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class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Disadvantages</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Disadvantages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Currents_involved" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Currents_involved"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Currents involved</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Currents_involved-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Setup_and_equipment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Setup_and_equipment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Setup and equipment</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Setup_and_equipment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Applications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" 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src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Electrochemical_machining_%28ECM%29.svg/310px-Electrochemical_machining_%28ECM%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="310" height="194" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Electrochemical_machining_%28ECM%29.svg/465px-Electrochemical_machining_%28ECM%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Electrochemical_machining_%28ECM%29.svg/620px-Electrochemical_machining_%28ECM%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="320" /></a><figcaption>Electrochemical machining (ECM) diagram.<br /><b>1</b>: Pump <br /><b>2</b>: <a href="/wiki/Anode" title="Anode">Anode</a> (workpiece)<br /><b>3</b>: <a href="/wiki/Cathode" title="Cathode">Cathode</a> (tool)<br /><b>4</b>: <a href="/wiki/Electric_current" title="Electric current">Electric current</a><br /><b>5</b>: <a href="/wiki/Electrolyte" title="Electrolyte">Electrolyte</a><br /><b>6</b>: <a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron">Electrons</a><br /><b>7</b>: <a href="/wiki/Metal_hydroxide" title="Metal hydroxide">Metal hydroxide</a> </figcaption></figure> <p><b>Electrochemical machining</b> (<b>ECM</b>) is a method of removing metal by an <a href="/wiki/Electrochemical" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrochemical">electrochemical</a> process. It is normally used for <a href="/wiki/Mass_production" title="Mass production">mass production</a> and for working extremely <a href="/wiki/Hardness" title="Hardness">hard materials</a>, or materials that are difficult to <a href="/wiki/Machining" title="Machining">machine</a> using conventional methods.<sup id="cite_ref-Todd,_H._Robert_1994_p._198-199_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Todd,_H._Robert_1994_p._198-199-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Its use is limited to <a href="/wiki/Electrical_conductivity" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrical conductivity">electrically conductive</a> materials. ECM can cut small or odd-shaped angles, intricate contours or cavities in hard and exotic metals, such as <a href="/wiki/Titanium_aluminide" title="Titanium aluminide">titanium aluminides</a>, <a href="/wiki/Inconel" title="Inconel">Inconel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Waspaloy" title="Waspaloy">Waspaloy</a>, and high <a href="/wiki/Nickel" title="Nickel">nickel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cobalt" title="Cobalt">cobalt</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Rhenium" title="Rhenium">rhenium</a> alloys.<sup id="cite_ref-valenti_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-valenti-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Both external and internal geometries can be machined. </p><p>In the ECM process, a negatively-charged (<a href="/wiki/Cathode" title="Cathode">cathode</a>) cutting tool is advanced into a positively-charged (<a href="/wiki/Anode" title="Anode">anode</a>) workpiece. Pressurized <a href="/wiki/Electrolyte" title="Electrolyte">electrolyte</a> is injected at a set temperature into the area being cut, at a feedrate equal to the rate of "liquefication" of the anode material. The gap between the tool and the workpiece varies within 80–800 micrometers (0.003–0.030 in.)<sup id="cite_ref-Todd,_H._Robert_1994_p._198-199_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Todd,_H._Robert_1994_p._198-199-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As <a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron">electrons</a> cross the gap between the tool and workpiece, material from the workpiece is <a href="/wiki/Solvation" title="Solvation">dissolved</a>, as the tool forms the desired shape in the workpiece. The electrolytic fluid carries away the <a href="/wiki/Metal_hydroxide" title="Metal hydroxide">metal hydroxide</a> formed in the process.<sup id="cite_ref-valenti_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-valenti-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>ECM is often characterized as "reverse <a href="/wiki/Electroplating" title="Electroplating">electroplating</a>", in that it removes material instead of adding it.<sup id="cite_ref-valenti_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-valenti-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is similar in concept to <a href="/wiki/Electrical_discharge_machining" title="Electrical discharge machining">electrical discharge machining</a> (EDM) in that a high <a href="/wiki/Electric_current" title="Electric current">current</a> is passed between an <a href="/wiki/Electrode" title="Electrode">electrode</a> and the part, through an electrolytic material removal process involving a cathode tool, electrolytic fluid, and anode workpiece; however, in ECM there is no <a href="/wiki/Tool_wear" title="Tool wear">tool wear</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Todd,_H._Robert_1994_p._198-199_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Todd,_H._Robert_1994_p._198-199-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The ECM cutting tool is guided along the desired path close to the work but without touching the piece. Unlike EDM, however, no sparks are created. High metal removal rates are possible with ECM, with no <a href="/wiki/Thermal_stress" title="Thermal stress">thermal</a> or <a href="/wiki/Mechanical_stress" class="mw-redirect" title="Mechanical stress">mechanical stresses</a> being transferred to the part, and mirror <a href="/wiki/Surface_finish" title="Surface finish">surface finishes</a> can be achieved. </p><p>Electrochemical machining, as a technological method, originated from the process of electrolytic polishing offered already in 1911 by a Russian chemist E. Shpitalsky.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As far back as 1929, an experimental ECM process was developed by W.Gussef, although it was 1959 before a commercial process was established by the Anocut Engineering Company. B.R. and J.I. Lazarenko are also credited with proposing the use of electrolysis for metal removal.<sup id="cite_ref-valenti_2-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-valenti-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Much research was done in the 1960s and 1970s, particularly in the gas turbine industry. The rise of EDM in the same period slowed ECM research in the West, although work continued behind the <a href="/wiki/Iron_Curtain" title="Iron Curtain">Iron Curtain</a>. The original problems of poor dimensional accuracy and environmentally polluting waste have largely been overcome, although the process remains a niche technique. </p><p>The ECM process is most widely used to produce complicated shapes such as <a href="/wiki/Turbine" title="Turbine">turbine</a> blades with good surface finish in difficult to machine materials. It is also widely and effectively used as a <a href="/wiki/Burr_(metal)" class="mw-redirect" title="Burr (metal)">deburring</a> process.<sup id="cite_ref-valenti_2-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-valenti-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In deburring, ECM removes metal projections left from the machining process, and so dulls sharp edges. This process is fast and often more convenient than the conventional methods of deburring by hand or nontraditional machining processes.<sup id="cite_ref-Todd,_H._Robert_1994_p._198-199_1-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Todd,_H._Robert_1994_p._198-199-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Advantages">Advantages</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electrochemical_machining&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Advantages"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Complex concave curvature components can be produced easily by using concave tools.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tool_wear" title="Tool wear">Tool wear</a> is zero, same tool can be used for producing infinite number of components. <sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>High surface quality may be achieved.</li> <li>No direct contact between tool and work material so there are no forces and residual stresses. <sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The surface finish produced is excellent.</li> <li>Less heat is generated.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Disadvantages">Disadvantages</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electrochemical_machining&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Disadvantages"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>The <a href="/wiki/Saline_water" title="Saline water">saline</a> (or <a href="/wiki/Acidic" class="mw-redirect" title="Acidic">acidic</a>) electrolyte poses the risk of <a href="/wiki/Corrosion" title="Corrosion">corrosion</a> to tool, workpiece and equipment.<sup id="cite_ref-valenti_2-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-valenti-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Only electrically conductive materials can be machined.</li> <li>High Specific Energy consumption. <sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>It cannot be used for soft materials.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Currents_involved">Currents involved</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electrochemical_machining&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Currents involved"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Electrochemical_machining" title="Special:EditPage/Electrochemical machining">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">March 2020</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The needed current is proportional to the desired <a href="/wiki/Material_removal_rate" title="Material removal rate">rate of material removal</a>, and the removal rate in mm/minute is proportional to the amps per square mm. </p><p>Typical currents range from 0.1 amp per square mm to 5 amps per square mm. Thus, for a small plunge cut of a 1 by 1 mm tool with a slow cut, only 0.1 amps would be needed. </p><p>However, for a higher feed rate over a larger area, more current would be used, just like any machining process—removing more material faster takes more power. </p><p>Thus, if a current density of 4 amps per square millimeter was desired over a 100×100 mm area, it would take 40,000 amps (and much coolant/electrolyte). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Setup_and_equipment">Setup and equipment</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electrochemical_machining&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Setup and equipment"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ET_3000_PECM_IND.LLC_(Russia,_Ufa).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/ET_3000_PECM_IND.LLC_%28Russia%2C_Ufa%29.jpg/170px-ET_3000_PECM_IND.LLC_%28Russia%2C_Ufa%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="305" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/ET_3000_PECM_IND.LLC_%28Russia%2C_Ufa%29.jpg/255px-ET_3000_PECM_IND.LLC_%28Russia%2C_Ufa%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/ET_3000_PECM_IND.LLC_%28Russia%2C_Ufa%29.jpg/340px-ET_3000_PECM_IND.LLC_%28Russia%2C_Ufa%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2569" data-file-height="4609" /></a><figcaption>An ET 3000 ECM machine by INDEC of Russia</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ET3000.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/ET3000.png/220px-ET3000.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="113" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/ET3000.png/330px-ET3000.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/ET3000.png/440px-ET3000.png 2x" data-file-width="1427" data-file-height="735" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> <p>ECM machines come in both vertical and horizontal types. Depending on the work requirements, these machines are built in many different sizes as well. The vertical machine consists of a base, column, table, and spindle head. The spindle head has a servo-mechanism that automatically advances the tool and controls the gap between the cathode (tool) and the workpiece.<sup id="cite_ref-Todd,_H._Robert_1994_p._198-199_1-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Todd,_H._Robert_1994_p._198-199-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>CNC machines of up to six axes are available.<sup id="cite_ref-valenti_2-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-valenti-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Copper is often used as the electrode material. Brass, graphite, and copper-tungsten are also often used because they are easily machined, they are conductive materials, and they will not corrode.<sup id="cite_ref-Todd,_H._Robert_1994_p._198-199_1-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Todd,_H._Robert_1994_p._198-199-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Applications">Applications</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electrochemical_machining&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Applications"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Some of the very basic applications of ECM include: </p> <ul><li>Die-sinking operations</li> <li>Drilling jet engine turbine blades</li> <li>Multiple hole drilling</li> <li>Machining steam Turbine blades within close limits</li> <li>Micro machining</li> <li>Profiling and contouring</li> <li>Rifling barrel</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Similarities_between_EDM_and_ECM">Similarities between EDM and ECM</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electrochemical_machining&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Similarities between EDM and ECM"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>The tool and workpiece are separated by a very small gap, i.e. no contact in between them is made.</li> <li>The tool and material must both be conductors of electricity.</li> <li>Needs high capital investment.</li> <li>Systems consume much power.</li> <li>A fluid is used as a medium between the tool and the work piece (conductive for ECM and dielectric for EDM).</li> <li>The tool is fed continuously towards the workpiece to maintain a constant gap between them (ECM may incorporate intermittent or cyclic, typically partial, tool withdrawal).</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Difference_between_ECM_and_ECG">Difference between ECM and ECG</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electrochemical_machining&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Difference between ECM and ECG"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Electrochemical grinding (ECG) is similar to electrochemical machining (ECM) but uses a contoured conductive grinding wheel instead of a tool shaped like the contour of the workpiece.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electrochemical_machining&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electromechanical_modeling" title="Electromechanical modeling">Electromechanical modeling</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electrochemical_machining&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Todd,_H._Robert_1994_p._198-199-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Todd,_H._Robert_1994_p._198-199_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Todd,_H._Robert_1994_p._198-199_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Todd,_H._Robert_1994_p._198-199_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Todd,_H._Robert_1994_p._198-199_1-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Todd,_H._Robert_1994_p._198-199_1-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Todd,_H._Robert_1994_p._198-199_1-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Todd, H. Robert; Allen, K. Dell; Alting, Leo (1994), Manufacturing Processes Reference Guide (1st ed.), Industrial Press Inc., pp. 198–199, <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8311-3049-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-8311-3049-0">0-8311-3049-0</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-valenti-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-valenti_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-valenti_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-valenti_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-valenti_2-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-valenti_2-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-valenti_2-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-valenti_2-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Valenti, Michael, "Making the Cut." Mechanical Engineering, American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 2001. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.memagazine.org/backissues/membersonly/nov01/features/makcut/makcut.html">http://www.memagazine.org/backissues/membersonly/nov01/features/makcut/makcut.html</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100705035934/http://www.memagazine.org/backissues/membersonly/nov01/features/makcut/makcut.html">Archived</a> 2010-07-05 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> accessed 2/23/2010</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://electrochemicalmachining.com/technology/process-history">"Process History - ECM Technologies"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Process+History+-+ECM+Technologies&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Felectrochemicalmachining.com%2Ftechnology%2Fprocess-history&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectrochemical+machining" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.substech.com/dokuwiki/doku.php?id=electrochemical_machining">"Electrochemical machining [SubsTech]"</a>. <i>www.substech.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2024-01-17</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.substech.com&rft.atitle=Electrochemical+machining+%5BSubsTech%5D&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.substech.com%2Fdokuwiki%2Fdoku.php%3Fid%3Delectrochemical_machining&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectrochemical+machining" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.substech.com/dokuwiki/doku.php?id=electrochemical_machining">"Electrochemical machining [SubsTech]"</a>. <i>www.substech.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2024-01-17</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.substech.com&rft.atitle=Electrochemical+machining+%5BSubsTech%5D&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.substech.com%2Fdokuwiki%2Fdoku.php%3Fid%3Delectrochemical_machining&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectrochemical+machining" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.substech.com/dokuwiki/doku.php?id=electrochemical_machining">"Electrochemical machining [SubsTech]"</a>. <i>www.substech.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2024-01-17</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.substech.com&rft.atitle=Electrochemical+machining+%5BSubsTech%5D&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.substech.com%2Fdokuwiki%2Fdoku.php%3Fid%3Delectrochemical_machining&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectrochemical+machining" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electrochemical_machining&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090715054336/http://electrochem.cwru.edu/encycl/art-m03-machining.htm">Detailed description</a></li> <li><a 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title="Angle plate">Angle plate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chuck_(engineering)" title="Chuck (engineering)">Chuck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collet" title="Collet">Collet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fixture_(tool)" title="Fixture (tool)">Fixture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indexing_head" title="Indexing head">Indexing head</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jig_(tool)" title="Jig (tool)">Jig</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lathe_center" title="Lathe center">Lathe center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Machine_taper" title="Machine taper">Machine taper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetic_switchable_device" title="Magnetic switchable device">Magnetic switchable device</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandrel" title="Mandrel">Mandrel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rotary_table" title="Rotary table">Rotary table</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wiggler_(tool)" title="Wiggler (tool)">Wiggler</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Terminology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cutting_fluid" title="Cutting fluid">Cutting fluid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Machining_vibrations" title="Machining vibrations">Machining vibrations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speeds_and_feeds" title="Speeds and feeds">Speeds and feeds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swarf" title="Swarf">Swarf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engineering_tolerance" title="Engineering tolerance">Tolerance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tool_and_die_maker" title="Tool and die maker">Tool and die making</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tramp_oil" class="mw-redirect" title="Tramp oil">Tramp oil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Workpiece" title="Workpiece">Workpiece</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Casting" title="Casting">Casting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metal_fabrication" 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