muonium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/True_muonium" title="True muonium">True muonium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pionium" title="Pionium">Pionium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positronium" title="Positronium">Positronium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quarkonium" title="Quarkonium">Quarkonium</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-bottom:2px"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="padding-left:2px; background:lavender;color: var(--color-base)">Concepts and phenomena</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Annihilation" title="Annihilation">Annihilation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baryogenesis" title="Baryogenesis">Baryogenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baryon_asymmetry" title="Baryon asymmetry">Baryon asymmetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antimatter_comet" title="Antimatter comet">Comet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CP_violation" title="CP violation">CP violation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravitational_interaction_of_antimatter" title="Gravitational interaction of antimatter">Gravitational interaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positron_emission" title="Positron emission">Positron emission</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-bottom:2px"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="padding-left:2px; background:lavender;color: var(--color-base)">Devices</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cloud_chamber" title="Cloud chamber">Cloud chamber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Particle_accelerator" title="Particle accelerator">Particle accelerator</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antiproton_decelerator" class="mw-redirect" title="Antiproton decelerator">Antiproton decelerator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relativistic_Heavy_Ion_Collider" title="Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider">Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penning_trap" title="Penning trap">Penning trap</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-bottom:2px"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="padding-left:2px; background:lavender;color: var(--color-base)">Uses</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Positron_emission_tomography" title="Positron emission tomography">Positron emission tomography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antimatter#Fuel" title="Antimatter">Fuel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antimatter_weapon" title="Antimatter weapon">Weapon</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-bottom:2px"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="padding-left:2px; background:lavender;color: var(--color-base)">Scientists</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carl_David_Anderson" title="Carl David Anderson">Carl David Anderson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Dirac" title="Paul Dirac">Paul Dirac</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrei_Sakharov" title="Andrei Sakharov">Andrei Sakharov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CERN" title="CERN">CERN</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar" style="padding:0 2px"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Antimatter" title="Template:Antimatter"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Antimatter" title="Template talk:Antimatter"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Antimatter" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Antimatter"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> For each neutrino, there also exists a corresponding <a href="/wiki/Antiparticle" title="Antiparticle">antiparticle</a>, called an antineutrino, which also has no electric charge and half-integer spin. They are distinguished from the neutrinos by having opposite signs of <a href="/wiki/Lepton_number" title="Lepton number">lepton number</a> and opposite <a href="/wiki/Chirality_(physics)" title="Chirality (physics)">chirality</a> (and consequently opposite-sign weak isospin). As of 2016, no evidence has been found for any other difference. So far, despite extensive and continuing searches for exceptions, in all observed leptonic processes there has never been any change in total lepton number; for example, if the total lepton number is zero in the initial state, then the final state has only matched lepton and anti-lepton pairs: electron neutrinos appear in the final state together with only positrons (anti-electrons) or electron antineutrinos, and electron antineutrinos with electrons or electron neutrinos.<a href="#cite_note-FourPeaksAZ-ghostν-12">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-HypPhys-GSU-consℓ-13">[13]</a> Antineutrinos are produced in nuclear beta decay together with a <a href="/wiki/Beta_particle" title="Beta particle">beta particle</a> (in beta decay a neutron decays into a proton, electron, and antineutrino). All antineutrinos observed thus far had right-handed <a href="/wiki/Helicity_(particle_physics)" title="Helicity (particle physics)">helicity</a> (i.e., only one of the two possible spin states has ever been seen), while neutrinos were all left-handed.<a href="#cite_note-43">[c]</a> Antineutrinos were first detected as a result of their interaction with protons in a large tank of water. This was installed next to a nuclear reactor as a controllable source of the antineutrinos (see <a href="/wiki/Cowan%E2%80%93Reines_neutrino_experiment" title="Cowan–Reines neutrino experiment">Cowan–Reines neutrino experiment</a>). Researchers around the world have begun to investigate the possibility of using antineutrinos for reactor monitoring in the context of preventing the <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_proliferation" title="Nuclear proliferation">proliferation of nuclear weapons</a>.<a href="#cite_note-44">[41]</a><a href="#cite_note-45">[42]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Majorana_mass">Majorana mass</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Neutrino&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Majorana mass">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Seesaw_mechanism" title="Seesaw mechanism">Seesaw mechanism</a></div> Because antineutrinos and neutrinos are neutral particles, it is possible that they are the same particle. Rather than conventional <a href="/wiki/Dirac_fermion" title="Dirac fermion">Dirac fermions</a>, neutral particles can be another type of spin <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1214402035">⁠ 1 /2⁠ particle called <a href="/wiki/Majorana_particle" class="mw-redirect" title="Majorana particle">Majorana particles</a>, named after the Italian physicist <a href="/wiki/Ettore_Majorana" title="Ettore Majorana">Ettore Majorana</a> who first proposed the concept. For the case of neutrinos this theory has gained popularity as it can be used, in combination with the <a href="/wiki/Seesaw_mechanism" title="Seesaw mechanism">seesaw mechanism</a>, to explain why neutrino masses are so small compared to those of the other elementary particles, such as electrons or quarks. Majorana neutrinos would have the property that the neutrino and antineutrino could be distinguished only by chirality; what experiments observe as a difference between the neutrino and antineutrino could simply be due to one particle with two possible chiralities. As of 2019<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Neutrino&action=edit">[update]</a>, it is not known whether neutrinos are <a href="/wiki/Majorana_fermion" title="Majorana fermion">Majorana</a> or <a href="/wiki/Dirac_fermion" title="Dirac fermion">Dirac</a> particles. It is possible to test this property experimentally. For example, if neutrinos are indeed Majorana particles, then lepton-number violating processes such as <a href="/wiki/Neutrinoless_double_beta_decay" title="Neutrinoless double beta decay">neutrinoless double-beta decay</a> would be allowed, while they would not if neutrinos are <a href="/wiki/Dirac_fermion" title="Dirac fermion">Dirac</a> particles. Several experiments have been and are being conducted to search for this process, e.g. <a href="/wiki/GERDA" class="mw-redirect" title="GERDA">GERDA</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Giunti-Kim-2007-Fundm-νν-46">[43]</a> <a href="/wiki/Enriched_Xenon_Observatory" title="Enriched Xenon Observatory">EXO</a>,<a href="#cite_note-47">[44]</a> <a href="/wiki/SNO%2B" title="SNO+">SNO+</a>,<a href="#cite_note-48">[45]</a> and <a href="/wiki/CUORE" title="CUORE">CUORE</a>.<a href="#cite_note-49">[46]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_neutrino_background" title="Cosmic neutrino background">cosmic neutrino background</a> is also a probe of whether neutrinos are <a href="/wiki/Majorana_particles" class="mw-redirect" title="Majorana particles">Majorana particles</a>, since there should be a different number of cosmic neutrinos detected in either the Dirac or Majorana case.<a href="#cite_note-50">[47]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nuclear_reactions">Nuclear reactions</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Neutrino&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Nuclear reactions">edit</a>]</div> Neutrinos can interact with a nucleus, changing it to another nucleus. This process is used in radiochemical <a href="/wiki/Neutrino_detector" title="Neutrino detector">neutrino detectors</a>. In this case, the energy levels and spin states within the target nucleus have to be taken into account to estimate the probability for an interaction. In general the interaction probability increases with the number of neutrons and protons within a nucleus.<a href="#cite_note-CERN-2001-12-04-SNO-35">[33]</a><a href="#cite_note-Kelić-Zinner-Kolbe-etal-2005-51">[48]</a> It is very hard to uniquely identify neutrino interactions among the natural background of radioactivity. For this reason, in early experiments a special reaction channel was chosen to facilitate the identification: the interaction of an antineutrino with one of the hydrogen nuclei in the water molecules. A hydrogen nucleus is a single proton, so simultaneous nuclear interactions, which would occur within a heavier nucleus, do not need to be considered for the detection experiment. Within a cubic meter of water placed right outside a nuclear reactor, only relatively few such interactions can be recorded, but the setup is now used for measuring the reactor's plutonium production rate. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Induced_fission_and_other_disintegration_events">Induced fission and other disintegration events</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Neutrino&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Induced fission and other disintegration events">edit</a>]</div> Very much like neutrons do in <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reactor" title="Nuclear reactor">nuclear reactors</a>, neutrinos can induce <a href="/wiki/Fission_reaction" class="mw-redirect" title="Fission reaction">fission reactions</a> within heavy <a href="/wiki/Atomic_nucleus" title="Atomic nucleus">nuclei</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Kolbe-Langanke-Fuller-2004-52">[49]</a> So far, this reaction has not been measured in a laboratory, but is predicted to happen within stars and supernovae. The process affects the <a href="/wiki/Abundance_of_the_chemical_elements" title="Abundance of the chemical elements">abundance of isotopes</a> seen in the <a href="/wiki/Universe" title="Universe">universe</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Kelić-Zinner-Kolbe-etal-2005-51">[48]</a> Neutrino-induced disintegration of <a href="/wiki/Deuterium" title="Deuterium">deuterium</a> nuclei has been observed in the Sudbury Neutrino Observatory, which uses a <a href="/wiki/Heavy_water" title="Heavy water">heavy water</a> detector.<a href="#cite_note-53">[50]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Types">Types</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Neutrino&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Types">edit</a>]</div> <table class="wikitable floatright"> <caption>Neutrinos in the Standard Model of elementary particles </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Fermion </th> <th>Symbol </th></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2" style="background:#ffdead;">Generation 1 </th></tr> <tr> <td style="background:#efefef;">Electron neutrino </td> <td style="text-align:center;"> ν e </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background:#efefef;">Electron antineutrino </td> <td style="text-align:center;"> ν e </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="3" style="background:#ffdead;">Generation 2 </th></tr> <tr> <td style="background:#efefef;">Muon neutrino </td> <td style="text-align:center;"> ν μ </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background:#efefef;">Muon antineutrino </td> <td style="text-align:center;"> ν μ </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="3" style="background:#ffdead;">Generation 3 </th></tr> <tr> <td style="background:#efefef;">Tau neutrino </td> <td style="text-align:center;"> ν τ </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background:#efefef;">Tau antineutrino </td> <td style="text-align:center;"> ν τ </td></tr></tbody></table> There are three known types (flavors) of neutrinos: electron neutrino ν e, muon neutrino ν μ, and tau neutrino ν τ, named after their partner leptons in the <a href="/wiki/Standard_Model" title="Standard Model">Standard Model</a> (see table at right). The current best measurement of the number of neutrino types comes from observing the decay of the <a href="/wiki/W_and_Z_bosons" title="W and Z bosons">Z boson</a>. This particle can decay into any light neutrino and its antineutrino, and the more available types of light neutrinos,<a href="#cite_note-54">[d]</a> the shorter the lifetime of the Z boson. Measurements of the Z lifetime have shown that three light neutrino flavors couple to the Z.<a href="#cite_note-Nakamura-Petcov-PDG-2016-νmix-38">[36]</a> The correspondence between the six <a href="/wiki/Quark" title="Quark">quarks</a> in the Standard Model and the six leptons, among them the three neutrinos, suggests to physicists' intuition that there should be exactly three types of neutrino. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Research">Research</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Neutrino&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Research">edit</a>]</div> There are several active research areas involving the neutrino with aspirations of finding: <ul><li>the three neutrino mass values</li> <li>the degree of <a href="/wiki/CP_violation" title="CP violation">CP violation</a> in the leptonic sector (which may lead to <a href="/wiki/Leptogenesis_(physics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Leptogenesis (physics)">leptogenesis</a>)</li> <li>evidence of physics which might break the Standard Model of <a href="/wiki/Particle_physics" title="Particle physics">particle physics</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Neutrinoless_double_beta_decay" title="Neutrinoless double beta decay">neutrinoless double beta decay</a>, which would be evidence for violation of lepton number conservation.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Detectors_near_artificial_neutrino_sources">Detectors near artificial neutrino sources</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Neutrino&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Detectors near artificial neutrino sources">edit</a>]</div> International scientific collaborations install large neutrino detectors near nuclear reactors or in neutrino beams from particle accelerators to better constrain the neutrino masses and the values for the magnitude and rates of oscillations between neutrino flavors. These experiments are thereby searching for the existence of <a href="/wiki/CP_violation" title="CP violation">CP violation</a> in the neutrino sector; that is, whether or not the laws of physics treat neutrinos and antineutrinos differently.<a href="#cite_note-Capozzi-Lisi-Marrone-etal-2016-9">[9]</a> The <a href="/wiki/KATRIN" title="KATRIN">KATRIN</a> experiment in Germany began to acquire data in June 2018<a href="#cite_note-KATRIN-2018-06-12-pr-55">[51]</a> to determine the value of the mass of the electron neutrino, with other approaches to this problem in the planning stages.<a href="#cite_note-Mertens-2016-mν-1">[1]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Gravitational_effects">Gravitational effects</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Neutrino&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Gravitational effects">edit</a>]</div> Despite their tiny masses, neutrinos are so numerous that their gravitational force can influence other matter in the universe. The three known neutrino flavors are the only candidates for <a href="/wiki/Dark_matter" title="Dark matter">dark matter</a> that are experimentally established elementary particles – specifically, they would be <a href="/wiki/Hot_dark_matter" title="Hot dark matter">hot dark matter</a>. However, the currently known neutrino types seem to be essentially ruled out as a substantial proportion of dark matter, based on observations of the <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_microwave_background" title="Cosmic microwave background">cosmic microwave background</a>. It still seems plausible that heavier, sterile neutrinos might compose <a href="/wiki/Warm_dark_matter" title="Warm dark matter">warm dark matter</a>, if they exist.<a href="#cite_note-56">[52]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sterile_neutrino_searches">Sterile neutrino searches</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Neutrino&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Sterile neutrino searches">edit</a>]</div> Other efforts search for evidence of a <a href="/wiki/Sterile_neutrino" title="Sterile neutrino">sterile neutrino</a> – a fourth neutrino flavor that would not interact with matter like the three known neutrino flavors.<a href="#cite_note-57">[53]</a><a href="#cite_note-58">[54]</a><a href="#cite_note-Lasserre-59">[55]</a><a href="#cite_note-Giunti-60">[56]</a> The possibility of sterile neutrinos is unaffected by the Z boson decay measurements described above: If their mass is greater than half the Z boson's mass, they could not be a decay product. Therefore, to be consistent with not having been detected in Z boson decays, heavy sterile neutrinos would need to have a mass of at least 45.6 GeV.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] The existence of such particles is in fact hinted by experimental data from the <a href="/wiki/LSND" class="mw-redirect" title="LSND">LSND</a> experiment. On the other hand, the currently running <a href="/wiki/MiniBooNE" title="MiniBooNE">MiniBooNE</a> experiment suggested that sterile neutrinos are not required to explain the experimental data,<a href="#cite_note-61">[57]</a> although the latest research into this area is on-going and anomalies in the MiniBooNE data may allow for exotic neutrino types, including sterile neutrinos.<a href="#cite_note-62">[58]</a> A re-analysis of reference electron spectra data from the <a href="/wiki/Institut_Laue-Langevin" class="mw-redirect" title="Institut Laue-Langevin">Institut Laue-Langevin</a> in 2011<a href="#cite_note-63">[59]</a> has also hinted at a fourth, light sterile neutrino.<a href="#cite_note-64">[60]</a> Triggered by the 2011 findings, several experiments at very short distances from nuclear reactors have searched for sterile neutrinos since then. While most of them were able to rule out the existence of a light sterile neutrino, the combined results are ambiguous.<a href="#cite_note-65">[61]</a> According to an analysis published in 2010, data from the <a href="/wiki/Wilkinson_Microwave_Anisotropy_Probe" title="Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe">Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_microwave_background" title="Cosmic microwave background">cosmic background radiation</a> is compatible with either three or four types of neutrinos.<a href="#cite_note-66">[62]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Neutrinoless_double-beta_decay_searches">Neutrinoless double-beta decay searches</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Neutrino&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Neutrinoless double-beta decay searches">edit</a>]</div> Another hypothesis concerns "neutrinoless double-beta decay", which, if it exists, would violate lepton number conservation. Searches for this mechanism are underway but have not yet found evidence for it. If they were to, then what are now called antineutrinos could not be true antiparticles. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cosmic_ray_neutrinos">Cosmic ray neutrinos</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Neutrino&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Cosmic ray neutrinos">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_ray" title="Cosmic ray">Cosmic ray</a> neutrino experiments detect neutrinos from space to study both the nature of neutrinos and the cosmic sources producing them.<a href="#cite_note-IceCube-67">[63]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Speed">Speed</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Neutrino&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Speed">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Measurements_of_neutrino_speed" title="Measurements of neutrino speed">Measurements of neutrino speed</a></div> Before neutrinos were found to oscillate, they were generally assumed to be massless, propagating at the <a href="/wiki/Speed_of_light" title="Speed of light">speed of light</a> (c). According to the theory of <a href="/wiki/Special_relativity" title="Special relativity">special relativity</a>, the question of neutrino <a href="/wiki/Velocity" title="Velocity">velocity</a> is closely related to their <a href="/wiki/Mass" title="Mass">mass</a>: If neutrinos are massless, they must travel at the speed of light, and if they have mass they cannot reach the speed of light. Due to their tiny mass, the predicted speed is extremely close to the speed of light in all experiments, and current detectors are not sensitive to the expected difference. Also, there are some <a href="/wiki/Lorentz_covariance" title="Lorentz covariance">Lorentz-violating</a> variants of <a href="/wiki/Quantum_gravity" title="Quantum gravity">quantum gravity</a> which might allow faster-than-light neutrinos.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] A comprehensive framework for Lorentz violations is the <a href="/wiki/Standard-Model_Extension" title="Standard-Model Extension">Standard-Model Extension</a> (SME). The first measurements of neutrino speed were made in the early 1980s using pulsed <a href="/wiki/Pion" title="Pion">pion</a> beams (produced by pulsed proton beams hitting a target). The pions decayed producing neutrinos, and the neutrino interactions observed within a time window in a detector at a distance were consistent with the speed of light. This measurement was repeated in 2007 using the <a href="/wiki/MINOS" title="MINOS">MINOS</a> detectors, which found the speed of 3 <a href="/wiki/Electronvolt" title="Electronvolt">GeV</a> neutrinos to be, at the 99% confidence level, in the range between 0.999976 c and 1.000126 c. The central value of 1.000051 c is higher than the speed of light but, with uncertainty taken into account, is also consistent with a velocity of exactly c or slightly less. This measurement set an upper bound on the mass of the muon neutrino at 50 MeV with 99% <a href="/wiki/Confidence_interval" title="Confidence interval">confidence</a>.<a href="#cite_note-68">[64]</a><a href="#cite_note-69">[65]</a> After the detectors for the project were upgraded in 2012, MINOS refined their initial result and found agreement with the speed of light, with the difference in the arrival time of neutrinos and light of −0.0006% (±0.0012%).<a href="#cite_note-70">[66]</a> A similar observation was made, on a much larger scale, with supernova 1987A (<a href="/wiki/SN_1987A" title="SN 1987A">SN 1987A</a>). Antineutrinos with an energy of 10 MeV from the supernova were detected within a time window that was consistent with the speed of light for the neutrinos. So far, all measurements of neutrino speed have been consistent with the speed of light.<a href="#cite_note-71">[67]</a><a href="#cite_note-72">[68]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Superluminal_neutrino_glitch">Superluminal neutrino glitch</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Neutrino&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Superluminal neutrino glitch">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Faster-than-light_neutrino_anomaly" class="mw-redirect" title="Faster-than-light neutrino anomaly">Faster-than-light neutrino anomaly</a></div> In September 2011, the <a href="/wiki/OPERA_experiment" title="OPERA experiment">OPERA collaboration</a> released calculations showing velocities of 17 GeV and 28 GeV neutrinos exceeding the speed of light in their experiments. In November 2011, OPERA repeated its experiment with changes so that the speed could be determined individually for each detected neutrino. The results showed the same faster-than-light speed. In February 2012, reports came out that the results may have been caused by a loose fiber optic cable attached to one of the atomic clocks which measured the departure and arrival times of the neutrinos. An independent recreation of the experiment in the same laboratory by <a href="/wiki/ICARUS_experiment" title="ICARUS experiment">ICARUS</a> found no discernible difference between the speed of a neutrino and the speed of light.<a href="#cite_note-Antonlo-Aprli-Baibusnv-etal-2012-73">[69]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mass">Mass </h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Neutrino&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Mass">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1233989161">.mw-parser-output .unsolved{margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em;border:#ccc solid;padding:0.35em 0.35em 0.35em 2.2em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle);background-image:url("https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/26/Question%2C_Web_Fundamentals.svg");background-position:top 50%left 0.35em;background-size:1.5em;background-repeat:no-repeat}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .unsolved{clear:right;float:right;max-width:25%}}.mw-parser-output .unsolved-label{font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .unsolved-body{margin:0.35em;font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output .unsolved-more{font-size:smaller}</style> <div role="note" aria-labelledby="unsolved-label-physics" class="unsolved"> <div>Unsolved problem in physics:</div> <div class="unsolved-body">Can we measure the neutrino masses? Do neutrinos follow <a href="/wiki/Fermi%E2%80%93Dirac_statistics" title="Fermi–Dirac statistics">Dirac</a> or <a href="/wiki/Majorana_fermion" title="Majorana fermion">Majorana</a> statistics?</div> <div class="unsolved-more"><a href="/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_physics" title="List of unsolved problems in physics">(more unsolved problems in physics)</a></div> </div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:NeutrinoMassTimeline2022.webp" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/NeutrinoMassTimeline2022.webp/310px-NeutrinoMassTimeline2022.webp.png" decoding="async" width="310" height="333" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/NeutrinoMassTimeline2022.webp/465px-NeutrinoMassTimeline2022.webp.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/NeutrinoMassTimeline2022.webp/620px-NeutrinoMassTimeline2022.webp.png 2x" data-file-width="1021" data-file-height="1098" /></a><figcaption>Timeline of neutrino mass measurements by different experiments<a href="#cite_note-KATRIN-2022-NatPhys-11">[11]</a></figcaption></figure> The Standard Model of particle physics assumed that neutrinos are massless.<a href="#cite_note-74">[70]</a> The experimentally established phenomenon of neutrino oscillation, which mixes neutrino flavor states with neutrino mass states (analogously to <a href="/wiki/Cabibbo%E2%80%93Kobayashi%E2%80%93Maskawa_matrix" title="Cabibbo–Kobayashi–Maskawa matrix">CKM mixing</a>), requires neutrinos to have nonzero masses.<a href="#cite_note-75">[71]</a> Massive neutrinos were originally conceived by <a href="/wiki/Bruno_Pontecorvo" title="Bruno Pontecorvo">Bruno Pontecorvo</a> in the 1950s. Enhancing the basic framework to accommodate their mass is straightforward by adding a right-handed Lagrangian.<a href="#cite_note-76">[72]</a> Providing for neutrino mass can be done in two ways, and some proposals use both: <ul><li>If, like other fundamental Standard Model fermions, mass is generated by the <a href="/wiki/Dirac_fermion" title="Dirac fermion">Dirac mechanism</a>, then the framework would require an additional right-chiral component which is an <a href="/wiki/Special_unitary_group#The_group_SU(2)" title="Special unitary group">SU(2) singlet</a>. This component would have the conventional <a href="/wiki/Yukawa_interaction" title="Yukawa interaction">Yukawa interactions</a> with the neutral component of the <a href="/wiki/Higgs_boson" title="Higgs boson">Higgs doublet</a>; but, otherwise, would have no interactions with Standard Model particles.</li> <li>Or, else, mass can be generated by the <a href="/wiki/Majorana_mass" class="mw-redirect" title="Majorana mass">Majorana mechanism</a>, which would require the neutrino and antineutrino to be the same particle.</li></ul> A hard upper limit on the masses of neutrinos comes from <a href="/wiki/Physical_cosmology" title="Physical cosmology">cosmology</a>: the <a href="/wiki/Big_Bang" title="Big Bang">Big Bang</a> model predicts that there is a fixed ratio between the number of neutrinos and the number of <a href="/wiki/Photon" title="Photon">photons</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_microwave_background_radiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Cosmic microwave background radiation">cosmic microwave background</a>. If the total mass of all three types of neutrinos exceeded an average of 50 <a href="/wiki/Electronvolt#Mass" title="Electronvolt">eV/c2</a> per neutrino, there would be so much mass in the universe that it would collapse.<a href="#cite_note-77">[73]</a> This limit can be circumvented by assuming that the neutrino is unstable, but there are limits within the Standard Model that make this difficult. A much more stringent constraint comes from a careful analysis of cosmological data, such as the cosmic microwave background radiation, <a href="/wiki/Galaxy_survey" class="mw-redirect" title="Galaxy survey">galaxy surveys</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Lyman-alpha_forest" title="Lyman-alpha forest">Lyman-alpha forest</a>. Analysis of data from the WMAP microwave space telescope found that the sum of the masses of the three neutrino species must be less than 0.3 eV/c2.<a href="#cite_note-78">[74]</a> In 2018, the <a href="/wiki/Planck_(spacecraft)" title="Planck (spacecraft)">Planck collaboration</a> published a stronger bound of 0.11 eV/c2, which was derived by combining their CMB total intensity, polarization and gravitational lensing observations with Baryon-Acoustic oscillation measurements from galaxy surveys and supernova measurements from Pantheon.<a href="#cite_note-planck_2018-79">[75]</a> A 2021 reanalysis that adds redshift space distortion measurements from the SDSS-IV eBOSS survey gets an even tighter upper limit of 0.09 eV/c2.<a href="#cite_note-80">[76]</a> However, several ground-based telescopes with similarly sized error bars as Planck prefer higher values for the neutrino mass sum, indicating some tension in the data sets.<a href="#cite_note-81">[77]</a> The Nobel prize in Physics 2015 was awarded to Takaaki Kajita and Arthur B. McDonald for their experimental discovery of neutrino oscillations, which demonstrates that neutrinos have mass.<a href="#cite_note-82">[78]</a><a href="#cite_note-83">[79]</a> In 1998, research results at the <a href="/wiki/Super-Kamiokande" title="Super-Kamiokande">Super-Kamiokande</a> neutrino detector determined that neutrinos can oscillate from one flavor to another, which requires that they must have a nonzero mass.<a href="#cite_note-Fukuda-Hayakawa-Ichihara-Inoue-etal-1998-84">[80]</a> While this shows that neutrinos have mass, the absolute neutrino mass scale is still not known. This is because neutrino oscillations are sensitive only to the difference in the squares of the masses.<a href="#cite_note-Mohapatra-Antusch-Babu-Barenboim-etal-2007-85">[81]</a> As of 2020,<a href="#cite_note-Esteban-GonzlzGarc-Maltoni-Schwetz-Zhou-2020-86">[82]</a> the best-fit value of the difference of the squares of the masses of mass eigenstates 1 and 2 is |Δm2 21| = 0.000074 (eV/c2)2 , while for eigenstates 2 and 3 it is |Δm2 32| = 0.00251 (eV/c2)2 . Since |Δm2 32| is the difference of two squared masses, at least one of them must have a value that is at least the square root of this value. Thus, there exists at least one neutrino mass eigenstate with a mass of at least 0.05 eV/c2.<a href="#cite_note-Amsler-Doser-Antnli-etal-2008-87">[83]</a> A number of efforts are under way to directly determine the absolute neutrino mass scale in laboratory experiments, especially using nuclear beta decay. Upper limits on the effective electron neutrino masses come from beta decays of tritium. The Mainz Neutrino Mass Experiment set an upper limit of m < 2.2 eV/c2 at 95% Confidence Level.<a href="#cite_note-88">[84]</a> Since June 2018 the <a href="/wiki/KATRIN" title="KATRIN">KATRIN</a> experiment searches for a mass between 0.2 eV/c2 and 2 eV/c2 in tritium decays.<a href="#cite_note-KATRIN-2018-06-12-pr-55">[51]</a> The February 2022 upper limit is mν < 0.8 eV/c2 at 90% CL in combination with a previous campaign by KATRIN from 2019.<a href="#cite_note-KATRIN-2022-NatPhys-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-89">[85]</a> On 31 May 2010, <a href="/wiki/OPERA_experiment" title="OPERA experiment">OPERA</a> researchers observed the first tau neutrino candidate event in a muon neutrino beam, the first time this transformation in neutrinos had been observed, providing further evidence that they have mass.<a href="#cite_note-Agafnva-Aleksndrv-Altinok-etal-2010-90">[86]</a> If the neutrino is a <a href="/wiki/Majorana_particle" class="mw-redirect" title="Majorana particle">Majorana particle</a>, the mass may be calculated by finding the <a href="/wiki/Half-life" title="Half-life">half-life</a> of <a href="/wiki/Neutrinoless_double_beta_decay" title="Neutrinoless double beta decay">neutrinoless double-beta decay</a> of certain nuclei. The current lowest upper limit on the Majorana mass of the neutrino has been set by <a href="/wiki/KamLAND" class="mw-redirect" title="KamLAND">KamLAND</a>-Zen: 0.060–0.161 eV/c2.<a href="#cite_note-91">[87]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Chirality">Chirality</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Neutrino&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Chirality">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Sterile_neutrino" title="Sterile neutrino">Sterile neutrino</a></div> Experimental results show that within the margin of error, all produced and observed neutrinos have left-handed <a href="/wiki/Helicity_(particle_physics)" title="Helicity (particle physics)">helicities</a> (spins antiparallel to <a href="/wiki/Momentum" title="Momentum">momenta</a>), and all antineutrinos have right-handed helicities.<a href="#cite_note-92">[88]</a> In the massless limit, that means that only one of two possible chiralities is observed for either particle. These are the only chiralities included in the Standard Model of particle interactions. It is possible that their counterparts (right-handed neutrinos and left-handed antineutrinos) simply do not exist. If they do exist, their properties are substantially different from observable neutrinos and antineutrinos. It is theorized that they are either very heavy (on the order of <a href="/wiki/GUT_scale" class="mw-redirect" title="GUT scale">GUT scale</a>—see <a href="/wiki/Seesaw_mechanism" title="Seesaw mechanism">Seesaw mechanism</a>), do not participate in weak interaction (so-called <a href="/wiki/Sterile_neutrino" title="Sterile neutrino">sterile neutrinos</a>), or both. The existence of nonzero neutrino masses somewhat complicates the situation. Neutrinos are produced in weak interactions as chirality eigenstates. Chirality of a massive particle is not a constant of motion; helicity is, but the chirality operator does not share eigenstates with the helicity operator. Free neutrinos propagate as mixtures of left- and right-handed helicity states, with mixing amplitudes on the order of <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1214402035">⁠ mν /E⁠ . This does not significantly affect the experiments, because neutrinos involved are nearly always ultrarelativistic, and thus mixing amplitudes are vanishingly small. Effectively, they travel so quickly and time passes so slowly in their rest-frames that they do not have enough time to change over any observable path. For example, most solar neutrinos have energies on the order of 0.100 MeV~1.00 MeV; consequently, the fraction of neutrinos with "wrong" helicity among them cannot exceed <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1214402035">⁠1 / 1010 ⁠.<a href="#cite_note-93">[89]</a><a href="#cite_note-94">[90]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="GSI_anomaly">GSI anomaly</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Neutrino&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: GSI anomaly">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/GSI_anomaly" title="GSI anomaly">GSI anomaly</a></div> An unexpected series of experimental results for the rate of decay of heavy <a href="/wiki/Highly_charged_ion" title="Highly charged ion">highly charged</a> radioactive <a href="/wiki/Ion" title="Ion">ions</a> circulating in a <a href="/wiki/Storage_ring" title="Storage ring">storage ring</a> has provoked theoretical activity in an effort to find a convincing explanation. The observed phenomenon is known as the <a href="/wiki/GSI_anomaly" title="GSI anomaly">GSI anomaly</a>, as the storage ring is a facility at the <a href="/wiki/GSI_Helmholtz_Centre_for_Heavy_Ion_Research" title="GSI Helmholtz Centre for Heavy Ion Research">GSI Helmholtz Centre for Heavy Ion Research</a> in <a href="/wiki/Darmstadt" title="Darmstadt">Darmstadt</a>, <a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a>. The rates of weak decay of two radioactive species with half lives of about 40 seconds and 200 seconds were found to have a significant oscillatory <a href="/wiki/Modulation" title="Modulation">modulation</a>, with a period of about 7 seconds.<a href="#cite_note-Kienle-Bosch-Bühler-etal-2013-95">[91]</a> As the decay process produces an electron neutrino, some of the suggested explanations for the observed oscillation rate propose new or altered neutrino properties. Ideas related to flavor oscillation met with skepticism.<a href="#cite_note-96">[92]</a> A later proposal is based on differences between neutrino mass <a href="/wiki/Eigenstates" class="mw-redirect" title="Eigenstates">eigenstates</a>.<a href="#cite_note-97">[93]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Neutrino&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Sources">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Artificial">Artificial</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Neutrino&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Artificial">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Reactor_neutrinos">Reactor neutrinos</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Neutrino&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Reactor neutrinos">edit</a>]</div> Nuclear reactors are the major source of human-generated neutrinos. The majority of energy in a nuclear reactor is generated by fission (the four main fissile isotopes in nuclear reactors are <a href="/wiki/Uranium-235" title="Uranium-235">235 U </a>, <a href="/wiki/Uranium-238" title="Uranium-238">238 U </a>, <a href="/wiki/Plutonium-239" title="Plutonium-239">239 Pu </a> and <a href="/wiki/Plutonium-241" title="Plutonium-241">241 Pu </a>), the resultant neutron-rich daughter nuclides rapidly undergo additional beta decays, each converting one neutron to a proton and an electron and releasing an electron antineutrino. Including these subsequent decays, the average nuclear fission releases about 200 MeV of energy, of which roughly 95.5% remains in the core as heat, and roughly 4.5% (or about 9 MeV)<a href="#cite_note-98">[94]</a> is radiated away as antineutrinos. For a typical nuclear reactor with a thermal power of 4000 <a href="/wiki/Megawatt" class="mw-redirect" title="Megawatt">MW</a>,<a href="#cite_note-99">[e]</a> the total power production from fissioning atoms is actually 4185 MW, of which 185 MW is radiated away as antineutrino radiation and never appears in the engineering. This is to say, 185 MW of fission energy is lost from this reactor and does not appear as heat available to run turbines, since antineutrinos penetrate all building materials practically without interaction. The antineutrino energy spectrum depends on the degree to which the fuel is burned (plutonium-239 fission antineutrinos on average have slightly more energy than those from uranium-235 fission), but in general, the detectable antineutrinos from fission have a peak energy between about 3.5 and 4 MeV, with a maximum energy of about 10 MeV.<a href="#cite_note-100">[95]</a> There is no established experimental method to measure the flux of low-energy antineutrinos. Only antineutrinos with an energy above threshold of 1.8 MeV can trigger <a href="/wiki/Inverse_beta_decay" title="Inverse beta decay">inverse beta decay</a> and thus be unambiguously identified (see <a href="#Detection">§ Detection</a> below). An estimated 3% of all antineutrinos from a nuclear reactor carry an energy above that threshold. Thus, an average nuclear power plant may generate over 1020 antineutrinos per second above the threshold, but also a much larger number (97% / 3% ≈ 30 times this number) below the energy threshold; these lower-energy antineutrinos are invisible to present detector technology. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Accelerator_neutrinos">Accelerator neutrinos</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Neutrino&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Accelerator neutrinos">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Accelerator_neutrinos" class="mw-redirect" title="Accelerator neutrinos">Accelerator neutrinos</a></div> Some <a href="/wiki/Particle_accelerator" title="Particle accelerator">particle accelerators</a> have been used to make neutrino beams. The technique is to collide <a href="/wiki/Proton" title="Proton">protons</a> with a fixed target, producing charged <a href="/wiki/Pion" title="Pion">pions</a> or <a href="/wiki/Kaon" title="Kaon">kaons</a>. These unstable particles are then magnetically focused into a long tunnel where they decay while in flight. Because of the <a href="/wiki/Lorentz_transformation" title="Lorentz transformation">relativistic boost</a> of the decaying particle, the neutrinos are produced as a beam rather than isotropically. Efforts to design an accelerator facility where neutrinos are produced through muon decays are ongoing.<a href="#cite_note-Bandypdhy-Choubey-Gandhi-Goswami-etal-2009-101">[96]</a> Such a setup is generally known as a <a href="/wiki/Neutrino_Factory" title="Neutrino Factory">"neutrino factory"</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Collider_neutrinos">Collider neutrinos</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Neutrino&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Collider neutrinos">edit</a>]</div> Unlike other artificial sources, colliders produce both neutrinos and anti-neutrinos of all flavors at very high energies. The first direct observation of collider neutrinos was reported in 2023 by the <a href="/wiki/FASER_experiment" title="FASER experiment">FASER experiment</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Large_Hadron_Collider" title="Large Hadron Collider">Large Hadron Collider</a>.<a href="#cite_note-colliderneutrino-102">[97]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Nuclear_weapons">Nuclear weapons</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Neutrino&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Nuclear weapons">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapon" title="Nuclear weapon">Nuclear weapons</a> also produce very large quantities of neutrinos. <a href="/wiki/Fred_Reines" class="mw-redirect" title="Fred Reines">Fred Reines</a> and <a href="/wiki/Clyde_Cowan" title="Clyde Cowan">Clyde Cowan</a> considered the detection of neutrinos from a bomb prior to their search for reactor neutrinos; a fission reactor was recommended as a better alternative by Los Alamos physics division leader J.M.B. Kellogg.<a href="#cite_note-103">[98]</a> Fission weapons produce antineutrinos (from the fission process), and fusion weapons produce both neutrinos (from the fusion process) and antineutrinos (from the initiating fission explosion). <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Geologic">Geologic</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Neutrino&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Geologic">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Geoneutrino" title="Geoneutrino">Geoneutrino</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:41598_2015_Article_BFsrep13945_Fig1_HTML.webp" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/41598_2015_Article_BFsrep13945_Fig1_HTML.webp/330px-41598_2015_Article_BFsrep13945_Fig1_HTML.webp.png" decoding="async" width="330" height="205" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/41598_2015_Article_BFsrep13945_Fig1_HTML.webp/495px-41598_2015_Article_BFsrep13945_Fig1_HTML.webp.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/41598_2015_Article_BFsrep13945_Fig1_HTML.webp/660px-41598_2015_Article_BFsrep13945_Fig1_HTML.webp.png 2x" data-file-width="1050" data-file-height="652" /></a><figcaption>AGM2015: A worldwide v̄e flux map combining <a href="/wiki/Geoneutrino" title="Geoneutrino">geoneutrinos</a> from natural <a href="/wiki/Uranium-238" title="Uranium-238">Uranium-238</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thorium-232" title="Thorium-232">Thorium-232</a> decay in the Earth’s crust and mantle as well as manmade reactor-v̄e emitted by power reactors worldwide.</figcaption></figure> Neutrinos are produced together with the natural <a href="/wiki/Background_radiation" title="Background radiation">background radiation</a>. In particular, the decay chains of <a href="/wiki/Uranium-238" title="Uranium-238">238 U </a> and <a href="/wiki/Thorium-232" title="Thorium-232">232 Th </a> isotopes, as well as <a href="/wiki/Potassium-40" title="Potassium-40">40 K </a>, include beta decays which emit antineutrinos. These so-called geoneutrinos can provide valuable information on the Earth's interior. A first indication for geoneutrinos was found by the KamLAND experiment in 2005, updated results have been presented by KamLAND,<a href="#cite_note-Gando-Gando-Hanakago-Ikeda-etal-2013-KamLAND-104">[99]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Borexino" title="Borexino">Borexino</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Agostini-Appel-Bellini-Benziger-etal-2015-105">[100]</a> The main background in the geoneutrino measurements are the antineutrinos coming from reactors. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Proton_proton_cycle.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Proton_proton_cycle.svg/330px-Proton_proton_cycle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="330" height="219" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Proton_proton_cycle.svg/495px-Proton_proton_cycle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Proton_proton_cycle.svg/660px-Proton_proton_cycle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="340" /></a><figcaption>Solar neutrinos (<a href="/wiki/Proton%E2%80%93proton_chain" title="Proton–proton chain">proton–proton chain</a>) in the Standard Solar Model</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Atmospheric">Atmospheric</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Neutrino&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Atmospheric">edit</a>]</div> Atmospheric neutrinos result from the interaction of cosmic rays with atomic nuclei in the <a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_atmosphere" class="mw-redirect" title="Earth's atmosphere">Earth's atmosphere</a>, creating showers of particles, many of which are unstable and produce neutrinos when they decay. A collaboration of particle physicists from <a href="/wiki/Tata_Institute_of_Fundamental_Research" title="Tata Institute of Fundamental Research">Tata Institute of Fundamental Research</a> (India), <a href="/wiki/Osaka_City_University" title="Osaka City University">Osaka City University</a> (Japan) and <a href="/wiki/Durham_University" title="Durham University">Durham University</a> (UK) recorded the first cosmic ray neutrino interaction in an underground laboratory in <a href="/wiki/Kolar_Gold_Fields" title="Kolar Gold Fields">Kolar Gold Fields</a> in India in 1965.<a href="#cite_note-Krishnswmy-Menon-Narasmhn-etal-1971-106">[101]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Solar">Solar</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Neutrino&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Solar">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Solar_neutrino" title="Solar neutrino">Solar neutrino</a></div> Solar neutrinos originate from the <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fusion" title="Nuclear fusion">nuclear fusion</a> powering the <a href="/wiki/Sun" title="Sun">Sun</a> and other stars. The details of the operation of the Sun are explained by the <a href="/wiki/Standard_Solar_Model" class="mw-redirect" title="Standard Solar Model">Standard Solar Model</a>. In short: when four protons fuse to become one <a href="/wiki/Helium" title="Helium">helium</a> nucleus, two of them have to convert into neutrons, and each such conversion releases one electron neutrino. The Sun sends enormous numbers of neutrinos in all directions. Each second, about 65 <a href="/wiki/1000000000_(number)" class="mw-redirect" title="1000000000 (number)">billion</a> (6.5×1010) solar neutrinos pass through every square centimeter on the part of the Earth orthogonal to the direction of the Sun.<a href="#cite_note-Bahcall-Serenelli-Basu-2005-15">[15]</a> Since neutrinos are insignificantly absorbed by the mass of the Earth, the surface area on the side of the Earth opposite the Sun receives about the same number of neutrinos as the side facing the Sun. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Supernovae">Supernovae</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Neutrino&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Supernovae">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Supernova_neutrinos" title="Supernova neutrinos">Supernova neutrinos</a>, <a href="/wiki/SuperNova_Early_Warning_System" title="SuperNova Early Warning System">SuperNova Early Warning System</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Diffuse_supernova_neutrino_background" title="Diffuse supernova neutrino background">Diffuse supernova neutrino background</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Supernova-1987a.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Supernova-1987a.jpg/220px-Supernova-1987a.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Supernova-1987a.jpg/330px-Supernova-1987a.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Supernova-1987a.jpg/440px-Supernova-1987a.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1309" data-file-height="1190" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/SN_1987A" title="SN 1987A">SN 1987A</a></figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Stirling_Colgate" title="Stirling Colgate">Colgate</a> & White (1966)<a href="#cite_note-Colgate-White-1966-107">[102]</a> calculated that neutrinos carry away most of the gravitational energy released during the collapse of massive stars,<a href="#cite_note-Colgate-White-1966-107">[102]</a> events now categorized as <a href="/wiki/Type_Ib_and_Ic_supernovae" title="Type Ib and Ic supernovae">Type Ib and Ic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Type_II_supernova" title="Type II supernova">Type II</a> supernovae. When such stars collapse, matter <a href="/wiki/Densities" class="mw-redirect" title="Densities">densities</a> at the core become so high (1017 kg/m3) that the <a href="/wiki/Degeneracy_pressure" class="mw-redirect" title="Degeneracy pressure">degeneracy</a> of electrons is not enough to prevent protons and electrons from combining to form a neutron and an electron neutrino. <a href="/wiki/Alfred_K._Mann" title="Alfred K. Mann">Mann</a> (1997)<a href="#cite_note-Mann-1997-SN1987A-108">[103]</a> found a second and more profuse neutrino source is the thermal energy (100 billion <a href="/wiki/Kelvin" title="Kelvin">kelvins</a>) of the newly formed neutron core, which is dissipated via the formation of neutrino–antineutrino pairs of all flavors.<a href="#cite_note-Mann-1997-SN1987A-108">[103]</a> Colgate and White's theory of supernova neutrino production was confirmed in 1987, when neutrinos from Supernova 1987A were detected. The water-based detectors <a href="/wiki/Kamiokande_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Kamiokande II">Kamiokande II</a> and <a href="/wiki/Irvine%E2%80%93Michigan%E2%80%93Brookhaven_(detector)" title="Irvine–Michigan–Brookhaven (detector)">IMB</a> detected 11 and 8 antineutrinos (lepton number = −1) of thermal origin,<a href="#cite_note-Mann-1997-SN1987A-108">[103]</a> respectively, while the scintillator-based <a href="/wiki/Baksan_Neutrino_Observatory" title="Baksan Neutrino Observatory">Baksan</a> detector found 5 neutrinos (lepton number = +1) of either thermal or electron-capture origin, in a burst less than 13 seconds long. The neutrino signal from the supernova arrived at Earth several hours before the arrival of the first electromagnetic radiation, as expected from the evident fact that the latter emerges along with the shock wave. The exceptionally feeble interaction with normal matter allowed the neutrinos to pass through the churning mass of the exploding star, while the electromagnetic photons were slowed. Because neutrinos interact so little with matter, it is thought that a supernova's neutrino emissions carry information about the innermost regions of the explosion. Much of the visible light comes from the decay of radioactive elements produced by the supernova shock wave, and even light from the explosion itself is scattered by dense and turbulent gases, and thus delayed. The neutrino burst is expected to reach Earth before any electromagnetic waves, including visible light, gamma rays, or radio waves. The exact time delay of the electromagnetic waves' arrivals depends on the velocity of the shock wave and on the thickness of the outer layer of the star. For a Type II supernova, astronomers expect the neutrino flood to be released seconds after the stellar core collapse, while the first electromagnetic signal may emerge hours later, after the explosion shock wave has had time to reach the surface of the star. The <a href="/wiki/SuperNova_Early_Warning_System" title="SuperNova Early Warning System">SuperNova Early Warning System</a> project uses a network of neutrino detectors to monitor the sky for candidate supernova events; the neutrino signal will provide a useful advance warning of a star exploding in the <a href="/wiki/Milky_Way" title="Milky Way">Milky Way</a>. Although neutrinos pass through the outer gases of a supernova without scattering, they provide information about the deeper supernova core with evidence that here, even neutrinos scatter to a significant extent. In a supernova core the densities are those of a neutron star (which is expected to be formed in this type of supernova),<a href="#cite_note-109">[104]</a> becoming large enough to influence the duration of the neutrino signal by delaying some neutrinos. The 13-second-long neutrino signal from SN 1987A lasted far longer than it would take for unimpeded neutrinos to cross through the neutrino-generating core of a supernova, expected to be only 3,200 kilometers in diameter for SN 1987A. The number of neutrinos counted was also consistent with a total neutrino energy of 2.2×1046 joules, which was estimated to be nearly all of the total energy of the supernova.<a href="#cite_note-Pagliarl-Vissani-etal-2009-37">[35]</a> For an average supernova, approximately 1057 (an <a href="/wiki/Octodecillion" class="mw-redirect" title="Octodecillion">octodecillion</a>) neutrinos are released, but the actual number detected at a terrestrial detector <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle N}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>N</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle N}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/f5e3890c981ae85503089652feb48b191b57aae3" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:2.064ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle N}"> will be far smaller, at the level of <math display="block" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle N\sim 10^{4}\left({\frac {M}{25\,{\mathsf {kton}}}}\right)\left({\frac {10\,{\mathsf {kpc}}}{d}}\right)^{2},}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>N</mi> <mo>∼</mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>4</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mrow> <mo>(</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mi>M</mi> <mrow> <mn>25</mn> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="sans-serif">k</mi> <mi mathvariant="sans-serif">t</mi> <mi mathvariant="sans-serif">o</mi> <mi mathvariant="sans-serif">n</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> <msup> <mrow> <mo>(</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mn>10</mn> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="sans-serif">k</mi> <mi mathvariant="sans-serif">p</mi> <mi mathvariant="sans-serif">c</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </mrow> <mi>d</mi> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mo>,</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle N\sim 10^{4}\left({\frac {M}{25\,{\mathsf {kton}}}}\right)\left({\frac {10\,{\mathsf {kpc}}}{d}}\right)^{2},}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/85ffda3be337a8827f74b90ab745281a4c8e397f" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-display mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.505ex; width:32.667ex; height:6.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle N\sim 10^{4}\left({\frac {M}{25\,{\mathsf {kton}}}}\right)\left({\frac {10\,{\mathsf {kpc}}}{d}}\right)^{2},}"> where <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle M}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>M</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle M}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/f82cade9898ced02fdd08712e5f0c0151758a0dd" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:2.442ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle M}"> is the mass of the detector (with e.g. <a href="/wiki/Super_Kamiokande" class="mw-redirect" title="Super Kamiokande">Super Kamiokande</a> having a mass of 50 kton) and <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle d}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>d</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle d}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/e85ff03cbe0c7341af6b982e47e9f90d235c66ab" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.216ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle d}"> is the distance to the supernova.<a href="#cite_note-Beacom-Vogel-1999-ν-loc-SN-110">[105]</a> Hence in practice it will only be possible to detect neutrino bursts from supernovae within or nearby the <a href="/wiki/Milky_Way" title="Milky Way">Milky Way</a> (our own galaxy). In addition to the detection of neutrinos from individual supernovae, it should also be possible to detect the <a href="/wiki/Diffuse_supernova_neutrino_background" title="Diffuse supernova neutrino background">diffuse supernova neutrino background</a>, which originates from all supernovae in the Universe.<a href="#cite_note-Beacom-2010-diffu-SN-ν-111">[106]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Supernova_remnants">Supernova remnants</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Neutrino&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Supernova remnants">edit</a>]</div> The energy of supernova neutrinos ranges from a few to several tens of MeV. The sites where <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_rays" class="mw-redirect" title="Cosmic rays">cosmic rays</a> are accelerated are expected to produce neutrinos that are at least one million times more energetic, produced from turbulent gaseous environments left over by supernova explosions: <a href="/wiki/Supernova_remnant" title="Supernova remnant">Supernova remnants</a>. The origin of the cosmic rays was attributed to supernovas by <a href="/wiki/Walter_Baade" title="Walter Baade">Baade</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fritz_Zwicky" title="Fritz Zwicky">Zwicky</a>; this hypothesis was refined by <a href="/wiki/Vitaly_L._Ginzburg" class="mw-redirect" title="Vitaly L. Ginzburg">Ginzburg</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Sergei_I._Syrovatsky&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sergei I. Syrovatsky (page does not exist)">Syrovatsky</a> who attributed the origin to supernova remnants, and supported their claim by the crucial remark, that the cosmic ray losses of the Milky Way is compensated, if the efficiency of acceleration in supernova remnants is about 10 percent. <a href="/wiki/Vitaly_L._Ginzburg" class="mw-redirect" title="Vitaly L. Ginzburg">Ginzburg</a> and Syrovatskii's hypothesis is supported by the specific mechanism of "shock wave acceleration" happening in supernova remnants, which is consistent with the original theoretical picture drawn by <a href="/wiki/Enrico_Fermi" title="Enrico Fermi">Enrico Fermi</a>, and is receiving support from observational data. The very high-energy neutrinos are still to be seen, but this branch of neutrino astronomy is just in its infancy. The main existing or forthcoming experiments that aim at observing very-high-energy neutrinos from our galaxy are <a href="/wiki/Baikal_Deep_Underwater_Neutrino_Telescope" title="Baikal Deep Underwater Neutrino Telescope">Baikal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Antarctic_Muon_And_Neutrino_Detector_Array" title="Antarctic Muon And Neutrino Detector Array">AMANDA</a>, <a href="/wiki/IceCube" class="mw-redirect" title="IceCube">IceCube</a>, <a href="/wiki/ANTARES_(telescope)" title="ANTARES (telescope)">ANTARES</a>, <a href="/wiki/KM3NeT" title="KM3NeT">NEMO</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nestor_Project" class="mw-redirect" title="Nestor Project">Nestor</a>. Related information is provided by <a href="/wiki/Ultra-high-energy_gamma_ray" title="Ultra-high-energy gamma ray">very-high-energy gamma ray</a> observatories, such as <a href="/wiki/VERITAS" title="VERITAS">VERITAS</a>, <a href="/wiki/High_Energy_Stereoscopic_System" title="High Energy Stereoscopic System">HESS</a> and <a href="/wiki/MAGIC_(telescope)" title="MAGIC (telescope)">MAGIC</a>. Indeed, the collisions of cosmic rays are supposed to produce charged pions, whose decay give the neutrinos, neutral pions, and gamma rays the environment of a supernova remnant, which is transparent to both types of radiation. Still-higher-energy neutrinos, resulting from the interactions of extragalactic cosmic rays, could be observed with the <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Auger_Observatory" title="Pierre Auger Observatory">Pierre Auger Observatory</a> or with the dedicated experiment named <a href="/wiki/Antarctic_Impulsive_Transient_Antenna" title="Antarctic Impulsive Transient Antenna">ANITA</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Big_Bang">Big Bang</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Neutrino&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Big Bang">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_neutrino_background" title="Cosmic neutrino background">Cosmic neutrino background</a></div> It is thought that, just like the cosmic microwave background radiation leftover from the Big Bang, there is a background of low-energy neutrinos in our Universe. In the 1980s it was proposed that these may be the explanation for the <a href="/wiki/Dark_matter" title="Dark matter">dark matter</a> thought to exist in the universe. Neutrinos have one important advantage over most other dark matter candidates: They are known to exist. This idea also has serious problems. From particle experiments, it is known that neutrinos are very light. This means that they easily move at speeds close to the <a href="/wiki/Speed_of_light" title="Speed of light">speed of light</a>. For this reason, dark matter made from neutrinos is termed "<a href="/wiki/Hot_dark_matter" title="Hot dark matter">hot dark matter</a>". The problem is that being fast moving, the neutrinos would tend to have spread out evenly in the <a href="/wiki/Universe" title="Universe">universe</a> before cosmological expansion made them cold enough to congregate in clumps. This would cause the part of dark matter made of neutrinos to be smeared out and unable to cause the large <a href="/wiki/Galaxy" title="Galaxy">galactic</a> structures that we see. These same galaxies and <a href="/wiki/Galaxy_groups_and_clusters" title="Galaxy groups and clusters">groups of galaxies</a> appear to be surrounded by dark matter that is not fast enough to escape from those galaxies. Presumably this matter provided the gravitational nucleus for <a href="/wiki/Galaxy_formation_and_evolution" title="Galaxy formation and evolution">formation</a>. This implies that neutrinos cannot make up a significant part of the total amount of dark matter. From cosmological arguments, relic background neutrinos are estimated to have density of 56 of each type per cubic centimeter and temperature 1.9 K (1.7×10−4 eV) if they are massless, much colder if their mass exceeds 0.001 eV/c2. Although their density is quite high, they have not yet been observed in the laboratory, as their energy is below thresholds of most detection methods, and due to extremely low neutrino interaction cross-sections at sub-eV energies. In contrast, <a href="/wiki/Boron-8" class="mw-redirect" title="Boron-8">boron-8</a> solar neutrinos—which are emitted with a higher energy—have been detected definitively despite having a space density that is lower than that of relic neutrinos by some six <a href="/wiki/Orders_of_magnitude" class="mw-redirect" title="Orders of magnitude">orders of magnitude</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Detection">Detection</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Neutrino&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Detection">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Neutrino_detector" title="Neutrino detector">Neutrino detector</a></div> Neutrinos cannot be detected directly because they do not carry electric charge, which means they do not ionize the materials they pass through. Other ways neutrinos might affect their environment, such as the <a href="/wiki/MSW_effect" class="mw-redirect" title="MSW effect">MSW effect</a>, do not produce traceable radiation. A unique reaction to identify antineutrinos, sometimes referred to as <a href="/wiki/Inverse_beta_decay" title="Inverse beta decay">inverse beta decay</a>, as applied by Reines and Cowan (see below), requires a very large detector to detect a significant number of neutrinos. All detection methods require the neutrinos to carry a minimum threshold energy. So far, there is no detection method for low-energy neutrinos, in the sense that potential neutrino interactions (for example by the MSW effect) cannot be uniquely distinguished from other causes. Neutrino detectors are often built underground to isolate the detector from cosmic rays and other background radiation. Antineutrinos were first detected in the 1950s near a nuclear reactor. Reines and Cowan used two targets containing a solution of <a href="/wiki/Cadmium_chloride" title="Cadmium chloride">cadmium chloride</a> in water. Two scintillation detectors were placed next to the cadmium targets. Antineutrinos with an energy above the threshold of 1.8 MeV caused charged current interactions with the protons in the water, producing positrons and neutrons. This is very much like β+ decay, where energy is used to convert a proton into a neutron, a positron ( e+ ) and an electron neutrino ( ν e) is emitted: From known β+ decay: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r996643573">.mw-parser-output .block-indent{padding-left:3em;padding-right:0;overflow:hidden}</style><div class="block-indent">Energy + p → n + e+ + ν e </div> In the Cowan and Reines experiment, instead of an outgoing neutrino, an incoming antineutrino ( ν e) from a nuclear reactor interacts with a proton: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r996643573"><div class="block-indent">Energy (> 1.8 MeV) + p + ν e → n + e+ </div> The resulting positron annihilation with electrons in the detector material created photons with an energy of about 0.5 MeV. Pairs of photons in coincidence could be detected by the two scintillation detectors above and below the target. The neutrons were captured by cadmium nuclei resulting in gamma rays of about 8 MeV that were detected a few microseconds after the photons from a positron annihilation event. Since then, various detection methods have been used. <a href="/wiki/Super_Kamiokande" class="mw-redirect" title="Super Kamiokande">Super Kamiokande</a> is a large volume of water surrounded by <a href="/wiki/Photomultiplier_tube" title="Photomultiplier tube">photomultiplier tubes</a> that watch for the <a href="/wiki/Cherenkov_radiation" title="Cherenkov radiation">Cherenkov radiation</a> emitted when an incoming neutrino creates an electron or muon in the water. The Sudbury Neutrino Observatory is similar, but used <a href="/wiki/Heavy_water" title="Heavy water">heavy water</a> as the detecting medium, which uses the same effects, but also allows the additional reaction any-flavor neutrino photo-dissociation of deuterium, resulting in a free neutron which is then detected from gamma radiation after chlorine-capture. Other detectors have consisted of large volumes of <a href="/wiki/Chlorine" title="Chlorine">chlorine</a> or <a href="/wiki/Gallium" title="Gallium">gallium</a> which are periodically checked for excesses of <a href="/wiki/Argon" title="Argon">argon</a> or <a href="/wiki/Germanium" title="Germanium">germanium</a>, respectively, which are created by electron-neutrinos interacting with the original substance. MINOS used a solid plastic <a href="/wiki/Scintillator" title="Scintillator">scintillator</a> coupled to photomultiplier tubes, while Borexino uses a liquid <a href="/wiki/Pseudocumene" class="mw-redirect" title="Pseudocumene">pseudocumene</a> scintillator also watched by photomultiplier tubes and the <a href="/wiki/NO%CE%BDA" class="mw-redirect" title="NOνA">NOνA</a> detector uses liquid scintillator watched by <a href="/wiki/Avalanche_photodiode" title="Avalanche photodiode">avalanche photodiodes</a>. The <a href="/wiki/IceCube_Neutrino_Observatory" title="IceCube Neutrino Observatory">IceCube Neutrino Observatory</a> uses 1 km3 of the <a href="/wiki/Antarctic_ice_sheet" title="Antarctic ice sheet">Antarctic ice sheet</a> near the <a href="/wiki/South_pole" class="mw-redirect" title="South pole">south pole</a> with photomultiplier tubes distributed throughout the volume. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Scientific_interest">Scientific interest</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Neutrino&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Scientific interest">edit</a>]</div> Neutrinos' low mass and neutral charge mean they interact exceedingly weakly with other particles and fields. This feature of weak interaction interests scientists because it means neutrinos can be used to probe environments that other radiation (such as light or radio waves) cannot penetrate. Using neutrinos as a probe was first proposed in the mid-20th century as a way to detect conditions at the core of the Sun. The solar core cannot be imaged directly because electromagnetic radiation (such as light) is diffused by the great amount and density of matter surrounding the core. On the other hand, neutrinos pass through the Sun with few interactions. Whereas photons emitted from the solar core may require 40000 years to diffuse to the outer layers of the Sun, neutrinos generated in stellar fusion reactions at the core cross this distance practically unimpeded at nearly the speed of light.<a href="#cite_note-Bahcall-1989-ν-astroph-112">[107]</a><a href="#cite_note-Davis-2003-NobLects-113">[108]</a> Neutrinos are also useful for probing <a href="/wiki/Neutrino_astronomy" title="Neutrino astronomy">astrophysical</a> sources beyond the Solar System because they are the only known particles that are not significantly <a href="/wiki/Attenuation" title="Attenuation">attenuated</a> by their travel through the interstellar medium. Optical photons can be obscured or diffused by dust, gas, and background radiation. High-energy cosmic rays, in the form of swift protons and atomic nuclei, are unable to travel more than about 100 <a href="/wiki/Megaparsec" class="mw-redirect" title="Megaparsec">megaparsecs</a> due to the <a href="/wiki/Greisen%E2%80%93Zatsepin%E2%80%93Kuzmin_limit" title="Greisen–Zatsepin–Kuzmin limit">Greisen–Zatsepin–Kuzmin limit</a> (GZK cutoff). Neutrinos, in contrast, can travel even greater distances barely attenuated. The galactic core of the Milky Way is fully obscured by dense gas and numerous bright objects. Neutrinos produced in the galactic core might be measurable by Earth-based <a href="/wiki/Neutrino_telescope" class="mw-redirect" title="Neutrino telescope">neutrino telescopes</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Close-2012-ν-24">[22]</a> Another important use of the neutrino is in the observation of <a href="/wiki/Supernova" title="Supernova">supernovae</a>, the explosions that end the lives of highly massive stars. The core collapse phase of a supernova is an extremely dense and energetic event. It is so dense that no known particles are able to escape the advancing core front except for neutrinos. Consequently, supernovae are known to release approximately 99% of their <a href="/wiki/Radiant_energy" title="Radiant energy">radiant energy</a> in a short (10-second) burst of neutrinos.<a href="#cite_note-Minkel-2009-07-17-ν-gunsmoke-114">[109]</a> These neutrinos are a very useful probe for core collapse studies. The rest mass of the neutrino is an important test of cosmological and astrophysical theories. The neutrino's significance in probing cosmological phenomena is as great as any other method, and is thus a major focus of study in astrophysical communities.<a href="#cite_note-Gelmini-Kusenko-Weiler-2010-115">[110]</a> The study of neutrinos is important in <a href="/wiki/Particle_physics" title="Particle physics">particle physics</a> because neutrinos typically have the lowest rest mass among massive particles (i.e. the lowest non-zero rest mass, i.e. excluding the zero rest mass of photons and gluons), and hence are examples of the lowest-energy massive particles theorized in extensions of the Standard Model of particle physics. In November 2012, American scientists used a particle accelerator to send a coherent neutrino message through 780 feet of rock. This marks the first use of neutrinos for communication, and future research may permit binary neutrino messages to be sent immense distances through even the densest materials, such as the Earth's core.<a href="#cite_note-Stancil-Adamson-Alania-etal-2012-116">[111]</a> In July 2018, the IceCube Neutrino Observatory announced that they have traced an extremely-high-energy neutrino that hit their Antarctica-based research station in September 2017 back to its point of origin in the blazar <a href="/wiki/TXS_0506%2B056" title="TXS 0506+056">TXS 0506+056</a> located 3.7 billion <a href="/wiki/Light-year" title="Light-year">light-years</a> away in the direction of the constellation <a href="/wiki/Orion_(constellation)" title="Orion (constellation)">Orion</a>. This is the first time that a <a href="/wiki/Neutrino_detector" title="Neutrino detector">neutrino detector</a> has been used to locate an object in space and that a source of cosmic rays has been identified.<a href="#cite_note-Overbye-2018-07-12-Antc-ν-117">[112]</a><a href="#cite_note-Sample-2018-07-12-ν-Antc-118">[113]</a><a href="#cite_note-Halton-2018-07-12-ν-src-119">[114]</a> In November 2022, the IceCube Neutrino Observatory found evidence of high-energy neutrino emission from NGC 1068, also known as <a href="/wiki/Messier_77" title="Messier 77">Messier 77</a>, an active galaxy in the constellation Cetus and one of the most familiar and well-studied galaxies to date.<a href="#cite_note-120">[115]</a> In June 2023, astronomers reported using a new technique to detect, for the first time, the release of neutrinos from the <a href="/wiki/Galactic_plane" title="Galactic plane">galactic plane</a> of the Milky Way <a href="/wiki/Galaxy" title="Galaxy">galaxy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-NYT-20230629-121">[116]</a><a href="#cite_note-SCI-20230629-122">[117]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Neutrino&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_neutrino_experiments" title="List of neutrino experiments">List of neutrino experiments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multi-messenger_astronomy" title="Multi-messenger astronomy">Multi-messenger astronomy</a> – Coordination of related astronomical observations</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutrino_oscillation" title="Neutrino oscillation">Neutrino oscillation</a> – Phenomenon in which a neutrino changes lepton flavor as it travels</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutrino_astronomy" title="Neutrino astronomy">Neutrino astronomy</a> – Observing low-mass stellar particles</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pontecorvo%E2%80%93Maki%E2%80%93Nakagawa%E2%80%93Sakata_matrix" title="Pontecorvo–Maki–Nakagawa–Sakata matrix">Pontecorvo–Maki–Nakagawa–Sakata matrix</a> – Model of neutrino oscillation</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Neutrino&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-18"><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a> More specifically, Pauli postulated what is now called the electron neutrino. Two other types were discovered later: see <a href="#Neutrino_flavors_anchor">Neutrino flavor</a> below. </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Niels_Bohr" title="Niels Bohr">Niels Bohr</a> was notably opposed to this interpretation of beta decay—he was ready to accept that energy, momentum, and angular momentum were not conserved quantities at the atomic level. </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a> Nevertheless, because neutrinos have mass, their helicity is <a href="/wiki/Frame_of_reference" title="Frame of reference">frame</a>-dependent, so particle physicists have fallen back on the frame-independent property of <a href="/wiki/Chirality" title="Chirality">chirality</a> that is closely related to helicity, and for practical purposes the same as the helicity of the ultra-relativistic neutrinos that can be observed in detectors. </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a> In this context, "light neutrino" means neutrinos with less than half the mass of the Z boson. </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a> Like all <a href="/wiki/Thermal_power_plant" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermal power plant">thermal power plants</a>, only about one third of the heat generated can be converted to electricity, so a 4000 MW reactor would produce only 1300 MW of electric power, with 2700 MW being <a href="/wiki/Waste_heat" title="Waste heat">waste heat</a>. </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Neutrino&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 25em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Mertens-2016-mν-1">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Mertens-2016-mν_1-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mertens-2016-mν_1-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mertens-2016-mν_1-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mertens-2016-mν_1-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mertens-2016-mν_1-4">e</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFMertens2016" class="citation journal cs1">Mertens, Susanne (2016). 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Bahcall">Bahcall, John N.</a> (1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/neutrinoastrophy0000bahc">Neutrino Astrophysics</a>. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-37975-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-37975-5"><bdi>978-0-521-37975-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Neutrino+Astrophysics&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-0-521-37975-5&rft.aulast=Bahcall&rft.aufirst=John+N.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fneutrinoastrophy0000bahc&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeutrino" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrumfiel2001" class="citation magazine cs1">Brumfiel, Geoff (1 October 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/the-milky-ways-hidden-bla/">"The Milky Way's hidden black hole"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Scientific_American" title="Scientific American">Scientific American</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140716210219/http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/the-milky-ways-hidden-bla/">Archived</a> from the original on 16 July 2014. Retrieved 23 April 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Scientific+American&rft.atitle=The+Milky+Way%27s+hidden+black+hole&rft.date=2001-10-01&rft.aulast=Brumfiel&rft.aufirst=Geoff&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.scientificamerican.com%2Farticle%2Fthe-milky-ways-hidden-bla%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeutrino" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClose2010" class="citation book cs1">Close, Frank (2010). Neutrino. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-957459-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-957459-9"><bdi>978-0-19-957459-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Neutrino&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-19-957459-9&rft.aulast=Close&rft.aufirst=Frank&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeutrino" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="Davis-2003-NobLects" class="citation journal cs1">Davis, Raymond Jr. (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://prl.aps.org/files/RevModPhys.75.985.pdf">"Nobel Lecture: A half-century with solar neutrinos"</a> (PDF). <a href="/wiki/Reviews_of_Modern_Physics" title="Reviews of Modern Physics">Reviews of Modern Physics</a>. 75 (3): 10. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2003RvMP...75..985D">2003RvMP...75..985D</a>. <a href="/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.208.7632">10.1.1.208.7632</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1103%2FRevModPhys.75.985">10.1103/RevModPhys.75.985</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Reviews+of+Modern+Physics&rft.atitle=Nobel+Lecture%3A+A+half-century+with+solar+neutrinos&rft.volume=75&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=10&rft.date=2003&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.208.7632%23id-name%3DCiteSeerX&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1103%2FRevModPhys.75.985&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2003RvMP...75..985D&rft.aulast=Davis&rft.aufirst=Raymond+Jr.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fprl.aps.org%2Ffiles%2FRevModPhys.75.985.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeutrino" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGriffiths1987" class="citation book cs1">Griffiths, David J. (1987). Introduction to Elementary Particles. <a href="/wiki/John_Wiley_%26_Sons" class="mw-redirect" title="John Wiley & Sons">John Wiley & Sons</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-471-60386-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-471-60386-3"><bdi>978-0-471-60386-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+Elementary+Particles&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=978-0-471-60386-3&rft.aulast=Griffiths&rft.aufirst=David+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeutrino" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJayawardhana2015" class="citation book cs1">Jayawardhana, Ray (2015). The Neutrino Hunters: The chase for the ghost particle and the secrets of the universe (softcover ed.). <a href="/wiki/Oneworld_Publications" title="Oneworld Publications">Oneworld Publications</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-780-74647-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-780-74647-0"><bdi>978-1-780-74647-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Neutrino+Hunters%3A+The+chase+for+the+ghost+particle+and+the+secrets+of+the+universe&rft.edition=softcover&rft.pub=Oneworld+Publications&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1-780-74647-0&rft.aulast=Jayawardhana&rft.aufirst=Ray&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeutrino" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPerkins1999" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Donald_Hill_Perkins" title="Donald Hill Perkins">Perkins, Donald H.</a> (1999). Introduction to High Energy Physics. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-62196-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-62196-0"><bdi>978-0-521-62196-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+High+Energy+Physics&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-521-62196-0&rft.aulast=Perkins&rft.aufirst=Donald+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeutrino" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPovh1995" class="citation book cs1">Povh, Bogdan (1995). Particles and Nuclei: An introduction to the physical concepts. <a href="/wiki/Springer-Verlag" class="mw-redirect" title="Springer-Verlag">Springer-Verlag</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-387-59439-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-387-59439-2"><bdi>978-0-387-59439-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Particles+and+Nuclei%3A+An+introduction+to+the+physical+concepts&rft.pub=Springer-Verlag&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-387-59439-2&rft.aulast=Povh&rft.aufirst=Bogdan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeutrino" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRiazuddin2005" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Riazuddin_(physicist)" title="Riazuddin (physicist)">Riazuddin</a> (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111007003127/http://www.ncp.edu.pk/docs/12th_rgdocs/Riazuddin.pdf">"Neutrinos"</a> (PDF). Islamabad, PK: <a href="/wiki/National_Centre_for_Physics" title="National Centre for Physics">National Centre for Physics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Quaid-i-Azam_University" title="Quaid-i-Azam University">Quaid-i-Azam University</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ncp.edu.pk/docs/12th_rgdocs/Riazuddin.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 7 October 2011. Retrieved 9 July 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Neutrinos&rft.place=Islamabad%2C+PK&rft.pub=National+Centre+for+Physics%2C+Quaid-i-Azam+University&rft.date=2005&rft.au=Riazuddin&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncp.edu.pk%2Fdocs%2F12th_rgdocs%2FRiazuddin.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeutrino" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchopper1966" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Herwig_Schopper" title="Herwig Schopper">Schopper, Herwig F.</a> (1966). Weak Interactions and Nuclear Beta Decay. <a href="/wiki/North-Holland_(imprint)" class="mw-redirect" title="North-Holland (imprint)">North-Holland</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Weak+Interactions+and+Nuclear+Beta+Decay&rft.pub=North-Holland&rft.date=1966&rft.aulast=Schopper&rft.aufirst=Herwig+F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeutrino" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTammannThielemannTrautmann2003" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Gustav_Andreas_Tammann" title="Gustav Andreas Tammann">Tammann, Gustav A.A.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Friedrich-Karl_Thielemann" title="Friedrich-Karl Thielemann">Thielemann, Friedrich-Karl</a>; Trautmann, Dirk (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1051%2Fepn%3A2003208">"Opening new windows in observing the Universe"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Europhysics_News" class="mw-redirect" title="Europhysics News">Europhysics News</a>. 34 (2): 68–70. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2003ENews..34...68T">2003ENews..34...68T</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1051%2Fepn%3A2003208">10.1051/epn:2003208</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Europhysics+News&rft.atitle=Opening+new+windows+in+observing+the+Universe&rft.volume=34&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=68-70&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1051%2Fepn%3A2003208&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2003ENews..34...68T&rft.aulast=Tammann&rft.aufirst=Gustav+A.A.&rft.au=Thielemann%2C+Friedrich-Karl&rft.au=Trautmann%2C+Dirk&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1051%252Fepn%253A2003208&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeutrino" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTiplerLlewellyn2002" class="citation book cs1">Tipler, Paul Allen; Llewellyn, Ralph A. (2002). Modern Physics (4th ed.). <a href="/wiki/W._H._Freeman" class="mw-redirect" title="W. H. Freeman">W. H. Freeman</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7167-4345-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7167-4345-3"><bdi>978-0-7167-4345-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Modern+Physics&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=W.+H.+Freeman&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-7167-4345-3&rft.aulast=Tipler&rft.aufirst=Paul+Allen&rft.au=Llewellyn%2C+Ralph+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeutrino" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTomonaga1997" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Shin%27ichir%C5%8D_Tomonaga" title="Shin'ichirō Tomonaga">Tomonaga, Sin-itiro</a> (1997). The Story of Spin. Translated by Oka, Takeshi. <a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago_Press" title="University of Chicago Press">University of Chicago Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-2268-0794-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-2268-0794-2"><bdi>978-0-2268-0794-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Story+of+Spin&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-2268-0794-2&rft.aulast=Tomonaga&rft.aufirst=Sin-itiro&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeutrino" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZuber2003" class="citation book cs1">Zuber, Kai (2003). Neutrino Physics. <a href="/wiki/IOP_Publishing" title="IOP Publishing">IOP Publishing</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7503-0750-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7503-0750-5"><bdi>978-0-7503-0750-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Neutrino+Physics&rft.pub=IOP+Publishing&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-7503-0750-5&rft.aulast=Zuber&rft.aufirst=Kai&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeutrino" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Neutrino&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/40px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/60px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/80px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Look up <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/neutrino" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:neutrino">neutrino</a> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCasper" class="citation web cs1">Casper, Dave. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100925101827/http://www.ps.uci.edu/~superk/neutrino.html">"What's a Neutrino?"</a>. <a href="/wiki/University_of_California,_Irvine" title="University of California, Irvine">University of California, Irvine</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ps.uci.edu/~superk/neutrino.html">the original</a> on 25 September 2010. Retrieved 31 October 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=What%27s+a+Neutrino%3F&rft.pub=University+of+California%2C+Irvine&rft.aulast=Casper&rft.aufirst=Dave&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ps.uci.edu%2F~superk%2Fneutrino.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeutrino" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGariazzoGiuntiLaveder" class="citation web cs1">Gariazzo, Stefano; Giunti, Carlo; Laveder, Marco. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nu.to.infn.it/">"Neutrino unbound"</a>. On-line review and e-archive on Neutrino Physics and Astrophysics.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=On-line+review+and+e-archive+on+Neutrino+Physics+and+Astrophysics&rft.atitle=Neutrino+unbound&rft.aulast=Gariazzo&rft.aufirst=Stefano&rft.au=Giunti%2C+Carlo&rft.au=Laveder%2C+Marco&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nu.to.infn.it%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeutrino" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSington" class="citation audio-visual cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_Sington" title="David Sington">Sington, David</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/neutrino/">The Ghost Particle</a> (video documentary). Nova. Boston, MA: WGBH.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Ghost+Particle&rft.place=Boston%2C+MA&rft.series=Nova&rft.pub=WGBH&rft.aulast=Sington&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pbs.org%2Fwgbh%2Fnova%2Fneutrino%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeutrino" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://neutrinos.fnal.gov/">"All Things Neutrino"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Fermilab" title="Fermilab">Fermilab</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=All+Things+Neutrino&rft.pub=Fermilab&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fneutrinos.fnal.gov%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeutrino" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBattersby2008" class="citation news cs1"><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Battersby_(science_journalist)" title="Stephen Battersby (science journalist)">Battersby, Stephen</a> (5 March 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn13414-universe-submerged-in-a-sea-of-chilled-neutrinos.html">"Universe submerged in a sea of chilled neutrinos"</a>. <a href="/wiki/New_Scientist" title="New Scientist">New Scientist</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=New+Scientist&rft.atitle=Universe+submerged+in+a+sea+of+chilled+neutrinos&rft.date=2008-03-05&rft.aulast=Battersby&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.newscientist.com%2Farticle%2Fdn13414-universe-submerged-in-a-sea-of-chilled-neutrinos.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeutrino" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoodman" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Maury_C._Goodman" title="Maury C. Goodman">Goodman, Maury C.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hep.anl.gov/ndk/hypertext/">"The neutrino oscillation industry"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Argonne_National_Laboratory" title="Argonne National Laboratory">Argonne National Laboratory</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+neutrino+oscillation+industry&rft.pub=Argonne+National+Laboratory&rft.aulast=Goodman&rft.aufirst=Maury+C.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.hep.anl.gov%2Fndk%2Fhypertext%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeutrino" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKlapdor-KleingrothausKrivosheinaDietzChkvorets2007" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Hans_Volker_Klapdor-Kleingrothaus" title="Hans Volker Klapdor-Kleingrothaus">Klapdor-Kleingrothaus, Hans Volker</a>; Krivosheina, Irina V.; Dietz, Alexander; Chkvorets, Oleg (27 September 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070927012833/http://www.mpi-hd.mpg.de/non_acc/POSITIVE-EVID/NEW-2004/PL586-2004.pdf">"Search for neutrinoless double beta decay with enriched 76Ge in Gran Sasso 1990–2003"</a> (PDF). Physics Letters B. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mpi-hd.mpg.de/non_acc/POSITIVE-EVID/NEW-2004/PL586-2004.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 27 September 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physics+Letters+B&rft.atitle=Search+for+neutrinoless+double+beta+decay+with+enriched+%3Csup%3E76%3C%2Fsup%3EGe+in+Gran+Sasso+1990%E2%80%932003&rft.date=2007-09-27&rft.aulast=Klapdor-Kleingrothaus&rft.aufirst=Hans+Volker&rft.au=Krivosheina%2C+Irina+V.&rft.au=Dietz%2C+Alexander&rft.au=Chkvorets%2C+Oleg&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.mpi-hd.mpg.de%2Fnon_acc%2FPOSITIVE-EVID%2FNEW-2004%2FPL586-2004.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeutrino" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohnson2002" class="citation news cs1"><a href="/wiki/George_Johnson_(writer)" title="George Johnson (writer)">Johnson, George</a> (28 April 2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2002/04/28/weekinreview/ideas-trends-cosmic-weight-gain-a-wispy-particle-bulks-up.html?pagewanted=all&src=pm">"Cosmic weight gain: A wispy particle bulks up"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Cosmic+weight+gain%3A+A+wispy+particle+bulks+up&rft.date=2002-04-28&rft.aulast=Johnson&rft.aufirst=George&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2002%2F04%2F28%2Fweekinreview%2Fideas-trends-cosmic-weight-gain-a-wispy-particle-bulks-up.html%3Fpagewanted%3Dall%26src%3Dpm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeutrino" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRincon2010" class="citation news cs1"><a href="/wiki/Paul_Rincon" title="Paul Rincon">Rincon, Paul</a> (22 June 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/science_and_environment/10364160.stm">"Neutrino 'ghost particle' sized up by astronomers"</a>. <a href="/wiki/BBC_News_Online" title="BBC News Online">BBC News</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BBC+News&rft.atitle=Neutrino+%27ghost+particle%27+sized+up+by+astronomers&rft.date=2010-06-22&rft.aulast=Rincon&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.bbc.co.uk%2F1%2Fhi%2Fscience_and_environment%2F10364160.stm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeutrino" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMerrifieldCopelandBowley2010" class="citation book cs1">Merrifield, Michael; <a href="/wiki/Edmund_Copeland" title="Edmund Copeland">Copeland, Ed</a>; Bowley, Roger (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sixtysymbols.com/videos/neutrinos.htm">"Neutrinos"</a>. Sixty Symbols. <a href="/wiki/University_of_Nottingham" title="University of Nottingham">University of Nottingham</a> – via <a href="/wiki/Brady_Haran" title="Brady Haran">Brady Haran</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Neutrinos&rft.btitle=Sixty+Symbols&rft.pub=University+of+Nottingham&rft.date=2010&rft.aulast=Merrifield&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft.au=Copeland%2C+Ed&rft.au=Bowley%2C+Roger&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sixtysymbols.com%2Fvideos%2Fneutrinos.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeutrino" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCowan" class="citation audio-visual cs1"><a href="/wiki/Clyde_Cowan" title="Clyde Cowan">Cowan, Clyde L.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211030/AYqEtm0X2Sc">The Neutrino with Dr. Clyde L. Cowan</a>. <a href="/wiki/YouTube" title="YouTube">YouTube</a> (lecture video). Lecture on Project Poltergeist. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AYqEtm0X2Sc">the original</a> on 30 October 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Neutrino+with+Dr.+Clyde+L.+Cowan&rft.series=Lecture+on+Project+Poltergeist&rft.aulast=Cowan&rft.aufirst=Clyde+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.youtube.com%2Fwatch%3Fv%3DAYqEtm0X2Sc&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeutrino" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPauli1930" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Wolfgang_Pauli" title="Wolfgang Pauli">Pauli, Wolfgang</a> (December 1930). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160315140410/https://www.bibnum.education.fr/physique/physique-nucleaire/chers-mesdames-et-messieurs-radioactifs">"Liebe Radioaktive Damen und Herren"</a> [Dear Radioactive Ladies and Gentlemen]. Translated by Moran, John. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bibnum.education.fr/physique/physique-nucleaire/chers-mesdames-et-messieurs-radioactifs">the original</a> on 15 March 2016. Retrieved 25 January 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Liebe+Radioaktive+Damen+und+Herren&rft.date=1930-12&rft.aulast=Pauli&rft.aufirst=Wolfgang&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bibnum.education.fr%2Fphysique%2Fphysique-nucleaire%2Fchers-mesdames-et-messieurs-radioactifs&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeutrino" class="Z3988"> (Pauli's letter stating the hypothesis of the neutrino: online and analyzed; for English version translated by John Moran, click 'The Neutrinos saga').</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output 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href="/wiki/Up_quark" title="Up quark">Up (quark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Up_antiquark" class="mw-redirect" title="Up antiquark">antiquark)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Down_quark" title="Down quark">Down (quark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Down_antiquark" class="mw-redirect" title="Down antiquark">antiquark)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charm_quark" title="Charm quark">Charm (quark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charm_antiquark" class="mw-redirect" title="Charm antiquark">antiquark)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strange_quark" title="Strange quark">Strange (quark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strange_antiquark" class="mw-redirect" title="Strange antiquark">antiquark)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Top_quark" title="Top quark">Top (quark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Top_antiquark" class="mw-redirect" title="Top antiquark">antiquark)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bottom_quark" title="Bottom quark">Bottom (quark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bottom_antiquark" class="mw-redirect" title="Bottom antiquark">antiquark)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Lepton" title="Lepton">Leptons</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron">Electron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positron" title="Positron">Positron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muon" title="Muon">Muon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muon" title="Muon">Antimuon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tau_(particle)" title="Tau (particle)">Tau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tau_(particle)" title="Tau (particle)">Antitau</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Neutrino</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electron_neutrino" title="Electron neutrino">Electron neutrino</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Antineutrinos">Electron antineutrino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muon_neutrino" title="Muon neutrino">Muon neutrino</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Antineutrinos">Muon antineutrino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tau_neutrino" title="Tau neutrino">Tau neutrino</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Antineutrinos">Tau antineutrino</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Boson" title="Boson">Bosons</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Gauge_boson" title="Gauge boson">Gauge</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Photon" title="Photon">Photon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gluon" title="Gluon">Gluon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W_and_Z_bosons" title="W and Z bosons">W and Z bosons</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Scalar_boson" title="Scalar boson">Scalar</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Higgs_boson" title="Higgs boson">Higgs boson </a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Ghost_(physics)" title="Ghost (physics)">Ghost fields</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Faddeev%E2%80%93Popov_ghost" title="Faddeev–Popov ghost">Faddeev–Popov ghosts</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Hypothetical_particles" class="mw-redirect" title="Hypothetical particles">Hypothetical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Superpartner" title="Superpartner">Superpartners</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Gaugino" title="Gaugino">Gauginos</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gluino" title="Gluino">Gluino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravitino" title="Gravitino">Gravitino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photino" title="Photino">Photino</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Axino" title="Axino">Axino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chargino" title="Chargino">Chargino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Higgsino" title="Higgsino">Higgsino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutralino" title="Neutralino">Neutralino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sfermion" title="Sfermion">Sfermion</a> (<a href="/wiki/Stop_squark" title="Stop squark">Stop squark</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Axion" title="Axion">Axion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Curvaton" title="Curvaton">Curvaton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dilaton" title="Dilaton">Dilaton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dual_graviton" title="Dual graviton">Dual graviton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graviphoton" title="Graviphoton">Graviphoton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graviton" title="Graviton">Graviton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inflaton" title="Inflaton">Inflaton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leptoquark" title="Leptoquark">Leptoquark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetic_monopole" title="Magnetic monopole">Magnetic monopole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Majoron" title="Majoron">Majoron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Majorana_fermion" title="Majorana fermion">Majorana fermion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dark_photon" title="Dark photon">Dark photon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Preon" title="Preon">Preon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sterile_neutrino" title="Sterile neutrino">Sterile neutrino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tachyon" title="Tachyon">Tachyon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W%E2%80%B2_and_Z%E2%80%B2_bosons" title="W′ and Z′ bosons">W′ and Z′ bosons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/X_and_Y_bosons" title="X and Y bosons">X and Y bosons</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Bound_state" title="Bound state">Composite</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Hadrons" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Hadron" title="Hadron">Hadrons</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Baryon" title="Baryon">Baryons</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nucleon" title="Nucleon">Nucleon</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proton" title="Proton">Proton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antiproton" title="Antiproton">Antiproton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutron" title="Neutron">Neutron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antineutron" title="Antineutron">Antineutron</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Delta_baryon" title="Delta baryon">Delta baryon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lambda_baryon" title="Lambda baryon">Lambda baryon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sigma_baryon" title="Sigma baryon">Sigma baryon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xi_baryon" title="Xi baryon">Xi baryon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omega_baryon" title="Omega baryon">Omega baryon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Meson" title="Meson">Mesons</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pion" title="Pion">Pion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rho_meson" title="Rho meson">Rho meson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eta_meson" class="mw-redirect" title="Eta meson">Eta and eta prime mesons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bottom_eta_meson" title="Bottom eta meson">Bottom eta meson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phi_meson" title="Phi meson">Phi meson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J/psi_meson" title="J/psi meson">J/psi meson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omega_meson" title="Omega meson">Omega meson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upsilon_meson" title="Upsilon meson">Upsilon meson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaon" title="Kaon">Kaon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B_meson" title="B meson">B meson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D_meson" title="D meson">D meson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quarkonium" title="Quarkonium">Quarkonium</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Exotic_hadron" title="Exotic hadron">Exotic hadrons</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tetraquark" title="Tetraquark">Tetraquark</a> (<a href="/wiki/Double-charm_tetraquark" title="Double-charm tetraquark">Double-charm tetraquark</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pentaquark" title="Pentaquark">Pentaquark</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atomic_nucleus" title="Atomic nucleus">Atomic nuclei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atom" title="Atom">Atoms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exotic_atom" title="Exotic atom">Exotic atoms</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Positronium" title="Positronium">Positronium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muonium" title="Muonium">Muonium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tauonium" class="mw-redirect" title="Tauonium">Tauonium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Onium" title="Onium">Onia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pionium" title="Pionium">Pionium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protonium" title="Protonium">Protonium</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superatom" title="Superatom">Superatoms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecule" title="Molecule">Molecules</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Category:Hypothetical_composite_particles" title="Category:Hypothetical composite particles">Hypothetical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Baryons</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hexaquark" title="Hexaquark">Hexaquark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heptaquark" title="Heptaquark">Heptaquark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skyrmion" title="Skyrmion">Skyrmion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Mesons</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glueball" title="Glueball">Glueball</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theta_meson" title="Theta meson">Theta meson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T_meson" title="T meson">T meson</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mesonic_molecule" title="Mesonic molecule">Mesonic molecule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pomeron" title="Pomeron">Pomeron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diquark" title="Diquark">Diquark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R-hadron" title="R-hadron">R-hadron</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Quasiparticle" title="Quasiparticle">Quasiparticles</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anyon" title="Anyon">Anyon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Davydov_soliton" title="Davydov soliton">Davydov soliton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dropleton" title="Dropleton">Dropleton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exciton" title="Exciton">Exciton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fracton_(subdimensional_particle)" title="Fracton (subdimensional particle)">Fracton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electron_hole" title="Electron hole">Hole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnon" title="Magnon">Magnon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phonon" title="Phonon">Phonon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plasmaron" title="Plasmaron">Plasmaron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plasmon" title="Plasmon">Plasmon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polariton" title="Polariton">Polariton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polaron" title="Polaron">Polaron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roton" title="Roton">Roton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trion_(physics)" title="Trion (physics)">Trion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_baryons" title="List of baryons">Baryons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mesons" title="List of mesons">Mesons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_particles" title="List of particles">Particles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_quasiparticles" title="List of quasiparticles">Quasiparticles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_particle_discoveries" title="Timeline of particle discoveries">Timeline of particle discoveries</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_subatomic_physics" title="History of subatomic physics">History of subatomic physics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_atomic_and_subatomic_physics" title="Timeline of atomic and subatomic physics">timeline</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_Model" title="Standard Model">Standard Model</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_formulation_of_the_Standard_Model" title="Mathematical formulation of the Standard Model">mathematical formulation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subatomic_particle" title="Subatomic particle">Subatomic particles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Particle" title="Particle">Particles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antiparticle" title="Antiparticle">Antiparticles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_physics" title="Nuclear physics">Nuclear physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eightfold_way_(physics)" title="Eightfold way (physics)">Eightfold way</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quark_model" title="Quark model">Quark model</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exotic_matter" title="Exotic matter">Exotic matter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Massless_particle" title="Massless particle">Massless particle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relativistic_particle" title="Relativistic particle">Relativistic particle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtual_particle" title="Virtual particle">Virtual particle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave%E2%80%93particle_duality" title="Wave–particle duality">Wave–particle duality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Particle_chauvinism" title="Particle chauvinism">Particle chauvinism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="text-align: 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