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data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Origins" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Origins"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>Origins</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Origins-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Origins subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Origins-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Economic_collapse_(1929–1933)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economic_collapse_(1929–1933)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Economic collapse (1929–1933)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Economic_collapse_(1929–1933)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-New_Deal_(1933–1938)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#New_Deal_(1933–1938)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>New Deal (1933–1938)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-New_Deal_(1933–1938)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-World_comparisons" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#World_comparisons"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>World comparisons</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-World_comparisons-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Origins_of_the_Great_Depression" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Origins_of_the_Great_Depression"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3.1</span> <span>Origins of the Great Depression</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Origins_of_the_Great_Depression-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-International_reaction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#International_reaction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3.2</span> <span>International reaction</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-International_reaction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Europe" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Europe"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3.2.1</span> <span>Europe</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Europe-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Canada_and_the_Caribbean" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Canada_and_the_Caribbean"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3.2.2</span> <span>Canada and the Caribbean</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Canada_and_the_Caribbean-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Asia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Asia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3.2.3</span> <span>Asia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Asia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Australia_and_New_Zealand" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Australia_and_New_Zealand"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3.2.4</span> <span>Australia and New Zealand</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Australia_and_New_Zealand-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-First_New_Deal_(1933–1934)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#First_New_Deal_(1933–1934)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>First New Deal (1933–1934)</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-First_New_Deal_(1933–1934)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle First New Deal (1933–1934) subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-First_New_Deal_(1933–1934)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-The_First_Hundred_Days_(1933)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_First_Hundred_Days_(1933)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>The First Hundred Days (1933)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_First_Hundred_Days_(1933)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Fiscal_policy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fiscal_policy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.1</span> <span>Fiscal policy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fiscal_policy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Banking_reform" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Banking_reform"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.2</span> <span>Banking reform</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Banking_reform-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Monetary_reform" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Monetary_reform"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.3</span> <span>Monetary reform</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Monetary_reform-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Securities_regulation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Securities_regulation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.4</span> <span>Securities regulation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Securities_regulation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Repeal_of_Prohibition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Repeal_of_Prohibition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.5</span> <span>Repeal of Prohibition</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Repeal_of_Prohibition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Relief" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Relief"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Relief</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Relief-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Public_works" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Public_works"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.1</span> <span>Public works</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Public_works-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Farm_and_rural_programs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Farm_and_rural_programs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.2</span> <span>Farm and rural programs</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Farm_and_rural_programs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Recovery" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Recovery"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Recovery</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Recovery-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-NRA_"Blue_Eagle"_campaign" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#NRA_"Blue_Eagle"_campaign"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.1</span> <span>NRA "Blue Eagle" campaign</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-NRA_"Blue_Eagle"_campaign-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Housing_Sector" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Housing_Sector"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.2</span> <span>Housing Sector</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Housing_Sector-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reform" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reform"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Reform</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reform-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Trade_liberalization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Trade_liberalization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4.1</span> <span>Trade liberalization</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Trade_liberalization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Puerto_Rico" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Puerto_Rico"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4.2</span> <span>Puerto Rico</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Puerto_Rico-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Second_New_Deal_(1935–1938)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Second_New_Deal_(1935–1938)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Second New Deal (1935–1938)</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Second_New_Deal_(1935–1938)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Second New Deal (1935–1938) subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Second_New_Deal_(1935–1938)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Social_Security_Act" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Social_Security_Act"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Social Security Act</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Social_Security_Act-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Labor_relations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Labor_relations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Labor relations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Labor_relations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Works_Progress_Administration" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Works_Progress_Administration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Works Progress Administration</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Works_Progress_Administration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tax_policy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tax_policy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Tax policy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tax_policy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Housing_Act_of_1937" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Housing_Act_of_1937"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Housing Act of 1937</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Housing_Act_of_1937-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Court-packing_plan_and_jurisprudential_shift" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Court-packing_plan_and_jurisprudential_shift"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Court-packing plan and jurisprudential shift</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Court-packing_plan_and_jurisprudential_shift-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Recession_of_1937_and_recovery" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Recession_of_1937_and_recovery"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Recession of 1937 and recovery</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Recession_of_1937_and_recovery-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-World_War_II_and_the_end_of_the_Great_Depression" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#World_War_II_and_the_end_of_the_Great_Depression"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>World War II and the end of the Great Depression</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-World_War_II_and_the_end_of_the_Great_Depression-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Legacy_and_historiography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legacy_and_historiography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Legacy and historiography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Legacy_and_historiography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_New_Deal_in_Retrospect" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_New_Deal_in_Retrospect"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>The New Deal in Retrospect</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-The_New_Deal_in_Retrospect-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle The New Deal in Retrospect subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-The_New_Deal_in_Retrospect-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Race_and_Gender" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Race_and_Gender"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Race and Gender</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Race_and_Gender-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-African_Americans" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#African_Americans"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1.1</span> <span>African Americans</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-African_Americans-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Women_and_the_New_Deal" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Women_and_the_New_Deal"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1.2</span> <span>Women and the New Deal</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Women_and_the_New_Deal-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Charges_of_radicalism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Charges_of_radicalism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2</span> <span>Charges of radicalism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Charges_of_radicalism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Charges_of_communism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Charges_of_communism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2.1</span> <span>Charges of communism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Charges_of_communism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Charges_of_fascism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Charges_of_fascism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2.2</span> <span>Charges of fascism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Charges_of_fascism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-New_Left_critique" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#New_Left_critique"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.3</span> <span>New Left critique</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-New_Left_critique-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Political_metaphor" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Political_metaphor"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.4</span> <span>Political metaphor</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Political_metaphor-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Evaluation_of_New_Deal_policies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Evaluation_of_New_Deal_policies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Evaluation of New Deal policies</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Evaluation_of_New_Deal_policies-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Evaluation of New Deal policies subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Evaluation_of_New_Deal_policies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Fiscal_policy_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fiscal_policy_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.1</span> <span>Fiscal policy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fiscal_policy_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Relief_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Relief_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.2</span> <span>Relief</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Relief_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Recovery_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Recovery_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.3</span> <span>Recovery</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Recovery_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Keynesian_interpretation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Keynesian_interpretation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.3.1</span> <span>Keynesian interpretation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Keynesian_interpretation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Monetarist_interpretation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Monetarist_interpretation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.3.2</span> <span>Monetarist interpretation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Monetarist_interpretation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Economic_growth_and_unemployment_(1933-1941)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economic_growth_and_unemployment_(1933-1941)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.3.3</span> <span>Economic growth and unemployment (1933-1941)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Economic_growth_and_unemployment_(1933-1941)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Effect_on_the_Depression" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Effect_on_the_Depression"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.3.4</span> <span>Effect on the Depression</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Effect_on_the_Depression-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reform_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reform_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.4</span> <span>Reform</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reform_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_works_of_art_and_music" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_works_of_art_and_music"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>The works of art and music</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_works_of_art_and_music-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-New_Deal_Programs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#New_Deal_Programs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>New Deal Programs</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-New_Deal_Programs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Statistics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Statistics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Statistics</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Statistics-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Statistics subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Statistics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Depression_statistics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Depression_statistics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.1</span> <span>Depression statistics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Depression_statistics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Relief_statistics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Relief_statistics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.2</span> <span>Relief statistics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Relief_statistics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Further reading subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Surveys" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Surveys"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15.1</span> <span>Surveys</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Surveys-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Biographies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Biographies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15.2</span> <span>Biographies</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Biographies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Economics,_farms,_labor,_relief" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economics,_farms,_labor,_relief"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15.3</span> <span>Economics, farms, labor, relief</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Economics,_farms,_labor,_relief-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Politics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Politics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15.4</span> <span>Politics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Politics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Primary_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Primary_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15.5</span> <span>Primary sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Primary_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">16</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">New Deal: Difference between revisions</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 60 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-60" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">60 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D9%8A%D9%88_%D8%AF%D9%8A%D9%84" title="نيو ديل – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="نيو ديل" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Deal" title="New Deal – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="New Deal" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruzveltin_yeni_kursu" title="Ruzveltin yeni kursu – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Ruzveltin yeni kursu" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%8B_%D0%BA%D1%83%D1%80%D1%81_%D0%A0%D1%83%D0%B7%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%82%D0%B0" title="Новы курс Рузвельта – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Новы курс Рузвельта" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%BE%D0%B2_%D0%BA%D1%83%D1%80%D1%81_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%A0%D1%83%D0%B7%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%82" title="Нов курс на Рузвелт – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Нов курс на Рузвелт" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Deal" title="New Deal – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="New Deal" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Deal" title="New Deal – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="New Deal" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Deal" title="New Deal – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="New Deal" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Y_Fargen_Newydd" title="Y Fargen Newydd – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Y Fargen Newydd" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Deal" title="New Deal – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="New Deal" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Deal" title="New Deal – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="New Deal" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uus_kurss" title="Uus kurss – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Uus kurss" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Deal" title="New Deal – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="New Deal" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Deal" title="New Deal – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="New Deal" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Deal" title="New Deal – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="New Deal" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Deal" title="New Deal – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="New Deal" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%DB%8C%D9%88_%D8%AF%DB%8C%D9%84" title="نیو دیل – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="نیو دیل" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Deal" title="New Deal – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="New Deal" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_Beartas_Nua" title="An Beartas Nua – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="An Beartas Nua" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Deal" title="New Deal – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="New Deal" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%89%B4%EB%94%9C_%EC%A0%95%EC%B1%85" title="뉴딜 정책 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="뉴딜 정책" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%86%D5%B8%D6%80_%D5%AF%D5%B8%D6%82%D6%80%D5%BD" title="Նոր կուրս – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Նոր կուրս" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%82_%E0%A4%A1%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B2" title="न्यू डील – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="न्यू डील" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Deal" title="New Deal – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="New Deal" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Deal" title="New Deal – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="New Deal" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Deal" title="New Deal – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="New Deal" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C3%BD_gj%C3%B6f" title="Ný gjöf – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Ný gjöf" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Deal" title="New Deal – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="New Deal" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%95_%D7%93%D7%99%D7%9C" title="ניו דיל – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="ניו דיל" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Deal" title="New Deal – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="New Deal" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jaunais_kurss" title="Jaunais kurss – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Jaunais kurss" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naujasis_kursas" title="Naujasis kursas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Naujasis kursas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Deal_(VS)" title="New Deal (VS) – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="New Deal (VS)" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Limburgs</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Deal" title="New Deal – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="New Deal" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%8A%D1%83_%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BB" title="Њу дил – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Њу дил" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Deal_(VS)" title="New Deal (VS) – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="New Deal (VS)" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%8B%E3%83%A5%E3%83%BC%E3%83%87%E3%82%A3%E3%83%BC%E3%83%AB%E6%94%BF%E7%AD%96" title="ニューディール政策 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ニューディール政策" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Deal" title="New Deal – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="New Deal" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Deal" title="New Deal – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="New Deal" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%DB%8C%D9%88_%DA%88%DB%8C%D9%84" title="نیو ڈیل – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="نیو ڈیل" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Deal" title="New Deal – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="New Deal" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Deal" title="New Deal – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="New Deal" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Deal" title="New Deal – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="New Deal" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%8B%D0%B9_%D0%BA%D1%83%D1%80%D1%81_%D0%A0%D1%83%D0%B7%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%82%D0%B0" title="Новый курс Рузвельта – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Новый курс Рузвельта" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Deal" title="New Deal – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="New Deal" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Deal" title="New Deal – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="New Deal" data-language-autonym="Simple English" 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data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Deal" title="New Deal – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="New Deal" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Deal" title="New Deal – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="New Deal" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Deal" title="New Deal – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="New Deal" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%8D%E0%B8%8D%E0%B8%B2%E0%B9%83%E0%B8%AB%E0%B8%A1%E0%B9%88" title="สัญญาใหม่ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="สัญญาใหม่" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Deal" title="New Deal – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="New Deal" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%BA%D1%83%D1%80%D1%81" title="Новий курс – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Новий 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Deal">Revision as of 20:28, 6 January 2013</a> <span class="mw-diff-edit"><a href="/w/index.php?title=New_Deal&action=edit&oldid=531671321" title="New Deal">edit</a></span><span class="mw-diff-timestamp" data-timestamp="2013-01-06T20:28:35Z"></span></strong></div><div id="mw-diff-otitle2"><a href="/wiki/User:LesLein" class="mw-userlink" title="User:LesLein" data-mw-revid="531671321"><bdi>LesLein</bdi></a> <span class="mw-usertoollinks">(<a href="/wiki/User_talk:LesLein" class="mw-usertoollinks-talk" title="User talk:LesLein">talk</a> | <a href="/wiki/Special:Contributions/LesLein" class="mw-usertoollinks-contribs" title="Special:Contributions/LesLein">contribs</a>)</span><div class="mw-diff-usermetadata"><div class="mw-diff-userroles"></div><div class="mw-diff-usereditcount"><span>351</span> edits</div></div></div><div id="mw-diff-otitle3"> <span class="comment comment--without-parentheses">Added one-sentence background on War Industries Board. Added info concerning New Deal's effect on rights and liberty.</span></div><div id="mw-diff-otitle5"></div><div id="mw-diff-otitle4"><a href="/w/index.php?title=New_Deal&diff=prev&oldid=531671321" title="New Deal" id="differences-prevlink">← Previous edit</a></div></td> <td colspan="2" class="diff-ntitle diff-side-added"><div id="mw-diff-ntitle1"><strong><a href="/w/index.php?title=New_Deal&oldid=531697141" title="New Deal">Revision as of 23:38, 6 January 2013</a> <span class="mw-diff-edit"><a href="/w/index.php?title=New_Deal&action=edit&oldid=531697141" title="New Deal">edit</a></span><span class="mw-diff-timestamp" data-timestamp="2013-01-06T23:38:12Z"></span> <span class="mw-diff-undo"><a href="/w/index.php?title=New_Deal&action=edit&undoafter=531671321&undo=531697141" title=""Undo" reverts this edit and opens the edit form in preview mode. It allows adding a reason in the summary.">undo</a></span></strong></div><div id="mw-diff-ntitle2"><a href="/wiki/User:Rjensen" class="mw-userlink" title="User:Rjensen" data-mw-revid="531697141"><bdi>Rjensen</bdi></a> <span class="mw-usertoollinks">(<a href="/wiki/User_talk:Rjensen" class="mw-usertoollinks-talk" title="User talk:Rjensen">talk</a> | <a href="/wiki/Special:Contributions/Rjensen" class="mw-usertoollinks-contribs" title="Special:Contributions/Rjensen">contribs</a>)</span><div class="mw-diff-usermetadata"><div class="mw-diff-userroles"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Autopatrolled" title="Wikipedia:Autopatrolled">Autopatrolled</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Extended_confirmed_editors" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:Extended confirmed editors">Extended confirmed users</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_mover" title="Wikipedia:File mover">File movers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Reviewing_pending_changes" title="Wikipedia:Reviewing pending changes">Pending changes reviewers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Rollback" title="Wikipedia:Rollback">Rollbackers</a></div><div class="mw-diff-usereditcount"><span>226,513</span> edits</div></div></div><div id="mw-diff-ntitle3"> <span class="comment comment--without-parentheses">drop pov claims; FDR and Mussolini did not have a personal relationship</span></div><div id="mw-diff-ntitle5"></div><div id="mw-diff-ntitle4"><a href="/w/index.php?title=New_Deal&diff=next&oldid=531697141" title="New Deal" id="differences-nextlink">Next edit →</a></div></td> </tr><tr> <td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno">Line 343:</td> <td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno">Line 343:</td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div></blockquote></div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div></blockquote></div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><br /></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" class="diff-empty diff-side-deleted"></td> <td class="diff-marker"><a class="mw-diff-movedpara-right" title="Paragraph was moved. Click to jump to old location." href="#movedpara_3_3_lhs">⚫</a></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div><a name="movedpara_1_0_rhs"></a>Historian John Garraty searched for similarities between the New Deal and fascism without equating these ideas. He wrote that the NRA “was also similar to experiments being carried out by the fascist dictator Benito Mussolini in Italy and by the Nazis in Adolf Hitler’s Germany. It did not, of course, turn America into a fascist state, but it did herald an increasing concentration of economic power in the hands of interest groups, both industrialists’ organizations and labor unions.”<ref>John Garraty (1979), "The American Nation: A History of the United States Since 1865," p. 656</ref> Yet historians such as Hawley (1966) have examined the origins of the NRA in detail, showing the main inspiration came from Senators [[Hugo Black]] and Robert F. Wagner and from American business leaders such as the [[United States Chamber of Commerce|Chamber of Commerce]]. The model for the NRA was Woodrow Wilson's [[War Industries Board]], in which Johnson had been involved too.<ref>Ellis Hawley, ''The New Deal and the Problem of Monopoly'', Princeton University Press, 1966, ISBN 0-8232-1609-8, p. 23</ref></div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>There are in fact some cases where the New Deal violated constitutional freedom. In 1934 tailor Jacob Maged was jailed for three days for violating the NRA. He offered 35 cents to press a suit. The NRA required him to charge 40 cents.<ref>George Will. “Trifle with the Government? Just ask Jacob Maged,” ''The Washington Post'', September 16, 2010.</ref> In 1935 the Supreme Court ruled that the Frazier-Lemke Act violated Fifth Amendment property rights.<ref>Amity Shlaes (2007). ''The Forgotten Man''. New York: HarperCollins. ISBN: 978-0-06-61170-1.</ref> </div></td> <td colspan="2" class="diff-empty diff-side-added"></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><br /></td> <td colspan="2" class="diff-empty diff-side-added"></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>Prior to Roosevelt's inauguration, he and Mussolini had established personal contact.<ref>Stanley Payne, ''History of Fascism'' (1995) p. 350.</ref> During his second term opponents complained that Roosevelt was concentrating power in his own hands. Harold Ickes warned him that there was an increasing public tendency “to unconsciously group four names, Hitler, Stalin, Mussolini and Roosevelt.”<ref>Brinkley (1995), p. 22.</ref> </div></td> <td colspan="2" class="diff-empty diff-side-added"></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><br /></td> <td colspan="2" class="diff-empty diff-side-added"></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"><a class="mw-diff-movedpara-left" title="Paragraph was moved. Click to jump to new location." href="#movedpara_1_0_rhs">⚫</a></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div><a name="movedpara_3_3_lhs"></a>Historian John Garraty searched for similarities between the New Deal and fascism without equating these ideas. He wrote that the NRA “was also similar to experiments being carried out by the fascist dictator Benito Mussolini in Italy and by the Nazis in Adolf Hitler’s Germany. It did not, of course, turn America into a fascist state, but it did herald an increasing concentration of economic power in the hands of interest groups, both industrialists’ organizations and labor unions.”<ref>John Garraty (1979), "The American Nation: A History of the United States Since 1865," p. 656</ref> Yet historians such as Hawley (1966) have examined the origins of the NRA in detail, showing the main inspiration came from Senators [[Hugo Black]] and Robert F. Wagner and from American business leaders such as the [[United States Chamber of Commerce|Chamber of Commerce]]. The model for the NRA was Woodrow Wilson's [[War Industries Board]], in which Johnson had been involved too.<ref>Ellis Hawley, ''The New Deal and the Problem of Monopoly'', Princeton University Press, 1966, ISBN 0-8232-1609-8, p. 23</ref><del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> Under the War Industries Board the American economy was organized under corporatist policies similar to those used in other countries.<ref>James Q. Whitman (1991). “Of Corporatism, Fascism, and the First New Deal,” ''The Journal of Comparative Law'', Autumn 1991, Volume 39, Number 4 (Autumn 1991), pp. 747-778.</ref> </del></div></td> <td colspan="2" class="diff-empty diff-side-added"></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><br /></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>Historians argue that there is no distinctive form of fascist economic organization.<ref>Daniel Woodley, ''Fascism and Political Theory: Critical Perspectives on Fascist Ideology'', Routledge Chapman & Hall, 2010, ISBN 978-0-203-87157-7, p.160, 161</ref> [[Gerald Feldman]] wrote that fascism has not contributed anything to economic thought and had no original vision of a new economic order replacing capitalism. His argument correlates with Mason´s that economic factors alone are an insufficient approach to understand fascism and that decisions taken by fascists in power cannot be explained within a logical economic framework. Therefore direct comparisons between fascism and New Deal are invalid though both ideas were within the general tendency of the 1930s to intervene in the free-market capitalist economy, at the price of its laissez-faire character, “to protect the capitalist structure endangered by endogenous crises tendencies and processes of impaired self-regulation”.<ref>Daniel Woodley, ''Fascism and Political Theory: Critical Perspectives on Fascist Ideology'', Routledge Chapman & Hall, 2010, ISBN 978-0-203-87157-7, p.160, 161</ref></div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>Historians argue that there is no distinctive form of fascist economic organization.<ref>Daniel Woodley, ''Fascism and Political Theory: Critical Perspectives on Fascist Ideology'', Routledge Chapman & Hall, 2010, ISBN 978-0-203-87157-7, p.160, 161</ref> [[Gerald Feldman]] wrote that fascism has not contributed anything to economic thought and had no original vision of a new economic order replacing capitalism. His argument correlates with Mason´s that economic factors alone are an insufficient approach to understand fascism and that decisions taken by fascists in power cannot be explained within a logical economic framework. Therefore direct comparisons between fascism and New Deal are invalid though both ideas were within the general tendency of the 1930s to intervene in the free-market capitalist economy, at the price of its laissez-faire character, “to protect the capitalist structure endangered by endogenous crises tendencies and processes of impaired self-regulation”.<ref>Daniel Woodley, ''Fascism and Political Theory: Critical Perspectives on Fascist Ideology'', Routledge Chapman & Hall, 2010, ISBN 978-0-203-87157-7, p.160, 161</ref></div></td> </tr> </table><hr class='diff-hr' id='mw-oldid' /> <h2 class='diff-currentversion-title'>Revision as of 23:38, 6 January 2013</h2> <div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:NewDeal.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/NewDeal.jpg/350px-NewDeal.jpg" decoding="async" width="350" height="276" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/NewDeal.jpg/525px-NewDeal.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/NewDeal.jpg/700px-NewDeal.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1400" data-file-height="1102" /></a><figcaption><b>Top left</b>: The <a href="/wiki/Tennessee_Valley_Authority" title="Tennessee Valley Authority">Tennessee Valley Authority</a>, part of the New Deal, being signed into law in 1933.<br /><b>Top right</b>: <a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Franklin Delano Roosevelt</a>, who was responsible for initiatives and programs collectively known as the New Deal.<br /> <b>Bottom</b>: A public mural from one of the artists employed by the New Deal.</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist 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href="/wiki/The_Resistance_(American_political_movement)" title="The Resistance (American political movement)">The Resistance</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/YIMBY" title="YIMBY">YIMBY</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; border-top:1px solid #800080; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Ideas</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_liberties" title="Civil liberties">Civil liberties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cloward%E2%80%93Piven_strategy" title="Cloward–Piven strategy">Cloward–Piven strategy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_liberalism" title="Cultural liberalism">Cultural liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_development" title="Economic development">Economic development</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Broad_measures_of_economic_progress" title="Broad measures of economic progress">Broad measures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_growth" title="Economic growth">Economic growth</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Direct_democracy" title="Direct democracy">Direct democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_movement" title="Freedom of movement">Freedom of movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_enhancement" title="Human enhancement">Human enhancement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_rights" title="Indigenous rights">Indigenous rights</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Inward_light" title="Inward light">Inward light</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intersectionality" title="Intersectionality">Intersectionality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberation_theology" title="Liberation theology">Liberation theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_universalism" title="Moral universalism">Moral universalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progress" title="Progress">Progress</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_progress" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophy of progress">Philosophy of progress</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressive_education" title="Progressive education">Progressive education</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inclusive_education_in_Latin_America#Educational_progressivism" title="Inclusive education in Latin America">In Latin America</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Progressive_stack" title="Progressive stack">Progressive stack</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressive_tax" title="Progressive tax">Progressive taxation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_liberalism" title="Religious liberalism">Religious liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Left-wing_nationalism" title="Left-wing nationalism">Progressive nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_justice" title="Social justice">Social justice</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Social_justice_warrior" title="Social justice warrior">Social justice warrior</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_organization" title="Social organization">Social organization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_progress" class="mw-redirect" title="Social progress">Social progress</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_Social_Progress_Index" class="mw-redirect" title="List of countries by Social Progress Index">List of countries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_progress" class="mw-redirect" title="Scientific progress">Scientific progress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_change" title="Social change">Social change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_constructivism" title="Social constructivism">Social constructivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strategic_essentialism" title="Strategic essentialism">Strategic essentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_design" title="Sustainable design">Sustainable design</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_engineering" title="Ecological engineering">Ecological engineering</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reparations_for_slavery" title="Reparations for slavery">Reparations for slavery</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reparations_for_slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Reparations for slavery in the United States">In the US</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_management" title="Scientific management">Scientific management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solidarity_Unionism" class="mw-redirect" title="Solidarity Unionism">Solidarity unionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_development" title="Sustainable development">Sustainable development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Techno-progressivism" title="Techno-progressivism">Techno-progressivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voluntary_childlessness" title="Voluntary childlessness">Voluntary childlessness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welfare_state" title="Welfare state">Welfare state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage" title="Women's suffrage">Women's suffrage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Workplace_democracy" title="Workplace democracy">Workplace democracy</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; border-top:1px solid #800080; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Activists</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Edith_Abbott" title="Edith Abbott">Abbott (Edith)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grace_Abbott" title="Grace Abbott">Abbott (Grace)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jane_Addams" title="Jane Addams">Addams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imran_Ahmed_(strategist)" title="Imran Ahmed (strategist)">Ahmed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saul_Alinsky" title="Saul Alinsky">Alinsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michelle_Alexander" title="Michelle Alexander">Alexander</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ajamu_X" title="Ajamu X">Ajamu X</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deborah_Archer" title="Deborah Archer">Archer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alva_Belmont" title="Alva Belmont">Belmont</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julian_Bond" title="Julian Bond">Bond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Brandeis" title="Louis Brandeis">Brandeis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sophonisba_Breckinridge" title="Sophonisba Breckinridge">Breckinridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sam_Brinton" title="Sam Brinton">Brinton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jane_Campbell,_Baroness_Campbell_of_Surbiton" title="Jane Campbell, Baroness Campbell of Surbiton">Cambell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Cloward" title="Richard Cloward">Cloward</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugene_Debs" class="mw-redirect" title="Eugene Debs">Debs (Eugene)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morris_Dees" title="Morris Dees">Dees</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Garvey" title="Marcus Garvey">Garvey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charlotte_Perkins_Gilman" title="Charlotte Perkins Gilman">Gilman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haben_Girma" title="Haben Girma">Girma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fannie_Lou_Hamer" title="Fannie Lou Hamer">Hammer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tirana_Hassan" title="Tirana Hassan">Hassan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judith_Heumann" title="Judith Heumann">Heumann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Margaret_Huang" title="Margaret Huang">Huang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Jackson_(activist)" title="George Jackson (activist)">Jackson (George)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jesse_Jackson" title="Jesse Jackson">Jackson (Jesse)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Esther_Cooper_Jackson" title="Esther Cooper Jackson">Jackson (Esther)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrea_Jenkins" title="Andrea Jenkins">Jenkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anetta_Kahane" title="Anetta Kahane">Kahane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maulana_Karenga" title="Maulana Karenga">Karenga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaun_King" title="Shaun King">King (Shaun)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Martin Luther King Jr.">King (Jr.)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurice_Ludmer" title="Maurice Ludmer">Ludmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Honey_Mahogany" title="Honey Mahogany">Mahogany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarah_McBride" title="Sarah McBride">McBride</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DeRay_Mckesson" title="DeRay Mckesson">Mckesson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elliot_Page#Activism" title="Elliot Page">Page</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justin_J._Pearson" title="Justin J. Pearson">Pearson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Rothblatt" title="Gabriel Rothblatt">Rothblatt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_J._Seligmann" title="Herbert J. Seligmann">Seligmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruth_Smeeth" title="Ruth Smeeth">Smeeth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Soros" title="Alexander Soros">Soros (Alexander)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Soros" title="George Soros">Soros (George)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harsha_Walia" title="Harsha Walia">Walia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edith_Windsor#Activism" title="Edith Windsor">Windsor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alice_Wong_(activist)" title="Alice Wong (activist)">Wong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victoria_Woodhull" title="Victoria Woodhull">Woodhull</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; border-top:1px solid #800080; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Commentators</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Imani_Barbarin" title="Imani Barbarin">Barbarin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Bedborough" title="George Bedborough">Bedborough</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bong_Joon-ho" title="Bong Joon-ho">Bong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Conover" title="Adam Conover">Conover</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caroline_Criado_Perez" title="Caroline Criado Perez">Criado Perez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lauren_Kate_Dale" class="mw-redirect" title="Lauren Kate Dale">Dale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcy_Darnovsky" title="Marcy Darnovsky">Darnovsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lizzie_Dearden" title="Lizzie Dearden">Dearden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Duberman" title="Martin Duberman">Duberman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jon_Favreau_(speechwriter)" title="Jon Favreau (speechwriter)">Favreau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francesca_Fiorentini" title="Francesca Fiorentini">Fiorentini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eddie_Glaude" title="Eddie Glaude">Glaude</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michelle_Goldberg" title="Michelle Goldberg">Goldberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thom_Hartmann" title="Thom Hartmann">Hartmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medhi_Hasan" class="mw-redirect" title="Medhi Hasan">Hasan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karine_Jean-Pierre#MoveOn_and_political_commentary" title="Karine Jean-Pierre">Jean-Pierre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jazz_Jennings" title="Jazz Jennings">Jennings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ana_Kasparian" title="Ana Kasparian">Kasparian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ezra_Klein" title="Ezra Klein">Klein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ken_Klippenstein" title="Ken Klippenstein">Klippenstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Krugman" title="Paul Krugman">Krugman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyle_Kulinski" title="Kyle Kulinski">Kulinski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ariel_Levy_(writer)" title="Ariel Levy (writer)">Levy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jon_Lovett" title="Jon Lovett">Lovett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeffrey_Marsh" title="Jeffrey Marsh">Marsh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Josh_Marshall" title="Josh Marshall">Marshall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_McKay" title="Adam McKay">McKay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephanie_Miller" title="Stephanie Miller">Miller (Stephanie)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jack_Monroe" title="Jack Monroe">Monroe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Moore" title="Michael Moore">Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robin_Morgan" title="Robin Morgan">Morgan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angela_Nagle" title="Angela Nagle">Nagle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Okrent" title="Daniel Okrent">Okrent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Oliver" title="John Oliver">Oliver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Pakman" title="David Pakman">Pakman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hasan_Piker" title="Hasan Piker">Piker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zo%C3%AB_Quinn" title="Zoë Quinn">Quinn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dan_Rather" title="Dan Rather">Rather</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Reich" title="Robert Reich">Reich (Robert)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joy_Reid" title="Joy Reid">Reid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sam_Seder" title="Sam Seder">Seder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al_Sharpton" title="Al Sharpton">Sharpton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_Simpson_(journalist)" title="Mark Simpson (journalist)">Simpson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ben_Smith_(journalist)" title="Ben Smith (journalist)">Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keffals" title="Keffals">Sorrenti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jon_Stewart" title="Jon Stewart">Stewart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Talbot" title="David Talbot">Talbot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abigail_Thorn" title="Abigail Thorn">Thorn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tommy_Vietor" title="Tommy Vietor">Vietor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cenk_Uygur" title="Cenk Uygur">Uygur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tim_Wise" title="Tim Wise">Wise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaush" title="Vaush">Kochinski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ContraPoints" title="ContraPoints">Wynn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donna_Zuckerberg" title="Donna Zuckerberg">Zuckerberg</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; border-top:1px solid #800080; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Intellectuals</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jane_Addams" title="Jane Addams">Addams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anita_L._Allen" title="Anita L. Allen">Allen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carol_Anderson" title="Carol Anderson">Anderson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruth_Benedict" title="Ruth Benedict">Benedict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruha_Benjamin" title="Ruha Benjamin">Benjamin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liat_Ben-Moshe" title="Liat Ben-Moshe">Ben-Moshe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Beveridge" title="William Beveridge">Beveridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edwin_Black" title="Edwin Black">Black</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antoinette_Brown_Blackwell" title="Antoinette Brown Blackwell">Blackwell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kate_Bornstein" title="Kate Bornstein">Bornstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adolf_Brand" title="Adolf Brand">Brand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Brandeis" title="Louis Brandeis">Brandeis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judith_Butler" title="Judith Butler">Butler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Carpenter" title="Edward Carpenter">Carpenter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Condorcet" title="Marquis de Condorcet">de Condorcet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drucilla_Cornell" title="Drucilla Cornell">Cornell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mike_Davis_(scholar)" title="Mike Davis (scholar)">Davis (Mike)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Dewey" title="John Dewey">Dewey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kelly_Brown_Douglas" title="Kelly Brown Douglas">Douglas (Kelly)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_O._Douglas" title="William O. Douglas">Douglas (William)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W.E.B._Du_Bois" class="mw-redirect" title="W.E.B. Du Bois">Du Bois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Eric_Dyson" title="Michael Eric Dyson">Dyson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Havelock_Ellis" title="Havelock Ellis">Ellis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_M._Fredrickson" title="George M. Fredrickson">Fredrickson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Betty_Friedan" title="Betty Friedan">Friedan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruth_Wilson_Gilmore" title="Ruth Wilson Gilmore">Gilmore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evelynn_M._Hammonds" title="Evelynn M. Hammonds">Hammonds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Janet_E._Helms" title="Janet E. Helms">Helms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnus_Hirschfeld" title="Magnus Hirschfeld">Hirschfeld</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bell_hooks" title="Bell hooks">hooks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonard_Jeffries" title="Leonard Jeffries">Jeffries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maulana_Karenga" title="Maulana Karenga">Karenga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helen_Keller" title="Helen Keller">Keller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibram_X._Kendi" title="Ibram X. Kendi">Kendi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peggy_McIntosh" title="Peggy McIntosh">McIntosh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Edward_Merriam" title="Charles Edward Merriam">Merriam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robin_Meyers" title="Robin Meyers">Meyers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_W._Mills" title="Charles W. Mills">Mills</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Money" title="John Money">Money</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._Howard_Moore" title="J. Howard Moore">Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Oastler#Political_philosophy" title="Richard Oastler">Oastler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marius_Ostrowski" title="Marius Ostrowski">Ostrowski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nell_Irvin_Painter" title="Nell Irvin Painter">Painter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orlando_Patterson" title="Orlando Patterson">Patterson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nurit_Peled-Elhanan" title="Nurit Peled-Elhanan">Peled-Elhanan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">Rawls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Reich" title="Wilhelm Reich">Reich (Wilhelm)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dorothy_Roberts" title="Dorothy Roberts">Roberts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Rothstein" title="Richard Rothstein">Rothstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angela_Saini" title="Angela Saini">Saini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Margaret_Sanger" title="Margaret Sanger">Sanger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Bernard_Shaw" title="George Bernard Shaw">Shaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abby_Stein" title="Abby Stein">Stein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kim_TallBear" title="Kim TallBear">TallBear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H._G._Wells" title="H. G. Wells">Wells</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frances_Cress_Welsing" title="Frances Cress Welsing">Welsing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornel_West" title="Cornel West">West</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frank_B._Wilderson_III" title="Frank B. Wilderson III">Wilderson III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shoshana_Zuboff" title="Shoshana Zuboff">Zuboff</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; border-top:1px solid #800080; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Politicians</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jacinda_Ardern" title="Jacinda Ardern">Ardern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clement_Attlee" title="Clement Attlee">Attlee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mustafa_Kemal_Atat%C3%BCrk" title="Mustafa Kemal Atatürk">Atatürk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joe_Biden" title="Joe Biden">Biden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cory_Booker" title="Cory Booker">Booker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Boric" title="Gabriel Boric">Boric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/London_Breed" title="London Breed">Breed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Jennings_Bryan" title="William Jennings Bryan">Bryan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pete_Buttigieg" title="Pete Buttigieg">Buttigieg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jimmy_Carter" title="Jimmy Carter">Carter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greg_Casar" title="Greg Casar">Casar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luiz_In%C3%A1cio_Lula_da_Silva" title="Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva">da Silva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugene_Debs" class="mw-redirect" title="Eugene Debs">Debs (Eugene)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willem_Drees" title="Willem Drees">Drees</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leigh_Finke" title="Leigh Finke">Finke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kamala_Harris" title="Kamala Harris">Harris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Howie_Hawkins" title="Howie Hawkins">Hawkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/St%C3%A9phane_Hessel" title="Stéphane Hessel">Hessel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Evans_Hughes" title="Charles Evans Hughes">Hughes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dario_Hunter" title="Dario Hunter">Hunter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pramila_Jayapal" title="Pramila Jayapal">Jayapal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ro_Khanna" title="Ro Khanna">Khanna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_M._La_Follette" title="Robert M. La Follette">La Follette</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Summer_Lee" title="Summer Lee">Lee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Lewis" title="John Lewis">Lewis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maxwell_Frost" title="Maxwell Frost">Frost</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fiorello_La_Guardia" title="Fiorello La Guardia">La Guardia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lyuh_Woon-hyung" title="Lyuh Woon-hyung">Lyuh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ed_Markey" title="Ed Markey">Markey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarah_McBride" title="Sarah McBride">McBride</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_McGovern" title="George McGovern">McGovern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeff_Merkley" title="Jeff Merkley">Merkley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tomiichi_Murayama" title="Tomiichi Murayama">Murayama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emily_Murphy" title="Emily Murphy">Murphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Nader" title="Ralph Nader">Nader</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eleanor_Holmes_Norton" title="Eleanor Holmes Norton">Norton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9s_Manuel_L%C3%B3pez_Obrador" title="Andrés Manuel López Obrador">Obrador</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexandria_Ocasio-Cortez" title="Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez">Ocasio-Cortez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ilhan_Omar" title="Ilhan Omar">Omar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gustavo_Petro" title="Gustavo Petro">Petro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_Pocan" title="Mark Pocan">Pocan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayanna_Pressley" title="Ayanna Pressley">Pressley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jamie_Raskin" title="Jamie Raskin">Raskin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eleanor_Roosevelt" title="Eleanor Roosevelt">Roosevelt (Eleanor)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Roosevelt (Franklin)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelt" title="Theodore Roosevelt">Roosevelt (Theodore)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedro_S%C3%A1nchez" title="Pedro Sánchez">Sánchez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernie_Sanders" title="Bernie Sanders">Sanders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keir_Starmer" title="Keir Starmer">Starmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al_Smith" title="Al Smith">Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rashida_Tlaib" title="Rashida Tlaib">Tlaib</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_A._Wallace" title="Henry A. Wallace">Wallace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tim_Walz" title="Tim Walz">Walz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Butch_Ware" title="Butch Ware">Ware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bonnie_Watson_Coleman" title="Bonnie Watson Coleman">Watson Coleman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Warren" title="Elizabeth Warren">Warren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_B._Weaver" title="James B. Weaver">Weaver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harold_Wilson" title="Harold Wilson">Wilson (Harold)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tar%C5%8D_Yamamoto" class="mw-redirect" title="Tarō Yamamoto">Yamamoto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grigory_Yavlinsky" title="Grigory Yavlinsky">Yavlinsky</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; border-top:1px solid #800080; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Literature</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Better-World_Philosophy" title="Better-World Philosophy">Better-World Philosophy</a></i> (1899)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Man_and_Superman" title="Man and Superman">Man and Superman</a></i> (1903)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Universal_Kinship" title="The Universal Kinship">The Universal Kinship</a></i> (1906)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Open_Conspiracy" title="The Open Conspiracy">The Open Conspiracy</a></i> (1928)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Mass_Psychology_of_Fascism" title="The Mass Psychology of Fascism">The Mass Psychology of Fascism</a></i> (1933)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Die_Sexualit%C3%A4t_im_Kulturkampf" title="Die Sexualität im Kulturkampf">Sexuality in the Cultural Struggle</a></i> (1936)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Beveridge_Report" title="Beveridge Report">Beveridge Report</a></i> (1942)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Rules_for_Radicals" title="Rules for Radicals">Rules for Radicals</a></i> (1971)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Humanist_Manifesto_II" title="Humanist Manifesto II">Humanist Manifesto II</a></i> (1973)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Woman_Hating" title="Woman Hating">Woman Hating</a></i> (1974)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Handmaid%27s_Tale" title="The Handmaid's Tale">The Handmaid's Tale</a></i> (1985)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Black_Athena" title="Black Athena">Black Athena</a></i> (1987–2006)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Racial_Contract" title="The Racial Contract">The Racial Contract</a></i> (1997)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/War_Against_the_Weak" title="War Against the Weak">War Against the Weak</a></i> (2003)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Audacity_of_Hope" title="The Audacity of Hope">The Audacity of Hope</a></i> (2006)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Invention_of_the_Jewish_People" title="The Invention of the Jewish People">The Invention of the Jewish People</a></i> (2008)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_New_Jim_Crow" title="The New Jim Crow">The New Jim Crow</a></i> (2010)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Speech_(Sanders_book)" title="The Speech (Sanders book)">The Speech</a></i> (2011)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Our_Revolution_(Sanders_book)" title="Our Revolution (Sanders book)">Our Revolution</a></i> (2016)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/White_Rage" title="White Rage">White Rage</a></i> (2016)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Color_of_Law" title="The Color of Law">The Color of Law</a></i> (2017)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Inferior_(book)" title="Inferior (book)">Inferior</a></i> (2017)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Donna_Zuckerberg#Not_All_Dead_White_Men" title="Donna Zuckerberg">Not All Dead White Men</a></i> (2018)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Invisible_Women:_Exposing_Data_Bias_in_a_World_Designed_for_Men" title="Invisible Women: Exposing Data Bias in a World Designed for Men">Invisible Women</a></i> (2019)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/How_to_Be_an_Antiracist" title="How to Be an Antiracist">How to Be an Antiracist</a></i> (2019)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Race_After_Technology" title="Race After Technology">Race After Technology</a></i> (2019)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Superior:_The_Return_of_Race_Science" title="Superior: The Return of Race Science">Superior</a></i> (2019)</li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; border-top:1px solid #800080; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Organizations</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amadeu_Antonio_Foundation" title="Amadeu Antonio Foundation">Amadeu Antonio Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Civil_Liberties_Union" title="American Civil Liberties Union">ACLU</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Sexual_Health_Association" title="American Sexual Health Association">ASHA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Lives_Matter_Global_Network_Foundation" title="Black Lives Matter Global Network Foundation">BLMGNF</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Center_for_Genetics_and_Society" title="Center for Genetics and Society">CGS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brennan_Center_for_Justice" title="Brennan Center for Justice">Brennan Center for Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Color_of_Change" title="Color of Change">Color of Change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy_Alliance" title="Democracy Alliance">Democracy Alliance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ella_Baker_Center_for_Human_Rights" title="Ella Baker Center for Human Rights">Ella Baker Center for Human Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equality_and_Human_Rights_Commission" title="Equality and Human Rights Commission">Equality and Human Rights Commission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Network_Against_Racism" title="European Network Against Racism">ENAR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fabian_Society" title="Fabian Society">Fabian Society</a> <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/Coefficients_(dining_club)" title="Coefficients (dining club)">Coefficients</a>"</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fair_Immigration_Reform_Movement" title="Fair Immigration Reform Movement">FIRM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ford_Foundation" title="Ford Foundation">Ford Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hope_not_Hate" title="Hope not Hate">Hope not Hate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Lesbian,_Gay,_Bisexual,_Trans_and_Intersex_Association" title="International Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Trans and Intersex Association">ILGA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Committee_Against_Racism" title="International Committee Against Racism">InCAR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institute_for_Public_Policy_Research" title="Institute for Public Policy Research">IPPA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MacArthur_Foundation" title="MacArthur Foundation">MacArthur Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Movement_for_Black_Lives" title="Movement for Black Lives">Movement for Black Lives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/No_one_is_illegal" title="No one is illegal">No one is illegal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Welfare_Rights_Organization" title="National Welfare Rights Organization">NWRO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Students_for_a_Democratic_Society_(2006_organization)" title="Students for a Democratic Society (2006 organization)">New SDS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_Society_Foundations" title="Open Society Foundations">OSF</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Our_Revolution" title="Our Revolution">Our Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People_for_the_American_Way" title="People for the American Way">PFAW</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressive_Alliance" title="Progressive Alliance">PA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressive_International" title="Progressive International">PI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressive_League" title="Progressive League">Progressive League</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressive_Majority" title="Progressive Majority">Progressive Majority</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ProgressNow" title="ProgressNow">ProgressNow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Flare" title="Red Flare">Red Flare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Wood_Johnson_Foundation" title="Robert Wood Johnson Foundation">RWJF</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_for_the_People" title="Science for the People">SftP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tides_Foundation" title="Tides Foundation">Tides Foundation</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; border-top:1px solid #800080; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Media</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Atlantic" title="The Atlantic">The Atlantic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crooked_Media" title="Crooked Media">Crooked Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CTXT" title="CTXT">CTXT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HuffPost" title="HuffPost">HuffPost</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacobin_(magazine)" title="Jacobin (magazine)">Jacobin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jezebel_(website)" title="Jezebel (website)">Jezebel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucifer_the_Lightbearer" class="mw-redirect" title="Lucifer the Lightbearer">Lucifer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mother_Jones_(magazine)" title="Mother Jones (magazine)">Mother Jones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MSNBC" title="MSNBC">MSNBC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Nation" title="The Nation">The Nation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Statesman" title="New Statesman">New Statesman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Progressive" title="The Progressive">The Progressive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salon.com" title="Salon.com">Salon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Searchlight_(magazine)" title="Searchlight (magazine)">Searchlight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Young_Turks" title="The Young Turks">The Young Turks</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; border-top:1px solid #800080; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">By region</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kirchnerism" title="Kirchnerism">Argentina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lulism" title="Lulism">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressive_political_parties_(Japan)" title="Progressive political parties (Japan)">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressivism_in_South_Korea" title="Progressivism in South Korea">South Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressivism_in_Taiwan" title="Progressivism in Taiwan">Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kemalism" title="Kemalism">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressivism_in_the_United_States" title="Progressivism in the United States">United States</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; border-top:1px solid #800080; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Related</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Accelerationism" title="Accelerationism">Accelerationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">Communitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_capitalism" title="Democratic capitalism">Democratic capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_progressivism" title="Economic progressivism">Economic progressivism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_socialism" title="Democratic socialism">Democratic socialism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red%E2%80%93green_alliance" title="Red–green alliance">Red–green alliance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Social_democracy" title="Social democracy">Social democracy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Left-libertarianism" title="Left-libertarianism">Left-libertarianism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Libertarian_socialism" title="Libertarian socialism">Libertarian socialism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Left-wing_populism" title="Left-wing populism">Left-wing populism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">Liberalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_radicalism" title="Classical radicalism">Classical radicalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_liberalism" title="Social liberalism">Social liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_liberalism_in_the_United_States" title="Modern liberalism in the United States">In United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pink_tide" title="Pink tide">Pink tide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progress_Studies" class="mw-redirect" title="Progress Studies">Progress Studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressive_era" class="mw-redirect" title="Progressive era">Progressive era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technocracy" title="Technocracy">Technocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unitarian_Universalism" title="Unitarian Universalism">Unitarian Universalism</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below plainlist" style="padding-bottom:0.22em; border-top:1px solid #800080; border-bottom:1px solid #800080; font-weight:bold"> <ul><li><b><span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:A_coloured_voting_box.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/16px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/24px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/32px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="160" data-file-height="160" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Politics" title="Portal:Politics">Politics portal</a></b></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Progressivism_sidebar" title="Template:Progressivism sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Progressivism_sidebar" title="Template talk:Progressivism sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Progressivism_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Progressivism sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>New Deal</b> was a series of economic programs enacted in the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> between 1933 and 1936. They involved presidential executive orders or laws passed by <a href="/wiki/United_States_Congress" title="United States Congress">Congress</a> during the first term of President <a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Franklin D. Roosevelt</a>. The programs were in response to the <a href="/wiki/Great_Depression_in_the_United_States" title="Great Depression in the United States">Great Depression</a>, and focused on what historians call the "3 Rs": Relief, Recovery, and Reform. That is, Relief for the unemployed and poor; Recovery of the economy to normal levels; and Reform of the financial system to prevent a repeat depression.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The New Deal produced a political realignment, making the <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Democratic_Party_(United_States)" title="History of the Democratic Party (United States)">Democratic Party</a> the majority (as well as the party that held the White House for seven out of nine Presidential terms from 1933 to 1969), with its base in liberal ideas, the white South, traditional Democrats, big city machines, and the newly empowered labor unions and ethnic minorities. The <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Republican_Party_(United_States)" title="History of the Republican Party (United States)">Republicans</a> were split, with conservatives opposing the entire New Deal as an enemy of business and growth, and liberals accepting some of it and promising to make it more efficient. The realignment crystallized into the <a href="/wiki/New_Deal_Coalition" class="mw-redirect" title="New Deal Coalition">New Deal Coalition</a> that dominated most presidential elections into the 1960s, while the opposition <a href="/wiki/Conservative_Coalition" class="mw-redirect" title="Conservative Coalition">Conservative Coalition</a> largely controlled Congress from 1937 to 1963. By 1936 the term <a href="/wiki/Modern_American_liberalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern American liberalism">"liberal"</a> typically was used for supporters of the New Deal, and "<a href="/wiki/Conservatism_in_the_United_States" title="Conservatism in the United States">conservative</a>" for its opponents. From 1934 to 1938, Roosevelt was assisted in his endeavours by a “pro-spender” majority in Congress. </p><p>Many historians distinguish between a "First New Deal" (1933–34) and a "Second New Deal" (1935–38), with the second one more liberal and more controversial. The "First New Deal" (1933–34) dealt with diverse groups, from banking and railroads to industry and farming, all of which demanded help for economic survival. The <a href="/wiki/Federal_Emergency_Relief_Administration" title="Federal Emergency Relief Administration">Federal Emergency Relief Administration</a>, for instance, provided $500 million for relief operations by states and cities, while the short-lived CWA (<a href="/wiki/Civil_Works_Administration" title="Civil Works Administration">Civil Works Administration</a>) gave localities money to operate make-work projects in 1933-34.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The "<a href="/wiki/Second_New_Deal" title="Second New Deal">Second New Deal</a>" in 1935–38 included the <a href="/wiki/National_Labor_Relations_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="National Labor Relations Act">Wagner Act</a> to promote labor unions, the <a href="/wiki/Works_Progress_Administration" title="Works Progress Administration">Works Progress Administration</a> (WPA) relief program (which made the federal government by far the largest single employer in the nation),<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the <a href="/wiki/Social_Security_(United_States)" title="Social Security (United States)">Social Security Act</a>, and new programs to aid tenant farmers and migrant workers. The final major items of New Deal legislation were the creation of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Housing_Authority" title="United States Housing Authority">United States Housing Authority</a> and <a href="/wiki/Farm_Security_Administration" title="Farm Security Administration">Farm Security Administration</a>, both in 1937, and the <a href="/wiki/Fair_Labor_Standards_Act_of_1938" title="Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938">Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938</a>, which set maximum hours and minimum wages for most categories of workers.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The economic downturn of 1937–38, and the bitter split between the <a href="/wiki/American_Federation_of_Labor" title="American Federation of Labor">AFL</a> and <a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Industrial_Organizations" title="Congress of Industrial Organizations">CIO</a> labor unions led to major Republican gains in Congress in 1938. Conservative Republicans and Democrats in Congress joined in the informal Conservative Coalition. By 1942–43 they shut down relief programs such as the WPA and <a href="/wiki/Civilian_Conservation_Corps" title="Civilian Conservation Corps">CCC</a> and blocked major liberal proposals. Roosevelt himself turned his attention to the war effort, and won reelection in 1940 and 1944. The Supreme Court declared the <a href="/wiki/National_Recovery_Administration" title="National Recovery Administration">National Recovery Administration</a> (NRA) and the first version of the <a href="/wiki/Agricultural_Adjustment_Act" title="Agricultural Adjustment Act">Agricultural Adjustment Act</a> (AAA) unconstitutional, however the AAA was rewritten and then upheld. As the first Republican president elected after FDR, <a href="/wiki/Dwight_D._Eisenhower" title="Dwight D. Eisenhower">Dwight D. Eisenhower</a> (1953–61) left the New Deal largely intact, even expanding it in some areas.<sup id="cite_ref-Roderick_P._Hart_2001_46_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Roderick_P._Hart_2001_46-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the 1960s, <a href="/wiki/Lyndon_B._Johnson" title="Lyndon B. Johnson">Lyndon B. Johnson</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Great_Society" title="Great Society">Great Society</a> used the New Deal as inspiration for a dramatic expansion of liberal programs, which Republican <a href="/wiki/Richard_M._Nixon" class="mw-redirect" title="Richard M. Nixon">Richard M. Nixon</a> generally retained. After 1974, however, the call for deregulation of the economy gained bipartisan support.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The New Deal regulation of banking (<a href="/wiki/Glass%E2%80%93Steagall_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Glass–Steagall Act">Glass–Steagall Act</a>) was suspended in the 1990s. Many New Deal programs remain active, with some still operating under the original names, including the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Deposit_Insurance_Corporation" title="Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation">Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation</a> (FDIC), the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Crop_Insurance_Corporation" title="Federal Crop Insurance Corporation">Federal Crop Insurance Corporation</a> (FCIC), the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Housing_Administration" title="Federal Housing Administration">Federal Housing Administration</a> (FHA), and the <a href="/wiki/Tennessee_Valley_Authority" title="Tennessee Valley Authority">Tennessee Valley Authority</a> (TVA). The largest programs still in existence today are the <a href="/wiki/Social_Security_(United_States)" title="Social Security (United States)">Social Security System</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Securities_and_Exchange_Commission" class="mw-redirect" title="Securities and Exchange Commission">Securities and Exchange Commission</a> (SEC). </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Origins">Origins</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Economic_collapse_(1929–1933)"><span id="Economic_collapse_.281929.E2.80.931933.29"></span>Economic collapse (1929–1933)</h3></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:US_GDP_10-60.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/US_GDP_10-60.jpg/350px-US_GDP_10-60.jpg" decoding="async" width="350" height="231" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/US_GDP_10-60.jpg/525px-US_GDP_10-60.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/de/US_GDP_10-60.jpg 2x" data-file-width="620" data-file-height="410" /></a><figcaption>USA annual real GDP from 1910 to 1960, with the years of the Great Depression (1929–1939) highlighted.</figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:US_Unemployment_1910-1960.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/US_Unemployment_1910-1960.gif/350px-US_Unemployment_1910-1960.gif" decoding="async" width="350" height="231" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/US_Unemployment_1910-1960.gif/525px-US_Unemployment_1910-1960.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/58/US_Unemployment_1910-1960.gif 2x" data-file-width="620" data-file-height="410" /></a><figcaption>Unemployment rate in the US 1910–1960, with the years of the Great Depression (1929–1939) highlighted; accurate data begins in 1939.</figcaption></figure> <p>From 1929 to 1933 manufacturing output decreased by one third. Prices fell by 20%, causing a deflation which made the repayments of debts much harder. Unemployment in the U.S. increased from 4% to 25%. Additionally, one-third of all employed persons were downgraded to working part-time on much smaller paychecks. In the aggregate, almost 50% of the nation's human work-power was going unused.<sup id="cite_ref-Kennedy,_1999_p._87_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kennedy,_1999_p._87-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Before the New Deal, there was no <a href="/wiki/Deposit_insurance" title="Deposit insurance">insurance on deposits</a> at banks. When thousands of banks faced bankruptcy, many people lost all their savings. At that time there was no national safety net, no public unemployment insurance, and no Social Security.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Relief for the poor was the responsibility of families, private charity, and local governments, but as conditions worsened year by year, their combined resources increasingly fell far short of demand.<sup id="cite_ref-Kennedy,_1999_p._87_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kennedy,_1999_p._87-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The depression had devastated the nation. As Roosevelt took the oath of office at noon on March 4, 1933, the state governors had closed every bank in the nation; no one could cash a check or get at their savings.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Unemployment_rate" class="mw-redirect" title="Unemployment rate">unemployment rate</a> was about 25% and higher in major industrial and mining centers. Farm income had fallen by over 50% since 1929. 844,000 nonfarm mortgages had been foreclosed, 1930–33, out of five million in all.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Political and business leaders feared revolution and anarchy. <a href="/wiki/Joseph_P._Kennedy,_Sr." class="mw-redirect" title="Joseph P. Kennedy, Sr.">Joseph P. Kennedy, Sr.</a>, who remained wealthy during the Depression, stated years later that "in those days I felt and said I would be willing to part with half of what I had if I could be sure of keeping, under law and order, the other half."<sup id="cite_ref-leamer2001_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-leamer2001-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="New_Deal_(1933–1938)"><span id="New_Deal_.281933.E2.80.931938.29"></span>New Deal (1933–1938)</h3></div> <p>Upon accepting the 1932 <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Democratic_Party" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the United States Democratic Party">Democratic</a> nomination for president, Franklin Roosevelt promised "a new deal for the American people".<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Throughout the nation men and women, forgotten in the political philosophy of the Government, look to us here for guidance and for more equitable opportunity to share in the distribution of national wealth... I pledge myself to a new deal for the American people. This is more than a political campaign. It is a call to arms.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Roosevelt entered office without a specific set of plans for dealing with the Great Depression; so he improvised as Congress listened to a very wide variety of voices.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Among Roosevelt's more famous advisers was an informal "<a href="/wiki/Brain_Trust" class="mw-redirect" title="Brain Trust">Brain Trust</a>": a group that tended to view pragmatic government intervention in the economy positively.<sup id="cite_ref-Leuchtenburg1_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Leuchtenburg1-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His choice for <a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_Labor" title="United States Secretary of Labor">Secretary of Labor</a>, <a href="/wiki/Frances_Perkins" title="Frances Perkins">Frances Perkins</a>, greatly influenced his initiatives. Her list of what her priorities would be if she took the job illustrates: "a forty-hour workweek, a minimum wage, worker's compensation, unemployment compensation, a federal law banning child labor, direct federal aid for unemployment relief, Social Security, a revitalized public employment service and health insurance."<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The New Deal policies drew from many different ideas proposed earlier in the 20th century. Assistant Attorney General <a href="/wiki/Thurman_Arnold" title="Thurman Arnold">Thurman Arnold</a> led efforts that hearkened back to an anti-monopoly tradition rooted in American politics by figures such as Andrew Jackson and Thomas Jefferson. Supreme Court Justice <a href="/wiki/Louis_Brandeis" title="Louis Brandeis">Louis Brandeis</a>, an influential adviser to many New Dealers, argued that "bigness" (referring, presumably, to corporations) was a negative economic force, producing waste and inefficiency. However, the anti-monopoly group never had a major impact on New Deal policy.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other leaders such as <a href="/wiki/Hugh_Samuel_Johnson" class="mw-redirect" title="Hugh Samuel Johnson">Hugh Johnson</a> of the NRA took ideas from the <a href="/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson" title="Woodrow Wilson">Woodrow Wilson</a> Administration, advocating techniques used to mobilize the economy for <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a>. They brought ideas and experience from the government controls and spending of 1917–18. Other New Deal planners revived experiments suggested in the 1920s, such as the TVA. </p><p>The "First New Deal" (1933–34) encompassed the proposals offered by a wide spectrum of groups. (Not included was the <a href="/wiki/Socialist_Party_of_America" title="Socialist Party of America">Socialist Party</a>, whose influence was all but destroyed.)<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This first phase of the New Deal was also characterized by fiscal conservatism (see <a href="/wiki/Economy_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Economy Act">Economy Act</a>, below) and experimentation with several different, sometimes contradictory, cures for economic ills. The consequences were uneven. Some programs, especially the <a href="/wiki/National_Recovery_Administration" title="National Recovery Administration">National Recovery Administration</a> (NRA) and the silver program, have been widely seen as failures.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other programs lasted about a decade; some became permanent. The economy shot upward, with FDR's first term marking one of the fastest periods of GDP growth in history. Though a downturn in 1937–38 raised questions about just how successful the policies were, the great majority of economists and historians agree that they were an overall benefit. </p><p>The New Deal faced some vocal conservative opposition. The first organized opposition in 1934 came from the <a href="/wiki/American_Liberty_League" title="American Liberty League">American Liberty League</a> led by conservative Democrats such as 1924 and 1928 presidential candidates <a href="/wiki/John_W._Davis" title="John W. Davis">John W. Davis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Al_Smith" title="Al Smith">Al Smith</a>. There was also a large but loosely affiliated group of New Deal opponents, who are commonly called the <a href="/wiki/Old_Right_(United_States)" title="Old Right (United States)">Old Right</a>. This group included politicians, intellectuals, writers, and newspaper editors of various philosophical persuasions including <a href="/wiki/Classical_liberals" class="mw-redirect" title="Classical liberals">classical liberals</a> and conservatives, both Democrats and Republicans. </p><p>The New Deal represented a significant shift in politics and <a href="/wiki/Domestic_policy" title="Domestic policy">domestic policy</a>. It especially led to greatly increased federal regulation of the economy. It also marked the beginning of complex social programs and growing power of labor unions. The effects of the New Deal remain a source of controversy and debate among economists and historians.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="World_comparisons">World comparisons</h3></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Origins_of_the_Great_Depression">Origins of the Great Depression</h4></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Graph_charting_income_per_capita_throughout_the_Great_Depression.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Graph_charting_income_per_capita_throughout_the_Great_Depression.svg/450px-Graph_charting_income_per_capita_throughout_the_Great_Depression.svg.png" decoding="async" width="450" height="298" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Graph_charting_income_per_capita_throughout_the_Great_Depression.svg/675px-Graph_charting_income_per_capita_throughout_the_Great_Depression.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Graph_charting_income_per_capita_throughout_the_Great_Depression.svg/900px-Graph_charting_income_per_capita_throughout_the_Great_Depression.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="847" data-file-height="560" /></a><figcaption>The Great Depression in an international context.</figcaption></figure> <p>There is little agreement on what caused the Great Depression, and the topic has become highly politicized. <a href="/wiki/Marxist_Economics" class="mw-redirect" title="Marxist Economics">Marxist Economics</a> maintains that unrestrained market economies inevitably lead to extreme <a href="/wiki/Wealth_inequality" class="mw-redirect" title="Wealth inequality">wealth inequality</a> which becomes unstable and collapses in <a href="/wiki/Boom_and_bust" class="mw-redirect" title="Boom and bust">boom and bust</a> cycles. <a href="/wiki/Austrian_Economics" class="mw-redirect" title="Austrian Economics">Austrian economists</a> like <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Hayek" title="Friedrich Hayek">Friedrich Hayek</a> and <a href="/wiki/Murray_Rothbard" title="Murray Rothbard">Murray Rothbard</a> said that in the 1920s credit-induced distortions produced a boom that in their expectations should have ended in a short bust. They suggest that the long duration of the depression in America was due to unprecedented government interventions by Hoover and FDR that, in their opinion, actually prevented self-adjustment of the economy. These views however are evidentially untenable, since Herbert Hoover took the balanced budget approach,<sup id="cite_ref-Statement_on_Efforts_to_Balance_the_Budget_March_8,_1932_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Statement_on_Efforts_to_Balance_the_Budget_March_8,_1932-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> what's known now as <a href="/wiki/Austerity" title="Austerity">Austerity</a>, and didn't start to intervene with stimulus spending until the tail end of his presidency with the <a href="/wiki/Emergency_Relief_and_Construction_Act" title="Emergency Relief and Construction Act">Emergency Relief and Construction Act</a>. And when this along with the New Deal kicked in, unemployment started its climb downwards only to be interrupted when the New Deal spending ended and the money supply froze and caused the <a href="/wiki/Recession_of_1937%E2%80%931938" title="Recession of 1937–1938">recession of 1937</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When the new wave of stimulus spending began along with the war spending, the unemployment rate was below that of the 1920s. Furthermore the theory of easy central bank credit offered by the Austrian School explains only that banks will have money and not what they would spend it on, thus it gives no explanation as to why finance turned to the particular stock market bubble of the 1920s, only that it had the wherewithal to do so.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In contrary <a href="/wiki/Keynesian_economics" title="Keynesian economics">Keynesians</a> and <a href="/wiki/Monetarists" class="mw-redirect" title="Monetarists">Monetarists</a> like <a href="/wiki/Milton_Friedman" title="Milton Friedman">Milton Friedman</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ben_Bernanke" title="Ben Bernanke">Ben Bernanke</a> suggest the crisis was caused by the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Reserve_Bank" title="Federal Reserve Bank">Federal Reserve Bank</a>'s strict adherence to the <a href="/wiki/Gold_Standard" class="mw-redirect" title="Gold Standard">Gold Standard</a>. <a href="/wiki/John_Maynard_Keynes" title="John Maynard Keynes">John Maynard Keynes</a> was one of the first contemporary economists to advocate policies of monetary expansion identical to those Friedman later said should have been adopted.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In contrary to Monetarists <a href="/wiki/Keynesian_Economics" class="mw-redirect" title="Keynesian Economics">Keynesian Economics</a> asserts that markets can fail to self-correct, and investment can dry up in response to a perceived long-term lack of demand and lead to persistent high levels of unemployment.<sup id="cite_ref-Defending_Krugman:_The_Importance_of_Keynesian_Economics_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Defending_Krugman:_The_Importance_of_Keynesian_Economics-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>For details see <a href="/wiki/Causes_of_the_Great_Depression" title="Causes of the Great Depression">Causes of the Great Depression</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="International_reaction">International reaction</h4></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Europe">Europe</h5></div> <ul><li>Britain was unable to agree on major programs to stop its depression. This led to the collapse of the <a href="/wiki/Labour_Party_(UK)" title="Labour Party (UK)">Labour Party</a> government and its replacement in 1931 by a National Coalition dominated by Conservatives. However, the Depression affected Britain less than most countries due to Britain's exit from the gold standard in 1931 (which deal crisis and the <a href="/wiki/French_Third_Republic" title="French Third Republic">Third Republic</a> very much contested.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (January 2010)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup>)</li></ul> <ul><li>In France, the "<a href="/wiki/Popular_Front_(France)" title="Popular Front (France)">Front Populaire</a>" government, led by <a href="/wiki/L%C3%A9on_Blum" title="Léon Blum">Léon Blum</a>, in power 1936–1938, instigated major social reforms. As the coalition united representatives from the center-left to the communist party, right-wing opposition was very strong and social turmoil marred the Front Populaire term. This division left the country bitterly divided in 1938–1939.</li></ul> <ul><li>In Germany during the <a href="/wiki/Weimar_Republic" title="Weimar Republic">Weimar Republic</a>, the economy spiraled down, leading to a political crisis and the rise to power of the <a href="/wiki/Nazis" class="mw-redirect" title="Nazis">Nazis</a> in January 1933. Economic recovery was pursued through <a href="/wiki/Autarky" title="Autarky">autarky</a>, pressure on economic partners, wage controls, price controls, and spending programs such as <a href="/wiki/Public_works" title="Public works">public works</a> and, especially, military spending.</li></ul> <ul><li>Spain endured mounting political crises that led in 1936 to civil war.</li></ul> <ul><li>In <a href="/wiki/Benito_Mussolini" title="Benito Mussolini">Benito Mussolini</a>'s Italy, the economic controls of his corporate state were tightened.</li></ul> <ul><li>The <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> was mostly isolated from the world trading system during the 1930s.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Canada_and_the_Caribbean">Canada and the Caribbean</h5></div> <ul><li>In <a href="/wiki/Great_Depression_in_Canada" title="Great Depression in Canada">Canada</a>, Between 1929 and 1939, the gross national product dropped 40%, compared to 37% in the U.S. Unemployment reached 28% at the depth of the Depression in 1933. Many businesses closed, as corporate profits of <a href="/wiki/C$" class="mw-disambig" title="C$">C$</a>396 million in 1929 turned into losses of $98 million in 1933. Exports shrank by 50% from 1929 to 1933. Worst hit were areas dependent on primary industries such as farming, mining and logging, as prices fell and there were few alternative jobs. Families saw most or all of their assets disappear and their debts became heavier as prices fell. Local and provincial government set up relief programs but there was no nationwide New-Deal-like program. The Conservative government of Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/R._B._Bennett" title="R. B. Bennett">R. B. Bennett</a> retaliated against the <a href="/wiki/Smoot%E2%80%93Hawley_Tariff_Act" title="Smoot–Hawley Tariff Act">Smoot–Hawley Tariff Act</a> by raising tariffs against the U.S. but lowered them on British Empire goods. Nevertheless the economy suffered. In 1935, Bennett proposed a series of programs that resembled the New Deal; the proposals were all rejected and led to his defeat in the <a href="/wiki/Canadian_federal_election,_1935" class="mw-redirect" title="Canadian federal election, 1935">elections of 1935</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <ul><li>The Caribbean saw its greatest unemployment during the 1930s because of a decline in exports to the U.S., and a fall in export prices.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Asia">Asia</h5></div> <ul><li>China was at war with Japan during most of the 1930s, in addition to internal struggles between <a href="/wiki/Chiang_Kai_Shek" class="mw-redirect" title="Chiang Kai Shek">Chiang Kai Shek</a>'s nationalists and <a href="/wiki/Mao_Zedong" title="Mao Zedong">Mao Zedong</a>'s communists.</li></ul> <ul><li>Japan's economy expanded at the rate of 5% of GDP per year after the years of modernization. Manufacturing and mining came to account for more than 30% of GDP, more than twice the value for the agricultural sector. Most industrial growth, however, was geared toward expanding the nation's military power. Beginning in 1937 with significant land seizures in China, and then to a much greater extent after 1941, which saw annexations and invasions all across Southeast Asia and the Pacific, Japan seized and developed natural resources such as: sugarcane in the Philippines; petroleum from the Dutch East Indies and Burma; tin and bauxite from the Dutch East Indies and Malaya; and coal in China (where production increased from 15,000,000 <a href="/wiki/Tonne" title="Tonne">t</a> (17,000,000 <a href="/wiki/Short_ton" title="Short ton">short tons</a>) in 1936, to 58,000,000 t (64,000,000 short tons) in 1942).<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2009)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> During the early stages of Japan's expansion, its economy expanded considerably. Iron production rose from 3,355,000 t (3,698,000 short tons) in 1937 to 6,148,000 t (6,777,000 short tons) in 1943.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2009)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Steel production rose from 6,442,000 t (7,101,000 short tons) to 8,838,000 t (9,742,000 short tons) over the same time period. In 1941, Japanese aircraft industries had capacity to manufacture 10,000 aircraft per year. From 1941 – September 1944, defense production (including airplanes and vessels) rose by 94%.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2009)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Australia_and_New_Zealand">Australia and New Zealand</h5></div> <ul><li>In <a href="/wiki/Great_Depression_in_Australia" title="Great Depression in Australia">Australia</a>, 1930s conservative and Labor-led governments concentrated on cutting spending and reducing the national debt. It was not until World War II that the Australian government (first conservative, then Labor) introduced <a href="/wiki/Keynesian_economics" title="Keynesian economics">Keynesian policies</a> similar to the New Deal; increasing taxes in order to fund stimulative spending, economic oversight/regulation, and rationing of petroleum products are prominent examples of an evolving view of the role of government in Australia throughout that period. Many progressive policies remained in place after the end of World War II. Labor Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Ben_Chifley" title="Ben Chifley">Ben Chifley</a> outlined these policies in his "<a href="/wiki/The_light_on_the_hill" title="The light on the hill">The light on the hill</a>" speech.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2011)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li></ul> <ul><li>In New Zealand, a series of economic and social policies similar to the New Deal were adopted after the election of the first Labour Government in 1935.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="First_New_Deal_(1933–1934)"><span id="First_New_Deal_.281933.E2.80.931934.29"></span>First New Deal (1933–1934)</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_First_Hundred_Days_(1933)"><span id="The_First_Hundred_Days_.281933.29"></span>The First Hundred Days (1933)</h3></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:US_Employment_Graph_-_1920_to_1940.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/US_Employment_Graph_-_1920_to_1940.svg/400px-US_Employment_Graph_-_1920_to_1940.svg.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="318" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/US_Employment_Graph_-_1920_to_1940.svg/600px-US_Employment_Graph_-_1920_to_1940.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/US_Employment_Graph_-_1920_to_1940.svg/800px-US_Employment_Graph_-_1920_to_1940.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1070" data-file-height="850" /></a><figcaption>Chart 2: Total employment in the U.S. from 1920 to 1940, excluding farms and WPA.</figcaption></figure> <p>The American people were generally extremely dissatisfied with the crumbling economy, mass unemployment, declining wages and profits and especially Hoover's policies such as the <a href="/wiki/Smoot-Hawley_Tariff_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Smoot-Hawley Tariff Act">Smoot-Hawley Tariff Act</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Revenue_Act_of_1932" title="Revenue Act of 1932">Revenue Act of 1932</a>. Roosevelt entered office with enormous <a href="/wiki/Political_capital" title="Political capital">political capital</a>. Americans of all political persuasions were demanding immediate action, and Roosevelt responded with a remarkable series of new programs in the “first hundred days” of the administration, in which he met with Congress for 100 days. During those 100 days of lawmaking, Congress granted every request Roosevelt asked, and passed a few programs (such as the FDIC to insure bank accounts) that he opposed. Ever since, presidents have been judged against FDR for what they accomplished in their first 100 days. <a href="/wiki/Walter_Lippmann" title="Walter Lippmann">Walter Lippmann</a> famously noted: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>At the end of February we were a congeries of disorderly panic-stricken mobs and factions. In the hundred days from March to June we became again an organized nation confident of our power to provide for our own security and to control our own destiny.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>The economy had hit bottom in March 1933 and then started to expand. Economic indicators show the economy reached nadir in the first days of March, then began a steady, sharp upward recovery. Thus the Federal Reserve Index of Industrial Production sank to its lowest point of 52.8 in July 1932 (with 1935–39 = 100) and was practically unchanged at 54.3 in March 1933; however by July 1933, it reached 85.5, a dramatic rebound of 57% in four months. Recovery was steady and strong until 1937. Except for employment, the economy by 1937 surpassed the levels of the late 1920s. The <a href="/wiki/Recession_of_1937" class="mw-redirect" title="Recession of 1937">Recession of 1937</a> was a temporary downturn. Private sector employment, especially in manufacturing, recovered to the level of the 1920s but failed to advance further until the war. Chart 2 shows the growth in employment without adjusting for population growth. The U.S. population was 124,840,471 in 1932 and 128,824,829 in 1937, an increase of 3,984,468.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The ratio of these numbers, times the number of jobs in 1932, means there was a need for 938,000 more 1937 jobs to maintain the same employment level. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Fiscal_policy">Fiscal policy</h4></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Economy_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Economy Act">Economy Act</a>, drafted by Budget Director <a href="/wiki/Lewis_Williams_Douglas" title="Lewis Williams Douglas">Lewis Williams Douglas</a>, was passed on March 14, 1933. The act proposed to balance the "regular" (non-emergency) federal budget by cutting the salaries of government employees and cutting pensions to veterans by fifteen percent. It saved $500 million per year and reassured deficit hawks, such as Douglas, that the new President was fiscally conservative. Roosevelt argued there were two budgets: the "regular" federal budget, which he balanced, and the "emergency budget", which was needed to defeat the depression; it was imbalanced on a temporary basis.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Roosevelt was initially in favor of balancing the budget, but he soon found himself running spending deficits in order to fund the numerous programs he created. Douglas, however, rejecting the distinction between a regular and emergency budget, resigned in 1934 and became an outspoken critic of the New Deal. Roosevelt strenuously opposed the <a href="/wiki/World_War_Adjusted_Compensation_Act" title="World War Adjusted Compensation Act">Bonus Bill</a> that would give World War I veterans a cash bonus. Finally, Congress passed it over his veto in 1936, and the Treasury distributed $1.5 billion in cash as bonus welfare benefits to 4 million veterans just before the 1936 election.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>New Dealers never accepted the <a href="/wiki/Keynesian_economics" title="Keynesian economics">Keynesian</a> argument for government spending as a vehicle for recovery. Most economists of the era, along with <a href="/wiki/Henry_Morgenthau,_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="Henry Morgenthau, Jr.">Henry Morgenthau</a> of the Treasury Department, rejected Keynesian solutions and favored balanced budgets.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Banking_reform">Banking reform</h4></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:American_union_bank.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/American_union_bank.gif/250px-American_union_bank.gif" decoding="async" width="250" height="195" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/American_union_bank.gif/375px-American_union_bank.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/American_union_bank.gif/500px-American_union_bank.gif 2x" data-file-width="2841" data-file-height="2217" /></a><figcaption>Crowd at New York's American Union Bank during a <a href="/wiki/Bank_run" title="Bank run">bank run</a> early in the Great Depression.</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1096940132">.mw-parser-output .listen .side-box-text{line-height:1.1em}.mw-parser-output .listen-plain{border:none;background:transparent}.mw-parser-output .listen-embedded{width:100%;margin:0;border-width:1px 0 0 0;background:transparent}.mw-parser-output .listen-header{padding:2px}.mw-parser-output .listen-embedded .listen-header{padding:2px 0}.mw-parser-output .listen-file-header{padding:4px 0}.mw-parser-output .listen .description{padding-top:2px}.mw-parser-output .listen .mw-tmh-player{max-width:100%}@media(max-width:719px){.mw-parser-output .listen{clear:both}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .listen:not(.listen-noimage){width:320px}.mw-parser-output .listen-left{overflow:visible;float:left}.mw-parser-output .listen-center{float:none;margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right listen noprint"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Franklin-roosevelt.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Franklin-roosevelt.JPG/220px-Franklin-roosevelt.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="283" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Franklin-roosevelt.JPG/330px-Franklin-roosevelt.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Franklin-roosevelt.JPG/440px-Franklin-roosevelt.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2288" data-file-height="2940" /></a><figcaption>Roosevelt's ebullient public personality, conveyed through his declaration that "the only thing we have to fear is fear itself" and his "fireside chats" on the radio did a great deal to help restore the nation's confidence.</figcaption></figure></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><div class="haudio"> <div class="listen-file-header"><a href="/wiki/File:Fireside_Chat_1_On_the_Banking_Crisis_(March_12,_1933)_Franklin_Delano_Roosevelt.ogg" title="File:Fireside Chat 1 On the Banking Crisis (March 12, 1933) Franklin Delano Roosevelt.ogg">Fireside Chat 1 On the Banking Crisis</a></div> <div><span typeof="mw:File"><span><audio id="mwe_player_0" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="232" style="width:232px;" data-durationhint="789" data-mwtitle="Fireside_Chat_1_On_the_Banking_Crisis_(March_12,_1933)_Franklin_Delano_Roosevelt.ogg" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9b/Fireside_Chat_1_On_the_Banking_Crisis_%28March_12%2C_1933%29_Franklin_Delano_Roosevelt.ogg" type="audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/9/9b/Fireside_Chat_1_On_the_Banking_Crisis_%28March_12%2C_1933%29_Franklin_Delano_Roosevelt.ogg/Fireside_Chat_1_On_the_Banking_Crisis_%28March_12%2C_1933%29_Franklin_Delano_Roosevelt.ogg.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AFireside_Chat_1_On_the_Banking_Crisis_%28March_12%2C_1933%29_Franklin_Delano_Roosevelt.ogg&lang=en&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="en" label="English ‪(en)‬" data-dir="ltr" /></audio></span></span></div> <div class="description">Roosevelt's first <a href="/wiki/Fireside_Chat" class="mw-redirect" title="Fireside Chat">Fireside Chat</a> on the Banking Crisis (March 12, 1933)</div></div></div></div> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"><hr /><i class="selfreference">Problems playing this file? See <a href="/wiki/Help:Media" title="Help:Media">media help</a>.</i></div> </div> <p>At the beginning of the Great Depression the economy was destabilized by bank failures followed by <a href="/wiki/Credit_crunch" title="Credit crunch">credit crunches</a>. The initial reasons were substantial losses in investment banking, followed by <a href="/wiki/Bank_run" title="Bank run">bank runs</a>. Bank runs occurred when a large number of customers withdraw their deposits because they believed the bank might become insolvent. As the bank run progressed, it generated a self-fulfilling prophecy: as more people withdraw their deposits, the likelihood of default increased, and this encouraged further withdrawals. It destabilized many banks to the point where they faced bankruptcy. Between 1929 and 1933 40% of all banks (9.490 out of 23.697 banks) went bankrupt.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Much of the <a href="/wiki/Great_Depression" title="Great Depression">Great Depression</a>'s economic damage was caused directly by bank runs.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Herbert Hoover had already considered a <i>bank holiday</i> to prevent further bank runs, but rejected the idea because he was afraid to trip a panic. Roosevelt, however, gave a radio address, held in the atmosphere of a <a href="/wiki/Fireside_Chat" class="mw-redirect" title="Fireside Chat">Fireside Chat</a>, and explained to the public in simple terms the causes of the banking crisis, what the government will do and how the population could help. He closed all the banks in the country and kept them all closed until he could pass new legislation.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On March 9, Roosevelt sent to Congress the <a href="/wiki/Emergency_Banking_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Emergency Banking Act">Emergency Banking Act</a>, drafted in large part by Hoover's top advisors. The act was passed and signed into law the same day. It provided for a system of reopening sound banks under <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Treasury" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Department of Treasury">Treasury</a> supervision, with federal loans available if needed. Three-quarters of the banks in the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Reserve_System" class="mw-redirect" title="Federal Reserve System">Federal Reserve System</a> reopened within the next three days. Billions of dollars in hoarded currency and gold flowed back into them within a month, thus stabilizing the banking system. By the end of 1933, 4,004 small local banks were permanently closed and merged into larger banks. Their deposits totalled $3.6 billion; depositors lost a total of $540 million, and eventually received on average 85 cents on the dollar of their deposits; it is a common myth that they received nothing back.)<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Glass%E2%80%93Steagall_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Glass–Steagall Act">Glass–Steagall Act</a> limited commercial bank securities activities and affiliations between commercial banks and securities firms to regulate speculations. It also established the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Deposit_Insurance_Corporation" title="Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation">Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation</a> (FDIC), which insured deposits for up to $2,500, ending the risk of runs on banks.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This banking reform offered unprecedented stability: While throughout the 1920s more than five hundred banks failed per year; it was less than ten banks per year after 1933.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Monetary_reform">Monetary reform</h4></div> <p>Under the <a href="/wiki/Gold_standard" title="Gold standard">gold standard</a> the United States kept the Dollar convertible to gold. If the gold reserves fell, the Federal Reserve System would be forced to reduce the money supply. At the end of the 1920s the United States were confronted with a bigger outflow of gold, thus in 1928 the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Reserve_System" class="mw-redirect" title="Federal Reserve System">Federal Reserve System</a> began to raise its discount rate to stem the outflow of American gold. This deflationary policy was successful in containing the gold reserves but restricted economic activity. In the 1970s monetarists like <a href="/wiki/Milton_Friedman" title="Milton Friedman">Milton Friedman</a> explored, that the rise of the discount rate in 1931 from 1.5% to 3.5% alone caused a 25% fall in industrial production.<sup id="cite_ref-Peter_Clemens_1954,_p._109_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Peter_Clemens_1954,_p._109-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In March and April in a series of laws and executive orders, the government <a href="/wiki/Executive_Order_6102" title="Executive Order 6102">suspended</a> the <a href="/wiki/Gold_standard" title="Gold standard">gold standard</a>. Roosevelt stopped the outflow of gold by forbidding the export of gold except under licence from the treasury. Anyone holding significant amounts of gold coinage was mandated to exchange it for the existing fixed price of US dollars, after which the US would no longer pay gold on demand for the dollar, and gold would no longer be considered valid <a href="/wiki/Legal_tender" title="Legal tender">legal tender</a> for debts in private and public contracts.<sup id="cite_ref-meltzer442_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-meltzer442-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The dollar was allowed to float freely on <a href="/wiki/Foreign_exchange_market" title="Foreign exchange market">foreign exchange markets</a> with no guaranteed price in gold. With the passage of the <a href="/wiki/Gold_Reserve_Act" title="Gold Reserve Act">Gold Reserve Act</a> in 1934 the nominal price of gold was changed from $20.67 per troy ounce to $35. These measures enabled the Fed to increase the amount of money in circulation to the level the economy needed. Markets immediately responded well to the suspension, in the hope that the decline in prices would finally end.<sup id="cite_ref-meltzer442_42-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-meltzer442-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In her work <i>What ended the Great Depression?</i> (1992) <a href="/wiki/Christina_Romer" title="Christina Romer">Christina Romer</a> argued that this policy raised industrial production by 25% until 1937 and by 50% until 1942.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Securities_regulation">Securities regulation</h4></div> <p>Before the <a href="/wiki/Wall_Street_Crash_of_1929" class="mw-redirect" title="Wall Street Crash of 1929">Wall Street Crash of 1929</a>, there was little regulation of securities. Even firms whose securitites were publicly traded published no regular reports or even worse rather misleading reports based on arbitrarily selected data. To avoid another Wall Street Crash the <a href="/wiki/Securities_Act_of_1933" title="Securities Act of 1933">Securities Act of 1933</a> was enacted. It required the disclosure of the balance sheet, profit and loss statement, the names and compensations of corporate officers, about firms whose securities were traded. Additionally those reports had to be verified by independent auditors. In 1934 the <a href="/wiki/U.S._Securities_and_Exchange_Commission" title="U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission">U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission</a> was established to regulate the stock market and prevent <a href="/wiki/Corporate_abuses" class="mw-redirect" title="Corporate abuses">corporate abuses</a> relating to the sale of securities and corporate reporting.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Repeal_of_Prohibition">Repeal of Prohibition</h4></div> <p>In a measure that garnered substantial popular support for his New Deal, Roosevelt, on March 13, 1933, moved to put to rest one of the most divisive cultural issues of the 1920s. Just nine days later he signed the bill to legalize the manufacture and sale of alcohol, an interim measure pending the repeal of <a href="/wiki/Eighteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Eighteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Prohibition</a>, for which a constitutional amendment (the <a href="/wiki/Twenty-first_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-first Amendment to the United States Constitution">21st</a>) was already in process. The repeal amendment was ratified later in 1933. States and cities gained additional new revenue, and Roosevelt secured his popularity in the cities for supporting or permitting the legal production and sale of alcoholic beverages.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (January 2010)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Relief">Relief</h3></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Public_works">Public works</h4></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Public_Works_Administration_Project,_U.S._Army_Corps_of_Engineers,_Bonneville_Power_and_Navigation_Dam_in_Oregon..._-_NARA_-_195806.tif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Public_Works_Administration_Project%2C_U.S._Army_Corps_of_Engineers%2C_Bonneville_Power_and_Navigation_Dam_in_Oregon..._-_NARA_-_195806.tif/lossy-page1-250px-Public_Works_Administration_Project%2C_U.S._Army_Corps_of_Engineers%2C_Bonneville_Power_and_Navigation_Dam_in_Oregon..._-_NARA_-_195806.tif.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="198" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Public_Works_Administration_Project%2C_U.S._Army_Corps_of_Engineers%2C_Bonneville_Power_and_Navigation_Dam_in_Oregon..._-_NARA_-_195806.tif/lossy-page1-375px-Public_Works_Administration_Project%2C_U.S._Army_Corps_of_Engineers%2C_Bonneville_Power_and_Navigation_Dam_in_Oregon..._-_NARA_-_195806.tif.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Public_Works_Administration_Project%2C_U.S._Army_Corps_of_Engineers%2C_Bonneville_Power_and_Navigation_Dam_in_Oregon..._-_NARA_-_195806.tif/lossy-page1-500px-Public_Works_Administration_Project%2C_U.S._Army_Corps_of_Engineers%2C_Bonneville_Power_and_Navigation_Dam_in_Oregon..._-_NARA_-_195806.tif.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1583" /></a><figcaption>Public Works Administration Project: <a href="/wiki/Bonneville_Dam" title="Bonneville Dam">Bonneville Dam</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>To prime the pump and cut unemployment, the NIRA created the <a href="/wiki/Public_Works_Administration" title="Public Works Administration">Public Works Administration</a> (PWA), a major program of public works, which organized and provided funds for the building of useful works such as government buildings, airports, hospitals, schools, roads, bridges, and dams.<sup id="cite_ref-Norman_Lowe_P.117_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Norman_Lowe_P.117-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> From 1933 to 1935 PWA spent $3.3 billion with private companies to build 34,599 projects, many of them quite large.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Under Roosevelt, many unemployed persons were put to work on a wide range of government financed public works projects, building bridges, airports, dams, post offices, courthouses, and thousands of kilometres of road. Through reforestation and flood control, they reclaimed millions of hectares of soil from erosion and devastation. As noted by one authority, Roosevelt’s New Deal "was literally stamped on the American landscape".<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Farm_and_rural_programs">Farm and rural programs</h4></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pumping_water_in_Wilder,_Fentress_County_TN_1942.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Pumping_water_in_Wilder%2C_Fentress_County_TN_1942.gif/250px-Pumping_water_in_Wilder%2C_Fentress_County_TN_1942.gif" decoding="async" width="250" height="172" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Pumping_water_in_Wilder%2C_Fentress_County_TN_1942.gif/375px-Pumping_water_in_Wilder%2C_Fentress_County_TN_1942.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Pumping_water_in_Wilder%2C_Fentress_County_TN_1942.gif/500px-Pumping_water_in_Wilder%2C_Fentress_County_TN_1942.gif 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="412" /></a><figcaption>Pumping water by hand from sole water supply in this section of <a href="/wiki/Wilder,_Tennessee" title="Wilder, Tennessee">Wilder, Tennessee</a> (<a href="/wiki/Tennessee_Valley_Authority" title="Tennessee Valley Authority">Tennessee Valley Authority</a>, 1942).</figcaption></figure> <p>Many rural people lived in severe poverty, especially in the South. Major programs addressed to their needs included the <a href="/wiki/Resettlement_Administration" title="Resettlement Administration">Resettlement Administration</a> (RA), the <a href="/wiki/Rural_Electrification_Administration" class="mw-redirect" title="Rural Electrification Administration">Rural Electrification Administration</a> (REA), rural welfare projects sponsored by the WPA, NYA, Forest Service and <a href="/wiki/Civilian_Conservation_Corps" title="Civilian Conservation Corps">Civilian Conservation Corps</a> (CCC), including school lunches, building new schools, opening roads in remote areas, reforestation, and purchase of marginal lands to enlarge national forests. In 1933, the Administration launched the <a href="/wiki/Tennessee_Valley_Authority" title="Tennessee Valley Authority">Tennessee Valley Authority</a>, a project involving dam construction planning on an unprecedented scale in order to curb flooding, generate electricity, and modernize the very poor farms in the <a href="/wiki/Tennessee_Valley" title="Tennessee Valley">Tennessee Valley</a> region of the Southern United States. Under the Farmers’ Relief Act of 1933, the government paid compensation to farmers who reduced output, thereby rising prices. As a result of this legislation, the average income of farmers almost doubled by 1937.<sup id="cite_ref-Norman_Lowe_P.117_46-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Norman_Lowe_P.117-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the 1920s farm production had increased dramatically thanks to mechanization, more potent insecticides and increased use of fertilizer. Due to an overproduction of agricultural products farmers faced an severe and chronic agricultural depression throughout the 1920s. The Depression even worsened the agricultural crises. At the beginning of 1933 agricultural markets nearly faced collapse.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Farm prices were so low that for example in Montana wheat was rotting in the fields because it could not be profitably harvested. In Oregon sheep were slaughtered and left to the buzzards because meat prices were not sufficient to warrant transportation to markets.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Roosevelt was keenly interested in farm issues and believed that true prosperity would not return until farming was prosperous. Many different programs were directed at farmers. The first 100 days produced the Farm Security Act to raise farm incomes by raising the prices farmers received, which was achieved by reducing total farm output. The <a href="/wiki/Agricultural_Adjustment_Act" title="Agricultural Adjustment Act">Agricultural Adjustment Act</a> created the <a href="/wiki/Agricultural_Adjustment_Administration" class="mw-redirect" title="Agricultural Adjustment Administration">Agricultural Adjustment Administration</a> (AAA) in May 1933. The act reflected the demands of leaders of major farm organizations, especially the <a href="/wiki/Farm_Bureau" class="mw-redirect" title="Farm Bureau">Farm Bureau</a>, and reflected debates among Roosevelt's farm advisers such as Secretary of Agriculture <a href="/wiki/Henry_A._Wallace" title="Henry A. Wallace">Henry A. Wallace</a>, <a href="/wiki/M.L._Wilson" class="mw-redirect" title="M.L. Wilson">M.L. Wilson</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rexford_Tugwell" title="Rexford Tugwell">Rexford Tugwell</a>, and <a href="/wiki/George_Peek" title="George Peek">George Peek</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The aim of the AAA was to raise prices for commodities through artificial scarcity. The AAA used a system of "domestic allotments", setting total output of corn, cotton, dairy products, hogs, rice, tobacco, and wheat. The farmers themselves had a voice in the process of using government to benefit their incomes. The AAA paid land owners subsidies for leaving some of their land idle with funds provided by a new tax on food processing. To force up farm prices to the point of "parity" 10 million acres (40,000 km<sup>2</sup>) of growing cotton was plowed up, bountiful crops were left to rot, and six million piglets were killed and discarded.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The idea was to give farmers a “fair exchange value” for their products in relation to the general economy (“parity level”).<sup id="cite_ref-Paul_S._Boyder_2001,_p._21_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Paul_S._Boyder_2001,_p._21-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Farm incomes and the income for the general population recovered fast since the Beginning of 1933.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Still, food prices remained well below the 1929 peak.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/John_T._Flynn" title="John T. Flynn">John T. Flynn</a> stated that the department of Agriculture issued a bulletin telling the nation that the great problem of our time was "our failure to produce enough food to provide the people with a mere subsistence diet".<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In fact the problem of agricultural overproduction, especially food and cotton, remained until World War II, the AAA just downsized the level of overproduction.<sup id="cite_ref-Paul_S._Boyder_2001,_p._21_53-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Paul_S._Boyder_2001,_p._21-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The AAA established an important and long-lasting federal role in the planning on the entire agricultural sector of the economy and was the first program on such a scale on behalf of the troubled agricultural economy. The original AAA did not provide for any <a href="/wiki/Sharecroppers" class="mw-redirect" title="Sharecroppers">sharecroppers</a> or <a href="/wiki/Tenants" class="mw-redirect" title="Tenants">tenants</a> or farm laborers who might become unemployed, but there were other New Deal programs especially for them. </p><p>A <a href="/wiki/Gallup_Poll" class="mw-redirect" title="Gallup Poll">Gallup Poll</a> printed in the <i><a href="/wiki/Washington_Post" class="mw-redirect" title="Washington Post">Washington Post</a></i> revealed that a majority of the American public opposed the AAA.<sup id="cite_ref-Rethinking1_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rethinking1-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1936, the Supreme Court declared the AAA to be <a href="/wiki/Constitutionality" title="Constitutionality">unconstitutional</a>, stating that "a statutory plan to regulate and control agricultural production, [is] a matter beyond the powers delegated to the federal government..." The AAA was replaced by a similar program that did win Court approval. Instead of paying farmers for letting fields lie barren, this program instead subsidized them for planting soil enriching crops such as <a href="/wiki/Alfalfa" title="Alfalfa">alfalfa</a> that would not be sold on the market. Federal regulation of agricultural production has been modified many times since then, but together with large subsidies is still in effect in 2012. </p><p>The last major New Deal legislation concerning farming was in 1937, when the Farm Tenancy Act was created which in turn created the <a href="/wiki/Farm_Security_Administration" title="Farm Security Administration">Farm Security Administration</a> (FSA), replacing the Resettlement Administration. </p><p>A major new welfare program was the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Food_Stamp_Plan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Food Stamp Plan (page does not exist)">Food Stamp Plan</a> established in 1939. Although abolished by Congress in 1943, it was restored in 1961 and survives into the 21st century with little controversy because it benefits the urban poor, food producers, grocers and wholesalers, as well as farmers, thereby winning support from both liberal and conservative Congressmen.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Recovery">Recovery</h3></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="NRA_"Blue_Eagle"_campaign"><span id="NRA_.22Blue_Eagle.22_campaign"></span>NRA "Blue Eagle" campaign</h4></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/National_Recovery_Administration" title="National Recovery Administration">National Recovery Administration</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:NewDealNRA.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3b/NewDealNRA.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="240" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="200" data-file-height="240" /></a><figcaption>NRA <a href="/wiki/Blue_Eagle" class="mw-disambig" title="Blue Eagle">Blue Eagle</a>.</figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:US_Manufacturing_Employment_Graph_-_1920_to_1940.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/US_Manufacturing_Employment_Graph_-_1920_to_1940.svg/400px-US_Manufacturing_Employment_Graph_-_1920_to_1940.svg.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="224" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/US_Manufacturing_Employment_Graph_-_1920_to_1940.svg/600px-US_Manufacturing_Employment_Graph_-_1920_to_1940.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/US_Manufacturing_Employment_Graph_-_1920_to_1940.svg/800px-US_Manufacturing_Employment_Graph_-_1920_to_1940.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1070" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>Chart 3: Manufacturing employment in the United States from 1920 to 1940<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Roosevelt's advisers believed, that excessive competition and technical progress had led to overproduction and lowered wages and prices, which they believed lowered demand and employment (<a href="/wiki/Deflation" title="Deflation">Deflation</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-The_Great_Depression_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-The_Great_Depression-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He argued that government economic planning was necessary to remedy this: </p> <blockquote> <p>...A mere builder of more industrial plants, a creator of more railroad systems, an organizer of more corporations, is as likely to be a danger as a help. Our task is not ... necessarily producing more goods. It is the soberer, less dramatic business of administering resources and plants already in hand. </p> </blockquote> <p>From 1929 to 1933, the industrial economy had been suffering from a vicious cycle of <a href="/wiki/Deflation_(economics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Deflation (economics)">deflation</a>. Since 1931, the <a href="/wiki/U.S._Chamber_of_Commerce" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Chamber of Commerce">U.S. Chamber of Commerce</a>, the voice of the nation's organized business, promoted an anti-deflationary scheme that would permit trade associations to cooperate in government-instigated<sup id="cite_ref-The_Great_Depression_61-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-The_Great_Depression-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Cartels" class="mw-redirect" title="Cartels">cartels</a> to stabilize prices within their industries. While existing antitrust laws clearly forbade such practices, organized business found a receptive ear in the Roosevelt Administration.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>New Deal economists argued that cut-throat competition had hurt many businesses and that with prices having fallen 20% and more, "deflation" exacerbated the burden of debt and would delay recovery. They rejected a strong move in Congress to limit the workweek to 30 hours. Instead their remedy, designed in cooperation with big business, was the NIRA. It included stimulus funds for the WPA to spend, and sought to raise prices, give more <a href="/wiki/Bargaining_power" title="Bargaining power">bargaining power</a> for unions (so the workers could purchase more) and reduce harmful competition. At the center of the NIRA was the National Recovery Administration (NRA), headed by former General <a href="/wiki/Hugh_Samuel_Johnson" class="mw-redirect" title="Hugh Samuel Johnson">Hugh Johnson</a>, who had been a senior economic official in World War I. Johnson called on every business establishment in the nation to accept a stopgap "blanket code": a minimum wage of between 20 and 45 cents per hour, a maximum workweek of 35–45 hours, and the abolition of <a href="/wiki/Child_labor" class="mw-redirect" title="Child labor">child labor</a>. Johnson and Roosevelt contended that the "blanket code" would raise consumer purchasing power and increase employment.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>To mobilize political support for the NRA, Johnson launched the "NRA <a href="/wiki/Blue_Eagle" class="mw-disambig" title="Blue Eagle">Blue Eagle</a>" publicity campaign to boost what he called "industrial self-government". The NRA brought together leaders in each industry to design specific sets of codes for that industry; the most important provisions were anti-deflationary floors below which no company would lower prices or wages, and agreements on maintaining employment and production. In a remarkably short time, the NRA announced agreements from almost every major industry in the nation. By March 1934, industrial production was 45% higher than in March 1933.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Donald Richberg, who soon replaced Johnson as the head of the NRA said: </p> <blockquote> <p>There is no choice presented to American business between intelligently planned and uncontrolled industrial operations and a return to the gold-plated anarchy that masqueraded as "rugged individualism" ... Unless industry is sufficiently socialized by its private owners and managers so that great essential industries are operated under public obligation appropriate to the public interest in them, the advance of political control over private industry is inevitable.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> </blockquote> <p>By the time NRA ended in May 1935, industrial production was 55% higher than in May 1933. In addition, well over 2 million employers accepted the new standards laid down by the NRA, which had introduced a minimum wage and an <a href="/wiki/Eight-hour_day" class="mw-redirect" title="Eight-hour day">eight-hour workday</a>, together with abolishing child labor.<sup id="cite_ref-Norman_Lowe_P.117_46-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Norman_Lowe_P.117-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On May 27, 1935, the NRA was found to be unconstitutional by a unanimous decision of the U.S. Supreme Court in the case of <i><a href="/wiki/Schechter_v._United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Schechter v. United States">Schechter v. United States</a></i>. On that same day, the Court unanimously struck down the Frazier-Lemke Act portion of the New Deal as unconstitutional. After the end of the NRA quotas in the oil industry were fixed by the <a href="/wiki/Railroad_Commission_of_Texas" title="Railroad Commission of Texas">Railroad Commission of Texas</a> with <a href="/wiki/Tom_Connally" title="Tom Connally">Tom Connally</a>'s federal <a href="/wiki/Connally_Hot_Oil_Act_of_1935" title="Connally Hot Oil Act of 1935">Hot Oil Act of 1935</a>, which guaranteed that illegal "hot oil" would not be sold.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Employment in private sector factories recovered to the level of the late 1920s by 1937 but did not grow much bigger until the war came and manufacturing employment leaped from 11 million in 1940 to 18 million in 1943. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Housing_Sector">Housing Sector</h4></div> <p>The New Deal had an important impact in the housing field. The New Deal followed and increased President Hoover's lead and seek measures. The New Deal sought to stimulate the private home building industry and increase the number of individuals who owned homes.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The New Deal implemented two new housing agencies; <a href="/wiki/Home_Owners%27_Loan_Corporation" title="Home Owners' Loan Corporation">Home Owners' Loan Corporation</a> (HOLC) and the Federal Housing Administration (FHA). HOLC set uniform national appraisal methods and simplified the mortgage process. The <a href="/wiki/Federal_Housing_Administration" title="Federal Housing Administration">Federal Housing Administration</a> (FHA) created national standards for home construction. </p><p>The New Deal helped increase the number of Americans who owned homes. Before the New Deal only four out of 10 Americans owned homes; this was because the standard mortgage lasted only five to 10 years and had interest as high as 8%. These conditions severely limited the accessibility to housing for most Americans. Under the New Deal, Americans had access to 30-year mortgages, the standardized appraisal and construction standards helped open up the housing market to more Americans. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reform">Reform</h3></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Trade_liberalization">Trade liberalization</h4></div> <p>There is consensus amongst economic historians that protectionist policies, culminating in the <a href="/wiki/Smoot-Hawley_Tariff_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Smoot-Hawley Tariff Act">Smoot-Hawley Act of 1930</a> worsened the Depression.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Franklin D. Roosevelt</a> already spoke against the act while campaigning for president during 1932.<sup id="cite_ref-economist_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-economist-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1934 the <a href="/wiki/Reciprocal_Tariff_Act" title="Reciprocal Tariff Act">Reciprocal Tariff Act</a> was drafted by <a href="/wiki/Cordell_Hull" title="Cordell Hull">Cordell Hull</a>. It gave the president power to negotiate bilateral, <a href="/wiki/Reciprocal_trade_agreement" class="mw-redirect" title="Reciprocal trade agreement">reciprocal trade agreements</a> with other countries. The act enabled Roosevelt to liberalize <a href="/wiki/Trade_policy_of_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Trade policy of the United States">American trade policy</a> around the globe. It is widely credited with ushering in the era of liberal <a href="/wiki/Trade_policy" class="mw-redirect" title="Trade policy">trade policy</a> that persists to this day.<sup id="cite_ref-Hiscox_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hiscox-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Puerto_Rico">Puerto Rico</h4></div> <p>A separate set of programs operated in <a href="/wiki/Puerto_Rico" title="Puerto Rico">Puerto Rico</a>, headed by the <a href="/wiki/Puerto_Rico_Reconstruction_Administration" title="Puerto Rico Reconstruction Administration">Puerto Rico Reconstruction Administration</a>. It promoted <a href="/wiki/Land_reform" title="Land reform">land reform</a> and helped small farms; it set up farm cooperatives, promoted crop diversification, and helped local industry. The Puerto Rico Reconstruction Administration was directed by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Juan_Pablo_Montoya_Sr.&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Juan Pablo Montoya Sr. (page does not exist)">Juan Pablo Montoya Sr.</a> from 1935 to 1937. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Second_New_Deal_(1935–1938)"><span id="Second_New_Deal_.281935.E2.80.931938.29"></span>Second New Deal (1935–1938)</h2></div> <p>In the spring of 1935, responding to the setbacks in the Court, a new skepticism in Congress, and the growing popular clamor for more dramatic action, the Administration proposed or endorsed several important new initiatives. Historians refer to them as the "Second New Deal" and note that it was more liberal and more controversial than the "First New Deal" of 1933–34. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Social_Security_Act">Social Security Act</h3></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:SocialSecurityposter1.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/SocialSecurityposter1.gif/250px-SocialSecurityposter1.gif" decoding="async" width="250" height="309" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/SocialSecurityposter1.gif/375px-SocialSecurityposter1.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ef/SocialSecurityposter1.gif 2x" data-file-width="486" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>A poster publicizing Social Security benefits.</figcaption></figure> <p>Until 1935 there were just a dozen states that had old age insurance laws but these programs were woefully underfunded and therefore almost worthless. Just one state (Wisconsin) had an insurance program. The United States was the only modern industrial country, where people faced the Depression without any national system of social security.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Even the work programs of the "First New Deal" were just meant as immediate relief, destined to run less than a decade.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The most important program of 1935, and perhaps the New Deal as a whole, was the <a href="/wiki/Social_Security_(United_States)" title="Social Security (United States)">Social Security Act</a>, drafted by <a href="/wiki/Francis_Perkins" class="mw-redirect" title="Francis Perkins">Francis Perkins</a>. It established a permanent system of universal retirement pensions (<a href="/wiki/Social_Security_(United_States)" title="Social Security (United States)">Social Security</a>), <a href="/wiki/Unemployment_insurance#United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Unemployment insurance">unemployment insurance</a>, and welfare benefits for the handicapped and needy children in families without father present.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It established the framework for the U.S. welfare system. Roosevelt insisted that it should be funded by payroll taxes rather than from the general fund; he said, "We put those payroll contributions there so as to give the contributors a legal, moral, and political right to collect their pensions and unemployment benefits. With those taxes in there, no damn politician can ever scrap my social security program." </p><p>Compared with the social security systems in western European countries, the Social Security Act of 1935 was rather conservative. But for the first time the federal government took responsibility for the economic security of the aged, the temporarily unemployed, dependent children and the handicapped.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Labor_relations">Labor relations</h3></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/National_Labor_Relations_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="National Labor Relations Act">National Labor Relations Act</a> of 1935, also known as the <a href="/wiki/Wagner_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Wagner Act">Wagner Act</a>, finally guaranteed workers the rights to collective bargaining through unions of their own choice. The Act also established the National Labor Relations Board (NLRB) to facilitate wage agreements and to suppress the repeated labor disturbances. The Wagner Act totally did not compel employers to reach agreement with their employees. But it opened possibilities for American labor.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The result was a tremendous growth of membership in the labor unions, especially in the mass-production sector,<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> composing the <a href="/wiki/American_Federation_of_Labor" title="American Federation of Labor">American Federation of Labor</a>. Labor thus became a major component of the New Deal political coalition. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Fair_Labor_Standards_Act_of_1938" title="Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938">Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938</a> set maximum hours (44 per week) and minimum wages (25 cents per hour) for most categories of workers. <a href="/wiki/Child_labour" title="Child labour">Child labour</a> of children under the age of 16 was forbidden, children under 18 years were forbidden to work in hazardous employment. As a result the wages of 300,000 people were increased and the hours of 1.3 million were reduced.<sup id="cite_ref-Peter_Clemens_1954,_p._109_41-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Peter_Clemens_1954,_p._109-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Works_Progress_Administration">Works Progress Administration</h3></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:New_York_City_municipal_airports,_WPA_poster,_ca._1937.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/New_York_City_municipal_airports%2C_WPA_poster%2C_ca._1937.svg/250px-New_York_City_municipal_airports%2C_WPA_poster%2C_ca._1937.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="317" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/New_York_City_municipal_airports%2C_WPA_poster%2C_ca._1937.svg/375px-New_York_City_municipal_airports%2C_WPA_poster%2C_ca._1937.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/New_York_City_municipal_airports%2C_WPA_poster%2C_ca._1937.svg/500px-New_York_City_municipal_airports%2C_WPA_poster%2C_ca._1937.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1437" data-file-height="1824" /></a><figcaption>WPA poster promoting the <a href="/wiki/LaGuardia_Airport" title="LaGuardia Airport">LaGuardia Airport</a> project (1937).</figcaption></figure> <p>Roosevelt nationalized unemployment relief through the <a href="/wiki/Works_Progress_Administration" title="Works Progress Administration">Works Progress Administration</a> (WPA), headed by close friend <a href="/wiki/Harry_Hopkins" title="Harry Hopkins">Harry Hopkins</a>. Roosevelt had insisted that the projects had to be costly in terms of labor, long-term beneficial, and the WPA was forbidden to compete with private enterprises (therefore the workers had to be paid smaller wages).<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Works Progress Administration (WPA) was created to return the unemployed to the work force.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The WPA financed a variety of projects such as hospitals, schools, and roads,<sup id="cite_ref-Norman_Lowe_P.117_46-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Norman_Lowe_P.117-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and employed more than 8.5 million workers who built 650,000 miles of highways and roads, 125,000 public buildings, as well as bridges, reservoirs, irrigation systems, parks, playgrounds and so on.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Prominent projects were the <a href="/wiki/Lincoln_Tunnel" title="Lincoln Tunnel">Lincoln Tunnel</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Triborough_Bridge" class="mw-redirect" title="Triborough Bridge">Triborough Bridge</a>, the <a href="/wiki/LaGuardia_Airport" title="LaGuardia Airport">LaGuardia Airport</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Overseas_Highway" title="Overseas Highway">Overseas Highway</a> and the <a href="/wiki/San_Francisco_%E2%80%93_Oakland_Bay_Bridge" class="mw-redirect" title="San Francisco – Oakland Bay Bridge">San Francisco – Oakland Bay Bridge</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Rural_Electrification_Administration" class="mw-redirect" title="Rural Electrification Administration">Rural Electrification Administration</a> used co-ops to bring electricity to rural areas, many of which still operate.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/National_Youth_Administration" title="National Youth Administration">National Youth Administration</a> was another the semi-autonomous WPA program for youth. Its Texas director, <a href="/wiki/Lyndon_Baines_Johnson" class="mw-redirect" title="Lyndon Baines Johnson">Lyndon Baines Johnson</a>, later used the NYA as a model for some of his <a href="/wiki/Great_Society" title="Great Society">Great Society</a> programs in the 1960s.<sup id="cite_ref-Lorraine_Brown_1979,_pp_18_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lorraine_Brown_1979,_pp_18-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The WPA was organized by states, but New York City had its own branch Federal One, which created jobs for writers, musicians, artists, and theater personnel. It became a hunting ground for conservatives searching for Communist employees.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Federal Writer’s Project operated in every state, where it created a famous guide book; it also catalogued local archives and hired many writers, including <a href="/wiki/Margaret_Walker" title="Margaret Walker">Margaret Walker</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zora_Neale_Hurston" title="Zora Neale Hurston">Zora Neale Hurston</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Anzia_Yezierska" title="Anzia Yezierska">Anzia Yezierska</a>, to document folklore. Other writers interviewed elderly ex-slaves and recorded their stories. Under the Federal Theater Project, headed by charismatic <a href="/wiki/Hallie_Flanagan" title="Hallie Flanagan">Hallie Flanagan</a>, actresses and actors, technicians, writers, and directors put on stage productions. The tickets were inexpensive or sometimes free, making theater available to audiences unaccustomed to attending plays.<sup id="cite_ref-Lorraine_Brown_1979,_pp_18_82-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lorraine_Brown_1979,_pp_18-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One Federal Art Project paid 162 trained woman artists on relief to paint murals or create statues for newly built post offices and courthouses. Many of these works of art can still be seen in public buildings around the country, along with murals sponsored by the Treasury Relief Art Project of the Treasury Department.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During its existence, the Federal Theatre Project provided jobs for circus people, musicians, actors, artists, and playwrights, together with increasing public appreciation of the arts.<sup id="cite_ref-Norman_Lowe_P.117_46-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Norman_Lowe_P.117-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tax_policy">Tax policy</h3></div> <p>In 1935, Roosevelt called for a tax program called the <i>Wealth Tax Act</i> (<a href="/wiki/Revenue_Act_of_1935" title="Revenue Act of 1935">Revenue Act of 1935</a>) to redistribute wealth. But there was more rhetoric than revenue in that proposal. The bill imposed an income tax of 79% on incomes over $5 million. Since that was an extraordinary high income in the 1930s, the highest tax rate actually covered just one individual – <a href="/wiki/John_D._Rockefeller" title="John D. Rockefeller">John D. Rockefeller</a>. The bill was expected to raise only about $ 250 million in additional funds, so revenue was not the primary goal. Morgenthau called it “more or less a campaign document”. In a private conversation with Raymond Moley, Roosevelt admitted that the purpose of the bill was “stealing <a href="/wiki/Huey_Long" title="Huey Long">Huey Long</a>´s thunder” by making Long's supporters his own. At the same time, it raised the bitterness of the rich who called Roosevelt “a traitor to his class” and the wealth tax act a “Soak the rich tax”.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A tax called the <a href="/wiki/Undistributed_profits_tax" title="Undistributed profits tax">Undistributed profits tax</a> was enacted in 1936. This time the primary purpose was revenue since congress had enacted the <a href="/wiki/Adjusted_Compensation_Payment_Act" title="Adjusted Compensation Payment Act">Adjusted Compensation Payment Act</a>, calling for payments to World War I veterans of $ 2 billion. The bill established the persisting principle that retained corporate earnings could be taxed. Paid dividends were tax deductible by corporations. The bill was designed to replace all other corporation taxes. The purpose was to stimulate corporations to distribute earnings and thus put more cash and spending power in the hands of individuals.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the end, Congress watered down the bill, setting the tax rates at 7 to 27% and largely exempting small enterprises.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Facing widespread and fierce criticism,<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the tax deduction of paid dividends was repealed in 1938.<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Housing_Act_of_1937">Housing Act of 1937</h3></div> <p>One of the last New Deal agencies was the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Housing_Authority" title="United States Housing Authority">United States Housing Authority</a>, created in 1937 with some Republican support to abolish <a href="/wiki/Slum" title="Slum">slums</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Court-packing_plan_and_jurisprudential_shift">Court-packing plan and jurisprudential shift</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Judiciary_Reorganization_Bill_of_1937" class="mw-redirect" title="Judiciary Reorganization Bill of 1937">Judiciary Reorganization Bill of 1937</a></div> <p>When Roosevelt took office a majority of the nine judges of the Supreme Court were appointed by Republican Party Presidents. Four especially conservative judges (nicknamed the <a href="/wiki/Four_Horsemen_(Supreme_Court)" title="Four Horsemen (Supreme Court)">Four Horsemen</a>) often managed to convince the fifth judge <a href="/wiki/Owen_Roberts" title="Owen Roberts">Owen Roberts</a> to void down progressive legislation.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Roosevelt increasingly saw the issue of the Supreme Court as one of unelected officials stifling the work of a democratically elected government. Early in the year 1936, he asked Congress to pass the <a href="/wiki/Judiciary_Reorganization_Bill_of_1937" class="mw-redirect" title="Judiciary Reorganization Bill of 1937">Judiciary Reorganization Bill of 1937</a>. That proposal would have given the president the power to appoint a new justice whenever an existing judge reached the age of 70 and failed to retire within six months. In that way Roosevelt hoped to preserve the New Deal legislation. But he had stirred up a hornet`s nest since many congressmen feared he might start to retire them at 70 next. Many congressmen considered the proposal unconstitutional. In the end the proposal failed.<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In one sense, however, it succeeded: Justice <a href="/wiki/Owen_Josephus_Roberts" class="mw-redirect" title="Owen Josephus Roberts">Owen Roberts</a> switched positions and began voting to uphold New Deal measures, effectively creating a liberal majority in <i><a href="/wiki/West_Coast_Hotel_Co._v._Parrish" title="West Coast Hotel Co. v. Parrish">West Coast Hotel Co. v. Parrish</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/National_Labor_Relations_Board_v._Jones_%26_Laughlin_Steel_Corporation" class="mw-redirect" title="National Labor Relations Board v. Jones & Laughlin Steel Corporation">National Labor Relations Board v. Jones & Laughlin Steel Corporation</a></i>, thus departing from the <i><a href="/wiki/Lochner_v._New_York" title="Lochner v. New York">Lochner v. New York</a></i> era and giving the government more power in questions of economic policies. Journalists called this change "<a href="/wiki/The_switch_in_time_that_saved_nine" title="The switch in time that saved nine">the switch in time that saved nine</a>". Recent scholars have noted that since the vote in Parrish took place several months before the court-packing plan was announced, other factors, like evolving jurisprudence, must have contributed to the Court's swing. The opinions handed down in the spring of 1937, favorable to the government, also contributed to the downfall of the plan. In any case, the "court packing plan", as it was known, did lasting political damage to Roosevelt.<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>With the retirement of Justice Willis Van Devanter, the Court's composition began to move solidly in support of Roosevelt's legislative agenda. In the end Roosevelt had lost the battle for the Judiciary Reorganization Bill but won the war for control of the Supreme Court in a constitutional way. Since he managed to serve in office for more than twelve years he got the chance to appoint eight of the nine Justices of the Court. Former Supreme Court Chief Justice <a href="/wiki/William_Rehnquist" title="William Rehnquist">William Rehnquist</a> noted that in this way the Constitution provides for ultimate responsibility of the Court to the political branches of government.<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Recession_of_1937_and_recovery">Recession of 1937 and recovery</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Recession_of_1937" class="mw-redirect" title="Recession of 1937">Recession of 1937</a></div> <p>The Roosevelt Administration was under assault during FDR's second term, which presided over a new dip in the Great Depression in the fall of 1937 that continued until most of 1938. Production and profits declined sharply. Unemployment jumped from 14.3% in 1937 to 19.0% in 1938. The downturn was perhaps due to nothing more than the familiar rhythms of the business cycle. But until 1937 Roosevelt had claimed responsibility for the excellent economic performance. That backfired in the recession and the heated political atmosphere of 1937.<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Business-oriented conservatives explained the recession by arguing that the New Deal had been very hostile to business expansion in 1935–37, had threatened massive anti-trust legal attacks on big corporations and by the huge strikes caused by the organizing activities of the <a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Industrial_Organizations" title="Congress of Industrial Organizations">Congress of Industrial Organizations</a> (CIO) and the <a href="/wiki/American_Federation_of_Labor" title="American Federation of Labor">American Federation of Labor</a> (AFL). The recovery was explained by the conservatives in terms of the diminishing of those threats sharply after 1938. For example, the antitrust efforts fizzled out without major cases. The CIO and AFL unions started battling each other more than corporations, and tax policy became more favorable to long-term growth.<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>"When <a href="/wiki/The_Gallup_Organization" class="mw-redirect" title="The Gallup Organization">The Gallup Organization</a>'s poll in 1939 asked, 'Do you think the attitude of the Roosevelt administration toward business is delaying business recovery?' the American people responded 'yes' by a margin of more than two-to-one. The business community felt even more strongly so."<sup id="cite_ref-Reed_97-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Reed-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Fortune_(magazine)" title="Fortune (magazine)"><i>Fortune'</i>s</a> Roper poll found in May 1939 that 39% of Americans thought the administration had been delaying recovery by undermining business confidence, while 37% thought it had not. But it also found that opinions on the issue were highly polarized by economic status and occupation. In addition, AIPO found in the same time that 57% believed that business attitudes toward the administration were delaying recovery, while 26% thought they were not, emphasizing that fairly subtle differences in wording can evoke substantially different polling responses.<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Keynesian economists stated that the recession of 1937 was a result of a premature effort to curb government spending and balance the budget.<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Roosevelt had been cautious not to run large deficits. In 1937 he actually achieved a balanced budget. Therefore he did not fully utilize <a href="/wiki/Deficit_spending" title="Deficit spending">deficit spending</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Between 1933 and 1941 the average federal budget deficit was 3% per year.<sup id="cite_ref-usgovernmentdebt.us_101-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-usgovernmentdebt.us-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In November 1937 Roosevelt decided that big business were trying to ruin the New Deal by causing another depression that voters would react against by voting Republican.<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was a "capital strike" said Roosevelt, and he ordered the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Bureau_of_Investigation" title="Federal Bureau of Investigation">Federal Bureau of Investigation</a> to look for a criminal conspiracy (they found none). Roosevelt moved left and unleashed a rhetorical campaign against monopoly power, which was cast as the cause of the new crisis. Ickes attacked automaker <a href="/wiki/Henry_Ford" title="Henry Ford">Henry Ford</a>, steelmaker <a href="/wiki/Republic_Steel" title="Republic Steel">Tom Girdler</a>, and the super rich "<a href="/wiki/America%27s_Sixty_Families" class="mw-redirect" title="America's Sixty Families">Sixty Families</a>" who supposedly comprised "the living center of the modern industrial <a href="/wiki/Oligarchy" title="Oligarchy">oligarchy</a> which dominates the United States".<sup id="cite_ref-Kennedy1_103-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kennedy1-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Left unchecked, Ickes warned, they would create "big-business Fascist America—an enslaved America". The President appointed Robert Jackson as the aggressive new director of the antitrust division of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Justice" title="United States Department of Justice">Justice Department</a>, but this effort lost its effectiveness once World War II began and big business was urgently needed to produce war supplies. But the Administration's other response to the 1937 dip that stalled recovery from of the Great Depression had more tangible results.<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Ignoring the requests of the Treasury Department and responding to the urgings of the converts to <a href="/wiki/Keynesian_economics" title="Keynesian economics">Keynesian economics</a> and others in his Administration, Roosevelt embarked on an antidote to the depression, reluctantly abandoning his efforts to balance the budget and launching a $5 billion spending program in the spring of 1938, an effort to increase mass purchasing power.<sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Roosevelt explained his program in a <a href="/wiki/Fireside_chats" title="Fireside chats">fireside chat</a> in which he told the American people that it was up to the government to "create an economic upturn" by making "additions to the purchasing power of the nation". </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="World_War_II_and_the_end_of_the_Great_Depression">World War II and the end of the Great Depression</h2></div> <p>The Depression ended when the U.S. entered World War II in December 1941. Under the special circumstances of war mobilization, massive war spending doubled the GNP (<a href="/wiki/Gross_National_Product" class="mw-redirect" title="Gross National Product">Gross National Product</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Military_Keynesianism" title="Military Keynesianism">Military Keynesianism</a> brought <a href="/wiki/Full_employment" title="Full employment">full employment</a>. Federal contracts were cost-plus. Instead of competitive bidding to get lower prices, the government gave out contracts that promised to pay all the expenses plus a modest profit. Factories hired everyone they could find regardless of their lack of skills; they simplified work tasks and trained the workers, with the federal government paying all the costs. Millions of farmers left marginal operations, students quit school, and housewives joined the labor force.<sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The emphasis was for war supplies as soon as possible, regardless of cost and inefficiencies. Industry quickly absorbed the slack in the labor force, and the tables turned such that employers needed to actively and aggressively recruit workers. As the military grew, new labor sources were needed to replace the 12 million men serving in the military. Propaganda campaigns pleading for people to work in the war factories. The barriers for married women, the old, the unskilled—and (in the North and West) the barriers for racial minorities—were lowered.<sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1929, federal expenditures accounted for only 3% of GNP. Between 1933 and 1939, federal expenditure tripled, but the national debt as percent of GNP hardly changed. However, spending on the New Deal was far smaller than spending on the war effort, which passed 40% of GNP in 1944. The war economy grew so fast after deemphasizing free enterprise and imposing strict controls on prices and wages, as a result of government/business cooperation, with government subsidizing business, directly and indirectly.<sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Despite conservative domination of Congress during the early 1940s, a number of progressive measures supported by business in the name of efficiency and safety were legislated. The Coal Mines Inspection and Investigation Act of 1941 significantly reduced fatality rates in the coal-mining industry,<sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while the Servicemen's Dependents Allowance Act of 1942 provided family allowances for dependents of enlisted men of the Army, Navy, Marine Corps, and the Coast Guard, while emergency grants to States were authorized that same year for programs for day care for children of working mothers. In 1944, pensions were authorized for all physically or mentally helpless children of deceased veterans regardless of the age of the child at the date the claim was filed or at the time of the veteran's death, provided the child was disabled at the age of sixteen and that the disability continued to the date of the claim. The Public Health Service Act, which was passed that same year, expanded Federal-State public health programs, and increased the annual amount for grants for public health services.<sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The New Dealers wanted benefits for everyone according to need. The conservatives however proposed benefits based on national service, and their approach won out. The "G.I. Bill" was a landmark piece of legislation, the <a href="/wiki/Servicemen%27s_Readjustment_Act_of_1944" class="mw-redirect" title="Servicemen's Readjustment Act of 1944">Servicemen's Readjustment Act of 1944</a>. It provided 16 million returning veterans with benefits such as housing, educational, and unemployment assistance, and played a major role in the postwar expansion of the American middle class.<sup id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A major result of the full employment at high wages was a sharp, long lasting decrease in the level of income inequality (<a href="/wiki/Great_Compression" title="Great Compression">Great Compression</a>). The gap between rich and poor narrowed dramatically in the area of nutrition, because food rationing and price controls provided a reasonably priced diet to everyone. White collar workers did not typically receive overtime thus the gap between white collar and blue collar income narrowed. Large families that had been poor during the 1930s had four or more wage earners, and these families shot to the top one-third income bracket. Overtime provided large paychecks in war industries,<sup id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and average living standards rose steadily, with real wages rising by 44% in the four years of war, while the percentage of families with an annual income of less than $2,000 fell from 75% to 25% of the population.<sup id="cite_ref-114" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Legacy_and_historiography">Legacy and historiography</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:FDR-LBJ.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/FDR-LBJ.png/220px-FDR-LBJ.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/FDR-LBJ.png/330px-FDR-LBJ.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/FDR-LBJ.png/440px-FDR-LBJ.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="786" /></a><figcaption>The New Deal was the inspiration for President <a href="/wiki/Lyndon_B._Johnson" title="Lyndon B. Johnson">Lyndon B. Johnson</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Great_Society" title="Great Society">Great Society</a> in 1960s. Johnson (on right) headed the Texas NYA and was elected to Congress in 1938.</figcaption></figure> <p>Analysts agree the New Deal produced a new political coalition that sustained the Democratic Party as the majority party in national politics for more than a generation after its own end.<sup id="cite_ref-Morgan,_1994,_p._12_115-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Morgan,_1994,_p._12-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>However there is disagreement about whether it marked a permanent change in values. Cowie and Salvatore in 2008 argued that it was a response to depression and did not mark a commitment to a <a href="/wiki/Welfare_state" title="Welfare state">welfare state</a> because America has always been too individualistic.<sup id="cite_ref-116" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> MacLean rejected the idea of a definitive political culture. She says they overemphasized individualism and ignored the enormous power of big capital wields, the Constitutional restraints on radicalism, and the role of racism, antifeminism, and homophobia. She warns that accepting Cowie and Salvatore's argument that conservatism's ascendancy is inevitable would dismay and discourage activists on the left.<sup id="cite_ref-117" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Klein responds that the New Deal did not die a natural death; it was killed off in the 1970s by a business coalition mobilized by such groups as the Business Roundtable, the Chamber of Commerce, trade organizations, conservative think tanks, and decades of sustained legal and political attacks.<sup id="cite_ref-118" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Historians generally agree that during Roosevelt's 12 years in office, there was a dramatic increase in the power of the federal government as a whole. Roosevelt also established the presidency as the prominent center of authority within the federal government. Roosevelt created a large array of agencies protecting various groups of citizens—workers, farmers, and others—who suffered from the crisis, and thus enabled them to challenge the powers of the corporations. In this way, the Roosevelt Administration generated a set of political ideas—known as New Deal liberalism—that remained a source of inspiration and controversy for decades. New Deal liberalism lay the foundation of a new consensus. Between 1940 and 1980 there was the liberal consensus about the prospects for the widespread distribution of prosperity within an expanding capitalist economy.<sup id="cite_ref-Morgan,_1994,_p._12_115-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Morgan,_1994,_p._12-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Especially <a href="/wiki/Harry_S._Truman" title="Harry S. Truman">Harry S. Trumans</a> <a href="/wiki/Fair_Deal" title="Fair Deal">Fair Deal</a> and in the 1960s, <a href="/wiki/Lyndon_B._Johnson" title="Lyndon B. Johnson">Lyndon B. Johnson</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Great_Society" title="Great Society">Great Society</a> used the New Deal as inspiration for a dramatic expansion of liberal programs. </p><p>The New Deals enduring appeal on voters fostered its acceptance by moderate and liberal Republicans.<sup id="cite_ref-119" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As the first Republican president elected after FDR, <a href="/wiki/Dwight_D._Eisenhower" title="Dwight D. Eisenhower">Dwight D. Eisenhower</a> (1953–61) build on the New Deal in a manner that embodied his thoughts on efficiency and cost-effectiveness. He sanctioned a major expansion of Social Security by a self-financed program.<sup id="cite_ref-120" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He supported such New Deal programs as the minimum wage and public housing; he greatly expanded federal aid to education and built the Interstate Highway system primarily as defense programs (rather than jobs program).<sup id="cite_ref-Roderick_P._Hart_2001_46_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Roderick_P._Hart_2001_46-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In a private letter Eisenhower wrote: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Should any party attempt to abolish social security and eliminate labor laws and farm programs, you would not hear of that party again in our political history. There is a tiny splinter group of course, that believes you can do these things ... Their number is negligible and they are stupid.<sup id="cite_ref-121" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>In 1964 <a href="/wiki/Libertarianism" title="Libertarianism">libertarian</a> <a href="/wiki/Barry_Goldwater" title="Barry Goldwater">Barry Goldwater</a>, an unreconstructed anti-New Dealer, was the Republican presidential candidate. The Democrats won the election with the largest share of the popular vote in history but the supporters of Goldwater formed the <a href="/wiki/New_Right#The_second_New_Right" title="New Right">New Right</a> which helped to bring Ronald Reagan into the White House in the 1980 presidential election.<sup id="cite_ref-122" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This marked the end of the liberal consensus. Since the 1980s there is a political discourse about <a href="/wiki/Supply-side_economics" title="Supply-side economics">supply-side economics</a> and a strict rejection of Keynesian economic policy. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="The_New_Deal_in_Retrospect">The New Deal in Retrospect</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Race_and_Gender">Race and Gender</h3></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="African_Americans">African Americans</h4></div> <p>Although many Americans suffered economically during the Great Depression, African Americans also had to deal with social ills, such as racism, discrimination, and <a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation#United_States_2" title="Racial segregation">segregation</a>. </p><p>Many leading New Dealers, including <a href="/wiki/Eleanor_Roosevelt" title="Eleanor Roosevelt">Eleanor Roosevelt</a>, <a href="/wiki/Harold_L._Ickes" title="Harold L. Ickes">Harold Ickes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aubrey_Willis_Williams" title="Aubrey Willis Williams">Aubrey Williams</a>, and <a href="/w/index.php?title=John_Flores_Sr.&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="John Flores Sr. (page does not exist)">John Flores Sr.</a> worked to ensure blacks received at least 10% of welfare assistance payments.<sup id="cite_ref-Sitkoff1_123-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sitkoff1-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There was no attempt whatsoever to end segregation, or to increase black rights in the South. Roosevelt appointed an unprecedented number of blacks to second-level positions in his administration; these appointees were collectively called the <a href="/wiki/Black_Cabinet" title="Black Cabinet">Black Cabinet</a>. Roosevelt and Hopkins worked with several big city mayors to encourage the transition of black political organizations from the Republican Party to the Democratic Party from 1934 to 1936, most notably in Chicago. The black community responded favorably, so that by 1936 the majority who voted (usually in the North) were voting Democratic. This was a sharp realignment from 1932, when most African Americans voted the Republican ticket. New Deal policies helped establish a political alliance between blacks and the Democratic Party that survives into the 21st century.<sup id="cite_ref-124" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The WPA, NYA, and CCC relief programs allocated 10% of their budgets to blacks (who comprised about 10% of the total population, and 20% of the poor). They operated separate all-black units with the same pay and conditions as white units.<sup id="cite_ref-Sitkoff1_123-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sitkoff1-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>However, these benefits were small in comparison to the economic and political advantages that whites received. Most unions excluded blacks from joining. Enforcement of anti-discrimination laws in the South was virtually impossible, especially since most blacks worked in hospitality and agricultural sectors.<sup id="cite_ref-125" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Farm Service Agency (FSA), a government relief agency for tenant farmers, created in 1937, made efforts to empower African Americans by appointing them to agency committees in the South. Senator James F. Byrnes of South Carolina raised opposition to the appointments because he stood for white farmers who were threatened by an agency that could organize and empower tenant farmers. </p><p>Initially, the FSA stood behind their appointments, but after feeling national pressure FSA was forced to release the African Americans of their positions. The goals of the FSA were notoriously liberal and not cohesive with the southern voting elite. </p><p>The wartime <a href="/wiki/Fair_Employment_Practices_Commission" class="mw-redirect" title="Fair Employment Practices Commission">FEPC</a> executive orders that forbade job discrimination against African Americans, women, and ethnic groups was a major breakthrough that brought better jobs and pay to millions of minority Americans. Historians usually treat FEPC as part of the war effort and not part of the New Deal itself. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Women_and_the_New_Deal">Women and the New Deal</h4></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:FERA,_Camps_for_Unemployed_Women,_Maine_-_NARA_-_196588.tif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/FERA%2C_Camps_for_Unemployed_Women%2C_Maine_-_NARA_-_196588.tif/lossy-page1-250px-FERA%2C_Camps_for_Unemployed_Women%2C_Maine_-_NARA_-_196588.tif.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="177" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/FERA%2C_Camps_for_Unemployed_Women%2C_Maine_-_NARA_-_196588.tif/lossy-page1-375px-FERA%2C_Camps_for_Unemployed_Women%2C_Maine_-_NARA_-_196588.tif.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/FERA%2C_Camps_for_Unemployed_Women%2C_Maine_-_NARA_-_196588.tif/lossy-page1-500px-FERA%2C_Camps_for_Unemployed_Women%2C_Maine_-_NARA_-_196588.tif.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1412" /></a><figcaption>FERA camp for unemployed women, Maine, 1934.</figcaption></figure> <p>At first the New Deal created programs primarily for men. It was assumed that the husband was the "<a href="/wiki/Breadwinner_model" title="Breadwinner model">breadwinner</a>" (the provider) and if they had jobs, whole families would benefit. It was the social norm for women to give up jobs when they married; in many states there were laws that prevented both husband and wife holding regular jobs with the government. So too in the relief world, it was rare for both husband and wife to have a relief job on FERA or the WPA.<sup id="cite_ref-126" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This prevailing social norm of the breadwinner failed to take into account the numerous households headed by women, but it soon became clear that the government needed to help women as well.<sup id="cite_ref-127" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Many women were employed on FERA projects run by the states with federal funds. The first New Deal program to directly assist women was the <a href="/wiki/Works_Progress_Administration" title="Works Progress Administration">Works Progress Administration</a> (WPA), begun in 1935. It hired single women, widows, or women with disabled or absent husbands. While men were given unskilled manual labor jobs, usually on construction projects, women were assigned mostly to sewing projects. They made clothing and bedding to be given away to charities and hospitals. Women also were hired for the WPA's school lunch program. </p><p>Both men and women were hired for the arts programs (such as music, theater and writing). The Social Security program was designed to help retired workers and widows, but did not include domestic workers, farmers or farm laborers, the jobs most often held by blacks. Social Security however was not a relief program and it was not designed for short-term needs, as very few people received benefits before 1942. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Charges_of_radicalism">Charges of radicalism</h3></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Charges_of_communism">Charges of communism</h4></div> <p>For right wing Republicans and Democrats the <a href="/wiki/House_Un-American_Activities_Committee" title="House Un-American Activities Committee">House Un-American Activities Committee</a> offered a more effective way to fight the New Deal than opposing the economic and social reforms.<sup id="cite_ref-128" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-129" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The HUAC eagerly pursued evidence that Communists had infiltrated unions and the government. There were some successes like the <a href="/wiki/Alger_Hiss" title="Alger Hiss">Alger Hiss</a> trial,<sup id="cite_ref-130" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Witness_131-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Witness-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>131<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but a lot more unsubstantiated accusations and demagogic attacks that came to be known as <a href="/wiki/McCarthyism" title="McCarthyism">McCarthyism</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Charges_of_fascism">Charges of fascism</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/The_New_Deal_and_corporatism" class="mw-redirect" title="The New Deal and corporatism">The New Deal and corporatism</a></div> <p>Enemies of the New Deal sometimes called it "fascist", but meant very different things. Communists, for example, meant control of the New Deal by big business. Classical liberals and conservatives meant control of big business by bureaucrats (sometimes labeled "socialism," as in <a href="/wiki/Ludwig_von_Mises" title="Ludwig von Mises">Ludwig von Mises</a>' book, <i><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_(book)" title="Liberalism (book)">The Free and Prosperous Commonwealth</a></i>). Former President Herbert Hoover called some New Deal programs "fascist":<sup id="cite_ref-132" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-132"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <blockquote> <p>"Among the early Roosevelt fascist measures was the National Industry Recovery Act (NRA) of June 16, 1933 .... These ideas were first suggested by Gerald Swope (of the General Electric Company)... [and] the United States Chamber of Commerce. During the campaign of 1932, <a href="/wiki/Henry_I._Harriman" title="Henry I. Harriman">Henry I. Harriman</a>, president of that body, urged that I agree to support these proposals, informing me that Mr. Roosevelt had agreed to do so. I tried to show him that this stuff was pure fascism; that it was a remaking of Mussolini's "corporate state" and refused to agree to any of it. He informed me that in view of my attitude, the business world would support Roosevelt with money and influence. That for the most part proved true." </p> </blockquote> <p>Whatever Hoover was told, Roosevelt had <i>not</i> agreed to any such plan.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2013)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> In 1934, Roosevelt defended himself against his critics, and attacked them in his "fireside chat" radio audiences. Some people, he said: </p> <blockquote> <p>will try to give you new and strange names for what we are doing. Sometimes they will call it 'Fascism,' sometimes 'Communism,' sometimes 'Regimentation,' sometimes 'Socialonism.' But, in so doing, they are trying to make very complex and theoretical something that is really very simple and very practical.... Plausible self-seekers and theoretical die-hards will tell you of the loss of individual liberty. Answer this question out of the facts of your own life. Have you lost any of your rights or liberty or constitutional freedom of action and choice?<sup id="cite_ref-Kennedy2_133-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kennedy2-133"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>133<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> </blockquote> <p>Historian John Garraty searched for similarities between the New Deal and fascism without equating these ideas. He wrote that the NRA “was also similar to experiments being carried out by the fascist dictator Benito Mussolini in Italy and by the Nazis in Adolf Hitler’s Germany. It did not, of course, turn America into a fascist state, but it did herald an increasing concentration of economic power in the hands of interest groups, both industrialists’ organizations and labor unions.”<sup id="cite_ref-134" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-134"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>134<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Yet historians such as Hawley (1966) have examined the origins of the NRA in detail, showing the main inspiration came from Senators <a href="/wiki/Hugo_Black" title="Hugo Black">Hugo Black</a> and Robert F. Wagner and from American business leaders such as the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Chamber_of_Commerce" title="United States Chamber of Commerce">Chamber of Commerce</a>. The model for the NRA was Woodrow Wilson's <a href="/wiki/War_Industries_Board" title="War Industries Board">War Industries Board</a>, in which Johnson had been involved too.<sup id="cite_ref-135" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-135"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>135<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Historians argue that there is no distinctive form of fascist economic organization.<sup id="cite_ref-136" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-136"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>136<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Gerald_Feldman" class="mw-redirect" title="Gerald Feldman">Gerald Feldman</a> wrote that fascism has not contributed anything to economic thought and had no original vision of a new economic order replacing capitalism. His argument correlates with Mason´s that economic factors alone are an insufficient approach to understand fascism and that decisions taken by fascists in power cannot be explained within a logical economic framework. Therefore direct comparisons between fascism and New Deal are invalid though both ideas were within the general tendency of the 1930s to intervene in the free-market capitalist economy, at the price of its laissez-faire character, “to protect the capitalist structure endangered by endogenous crises tendencies and processes of impaired self-regulation”.<sup id="cite_ref-137" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-137"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>137<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Stanley_Payne" class="mw-redirect" title="Stanley Payne">Stanley Payne</a>, a leading historian of fascism, explains that fascism had no influence in the United States. Even "the various populist, nativist, and rightist movements in the United States during the 1920s and 1930s fell distinctly short of fascism."<sup id="cite_ref-138" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-138"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>138<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="New_Left_critique">New Left critique</h3></div> <p>For decades the New Deal was generally held in very high regard in the scholarship and the textbooks. That changed in the 1960s when <a href="/wiki/New_Left" title="New Left">New Left</a> historians began a revisionist critique that said the New Deal was a bandaid for a patient that needed radical surgery to reform capitalism, put private property in its place, and lift up workers, women and minorities. The New Left believed in participatory democracy and therefore rejected the autocratic machine politics typical of the big city Democratic organizations.<sup id="cite_ref-139" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-139"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>139<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the 1960s, "<a href="/wiki/New_Left" title="New Left">New Left</a>" historians have been among the New Deal's harsh critics.<sup id="cite_ref-140" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-140"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>140<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Barton J. Bernstein, in a 1968 essay, compiled a chronicle of missed opportunities and inadequate responses to problems. The New Deal may have saved capitalism from itself, Bernstein charged, but it had failed to help – and in many cases actually harmed – those groups most in need of assistance. Paul K. Conkin in <i>The New Deal</i> (1967) similarly chastised the government of the 1930s for its weak policies toward marginal farmers, for its failure to institute sufficiently progressive tax reform, and its excessive generosity toward select business interests. <a href="/wiki/Howard_Zinn" title="Howard Zinn">Howard Zinn</a>, in 1966, criticized the New Deal for working actively to actually preserve the worst evils of capitalism. </p><p>By the 1970s liberal historians were responding with a defense of the New Deal based on numerous local and microscopic studies. Praise increasingly focused on Eleanor Roosevelt, seen as a more appropriate crusading reformer than her husband.<sup id="cite_ref-141" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-141"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>141<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since then research on the New Deal has been less interested in the question of whether the New Deal was a "conservative", "liberal", or "revolutionary" phenomenon than in the question of constraints within which it was operating. </p><p>Political sociologist <a href="/wiki/Theda_Skocpol" title="Theda Skocpol">Theda Skocpol</a>, in a series of articles, has emphasized the issue of "state capacity" as an often-crippling constraint. Ambitious reform ideas often failed, she argued, because of the absence of a government bureaucracy with significant strength and expertise to administer them. Other more recent works have stressed the political constraints that the New Deal encountered. Conservative skepticism about the efficacy of government was strong both in Congress and among many citizens. Thus some scholars have stressed that the New Deal was not just a product of its liberal backers, but also a product of the pressures of its conservative opponents. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Political_metaphor">Political metaphor</h3></div> <p>Since 1933, politicians and pundits have often called for a "new deal" regarding an object. That is, they demand a completely new, large-scale approach to a project. As Arthur A. Ekirch Jr. (1971) has shown, the New Deal stimulated <a href="/wiki/Utopianism" class="mw-redirect" title="Utopianism">utopianism</a> in American political and social thought on a wide range of issues. In Canada, Conservative Prime Minister Richard B. Bennett in 1935 proposed a "new deal" of regulation, taxation, and social insurance that was a copy of the American program; Bennett's proposals were not enacted, and he was defeated for reelection in October 1935. In accordance with the rise of the use of U.S. political phraseology in Britain, the Labour Government of <a href="/wiki/Tony_Blair" title="Tony Blair">Tony Blair</a> has termed some of its employment programs "new deal", in contrast to the Conservative Party's promise of the 'British Dream'. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Evaluation_of_New_Deal_policies">Evaluation of New Deal policies</h2></div> <p>Many historians argue that Roosevelt restored hope and self-respect to tens of millions of desperate people, built labor unions, upgraded the national infrastructure and saved capitalism in his first term when he could have destroyed it and easily nationalized the banks and the railroads.<sup id="cite_ref-142" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-142"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>142<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some critics from the left, however, have denounced Roosevelt for rescuing capitalism when the opportunity was at hand to nationalize banking, railroads and other industries.<sup id="cite_ref-143" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-143"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>143<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Still others have complained that he enlarged the powers of the federal government,<sup id="cite_ref-144" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-144"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>144<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> built up labor unions and weakened the business community. </p><p>Historians generally agree that, apart from building up labor unions, the New Deal did not substantially alter the distribution of power within American capitalism. "The New Deal brought about limited change in the nation's power structure."<sup id="cite_ref-145" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-145"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>145<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The New Deal preserved <a href="/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">Democracy</a> in the United States in an historic period of uncertainty and crises when in many other countries Democracy failed.<sup id="cite_ref-146" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-146"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>146<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fiscal_policy_2">Fiscal policy</h3></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Debt1929-50.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Debt1929-50.jpg/400px-Debt1929-50.jpg" decoding="async" width="400" height="270" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Debt1929-50.jpg/600px-Debt1929-50.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8e/Debt1929-50.jpg 2x" data-file-width="651" data-file-height="440" /></a><figcaption>national debt/ GNP climbs from 20% to 40% under Hoover; levels off under FDR; soars during WW2 from <i>Historical States US</i> (1976).</figcaption></figure> <p>Julian Zelizer (2000) has argued that fiscal conservatism was a key component of the New Deal.<sup id="cite_ref-147" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-147"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>147<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A fiscally conservative approach was supported by <a href="/wiki/Wall_Street" title="Wall Street">Wall Street</a> and local investors and most of the business community; mainstream academic economists believed in it, as apparently did the majority of the public. Conservative southern Democrats, who favored balanced budgets and opposed new taxes, controlled Congress and its major committees. Even liberal Democrats at the time regarded balanced budgets as essential to economic stability in the long run, although they were more willing to accept short-term deficits. As Zelizer notes, public opinion polls consistently showed public opposition to deficits and debt. Throughout his terms, Roosevelt recruited fiscal conservatives to serve in his Administration, most notably <a href="/wiki/Lewis_Douglas" class="mw-redirect" title="Lewis Douglas">Lewis Douglas</a> the Director of Budget in 1933–1934, and <a href="/wiki/Henry_Morgenthau_Jr." title="Henry Morgenthau Jr.">Henry Morgenthau Jr.</a>, Secretary of the Treasury from 1934 to 1945. They defined policy in terms of budgetary cost and tax burdens rather than needs, rights, obligations, or political benefits. Personally the President embraced their fiscal conservatism. Politically, he realized that fiscal conservatism enjoyed a strong wide base of support among voters, leading Democrats, and businessmen. On the other hand, there was enormous pressure to act – and spending money on high visibility work programs with millions of paychecks a week.<sup id="cite_ref-148" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-148"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>148<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Douglas proved too inflexible, and he quit in 1934. Morgenthau made it his highest priority to stay close to Roosevelt, no matter what. Douglas's position, like many of the <a href="/wiki/Old_Right_(United_States)" title="Old Right (United States)">Old Right</a>, was grounded in a basic distrust of politicians and the deeply ingrained fear that government spending always involved a degree of patronage and corruption that offended his Progressive sense of efficiency. The Economy Act of 1933, passed early in the Hundred Days, was Douglas's great achievement. It reduced federal expenditures by $500 million, to be achieved by reducing veterans’ payments and federal salaries. Douglas cut government spending through executive orders that cut the military budget by $125 million, $75 million from the Post Office, $12 million from Commerce, $75 million from government salaries, and $100 million from staff layoffs. As Freidel concludes, "The economy program was not a minor aberration of the spring of 1933, or a hypocritical concession to delighted conservatives. Rather it was an integral part of Roosevelt's overall New Deal."<sup id="cite_ref-149" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-149"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>149<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Revenues were so low that borrowing was necessary (only the richest 3% paid any income tax between 1926 and 1940).<sup id="cite_ref-150" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-150"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>150<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Douglas therefore hated the relief programs, which he said reduced business confidence, threatened the government’s future credit, and had the "destructive psychological effects of making mendicants of self-respecting American citizens".<sup id="cite_ref-151" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-151"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>151<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Roosevelt was pulled toward greater spending by Hopkins and Ickes, and as the 1936 election approached he decided to gain votes by attacking big business. </p><p>Morgenthau shifted with FDR, but at all times tried to inject fiscal responsibility; he deeply believed in balanced budgets, stable currency, reduction of the national debt, and the need for more private investment. The Wagner Act met Morgenthau’s requirement because it strengthened the party’s political base and involved no new spending. In contrast to Douglas, Morgenthau accepted Roosevelt’s double budget as legitimate – that is a balanced regular budget, and an “emergency” budget for agencies, like the WPA, PWA and CCC, that would be temporary until full recovery was at hand. He fought against the veterans’ bonus until Congress finally overrode Roosevelt’s veto and gave out $2.2 billion in 1936. His biggest success was the new Social Security program; he managed to reverse the proposals to fund it from general revenue and insisted it be funded by new taxes on employees. It was Morgenthau who insisted on excluding farm workers and domestic servants from Social Security because workers outside industry would not be paying their way.<sup id="cite_ref-152" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-152"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>152<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Relief_2">Relief</h3></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:This_farmer_is_not_on_government_relief.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/This_farmer_is_not_on_government_relief.jpg/250px-This_farmer_is_not_on_government_relief.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="168" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/This_farmer_is_not_on_government_relief.jpg/375px-This_farmer_is_not_on_government_relief.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/This_farmer_is_not_on_government_relief.jpg/500px-This_farmer_is_not_on_government_relief.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4064" data-file-height="2728" /></a><figcaption>Anti-relief protest sign, near <a href="/wiki/Davenport,_Iowa" title="Davenport, Iowa">Davenport, Iowa</a>, 1940, <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Rothstein" title="Arthur Rothstein">Arthur Rothstein</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>The New Deal expanded the role of the federal government, particularly to help the poor, the unemployed, youth, the elderly, and stranded rural communities. The Hoover adminsitration started the system of funding state relief programs, whereby the states hired people on relief. With the CCC in 1933 and the WPA in 1935 the federal government now became involved in directly hiring people on relief. in granting direct relief or benefits. Total federal, state and local spending on relief rose from 3.9% of GNP in 1929, to 6.4% in 1932, and 9.7% in 1934; the return of prosperity in 1944 lowered the rate to 4.1%. In 1935-40, welfare spending accounted for 49% of the federal, state and local government budgets.<sup id="cite_ref-153" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-153"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>153<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In his memoirs, Milton Friedman said that the New Deal relief programs were an appropriate response. He and his wife were not on relief but they were employed by the WPA as statisticians.<sup id="cite_ref-154" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-154"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>154<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Recovery_2">Recovery</h3></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Keynesian_interpretation">Keynesian interpretation</h4></div> <p>At the beginning of the Great Depression many economists traditionally argued against deficit spending that government spending would "crowd out" private investment and spending and thus not have any effect on the economy, a proposition known as the <a href="/wiki/Treasury_view" title="Treasury view">Treasury view</a>. Keynesian economics rejected that view. They argued that by spending vastly more money—using <a href="/wiki/Fiscal_policy" title="Fiscal policy">fiscal policy</a>—the government could provide the needed stimulus through the <a href="/wiki/Multiplier_effect" class="mw-redirect" title="Multiplier effect">multiplier effect</a>. Without that stimulus business simply would not hire more people, especially the low skilled and supposedly "untrainable" men who had been unemployed for years and lost any job skill they once had. Keynes visited the White House in 1934 to urge President Roosevelt to increase <a href="/wiki/Deficit_spending" title="Deficit spending">deficit spending</a>. Roosevelt afterwards complained that, "he left a whole rigmarole of figures – he must be a mathematician rather than a political economist."<sup id="cite_ref-155" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-155"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>155<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The New Deal tried public works, farm subsidies, and other devices to reduce unemployment, but Roosevelt never completely gave up trying to balance the budget. Between 1933 and 1941 the average federal budget deficit was 3% per year.<sup id="cite_ref-usgovernmentdebt.us_101-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-usgovernmentdebt.us-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Roosevelt did not fully utilize deficit spending. The effects of federal public works spending were largely offset by Herbert Hoovers large tax increase in 1932, whose full effects for the first time were felt in 1933, and it was undercut by spending cuts especially the economy act. According to Keynesians like <a href="/wiki/Paul_Krugman" title="Paul Krugman">Paul Krugman</a> the New Deal therefore was not as successful in the short run as it was in the long run.<sup id="cite_ref-Franklin_Delano_Obama_156-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Franklin_Delano_Obama-156"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>156<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Monetarist_interpretation">Monetarist interpretation</h4></div> <p>In recent years more influential among economists has been the monetarist interpretation of <a href="/wiki/Milton_Friedman" title="Milton Friedman">Milton Friedman</a>, which did include a full-scale monetary history of what he calls the "Great Contraction". Friedman concentrated on the failures before 1933. He pointed out that between 1929 and 1932, the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Reserve" title="Federal Reserve">Federal Reserve</a> allowed the money supply to fall by a third which is seen as the major cause that turned a normal recession into a Great Depression. Friedman specially criticised the decisions of Hoover and the Fed not to save banks going bankrupt. Monetarists state that the banking and monetary reforms were a necessary and sufficient response to the crises. They reject the approach of Keynesian deficit spending. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Economic_growth_and_unemployment_(1933-1941)"><span id="Economic_growth_and_unemployment_.281933-1941.29"></span>Economic growth and unemployment (1933-1941)</h4></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Wpa1.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Wpa1.JPG/250px-Wpa1.JPG" decoding="async" width="250" height="189" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Wpa1.JPG/375px-Wpa1.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Wpa1.JPG/500px-Wpa1.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1361" data-file-height="1028" /></a><figcaption>WPA employed 2 to 3 million unemployed at unskilled labor.</figcaption></figure> <p>In the years 1933 to 1941 the economy expanded at an average rate of 7.7% per year.<sup id="cite_ref-157" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-157"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>157<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite high economic growth rates unemployment fell slowly. </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr class="hintergrundfarbe5"> <th style="width:10.5em; text-align:left;">Unemployment rate<sup id="cite_ref-158" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-158"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>158<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </th> <th style="width:4.5em;">1933 </th> <th style="width:4.5em;">1934 </th> <th style="width:4.5em;">1935 </th> <th style="width:4.5em;">1936 </th> <th style="width:4.5em;">1937 </th> <th style="width:4.5em;">1938 </th> <th style="width:4.5em;">1939 </th> <th style="width:4.5em;">1940 </th> <th style="width:4.5em;">1941 </th></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; text-align:left;">Workers in job creation programs counted as <b>UN</b>employed </td> <td style="text-align: center;">24.9% </td> <td style="text-align: center;">21.7% </td> <td style="text-align: center;">20.1% </td> <td style="text-align: center;">16.9% </td> <td style="text-align: center;">14.3% </td> <td style="text-align: center;">19.0% </td> <td style="text-align: center;">17.2% </td> <td style="text-align: center;">14.6% </td> <td style="text-align: center;">9.9% </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; text-align:left;">Workers in job creation programs counted as <b>employed</b> </td> <td style="text-align: center;">20.6% </td> <td style="text-align: center;">16.0% </td> <td style="text-align: center;">14.2% </td> <td style="text-align: center;">9.9% </td> <td style="text-align: center;">9.1% </td> <td style="text-align: center;">12.5% </td> <td style="text-align: center;">11.3% </td> <td style="text-align: center;">9.5% </td> <td style="text-align: center;">8.0% </td></tr></tbody></table> <p><a href="/wiki/John_Maynard_Keynes" title="John Maynard Keynes">John Maynard Keynes</a> explained that situation as an <a href="/wiki/Underemployment_equilibrium" title="Underemployment equilibrium">Underemployment equilibrium</a> where skeptic business prospects prevent companies from hiring new employees. It was seen as a form of <a href="/wiki/Unemployment#Cyclical_unemployment" title="Unemployment">cyclical unemployment</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-159" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-159"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>159<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There are different assumptions as well. According to <a href="/wiki/Richard_L._Jensen" title="Richard L. Jensen">Richard L. Jensen</a> cyclical unemployment was a grave matter primarily until 1935. Between 1935 und 1941 <a href="/wiki/Structural_unemployment" title="Structural unemployment">structural unemployment</a> became the bigger problem. Especially the unions successes in demanding higher wages pushed management into introducing new efficiency-oriented hiring standards. It ended inefficient labor such as child labor, casual unskilled work for subminimum wages, and sweatshop conditions. In the long term the shift to efficiancy wages led to high productivity, high wages and a high standard of living. But it necessitated a well-educated, well-trained, hard-working labor force. It was not before war time brought full employment that the supply of unskilled labor (that caused structural unemployment) downsized.<sup id="cite_ref-160" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-160"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>160<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Effect_on_the_Depression">Effect on the Depression</h4></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gdp20-40.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Gdp20-40.jpg/350px-Gdp20-40.jpg" decoding="async" width="350" height="237" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Gdp20-40.jpg/525px-Gdp20-40.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/da/Gdp20-40.jpg 2x" data-file-width="614" data-file-height="415" /></a><figcaption>USA GDP annual pattern and long-term trend, 1920-40, in billions of constant dollars.</figcaption></figure> <p>Following the Keynesian consensus (that lasted until the 1970s) the traditional view was that federal fiscal policies associated with the war brought full-employment output while monetary policy was just aiding the process. Challenging the traditional view <a href="/wiki/J._Bradford_DeLong" class="mw-redirect" title="J. Bradford DeLong">J. Bradford DeLong</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Summers" title="Lawrence Summers">Lawrence Summers</a> and <a href="/wiki/Christina_Romer" title="Christina Romer">Christina Romer</a> argue that recovery was essentially complete prior to 1942 and that monetary policy was the crucial source of pre-1942 recovery.<sup id="cite_ref-161" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-161"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>161<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to <a href="/wiki/Peter_Temin" title="Peter Temin">Peter Temin</a>, Barry Wigmore, Gauti B. Eggertsson and <a href="/wiki/Christina_Romer" title="Christina Romer">Christina Romer</a> the biggest primary impact of the New Deal on the economy and the key to recovery and to end the Great Depression was brought about by a successful management of public expectations. Before the first New Deal measures people expected a contractionary economic situation (recession, deflation) to persist. Roosevelt's fiscal and monetary policy regime change helped to make his policy objectives credible. Expectations changed towards an expansionary development (economic growth, inflation). The expectation of higher future income and higher future inflation stimulated demand and investments. The analysis suggests that the elimination of the policy dogmas of the gold standard, balanced budget and small government leaded endogenously to a large shift in expectation that accounts for about 70–80 percent of the recovery of output and prices from 1933 to 1937. If the regime change would not have happened and the Hoover policy would have continued, the economy would have continued its free fall in 1933, and output would have been 30 percent lower in 1937 than in 1933.<sup id="cite_ref-162" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-162"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>162<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-163" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-163"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>163<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Harold L. Cole and Lee E. Ohanian are among those who believe the New Deal caused the Depression to persist longer than it would otherwise have, concluding in a study that the "New Deal labor and industrial policies did not lift the economy out of the Depression as President Roosevelt and his economic planners had hoped," but that the "New Deal policies are an important contributing factor to the persistence of the Great Depression." They claim that the New Deal "cartelization policies are a key factor behind the weak recovery". They say that the "abandonment of these policies coincided with the strong economic recovery of the 1940s".<sup id="cite_ref-Cole_164-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cole-164"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>164<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cole and Ohanian claimed that FDR's policies prolonged the Depression by 7 years.<sup id="cite_ref-165" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-165"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>165<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, Cole and Ohanian's argument relies on hypotheticals, including an unprecedented growth rate necessary to end the Depression by 1936,<sup id="cite_ref-166" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-166"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>166<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-167" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-167"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>167<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and by not counting workers employed through New Deal programs. Such programs built or renovated 2,500 hospitals, 45,000 schools, 13,000 parks and playgrounds, 7,800 bridges, 700,000 miles (1,100,000 km) of roads, 1,000 airfields and employed 50,000 teachers through programs that rebuilt the country's entire rural school system.<sup id="cite_ref-168" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-168"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>168<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-169" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-169"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>169<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Lowell E. Gallaway and Richard K. Vedder argue that the "Great Depression was very significantly prolonged in both its duration and its magnitude by the impact of New Deal programs." They suggest that without Social Security, work relief, unemployment insurance, mandatory minimum wages, and without special government-granted privileges for labor unions, business would have hired more workers and the unemployment rate during the New Deal years would have been 6.7% instead of 17.2%.<sup id="cite_ref-Gallaway_170-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gallaway-170"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>170<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In reply, economic historian <a href="/wiki/J._Bradford_DeLong" class="mw-redirect" title="J. Bradford DeLong">Brad DeLong</a> wrote that there is "literally nothing" to the arguments made by Gallaway and Vedder, and the duo made "flawed conclusions" based on "flawed foundations", and the entire foundation "is made out of mud".<sup id="cite_ref-171" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-171"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>171<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In a survey of economic historians conducted by Robert Whaples, Professor of Economics at <a href="/wiki/Wake_Forest_University" title="Wake Forest University">Wake Forest University</a>, anonymous questionnaires were sent to members of the <i>Economic History Association</i>. Members were asked to either <i>disagree</i>, <i>agree</i>, or <i>agree with provisos</i> with the statement that read: "Taken as a whole, government policies of the New Deal served to lengthen and deepen the Great Depression." While only 6% of economic historians who worked in the history department of their universities agreed with the statement, 27% of those that work in the economics department agreed. Almost an identical percent of the two groups (21% and 22%) agreed with the statement "with provisos" (a conditional stipulation), while 74% of those who worked in the history department, and 51% in the economic department disagreed with the statement outright.<sup id="cite_ref-172" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-172"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>172<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reform_2">Reform</h3></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Wagner-Peyser-Act-1933.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bf/Wagner-Peyser-Act-1933.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="241" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="200" data-file-height="241" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Francis_Perkins" class="mw-redirect" title="Francis Perkins">Francis Perkins</a> looks on as Roosevelt signs the <a href="/wiki/National_Labor_Relations_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="National Labor Relations Act">National Labor Relations Act</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>The economic reforms were mainly intended to rescue the capitalist system by providing a more rational framework in which it could operate. The banking system was made less vulnerable. The regulation of the stock market and the prevention of some corporate abuses relating to the sale of securities and corporate reporting addressed the worst excesses. Roosevelt allowed trade unions to take their place in labor relations and created the triangular partnership between employers, employees and government.<sup id="cite_ref-Peter_Clemens_1954,_p._109_41-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Peter_Clemens_1954,_p._109-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/David_M._Kennedy" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="David M. Kennedy">David M. Kennedy</a> wrote that "the achievements of the New Deal years surely played a role in determining the degree and the duration of the postwar prosperity".<sup id="cite_ref-173" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-173"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>173<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Paul_Krugman" title="Paul Krugman">Paul Krugman</a> stated that the institutions built by the New Deal remain the bedrock of the United States economic stability. Against the background of the <a href="/wiki/2007%E2%80%932012_global_financial_crisis" class="mw-redirect" title="2007–2012 global financial crisis">2007–2012 global financial crisis</a> he explained that the financial crises would have been much worse if the New Deals <a href="/wiki/Federal_Deposit_Insurance_Corporation" title="Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation">Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation</a> had not insured most bank deposits and older Americans would have felt much more insecure without <a href="/wiki/Social_Security_(United_States)" title="Social Security (United States)">Social Security</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Franklin_Delano_Obama_156-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Franklin_Delano_Obama-156"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>156<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Libertarian economist <a href="/wiki/Milton_Friedman" title="Milton Friedman">Milton Friedman</a> after 1960 attacked Social Security from a free market view stating that it had created welfare dependency.<sup id="cite_ref-174" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-174"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>174<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="The_works_of_art_and_music">The works of art and music</h2></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:William_Gropper_-_Construction_of_a_Dam_1939.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/William_Gropper_-_Construction_of_a_Dam_1939.jpg/400px-William_Gropper_-_Construction_of_a_Dam_1939.jpg" decoding="async" width="400" height="122" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/William_Gropper_-_Construction_of_a_Dam_1939.jpg/600px-William_Gropper_-_Construction_of_a_Dam_1939.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/William_Gropper_-_Construction_of_a_Dam_1939.jpg/800px-William_Gropper_-_Construction_of_a_Dam_1939.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1400" data-file-height="427" /></a><figcaption>The federal government commissioned a series of public murals from the artists it employed. <a href="/wiki/William_Gropper" title="William Gropper">William Gropper</a>'s "Construction of a Dam" (1939), is characteristic of much of the art of the 1930s, with workers seen in heroic poses, laboring in unison to complete a great public project.</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Works_Progress_Administration" title="Works Progress Administration">Works Progress Administration</a> subsidized artists, musicians, painters and writers on relief with a group of projects called <a href="/wiki/Federal_One" class="mw-redirect" title="Federal One">Federal One</a>. While the WPA program was by the most widespread, it was preceded by three programs administered by the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_the_Treasury" title="United States Department of the Treasury">US Treasury</a> which hired commercial artists at usual commissions to add murals and sculptures to federal buildings. The first of these efforts was the short-lived <a href="/wiki/Public_Works_of_Art_Project" title="Public Works of Art Project">Public Works of Art Project</a>, organized by <a href="/wiki/Edward_Bruce_(New_Deal)" title="Edward Bruce (New Deal)">Edward Bruce</a>, an American businessman and artist. Bruce also led the Treasury Department's <a href="/wiki/Section_of_Painting_and_Sculpture" title="Section of Painting and Sculpture">Section of Painting and Sculpture</a> (later renamed the Section of Fine Arts) and the Treasury Relief Art Project (TRAP). The <a href="/wiki/Resettlement_Administration" title="Resettlement Administration">Resettlement Administration</a> (RA) and <a href="/wiki/Farm_Security_Administration" title="Farm Security Administration">Farm Security Administration</a> (FSA) had major photography programs. The New Deal arts programs emphasized <a href="/wiki/Regionalism_(art)" title="Regionalism (art)">regionalism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Social_realism" title="Social realism">social realism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Class_conflict" title="Class conflict">class conflict</a>, <a href="/wiki/Proletarian" class="mw-redirect" title="Proletarian">proletarian</a> interpretations, and audience participation. The unstoppable collective powers of common man, contrasted to the failure of <a href="/wiki/Individualism" title="Individualism">individualism</a>, was a favorite theme.<sup id="cite_ref-175" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-175"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>175<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-176" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-176"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>176<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:WPA_Federal_Theater_Project_Created_Equal_Boston_MA_1935.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/WPA_Federal_Theater_Project_Created_Equal_Boston_MA_1935.gif/250px-WPA_Federal_Theater_Project_Created_Equal_Boston_MA_1935.gif" decoding="async" width="250" height="201" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/WPA_Federal_Theater_Project_Created_Equal_Boston_MA_1935.gif/375px-WPA_Federal_Theater_Project_Created_Equal_Boston_MA_1935.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/WPA_Federal_Theater_Project_Created_Equal_Boston_MA_1935.gif/500px-WPA_Federal_Theater_Project_Created_Equal_Boston_MA_1935.gif 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="482" /></a><figcaption>"Created Equal": Act I Scene 3 "Spirit of 1776": Boston (Federal Theater Project, 1935).</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Post_Office_Murals" class="mw-redirect" title="Post Office Murals">Post Office murals</a> and other public art, painted by artists in this time, can still be found at many locations around the U.S.<sup id="cite_ref-M.J.Heale._1999_177-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-M.J.Heale._1999-177"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>177<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The New Deal particularly helped American novelists. For journalists, and the novelists who wrote non-fiction, the agencies and programs that the New Deal provided, allowed these writers to describe about what they really saw around the country.<sup id="cite_ref-178" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-178"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>178<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Many writers chose to write about the New Deal, and whether they were for or against it, and if it was helping the country out. Some of these writers were Ruth McKenney, Edmund Wilson, and Scott Fitzgerald.<sup id="cite_ref-179" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-179"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>179<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another subject that was very popular for novelists was the condition of labor. They ranged from subjects on social protest, to strikes.<sup id="cite_ref-180" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-180"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>180<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Under the WPA, the Federal Theatre project flourished. Countless theatre productions around the country were staged. This allowed thousands of actors and directors to be employed, among them were Orson Welles, and John Huston.<sup id="cite_ref-M.J.Heale._1999_177-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-M.J.Heale._1999-177"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>177<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The FSA photography project is most responsible for creating the image of the Depression in the U.S. Many of the images appeared in popular magazines. The photographers were under instruction from Washington as to what overall impression the New Deal wanted to give out. Director <a href="/wiki/Roy_Stryker" title="Roy Stryker">Roy Stryker</a>'s agenda focused on his faith in <a href="/wiki/Social_engineering_(political_science)" title="Social engineering (political science)">social engineering</a>, the poor conditions among cotton tenant farmers, and the very poor conditions among migrant farm workers; above all he was committed to social reform through New Deal intervention in people's lives. Stryker demanded photographs that "related people to the land and vice versa" because these photographs reinforced the RA's position that poverty could be controlled by "changing land practices". Though Stryker did not dictate to his photographers how they should compose the shots, he did send them lists of desirable themes, such as "church", "court day", "barns".<sup id="cite_ref-181" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-181"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>181<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Films of the late New Deal era such as <i><a href="/wiki/Citizen_Kane" title="Citizen Kane">Citizen Kane</a></i> (1941) ridiculed so-called "great men", while the heroism of the common man appeared in numerous movies, such as <i><a href="/wiki/The_Grapes_of_Wrath_(film)" title="The Grapes of Wrath (film)">The Grapes of Wrath</a></i> (1940). Thus in <a href="/wiki/Frank_Capra" title="Frank Capra">Frank Capra</a>'s famous films, including <i><a href="/wiki/Mr._Smith_Goes_to_Washington" title="Mr. Smith Goes to Washington">Mr. Smith Goes to Washington</a></i> (1939), <i><a href="/wiki/Meet_John_Doe" title="Meet John Doe">Meet John Doe</a></i> (1941) and <i><a href="/wiki/It%27s_a_Wonderful_Life" title="It's a Wonderful Life">It's a Wonderful Life</a></i> (1946), the common people come together to battle and overcome villains who are corrupt politicians controlled by very rich, greedy capitalists.<sup id="cite_ref-182" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-182"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>182<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By contrast there was also a smaller but influential stream of anti-New Deal art. Thus <a href="/wiki/Gutzon_Borglum" title="Gutzon Borglum">Gutzon Borglum</a>'s sculptures on <a href="/wiki/Mount_Rushmore" title="Mount Rushmore">Mount Rushmore</a> emphasized great men in history (his designs had the approval of <a href="/wiki/Calvin_Coolidge" title="Calvin Coolidge">Calvin Coolidge</a>). <a href="/wiki/Gertrude_Stein" title="Gertrude Stein">Gertrude Stein</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ernest_Hemingway" title="Ernest Hemingway">Ernest Hemingway</a> disliked the New Deal and celebrated the <a href="/wiki/Organic_(model)" title="Organic (model)">organic</a> <a href="/wiki/Autonomy" title="Autonomy">autonomy</a> of perfected written work in opposition to the New Deal trope of writing as performative labor. The <a href="/wiki/Southern_Agrarians" title="Southern Agrarians">Southern Agrarians</a> celebrated a premodern regionalism and opposed the TVA as a modernizing, disruptive force. <a href="/wiki/Cass_Gilbert" title="Cass Gilbert">Cass Gilbert</a>, a conservative who believed architecture should reflect historic traditions and the established social order, designed the new Supreme Court building (1935). Its classical lines and small size contrasted sharply with the gargantuan <a href="/wiki/Modernism" title="Modernism">modernistic</a> federal buildings going up in the Washington Mall that he detested.<sup id="cite_ref-183" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-183"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>183<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hollywood managed to synthesize liberal and conservative streams, as in <a href="/wiki/Busby_Berkeley" title="Busby Berkeley">Busby Berkeley</a>'s <i>Gold Digger</i> musicals, where the storylines exalt individual autonomy while the spectacular musical numbers show abstract populations of interchangeable dancers securely contained within patterns beyond their control.<sup id="cite_ref-184" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-184"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>184<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="New_Deal_Programs">New Deal Programs</h2></div> <p>The New Deal had many programs and new agencies, most of which were universally known by their <a href="/wiki/Alphabet_Agencies" class="mw-redirect" title="Alphabet Agencies">initials</a>. Most were abolished during World War II; others remain in operation today. They included the following: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_Finance_Corporation" title="Reconstruction Finance Corporation">Reconstruction Finance Corporation</a> (RFC) a Hoover agency expanded under <a href="/wiki/Jesse_Holman_Jones" class="mw-redirect" title="Jesse Holman Jones">Jesse Holman Jones</a> to make large loans to big business. Ended in 1954.</li></ul> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:WPAAdultEducation.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/WPAAdultEducation.gif/250px-WPAAdultEducation.gif" decoding="async" width="250" height="340" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/WPAAdultEducation.gif/375px-WPAAdultEducation.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/70/WPAAdultEducation.gif 2x" data-file-width="441" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>The WPA hired unemployed teachers to provide free <a href="/wiki/Adult_education" title="Adult education">adult education</a> programs.</figcaption></figure> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Federal_Emergency_Relief_Administration" title="Federal Emergency Relief Administration">Federal Emergency Relief Administration</a> (FERA) a Hoover program to create unskilled jobs for relief; expanded by FDR and <a href="/wiki/Harry_Hopkins" title="Harry Hopkins">Harry Hopkins</a>; replaced by WPA in 1935.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_bank_holiday" class="mw-redirect" title="United States bank holiday">United States bank holiday</a>, 1933: closed all banks until they became certified by federal reviewers</li> <li>Abandonment of <a href="/wiki/Gold_standard" title="Gold standard">gold standard</a>, 1933: gold reserves no longer backed currency; still exists</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civilian_Conservation_Corps" title="Civilian Conservation Corps">Civilian Conservation Corps</a> (CCC), 1933–1942: employed young men to perform unskilled work in rural areas; under <a href="/wiki/United_States_Army" title="United States Army">United States Army</a> supervision; separate program for Native Americans</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Home_Owners%27_Loan_Corporation" title="Home Owners' Loan Corporation">Homeowners Loan Corporation</a> (HOLC) helped people keep their homes, the government bought properties from the bank allowing people to pay the government instead of the banks in installments they could afford, keeping people in their homes and banks afloat.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tennessee_Valley_Authority" title="Tennessee Valley Authority">Tennessee Valley Authority</a> (TVA), 1933: effort to modernize very poor region (most of <a href="/wiki/Tennessee" title="Tennessee">Tennessee</a>), centered on dams that generated electricity on the <a href="/wiki/Tennessee_River" title="Tennessee River">Tennessee River</a>; still exists</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_Adjustment_Act" title="Agricultural Adjustment Act">Agricultural Adjustment Act</a> (AAA), 1933: raised farm prices by cutting total farm output of major crops and livestock; replaced by a new AAA because the Supreme Court ruled it unconstitutional.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Industrial_Recovery_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="National Industrial Recovery Act">National Industrial Recovery Act</a> (NIRA), 1933: industries set up codes to reduce unfair competition, raise wages and prices; ended 1935. The US Supreme Court ruled the NIRA unconstitutional</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_Works_Administration" title="Public Works Administration">Public Works Administration</a> (PWA), 1933: built large public works projects; used private contractors (did not directly hire unemployed). Ended 1938.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_Deposit_Insurance_Corporation" title="Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation">Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation</a> (FDIC) insures bank deposits and supervises state banks; still exists</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glass%E2%80%93Steagall_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Glass–Steagall Act">Glass–Steagall Act</a> regulates investment banking; repealed 1999</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Securities_Act_of_1933" title="Securities Act of 1933">Securities Act of 1933</a>, created the SEC, 1933: codified standards for sale and purchase of stock, required awareness of investments to be accurately disclosed; still exists<figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Federal_Emergency_Relief_Administration,_FERA_camps_for_unemployed_women._Negro_camp_in_Atlanta,_GA_-_NARA_-_196584.tif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Federal_Emergency_Relief_Administration%2C_FERA_camps_for_unemployed_women._Negro_camp_in_Atlanta%2C_GA_-_NARA_-_196584.tif/lossy-page1-250px-Federal_Emergency_Relief_Administration%2C_FERA_camps_for_unemployed_women._Negro_camp_in_Atlanta%2C_GA_-_NARA_-_196584.tif.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="175" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Federal_Emergency_Relief_Administration%2C_FERA_camps_for_unemployed_women._Negro_camp_in_Atlanta%2C_GA_-_NARA_-_196584.tif/lossy-page1-375px-Federal_Emergency_Relief_Administration%2C_FERA_camps_for_unemployed_women._Negro_camp_in_Atlanta%2C_GA_-_NARA_-_196584.tif.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Federal_Emergency_Relief_Administration%2C_FERA_camps_for_unemployed_women._Negro_camp_in_Atlanta%2C_GA_-_NARA_-_196584.tif/lossy-page1-500px-Federal_Emergency_Relief_Administration%2C_FERA_camps_for_unemployed_women._Negro_camp_in_Atlanta%2C_GA_-_NARA_-_196584.tif.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1397" /></a><figcaption>FERA camp for unemployed black women, Atlanta, 1934</figcaption></figure></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Works_Administration" title="Civil Works Administration">Civil Works Administration</a> (CWA), 1933–34: provided temporary jobs to millions of unemployed</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Reorganization_Act" title="Indian Reorganization Act">Indian Reorganization Act</a>, 1934: moved away from assimilation; policy dropped</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_Security_(United_States)" title="Social Security (United States)">Social Security Act</a> (SSA), 1935: provided financial assistance to: elderly, handicapped, paid for by employee and employer payroll contributions; required 7 years contributions, so first payouts were in 1942; still exists</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Works_Progress_Administration" title="Works Progress Administration">Works Progress Administration</a> (WPA), 1935: a national labor program for more than 2 million unemployed; created useful construction work for unskilled men; also sewing projects for women and arts projects for unemployed artists, musicians and writers; ended 1943.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Labor_Relations_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="National Labor Relations Act">National Labor Relations Act</a> (NLRA) / Wagner Act, 1935: set up National Labor Relations Board to supervise labor-management relations; In the 1930s, it strongly favored <a href="/wiki/Trade_union" title="Trade union">labor unions</a>. Modified by the <a href="/wiki/Taft-Hartley_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Taft-Hartley Act">Taft-Hartley Act</a> (1947); still exists</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judicial_Reorganization_Bill" class="mw-redirect" title="Judicial Reorganization Bill">Judicial Reorganization Bill</a>, 1937: gave the President power to appoint a new Supreme Court judge for every judge 70 years or older; failed to pass Congress</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_Crop_Insurance_Corporation" title="Federal Crop Insurance Corporation">Federal Crop Insurance Corporation</a> (FCIC), 1938: Insures crops and livestock against loss of production or revenue. Was restructured during the creation of the <a href="/wiki/Risk_Management_Agency" title="Risk Management Agency">Risk Management Agency</a> in 1996 but continues to exist.</li> <li>Surplus Commodities Program (1936); gives away food to poor; still exists as <a href="/wiki/Supplemental_Nutrition_Assistance_Program" title="Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program">Food Stamp Program</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fair_Labor_Standards_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Fair Labor Standards Act">Fair Labor Standards Act</a> 1938: established a maximum normal work week of 44 hours and a <a href="/wiki/Minimum_wage" title="Minimum wage">minimum wage</a> of 40 cents/hour and outlawed most forms of child labor; still exists, hours have been lowered to 40 hours over the years.</li></ul> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Surplus_Commodities_Program_grocery_display_USA_1936.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Surplus_Commodities_Program_grocery_display_USA_1936.gif/250px-Surplus_Commodities_Program_grocery_display_USA_1936.gif" decoding="async" width="250" height="199" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Surplus_Commodities_Program_grocery_display_USA_1936.gif/375px-Surplus_Commodities_Program_grocery_display_USA_1936.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Surplus_Commodities_Program_grocery_display_USA_1936.gif/500px-Surplus_Commodities_Program_grocery_display_USA_1936.gif 2x" data-file-width="590" data-file-height="470" /></a><figcaption>Surplus Commodities Program, 1936.</figcaption></figure> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rural_Electrification_Administration" class="mw-redirect" title="Rural Electrification Administration">Rural Electrification Administration</a>, (REA)one of the federal executive departments of the United States government charged with providing public utilities (electricity, telephone, water, sewer) to rural areas in the U.S. via public-private partnerships. still exists.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resettlement_Administration" title="Resettlement Administration">Resettlement Administration</a> (RA), Resettled poor tenant farmers; replaced by Farm Security Administration in 1935.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Farm_Security_Administration" title="Farm Security Administration">Farm Security Administration</a> (FSA), Helped poor farmers by a variety of economic and educational programs; still exists as Farmers Home Administration.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Statistics">Statistics</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Depression_statistics">Depression statistics</h3></div> <p>"Most indexes worsened until the summer of 1932, which may be called the low point of the depression economically and psychologically."<sup id="cite_ref-185" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-185"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>185<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Economic indicators show the American economy reached nadir in summer 1932 to February 1933, then began recovering until the recession of 1937–1938. Thus the Federal Reserve <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Production_Index" class="mw-redirect" title="Industrial Production Index">Industrial Production Index</a> hit its low of 52.8 on 1932-07-01 and was practically unchanged at 54.3 on 1933-03-01; however by 1933-07-01, it reached 85.5 (with 1935–39 = 100, and for comparison 2005 = 1,342).<sup id="cite_ref-186" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-186"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>186<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Roosevelt's 12 years in office, the economy had an 8.5% compound annual growth of GDP,<sup id="cite_ref-187" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-187"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>187<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the highest growth rate in the history of any industrial country,<sup id="cite_ref-188" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-188"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>188<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> however, recovery was slow; by 1939, Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per adult was still 27% below trend.<sup id="cite_ref-Cole_164-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cole-164"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>164<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Table 1: Statistics<sup id="cite_ref-189" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-189"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>189<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th> </th> <th>1929 </th> <th>1931 </th> <th>1933 </th> <th>1937 </th> <th>1938 </th> <th>1940 </th></tr> <tr> <td>Real Gross National Product (GNP) (1) </td> <td align="right">101.4 </td> <td align="right">84.3 </td> <td align="right">68.3 </td> <td align="right">103.9 </td> <td align="right">96.7 </td> <td align="right">113.0 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Consumer Price Index (2) </td> <td align="right">122.5 </td> <td align="right">108.7 </td> <td align="right">92.4 </td> <td align="right">102.7 </td> <td align="right">99.4 </td> <td align="right">100.2 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Index of Industrial Production (2) </td> <td align="right">109 </td> <td align="right">75 </td> <td align="right">69 </td> <td align="right">112 </td> <td align="right">89 </td> <td align="right">126 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Money_supply" title="Money supply">Money Supply M2</a> ($ billions) </td> <td align="right">46.6 </td> <td align="right">42.7 </td> <td align="right">32.2 </td> <td align="right">45.7 </td> <td align="right">49.3 </td> <td align="right">55.2 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Exports ($ billions) </td> <td align="right">5.24 </td> <td align="right">2.42 </td> <td align="right">1.67 </td> <td align="right">3.35 </td> <td align="right">3.18 </td> <td align="right">4.02 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Unemployment (% of civilian work force) </td> <td align="right">3.1 </td> <td align="right">16.1 </td> <td align="right">25.2 </td> <td align="right">13.8 </td> <td align="right">16.5 </td> <td align="right">13.9 </td></tr></tbody></table> <ul><li>(1) in 1929 dollars</li> <li>(2) 1935–39 = 100</li></ul> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Table 2: Unemployment<br />(% labor force) </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Year </th> <th>Lebergott </th> <th>Darby </th></tr> <tr> <td>1933 </td> <td align="right">24.9 </td> <td align="right">20.6 </td></tr> <tr> <td>1934 </td> <td align="right">21.7 </td> <td align="right">16.0 </td></tr> <tr> <td>1935 </td> <td align="right">20.1 </td> <td align="right">14.2 </td></tr> <tr> <td>1936 </td> <td align="right">16.9 </td> <td align="right">9.9 </td></tr> <tr> <td>1937 </td> <td align="right">14.3 </td> <td align="right">9.1 </td></tr> <tr> <td>1938 </td> <td align="right">19.0 </td> <td align="right">12.5 </td></tr> <tr> <td>1939 </td> <td align="right">17.2 </td> <td align="right">11.3 </td></tr> <tr> <td>1940 </td> <td align="right">14.6 </td> <td align="right">9.5 </td></tr> <tr> <td>1941 </td> <td align="right">9.9 </td> <td align="right">8.0 </td></tr> <tr> <td>1942 </td> <td align="right">4.7 </td> <td align="right">4.7 </td></tr> <tr> <td>1943 </td> <td align="right">1.9 </td> <td align="right">1.9 </td></tr> <tr> <td>1944 </td> <td align="right">1.2 </td> <td align="right">1.2 </td></tr> <tr> <td>1945 </td> <td align="right">1.9 </td> <td align="right">1.9 </td></tr></tbody></table> <ul><li>Darby counts WPA workers as employed; Lebergott as unemployed</li> <li>Source: <i>Historical Statistics US</i> (1976) series D-86; Smiley 1983<sup id="cite_ref-190" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-190"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>190<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Relief_statistics">Relief statistics</h3></div> <table class="wikitable"> <caption><b>Families on Relief 1936–41</b><br />Relief Cases 1936–1941 (monthly average in 1,000) </caption> <tbody><tr> <td> </td> <th>1936 </th> <th>1937 </th> <th>1938 </th> <th>1939 </th> <th>1940 </th> <th>1941 </th></tr> <tr> <td colspan="7"><i>Workers employed:</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td>WPA </td> <td align="right">1,995 </td> <td align="right">2,227 </td> <td align="right">1,932 </td> <td align="right">2,911 </td> <td align="right">1,971 </td> <td align="right">1,638 </td></tr> <tr> <td>CCC and NYA </td> <td align="right">712 </td> <td align="right">801 </td> <td align="right">643 </td> <td align="right">793 </td> <td align="right">877 </td> <td align="right">919 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Other federal work projects </td> <td align="right">554 </td> <td align="right">663 </td> <td align="right">452 </td> <td align="right">488 </td> <td align="right">468 </td> <td align="right">681 </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="7"><i>Public assistance cases:</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Social security programs </td> <td align="right">602 </td> <td align="right">1,306 </td> <td align="right">1,852 </td> <td align="right">2,132 </td> <td align="right">2,308 </td> <td align="right">2,517 </td></tr> <tr> <td>General relief </td> <td align="right">2,946 </td> <td align="right">1,484 </td> <td align="right">1,611 </td> <td align="right">1,647 </td> <td align="right">1,570 </td> <td align="right">1,206 </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>Total families helped</i> </td> <td align="right">5,886 </td> <td align="right">5,660 </td> <td align="right">5,474 </td> <td align="right">6,751 </td> <td align="right">5,860 </td> <td align="right">5,167 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Unemployed workers (Bur Lab Stat) </td> <td align="right">9,030 </td> <td align="right">7,700 </td> <td align="right">10,390 </td> <td align="right">9,480 </td> <td align="right">8,120 </td> <td align="right">5,560 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Coverage (cases/unemployed) </td> <td align="right">65% </td> <td align="right">74% </td> <td align="right">53% </td> <td align="right">71% </td> <td align="right">72% </td> <td align="right">93% </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <p><a href="/w/index.php?title=Template:Wikipedia_books&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Template:Wikipedia books (page does not exist)">Template:Wikipedia books</a> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arthurdale,_West_Virginia" title="Arthurdale, West Virginia">Arthurdale, West Virginia</a>, New Deal planned community.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_the_United_States" title="Liberalism in the United States">Liberalism in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_liberalism_in_the_United_States" title="Modern liberalism in the United States">Modern liberalism in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_New_Deal_and_the_arts_in_New_Mexico" class="mw-redirect" title="The New Deal and the arts in New Mexico">The New Deal and the arts in New Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Great_Depression" title="Timeline of the Great Depression">Timeline of the Great Depression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_welfare_state" class="mw-redirect" title="United States welfare state">United States welfare state</a></li></ul> <p><b>General:</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Interest_group_democracy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Interest group democracy (page does not exist)">Interest group democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mixed_economy" title="Mixed economy">Mixed economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_liberalism" title="Social liberalism">Social liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_safety_net" title="Social safety net">Social safety net</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welfare_economics" title="Welfare economics">Welfare economics</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Berkin, Miller, Cherny, Gormly, Making America, Houghton Mifflin Company, 2008, ISBN 9780618980659, p. 737</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFDavid_Edwin_Harrell2005" class="citation book cs1">David Edwin Harrell; et al. (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://books.google.com/books?id=ssSHokISMd8C&pg=PA902"><i>Unto A Good Land: A History Of The American People</i></a>. Wm. B. Eerdmans. pp. 902–.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Unto+A+Good+Land%3A+A+History+Of+The+American+People&rft.pages=902-&rft.pub=Wm.+B.+Eerdmans&rft.date=2005&rft.au=David+Edwin+Harrell&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DssSHokISMd8C%26pg%3DPA902&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANew+Deal" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment">Explicit use of et al. in: <code class="cs1-code">|author=</code> (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#explicit_et_al" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlonzo_L._Hamby2004" class="citation book cs1">Alonzo L. Hamby (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://books.google.com/books?id=XlxWV5C8saEC&pg=PA418"><i>For the Survival of Democracy: Franklin Roosevelt and the World Crisis of the 1930s</i></a>. Simon and Schuster. p. 418.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=For+the+Survival+of+Democracy%3A+Franklin+Roosevelt+and+the+World+Crisis+of+the+1930s&rft.pages=418&rft.pub=Simon+and+Schuster&rft.date=2004&rft.au=Alonzo+L.+Hamby&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DXlxWV5C8saEC%26pg%3DPA418&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANew+Deal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kennedy, <i>Freedom from Fear</i> (1999) ch 12</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Roderick_P._Hart_2001_46-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Roderick_P._Hart_2001_46_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Roderick_P._Hart_2001_46_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoderick_P._Hart2001" class="citation book cs1">Roderick P. Hart (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://books.google.com/books?id=U44JMDQO8IoC&pg=PA46"><i>Politics, Discourse, and American Society: New Agendas</i></a>. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 46.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Politics%2C+Discourse%2C+and+American+Society%3A+New+Agendas&rft.pages=46&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield&rft.date=2001&rft.au=Roderick+P.+Hart&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DU44JMDQO8IoC%26pg%3DPA46&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANew+Deal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Martha Derthick, <i>The Politics of Deregulation</i> (1985), p. 5-8</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kennedy,_1999_p._87-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kennedy,_1999_p._87_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kennedy,_1999_p._87_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Kennedy, <i>Freedom From Fear</i> (1999) p. 87</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMary_Beth_Norton2009" class="citation book cs1">Mary Beth Norton; et al. (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://books.google.com/books?id=129rne8WpyoC&pg=PA656"><i>A People and a Nation: A History of the United States. Since 1865</i></a>. Cengage. p. 656.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+People+and+a+Nation%3A+A+History+of+the+United+States.+Since+1865&rft.pages=656&rft.pub=Cengage&rft.date=2009&rft.au=Mary+Beth+Norton&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D129rne8WpyoC%26pg%3DPA656&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANew+Deal" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment">Explicit use of et al. in: <code class="cs1-code">|author=</code> (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#explicit_et_al" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">March 4 was a Saturday and banks were not open on weekends. On Monday FDR officially closed all banks. Arthur Schlesinger, Jr. <i>The Coming of the New Deal</i> (1959), p. 3; Brands, <i>Traitor to his class</i> (2008) p. 288.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jonathan Alter, <i>The Defining Moment: FDR's Hundred Days and the Triumph of Hope</i>, esp. ch 31. (2007); Bureau of the Census, <i>Historical Statistics of the United States</i> (1977) series K220, N301.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-leamer2001-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-leamer2001_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLaurence_Leamer2001" class="citation book cs1">Laurence Leamer (2001). <i>The Kennedy Men: 1901–1963</i>. HarperCollins. p. 86.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Kennedy+Men%3A+1901%E2%80%931963&rft.pages=86&rft.pub=HarperCollins&rft.date=2001&rft.au=Laurence+Leamer&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANew+Deal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The phrase was perhaps borrowed from the title of <a href="/wiki/Stuart_Chase" title="Stuart Chase">Stuart Chase</a>'s book <i>A New Deal</i> published in February 1932 and serialized in the <i>New Republic</i> that summer. Gary Dean Best, <i>Peddling panaceas: popular economists in the New Deal era</i> (2005) p. 117</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,743953,00.html">"The Roosevelt Week"</a>, <a href="/wiki/Time_(magazine)" title="Time (magazine)"><i>Time</i></a>, New York, July 11, 1932</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Leuchtenburg pp 33–35.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Leuchtenburg1-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Leuchtenburg1_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Leuchtenburg p. 58.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDowney2009" class="citation book cs1">Downey, Kirstin (2009). <i>The Woman Behind the New Deal; The Life of Frances Perkins, FDR's Secretary of Labor and His Moral Conscience</i>. New York: Nan A. Talese, an imprint of The Doubleday Publishing Group, a division of Random House, Inc.,. p. 1. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-385-51365-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-385-51365-4"><bdi>978-0-385-51365-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Woman+Behind+the+New+Deal%3B+The+Life+of+Frances+Perkins%2C+FDR%27s+Secretary+of+Labor+and+His+Moral+Conscience&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=1&rft.pub=Nan+A.+Talese%2C+an+imprint+of+The+Doubleday+Publishing+Group%2C+a+division+of+Random+House%2C+Inc.%2C&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-385-51365-4&rft.aulast=Downey&rft.aufirst=Kirstin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANew+Deal" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: extra punctuation (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_extra_punctuation" title="Category:CS1 maint: extra punctuation">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Leuchtenburg p. 34.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Leuchtenburg p. 188.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bernard Bellush, <i>The Failure of the NRA</i> (1975)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Arthur Crawford, <i>Monetary management under the new deal</i> (1940) p 240</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kennedy, <i>Freedom From Fear</i> (1999) p 364}}</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Statement_on_Efforts_to_Balance_the_Budget_March_8,_1932-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Statement_on_Efforts_to_Balance_the_Budget_March_8,_1932_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=23478">"Herbert Hoover: Statement on Efforts to Balance the Budget"</a>. Presidency.ucsb.edu. March 8, 1932<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 7,</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Herbert+Hoover%3A+Statement+on+Efforts+to+Balance+the+Budget&rft.pub=Presidency.ucsb.edu&rft.date=1932-03-08&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.presidency.ucsb.edu%2Fws%2Findex.php%3Fpid%3D23478&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANew+Deal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.dartmouth.edu/~dirwin/1937.pdf">http://www.dartmouth.edu/~dirwin/1937.pdf</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://axiomaticeconomics.com/Wreckage_Austrian_Business_Cycle_Theory_by_Aguilar.pdf">"The Wreckage of Austrian Business Cycle Theory by Victor Aguilar"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 7,</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Wreckage+of+Austrian+Business+Cycle+Theory+by+Victor+Aguilar&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Faxiomaticeconomics.com%2FWreckage_Austrian_Business_Cycle_Theory_by_Aguilar.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANew+Deal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Charles KindIeberger Manias, Panics, and Crashes: A History of Financial Crises</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Robert Skidelsky, The Great Depression: Keyne´s Perspective in: Elisabeth Müller-Luckner, Harold James, The Interwar Depression in an International Context, Oldenbourg, 2002, ISBN 978-3486566109, p. 99</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Defending_Krugman:_The_Importance_of_Keynesian_Economics-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Defending_Krugman:_The_Importance_of_Keynesian_Economics_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nextnewdeal.net/rediscovering-government/defending-krugman-importance-keynesian-economics">"Defending Krugman: The Importance of Keynesian Economics"</a>. Next New Deal<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 7,</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Defending+Krugman%3A+The+Importance+of+Keynesian+Economics&rft.pub=Next+New+Deal&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nextnewdeal.net%2Frediscovering-government%2Fdefending-krugman-importance-keynesian-economics&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANew+Deal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Allen, Ralph (1961), <i>Ordeal by Fire: Canada, 1910–1945</i>, ch 37.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.teara.govt.nz/1966/H/HistoryEconomic/LabourPolicy/en">"History, Economic—Labour Policy—1966 Encyclopaedia of New Zealand"</a>. Teara.govt.nz<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 11,</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=History%2C+Economic%E2%80%94Labour+Policy%E2%80%941966+Encyclopaedia+of+New+Zealand&rft.pub=Teara.govt.nz&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.teara.govt.nz%2F1966%2FH%2FHistoryEconomic%2FLabourPolicy%2Fen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANew+Deal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Arthur_M._Schlesinger" class="mw-redirect" title="Arthur M. Schlesinger">Arthur M. Schlesinger</a>, <i>The coming of the New Deal, 1933–1935</i>, Houghton Mifflin, 2003, ISBN 978-0-618-34086-6, S. 22</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1">"NPG Historical U.S. Population Growth: 1900–1998".</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=NPG+Historical+U.S.+Population+Growth%3A+1900%E2%80%931998&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANew+Deal" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_journal" title="Template:Cite journal">cite journal</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment">Cite journal requires <code class="cs1-code">|journal=</code> (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#missing_periodical" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span>; <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment">Unknown parameter <code class="cs1-code">|unused_data=</code> ignored (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#parameter_ignored" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Leuchtenburg p. 45–46; Robert Paul Browder and Thomas G. Smith, <i>Independent: A Biography of Lewis W. Douglass</i> (1986)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Leuchtenburg p. 171; Raymond Moley, <i>The First New Deal</i> (1966)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Leuchtenburg p. 171, 245–6; Herbert Stein, <i>Presidential economics: The making of economic policy from Roosevelt to Reagan and beyond</i> (1984)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">R. W. Hafer, <i>The Federal Reserve System</i> (Greenwood, 2005) p 18</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Ben_Bernanke" title="Ben Bernanke">Ben Bernanke</a>, "Nonmonetary effects of the financial crisis in the propagation of the Great Depression", (1983) <i>American Economic Review</i> . Am 73#3 257–76.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,745289,00.html">"THE PRESIDENCY: Bottom"</a>. <i>Time</i>. March 13, 1933<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 11,</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Time&rft.atitle=THE+PRESIDENCY%3A+Bottom&rft.date=1933-03-13&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.time.com%2Ftime%2Fprintout%2F0%2C8816%2C745289%2C00.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANew+Deal" class="Z3988"></span><span style="font-size:0.95em; font-size:95%; color: var( --color-subtle, #555 )">(subscription required)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMilton_FriedmanAnna_Jacobson_Schwartz1963" class="citation book cs1">Milton Friedman; Anna Jacobson Schwartz (1963). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://books.google.com/books?id=Q7J_EUM3RfoC&pg=PA427"><i>A Monetary History of the United States, 1867–1960</i></a>. Princeton University Press. pp. 438–9. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-00354-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-00354-2"><bdi>978-0-691-00354-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Monetary+History+of+the+United+States%2C+1867%E2%80%931960&rft.pages=438-9&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1963&rft.isbn=978-0-691-00354-2&rft.au=Milton+Friedman&rft.au=Anna+Jacobson+Schwartz&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQ7J_EUM3RfoC%26pg%3DPA427&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANew+Deal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Susan E. Kennedy, <i>The Banking Crisis of 1933</i> (1973)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kennedy, <i>Freedom From Fear</i> (1999) pp. 65, 366</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Peter_Clemens_1954,_p._109-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Peter_Clemens_1954,_p._109_41-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Peter_Clemens_1954,_p._109_41-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Peter_Clemens_1954,_p._109_41-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Peter Clemens, Prosperity, Depression and the New Deal: The USA 1890–1954, Hodder Education, 4. Auflage, 2008, ISBN 978-0-340-965887, p. 109</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-meltzer442-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-meltzer442_42-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-meltzer442_42-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMeltzer2004" class="citation journal cs1">Meltzer, Allan H. (2004). "A History of the Federal Reserve: 1913–1951": 442–446.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=A+History+of+the+Federal+Reserve%3A+1913%E2%80%931951&rft.pages=442-446&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=Meltzer&rft.aufirst=Allan+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANew+Deal" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_journal" title="Template:Cite journal">cite journal</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment">Cite journal requires <code class="cs1-code">|journal=</code> (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#missing_periodical" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Olivier Blanchard und Gerhard Illing, Makroökonomie, Pearson Studium, 5. Auflage, 2009, ISBN 978-3827373632, p. 696</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kennedy, <i>Freedom From Fear</i> (1999) p. 367</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Leuchtenburg, <i>Franklin D. Roosevelt and the New Deal</i> pp 46–47</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Norman_Lowe_P.117-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Norman_Lowe_P.117_46-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Norman_Lowe_P.117_46-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Norman_Lowe_P.117_46-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Norman_Lowe_P.117_46-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Norman_Lowe_P.117_46-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Mastering Modern World History by Norman Lowe, second edition, P.117</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Leuchtenburg p. 70, 133–34; Jason Scott Smith, <i>Building New Deal Liberalism: The Political Economy of Public Works, 1933–1956</i> (2005)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Time-Life Books, Library of Nations: United States, Sixth European English language printing, 1989<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (December 2011)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Paul S. Boyder, <i>The Oxford Companion to United States History</i>, Oxford University Press, 2001, ISBN 0-19-508209-5, p. 20, 21</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Peter Clemens, Prosperity, Depression and the New Deal: The USA 1890–1954, Hodder Education, 2008, ISBN 978-0-340-965887, p. 106</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Schlesinger, <i>Coming of the New Deal</i> p p27–84</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ronald L. Heinemann, <i>Depression and New Deal in Virginia.</i> (1983) p. 107</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Paul_S._Boyder_2001,_p._21-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Paul_S._Boyder_2001,_p._21_53-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Paul_S._Boyder_2001,_p._21_53-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Paul S. Boyder, <i>The Oxford Companion to United States History</i>, Oxford University Press, 2001, ISBN 0-19-508209-5, p. 21</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://visualizingeconomics.com/2008/05/04/average-income-in-the-united-states-1913-2006/">"Average Income in the United States (1913-2006) — Visualizing Economics"</a>. Visualizingeconomics.com. May 3, 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 7,</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Average+Income+in+the+United+States+%281913-2006%29+%E2%80%94+Visualizing+Economics&rft.pub=Visualizingeconomics.com&rft.date=2008-05-03&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fvisualizingeconomics.com%2F2008%2F05%2F04%2Faverage-income-in-the-united-states-1913-2006%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANew+Deal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Peter Clemens, Prosperity, Depression and the New Deal: The USA 1890–1954, Hodder Education, 4. Auflage, 2008, ISBN 978-0-340-965887, p. 137</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Badger, <i>New Deal</i> pp 89. 153–57. for price data and farm income see <i>Statistical Abstract 1940</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.census.gov/prod/www/abs/statab1901-1950.htm">online</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://library.mises.org/books/John%20T%20Flynn/The%20Roosevelt%20Myth.pdf">"The Roosevelt Myth"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. p. 48<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 7,</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Roosevelt+Myth&rft.pages=48&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flibrary.mises.org%2Fbooks%2FJohn%2520T%2520Flynn%2FThe%2520Roosevelt%2520Myth.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANew+Deal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Rethinking1-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Rethinking1_58-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Barry Cushman, <i>Rethinking the New Deal Court</i> (1998) p. 34</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Rachel Louise Moran, "Consuming Relief: Food Stamps and the New Welfare of the New Deal," <i>Journal of American History,</i> March 2011, Vol. 97 Issue 4, pp 1001–1022 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://jah.oxfordjournals.org/content/97/4/1001.short">online</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Data was obtained from the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.census.gov/prod/www/abs/statab.html">U.S. Census Bureau, <i>Statistical Abstract</i></a> and converted into SVG format by me. The numbers come from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www2.census.gov/prod2/statcomp/documents/CT1970p1-05.pdf">this U.S. Census document</a>, page 17, column 127. Note that the graph only covers factory employment.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-The_Great_Depression-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-The_Great_Depression_61-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-The_Great_Depression_61-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Gene Smiley, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.econlib.org/LIBRARY/Enc/GreatDepression.html">The Great Depression</a>. The Concise Encyclopedia of Economics.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bernard Bellush, <i>The Failure of the NRA,</i> (1976)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Arthur Schlesinger, Jr. <i>The Coming of the New Deal</i> (1959), 87–135</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Federal Reserve System, <i>National Summary of Business Conditions</i> (1936)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Arthur Meier Schlesinger, Jr. The Coming of the New Deal, Houghton Mifflin Books (2003), p. 115</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The Handbook of Texas Online: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/CC/mlc3.html">Connally Hot Oil Act of 1935</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged October 2008">dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">David Kennedy, "What the New Deal Did". <i>Political Science Quarterly</i> (1969( 124, no. 2: 251–268.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Robert Whaples, "Where Is There Consensus Among American Economic Historians? The Results of a Survey on Forty Propositions", <i>Journal of Economic History</i>, Vol. 55, No. 1 (Mar., 1995), S. 139–154 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jstor.org/stable/2123771">in JSTOR</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-economist-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-economist_69-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.economist.com/finance/displaystory.cfm?story_id=12798595">"The Battle of Smoot-Hawley"</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Economist" title="The Economist">The Economist</a></i>, December 18, 2008</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Economist&rft.atitle=The+Battle+of+Smoot-Hawley&rft.date=2008-12-18&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.economist.com%2Ffinance%2Fdisplaystory.cfm%3Fstory_id%3D12798595&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANew+Deal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hiscox-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Hiscox_70-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHiscox1999" class="citation journal cs1">Hiscox, Michael J. (Autumn). "The Magic Bullet? The RTAA, Institutional Reform, and Trade Liberalization". <i>International Organization</i>. <b>53</b> (4): 669–698.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Organization&rft.atitle=The+Magic+Bullet%3F+The+RTAA%2C+Institutional+Reform%2C+and+Trade+Liberalization&rft.volume=53&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=669-698&rft.aulast=Hiscox&rft.aufirst=Michael+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANew+Deal" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_journal" title="Template:Cite journal">cite journal</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment">Check date values in: <code class="cs1-code">|date=</code> and <code class="cs1-code">|year=</code> / <code class="cs1-code">|date=</code> mismatch (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#bad_date" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">David M. Kennedy, <i>Freedom From Fear, The American People in Depression and War 1929–1945</i>, (1999) p. 260</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">David M. Kennedy,<i>Freedom From Fear, The American People in Depression and War 1929–1945</i>, (1999) p. 258</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sitkoff, ed. <i>Fifty Years Later: The New Deal Evaluated</i> (1984)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMary_Beth_Norton2009" class="citation book cs1">Mary Beth Norton; et al. 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Cengage. p. 670.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+People+and+a+Nation%3A+A+History+of+the+United+States.+Since+1865&rft.pages=670&rft.pub=Cengage&rft.date=2009&rft.au=Mary+Beth+Norton&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D129rne8WpyoC%26pg%3DPA670&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANew+Deal" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment">Explicit use of et al. in: <code class="cs1-code">|author=</code> (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#explicit_et_al" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">David M. Kennedy, Freedom From Fear, The American People in Depression and War 1929–1945, Oxford University Press, 1999, ISBN 0-19-503834-7, p. 291</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Colin Gordon, New Deals: Business, Labor, and Politics in America, 1920-1935, Cambridge University Press, 1. Auflage 1994, ISBN 978-0521457552, p. 225</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kennedy, <i>Freedom From Fear</i> pp 250–252</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Peter Fearon, <i>War, Prosperity, and Depression</i> (1987)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMary_Beth_Norton2009" class="citation book cs1">Mary Beth Norton; et al. (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://books.google.com/books?id=129rne8WpyoC&pg=PA669"><i>A People and a Nation: A History of the United States. Since 1865</i></a>. Cengage. p. 669.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+People+and+a+Nation%3A+A+History+of+the+United+States.+Since+1865&rft.pages=669&rft.pub=Cengage&rft.date=2009&rft.au=Mary+Beth+Norton&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D129rne8WpyoC%26pg%3DPA669&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANew+Deal" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment">Explicit use of et al. in: <code class="cs1-code">|author=</code> (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#explicit_et_al" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kennedy, <i>Freedom From Fear</i> p. 252</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Deward Clayton Brown, <i>Electricity for Rural America: The Fight for the REA</i> (1980)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lorraine_Brown_1979,_pp_18-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lorraine_Brown_1979,_pp_18_82-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lorraine_Brown_1979,_pp_18_82-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Lorraine Brown, "Federal Theatre: Melodrama, Social Protest, and Genius," <i>U.S. Library of Congress Quarterly Journal,</i> 1979, Vol. 36 Issue 1, pp 18–37</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliam_D._Pederson2011" class="citation book cs1">William D. 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Wiley. p. 224.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Companion+to+Franklin+D.+Roosevelt&rft.pages=224&rft.pub=Wiley&rft.date=2011&rft.au=William+D.+Pederson&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dr4-UnSYARiMC%26pg%3DPT224&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANew+Deal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hemming, Heidi and Julie Hemming Savage, <i>Women Making America</i>, Clotho Press, 2009, pp. 243–44.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sue Bridwell Beckham, <i>Depression Post Office Murals and Southern Culture: A Gentle Reconstruction</i> (1989)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">'<i><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a><b></b></i></span><i><b> <span class="reference-text">David M. Kennedy, </span></b>Freedom From Fear, The American People in Depression and War 1929–1945</i>, Oxford University Press, 1999, ISBN 0-19-503834-7, p. 275, 276 </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">John K. McNulty, <i>Unintegrated Corporate and Individual Income Taxes: USA</i>, in: Paul Kirchhof et al., <i>International and Comparative Taxation</i>, Kluwer Law International, 2002, ISBN 90-411-9841-5, p. 173</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">David M. Kennedy, <i>Freedom From Fear, The American People in Depression and War 1929–1945</i>, Oxford University Press, 1999, ISBN 0-19-503834-7, p. 280</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Benjamin Graham. Security Analysis: The Classic 1940 Edition. McGraw-Hill Professional, 2002. pp. 386–287</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">John K. McNulty, <i>Unintegrated Corporate and Individual Income Taxes: USA</i>, in: <a href="/wiki/Paul_Kirchhof" title="Paul Kirchhof">Paul Kirchhof</a> et al., International and Comparative Taxation, Kluwer Law International, 2002, ISBN 90-411-9841-5, p. 173</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">R. Alan Lawson, <i>A Commonwealth of Hope: The New Deal Response to Crisis</i>, Johns Hopkins University Press, 2006, ISBN 978-0801884061, S. 165</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Peter Clemens, Prosperity, Depression and the New Deal: The USA 1890–1954, Hodder Education, 4. Auflage, 2008, ISBN 978-0-340-965887, p. 172</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeuchtenburg1995" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/William_Leuchtenburg" title="William Leuchtenburg">Leuchtenburg, William E.</a> (1995). <i>The Supreme Court Reborn: The Constitutional Revolution in the Age of Roosevelt</i>. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 156–161. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-511131-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-511131-6"><bdi>978-0-19-511131-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Supreme+Court+Reborn%3A+The+Constitutional+Revolution+in+the+Age+of+Roosevelt&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=156-161&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-19-511131-6&rft.aulast=Leuchtenburg&rft.aufirst=William+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANew+Deal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRehnquist2004" class="citation journal cs1">Rehnquist, William H. (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://heinonline.org/HOL/Page?collection=journals&handle=hein.journals/urich38&id=591">"Judicial Independence Dedicated to Chief Justice Harry L. Carrico: Symposium Remarks"</a>. <i>University of Richmond Law Review</i>. <b>38</b>: 579–596.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=University+of+Richmond+Law+Review&rft.atitle=Judicial+Independence+Dedicated+to+Chief+Justice+Harry+L.+Carrico%3A+Symposium+Remarks&rft.volume=38&rft.pages=579-596&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=Rehnquist&rft.aufirst=William+H.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fheinonline.org%2FHOL%2FPage%3Fcollection%3Djournals%26handle%3Dhein.journals%2Furich38%26id%3D591&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANew+Deal" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_journal" title="Template:Cite journal">cite journal</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment">More than one of <code class="cs1-code">|at=</code> and <code class="cs1-code">|pages=</code> specified (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#redundant_parameters" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kennedy, <i>Freedom From Fear</i> p. 352</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Leuchtenburg pp. 242-3, 272–74</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Reed-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Reed_97-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Reed, Lawrence W. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mackinac.org/archives/1998/sp1998-01.pdf"><i>Great Myths of the Great Depression</i></a> Mackinac Center for Public Policy.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hadley Cantril and Mildred Strunk, <i>Public Opinion, 1935–1946</i> (Princeton University Press, 1951), pp. 61–64.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Leuchtenburg p. 242–3</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Marie Bussing-Burks, <i>Deficit: Why Should I Care?</i>, Apress, ISBN 978-1430236597, p.46</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-usgovernmentdebt.us-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-usgovernmentdebt.us_101-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-usgovernmentdebt.us_101-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.usgovernmentdebt.us/spending_chart_1900_2016USp_G0f">http://www.usgovernmentdebt.us/spending_chart_1900_2016USp_G0f</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kennedy, <i>Freedom From Fear</i> p 352</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kennedy1-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Kennedy1_103-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kennedy p 352</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Leuchtenburg p. 244–46</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Leuchtenburg p. 256–7</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">GNP was $99.7 billion in 1940 and $210.1 billion in 1944.<i>Historical Statistics</i> (1976) series F1.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Richard J. Jensen, "The Causes and Cures of Unemployment in the Great Depression", <i>Journal of Interdisciplinary History</i> (1989) 19#4 pp 553–83. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jstor.org/stable/203954">in JSTOR</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFD'Ann_Campbell1984" class="citation book cs1">D'Ann Campbell (1984). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://books.google.com/books?id=eA0-AAAAMAAJ"><i>Women at war with America: private lives in a patriotic era</i></a>. Harvard University Press. pp. 110–15.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Women+at+war+with+America%3A+private+lives+in+a+patriotic+era&rft.pages=110-15&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1984&rft.au=D%27Ann+Campbell&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DeA0-AAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANew+Deal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Vatter, <i>The U.S. Economy in World War II</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Curtis E. Harvey, <i>Coal in Appalachia: an economic analysis</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ssa.gov/history/1940.html">"Social Security Online"</a>. Ssa.gov<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 5,</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Social+Security+Online&rft.pub=Ssa.gov&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ssa.gov%2Fhistory%2F1940.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANew+Deal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Michael J. Bennett, <i>When Dreams Came True: The GI Bill and the Making of Modern America</i> (1999)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-113"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kennedy, <i>Freedom from Fear</i> ch 18</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-114"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">America in our time: from World War II to Nixon—what happened and why by Godfrey Hodgson</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Morgan,_1994,_p._12-115"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Morgan,_1994,_p._12_115-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Morgan,_1994,_p._12_115-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Iwan Mc. Morgan, <i>Beyond the Liberal Consensus: Political History of the United States Since 1965</i>, C Hurst & Co Publishers Ltd, 1994, ISBN 978-1850652045, p. 12</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-116"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jefferson Cowie and Nick Salvatore, "The Long Exception: Rethinking the Place of the New Deal in American History," <i>International Labor & Working-Class History</i>, (2008) 74:3–32</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-117"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Nancy MacLean, "Getting New Deal History Wrong," <i>International Labor & Working-Class History</i>(2008) 74:49–55</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jennifer Klein, "A New Deal Restoration: Individuals, Communities, and the Long Struggle for the Collective Good," <i>International Labor & Working-Class History</i> (2008) 74:42–48</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-119"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Iwan Mc. Morgan, <i>Beyond the Liberal Consensus: Political History of the United States Since 1965</i>, C Hurst & Co Publishers Ltd, 1994, ISBN 978-1850652045, p. 14</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-120"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Iwan Mc. Morgan, <i>Beyond the Liberal Consensus: Political History of the United States Since 1965</i>, C Hurst & Co Publishers Ltd, 1994, ISBN 978-1850652045, p. 17</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-121"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Michael S. Mayer, <i>The Eisenhower Years</i>, 2010, ISBN 978-0-8160-5387-2, p. xii</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-122"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Blaine T. Browne,Robert C. Cottrell, <i>Modern American Lives: Individuals and Issues in American History Since 1945</i>, M.E. Sharp. Inc., 2008, ISBN 978-0-7656-2222-8, Seite 164</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sitkoff1-123"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Sitkoff1_123-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sitkoff1_123-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Sitkoff (2008)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sitkoff (2008); Nancy J. Weiss, <i>Farewell to the Party of Lincoln: Black Politics in the Age of FDR</i> (1983)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-125"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ira Katznelson, <i>When Affirmative Action was White</i> (2005).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-126"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Children in the family were allowed to hold CCC or NYA jobs—indeed, CCC jobs were normally given to young men whose fathers were on relief. Young women were eligible for NYA jobs which began in 1935.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-127"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Susan Ware, <i>Beyond Suffrage: Women in the New Deal</i> (1987)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-128"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <a href="/wiki/Ellen_Schrecker" title="Ellen Schrecker">Ellen Schrecker</a>, <i>The Age of McCarthyism: A Brief History With Documents</i> (2002), ISBN 0-312-29425-5, p.15</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-129"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Susan L. Brinson, The Red Scare, Politics, and the Federal Communications Commission, 1941-1960, ISBN Praeger Publishers, 2004, ISBN 0-275-97859-1, p. 63</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-130"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <a href="/wiki/Ellen_Schrecker" title="Ellen Schrecker">Ellen Schrecker</a>, <i>The Age of McCarthyism: A Brief History With Documents</i> (2002), p.15; <a href="/wiki/Sam_Tanenhaus" title="Sam Tanenhaus">Sam Tanenhaus</a>. <i>Whittaker Chambers: A Biography</i> (1997)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Witness-131"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Witness_131-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChambers1952" class="citation book cs1">Chambers, Whittaker (1952). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://lccn.loc.gov/52005149"><i>Witness</i></a>. New York: Random House. p. 799. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7369-1175-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-7369-1175-8"><bdi>0-7369-1175-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/525149">525149</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Witness&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=799&rft.pub=Random+House&rft.date=1952&rft.isbn=0-7369-1175-8&rft.aulast=Chambers&rft.aufirst=Whittaker&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flccn.loc.gov%2F52005149&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANew+Deal" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment">Check <code class="cs1-code">|lccn=</code> value (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#bad_lccn" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-132"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-132">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Herbert Hoover, <i>Memoirs</i> 3:420</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kennedy2-133"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Kennedy2_133-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kennedy 1999, p 246.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-134"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-134">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">John Garraty (1979), "The American Nation: A History of the United States Since 1865," p. 656</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-135"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-135">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ellis Hawley, <i>The New Deal and the Problem of Monopoly</i>, Princeton University Press, 1966, ISBN 0-8232-1609-8, p. 23</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-136"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-136">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Daniel Woodley, <i>Fascism and Political Theory: Critical Perspectives on Fascist Ideology</i>, Routledge Chapman & Hall, 2010, ISBN 978-0-203-87157-7, p.160, 161</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-137"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-137">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Daniel Woodley, <i>Fascism and Political Theory: Critical Perspectives on Fascist Ideology</i>, Routledge Chapman & Hall, 2010, ISBN 978-0-203-87157-7, p.160, 161</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-138"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-138">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Stanley Payne, <i>History of Fascism</i> (1995) p. 350.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-139"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-139">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jerold S. Auerbach, "New Deal, Old Deal, or Raw Deal: Some Thoughts on New Left Historiography," <i>Journal of Southern History</i> (1969) 35#1 pp. 18–30 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jstor.org/stable/2204748">in JSTOR</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-140"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-140">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For a list of relevant works, see the list of suggested readings appearing toward the bottom of the article.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-141"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-141">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Thomas A. Krueger, "New Deal Historiography at Forty," <i>Reviews in American History</i> (1975) 3#4 pp. 483–488 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jstor.org/stable/2701507">in JSTOR</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-142"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-142">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sitkoff (1984)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-143"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-143">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Paul K. Conkin</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-144"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-144">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ira Katznelson and Mark Kesselman, <i>The Politics of Power</i>, 1975</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-145"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-145">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Quote from Mary Beth Norton, et al. <i>A People and a Nation: A History of the United States</i> (1994), 2:783. See also Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr. <i>The Coming of the New Deal, 1933–1935</i> (1958) p. ix; Seymour Martin Lipset and Gary Marks, "How FDR Saved Capitalism", in <i>It Didn’t Happen Here: Why Socialism Failed in the United States</i> (2001); Eric Rauchway, <i>The Great Depression and the New Deal</i> (2007), p. 86, 93–7; Cass R. Sunstein, <i>The Second Bill of Rights: FDR's Unfinished Revolution,</i> (2006) pp 129–30; C. Wright Mills, <i>The Power Elite</i> (1959) 272–74; David Edwin Harrell, Jr. et al. <i>Unto a Good Land: A History of the American People</i> (2005) p. 921; William Leuchtenburg, <i>The White House Looks South</i> (2005) p. 121; Robert S. McElvaine, <i>The Great Depression: America, 1929–1941</i> (1993) p. 168; Alan Brinkley, <i>Liberalism and Its Discontents</i> (1998) p. 66.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-146"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-146">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mary Beth Norton, Carol Sheriff und David M. Katzman, A People and a Nation: A History of the United States, Volume II: Since 1865, Wadsworth Inc Fulfillment, 2011, ISBN 978-0495915904, p. 681</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-147"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-147">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Julian E. Zelizer, "The Forgotten Legacy of the New Deal: Fiscal Conservatism and the Roosevelt Administration, 1933‐1938," 'Presidential Studies Quarterly,<i> (2000) 30#2. (2000). pp 331+ <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=5001752830">online</a></i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-148"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-148">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Zelizer, "The Forgotten Legacy of the New Deal: Fiscal Conservatism and the Roosevelt Administration, 1933‐1938"</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-149"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-149">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Freidel 1990, p. 96</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-150"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-150">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">U.S. Bureau of the Census. <i>Statistical Abstract of the United States: 1946.</i> p. 321.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-151"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-151">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Zelizer</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-152"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-152">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Zelizer 2000; Savage 1998</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-153"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-153">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> Bureau of the Census, <i>Historical Statistics of the United States</i> (1975) p. 340 series H1 and H2</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-154"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-154">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMilton_FriedmanRose_D._Friedman1999" class="citation book cs1">Milton Friedman; Rose D. Friedman (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://books.google.com/books?id=Ennh28taSiEC&pg=PA59"><i>Two Lucky People: Memoirs</i></a>. U. of Chicago Press. p. 59.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Two+Lucky+People%3A+Memoirs&rft.pages=59&rft.pub=U.+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.au=Milton+Friedman&rft.au=Rose+D.+Friedman&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DEnnh28taSiEC%26pg%3DPA59&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANew+Deal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-155"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-155">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">W. Elliot Brownlee, <i>Federal Taxation in America: A Short History</i> (2004) p, 103</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Franklin_Delano_Obama-156"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Franklin_Delano_Obama_156-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Franklin_Delano_Obama_156-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">New York Times, Paul Krugman, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nytimes.com/2008/11/10/opinion/10krugman.html?_r=1">Franklin Delano Obama?</a>, November 10, 2008</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-157"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-157">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBureau_of_the_Census1975" class="citation book cs1">Bureau of the Census (1975). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://books.google.com/books?id=6IhUAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA217"><i>Historical statistics of the United States, colonial times to 1970</i></a>. pp. 217–8.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Historical+statistics+of+the+United+States%2C+colonial+times+to+1970&rft.pages=217-8&rft.date=1975&rft.au=Bureau+of+the+Census&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D6IhUAAAAMAAJ%26pg%3DPA217&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANew+Deal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-158"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-158">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gene Smiley, "Recent Unemployment Rate Estimates for the 1920s and 1930s", <i>Journal of Economic History</i> (1983) 43#2 pp. 487–93. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jstor.org/pss/2120839">In JSTOR</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-159"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-159">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">David M. Kennedy, Freedom From Fear, The American People in Depression and War 1929–1945, Oxford University Press, 1999, ISBN 0-19-503834-7, p. 249</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-160"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-160">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jensen, Richard J. "The Causes and Cures of Unemployment in the Great Depression", <i>Journal of Interdisciplinary History</i> 19 (1989) 553–83. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jstor.org/stable/203954">in JSTOR</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-161"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-161">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">J.R. Vernon: World War II fiscal policies and the end of the Great Depression; Journal of Economic History, Vol. 54, No. 4, 1994, p. 850– 868, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jstor.org/discover/10.2307/2123613?uid=3737864&uid=2&uid=4&sid=47699081879977">JSTOR</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-162"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-162">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gauti B. Eggertsson, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aeaweb.org/articles.php?doi=10.1257/aer.98.4.1476"><i>Great Expectations and the End of the Depression</i></a>, American Economic Review 2008, 98:4, 1476–1516</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-163"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-163">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The New York Times, Christina Romer, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nytimes.com/2012/10/21/business/how-the-fiscal-stimulus-helped-and-could-have-done-more.html?hp&_r=0">The Fiscal Stimulus, Flawed but Valuable</a>, October 20, 2012</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Cole-164"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Cole_164-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cole_164-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Cole, Harold L and Ohanian, Lee E. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.economics.hawaii.edu/research/seminars/02-03/02-21.pdf"><i>New Deal Policies and the Persistence of the Great Depression: A General Equilibrium Analysis</i></a>, 2004.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-165"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-165">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://newsroom.ucla.edu/portal/ucla/FDR-s-Policies-Prolonged-Depression-5409.aspx?RelNum=5409">FDR's Policies Prolonged Depression by 7 Years, UCLA Economists Calculate</a>, ucla.edu, 8/10/2004</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-166"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-166">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRosenberg" class="citation web cs1">Rosenberg, Paul. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.openleft.com/showDiary.do?diaryId=10644">"A Brief Peek At UCLA's Anti-FDR Propaganda"</a>. Open Left<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 11,</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=A+Brief+Peek+At+UCLA%27s+Anti-FDR+Propaganda&rft.pub=Open+Left&rft.aulast=Rosenberg&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.openleft.com%2FshowDiary.do%3FdiaryId%3D10644&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANew+Deal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-167"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-167">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRosenberg" class="citation web cs1">Rosenberg, Paul. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.openleft.com/diary/10664/">"More Perspective On Great Depression / FDR"</a>. Open Left<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 11,</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=More+Perspective+On+Great+Depression+%2F+FDR&rft.pub=Open+Left&rft.aulast=Rosenberg&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.openleft.com%2Fdiary%2F10664%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANew+Deal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-168"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-168">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.salon.com/technology/how_the_world_works/2009/02/02/the_new_deal_worked">"The right-wing New Deal conniption fit SalonRevisionist historians and economists keep trying to stomp on FDR's legacy. But declaring that WPA workers were unemployed is just silly"</a>. Salon.com. February 2, 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 11,</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+right-wing+New+Deal+conniption+fit+SalonRevisionist+historians+and+economists+keep+trying+to+stomp+on+FDR%27s+legacy.+But+declaring+that+WPA+workers+were+unemployed+is+just+silly&rft.pub=Salon.com&rft.date=2009-02-02&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.salon.com%2Ftechnology%2Fhow_the_world_works%2F2009%2F02%2F02%2Fthe_new_deal_worked&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANew+Deal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-169"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-169">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nber.org/papers/w0088.pdf">"Darby, Michael R. "Three-And-A-Half Million U.S. Employees Have Been Mislaid: Or, An Explanation of Unemployment, 1934–1941", <i>Journal of Political Economy</i> (1976) 84#1 pp. 1–16"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 5,</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Darby%2C+Michael+R.+%22Three-And-A-Half+Million+U.S.+Employees+Have+Been+Mislaid%3A+Or%2C+An+Explanation+of+Unemployment%2C+1934%E2%80%931941%22%2C+Journal+of+Political+Economy+%281976%29+84%231+pp.+1%E2%80%9316&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nber.org%2Fpapers%2Fw0088.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANew+Deal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gallaway-170"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Gallaway_170-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Gallaway, Lowell E. and Vedder, Richard K. </i>Out of Work: Unemployment and Government in Twentieth-Century America<i>, New York University Press; Updated edition (July 1997).</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-171"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-171">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://econ161.berkeley.edu/Econ_articles/Reviews/vedder.html">"It Doesn't Work:A Review of Out of Work: Unemployment and Government in Twentieth-Century America"</a>. Econ161.berkeley.edu<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 11,</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=It+Doesn%27t+Work%3AA+Review+of+Out+of+Work%3A+Unemployment+and+Government+in+Twentieth-Century+America&rft.pub=Econ161.berkeley.edu&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fecon161.berkeley.edu%2FEcon_articles%2FReviews%2Fvedder.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANew+Deal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-172"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-172">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Robert Whaples, "Where Is There Consensus Among American Economic Historians? The Results of a Survey on Forty Propositions", <i>Journal of Economic History</i>, Vol. 55, No. 1 (Mar., 1995), pp. 139–154 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jstor.org/stable/2123771">in JSTOR</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-173"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-173">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">David M. Kennedy, 'Freedom From Fear, The American People in Depression and War 1929 - 1945, Oxford University Press, 1999, ISBN 0-19-503834-7, p. 363</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-174"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-174">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMilton_FriedmanRose_D._Friedman1962" class="citation book cs1">Milton Friedman; Rose D. Friedman (1962). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://books.google.com/books?id=zHSv4OyuY1EC&pg=PA182"><i>Capitalism and Freedom: Fortieth Anniversary Edition</i></a>. U. of Chicago Press. pp. 182–87.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Capitalism+and+Freedom%3A+Fortieth+Anniversary+Edition&rft.pages=182-87&rft.pub=U.+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1962&rft.au=Milton+Friedman&rft.au=Rose+D.+Friedman&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DzHSv4OyuY1EC%26pg%3DPA182&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANew+Deal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-175"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-175">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mathews 1975</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-176"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-176">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">William E. Leuchtenbrg. <i>The FDR Years: On Roosevelt and his Legacy</i>(New York: Columbia University Press, 1995), 243.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-M.J.Heale._1999-177"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-M.J.Heale._1999_177-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-M.J.Heale._1999_177-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">M.J.Heale. <i>Franklin. D. Roosevelt: The New Deal and War</i> (London, 1999)36</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-178"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-178">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">John Braeman, Robert H. Bremner, David Brody. <i>The New Deal: The National Level</i> (Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1975)310.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-179"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-179">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">John Braeman, Robert H. Bremner, David Brody. <i>The New Deal: The National Level</i> (Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1975)312.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-180"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-180">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">John Braeman, Robert H. Bremner, David Brody. <i>The New Deal: The National Level</i> (Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1975)314.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-181"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-181">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cara A. Finnegan. <i>Picturing Poverty: Print Culture and FSA Photographs</i> (Smithsonian Books, 2003) pp 43–44</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-182"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-182">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Harry M. Benshoff, Sean Griffin, <i>America on film: representing race, class, gender, and sexuality at the movies</i> (2003) pp 172–4</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-183"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-183">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Geoffrey Blodgett, "Cass Gilbert, Architect: Conservative at Bay," <i>Journal of American History,</i> December 1985, Vol. 72 Issue 3, pp 615–636 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jstor.org/pss/1904306">in JSTOR</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-184"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-184">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Szalay 2000</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-185"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-185">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mitchell, p. 404.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-186"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-186">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://research.stlouisfed.org/fred2/data/INDPRO.txt">"Industrial Production Index"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 11,</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Industrial+Production+Index&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fresearch.stlouisfed.org%2Ffred2%2Fdata%2FINDPRO.txt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANew+Deal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-187"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-187">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Historical Statistics of the United States</i> (1976) series F31</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-188"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-188">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Angus Maddison, <i>The World Economy: Historical Statistics</i> (OECD 2003); Japan is close, see p 174</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-189"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-189">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">U.S. Dept of Commerce, National Income and Product Accounts <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.huppi.com/kangaroo/GDPreal.htm">Real GDP and GNP</a>; Mitchell 446, 449, 451;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.econdataus.com/cpi_m2.html">Consumer Price Index AND M2 Money Supply: 1800–2003</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-190"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-190">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Smiley, Gene, "Recent Unemployment Rate Estimates for the 1920s and 1930s", <i>Journal of Economic History,</i> June 1983, 43, 487–93.</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Surveys">Surveys</h3></div> <ul><li>Badger, Anthony J. <i>The New Deal: The Depression Years, 1933–1940.</i> (2002) general survey from British perspective</li> <li>Chafe, William H. ed. <i>The Achievement of American Liberalism: The New Deal and its Legacies</i> (2003)</li> <li>Conkin, Paul K. <i>The New Deal.</i> (1967), a brief New Left critique.</li> <li>Dubofsky, Melvyn, ed. <i>The New Deal: Conflicting Interpretations and Shifting Perspectives.</i> (1992), reader</li> <li>Eden, Robert, ed. <i>New Deal and Its Legacy: Critique and Reappraisal</i> (1989), essays by scholars</li> <li>Hiltzik, Michael. <i>The New Deal: A Modern History</i> (2011), popular history by journalist; 512pp</li> <li>Leuchtenburg, William E. <i>Franklin D. Roosevelt and the New Deal, 1932–1940</i>. (1963). A standard interpretive history.</li> <li>Kennedy, David M. "What the New Deal Did," <i>Political Science Quarterly,</i> 124 (Summer 2009), 251–68.</li> <li>Kennedy, David M. <i>Freedom From Fear: The American People in Depression and War, 1929–1945.</i> (1999), survey; Pulitzer Prize</li> <li>Kirkendall, Richard S. "The New Deal As Watershed: The Recent Literature", <i>The Journal of American History,</i> Vol. 54, No. 4. (Mar., 1968), pp. 839–852. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jstor.org/stable/1918073">in JSTOR</a>, historiography</li> <li>McElvaine Robert S. <i>The Great Depression</i> 2nd ed (1993), social history</li> <li>Polenberg, Richard. "The Era of Franklin D. Roosevelt 1933–1945 A Brief History with Documents" ISBN 0-312-13310-3</li> <li>Schlesinger, Arthur M. Jr., <i>The Age of Roosevelt</i>, 3 vols, (1957–1960), the classic narrative history.</li> <li>Shlaes, Amity. <i>The Forgotten Man: A New History of the Great Depression</i> (2007)</li> <li>Sitkoff, Harvard. ed. <i>Fifty Years Later: The New Deal Evaluated.</i> (1984). A friendly liberal evaluation.</li> <li>Wecter, Dixon. <i>The Age of the Great Depression, 1929–1941</i> (1948), social history</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Biographies">Biographies</h3></div> <ul><li>Beasley, Maurine H., Holly C. Shulman, Henry R. Beasley. <i>The Eleanor Roosevelt Encyclopedia</i> (2001)</li> <li>Brands, H.W. <i>Traitor to His Class: The Privileged Life and Radical Presidency of Franklin Delano Roosevelt</i> (2008)</li> <li>Charles, Searle F. <i>Minister of Relief: Harry Hopkins and the Depression</i> (1963)</li> <li>Cohen, Adam, <i>Nothing to Fear: FDR's Inner Circle and the Hundred Days that Created Modern America</i> (2009)</li> <li>Graham, Otis L. and Meghan Robinson Wander, eds. <i>Franklin D. Roosevelt: His Life and Times.</i> (1985). An encyclopedic reference.</li> <li>Ingalls, Robert P. <i>Herbert H. Lehman and New York's Little New Deal</i> (1975)</li> <li>Pederson, William D. ed. <i>A Companion to Franklin D. Roosevelt</i> (Blackwell Companions to American History) (2011); 35 essays by scholars; many deal with politics</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Economics,_farms,_labor,_relief"><span id="Economics.2C_farms.2C_labor.2C_relief"></span>Economics, farms, labor, relief</h3></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Irving_Bernstein" title="Irving Bernstein">Bernstein, Irving</a>. <i>Turbulent Years: A History of the American Worker, 1933–1941</i> (1970), cover labor unions</li> <li>Best, Gary Dean. <i>Pride, Prejudice, and Politics: Roosevelt Versus Recovery, 1933–1938.</i> (1990) ISBN 0-275-93524-8; conservative perspective</li> <li>Blumberg Barbara. <i>The New Deal and the Unemployed: The View from New York City</i> (1977).</li> <li>Bremer William W. "Along the American Way: The New Deal's Work Relief Programs for the Unemployed". <i>Journal of American History</i> 62 (December 1975): 636–652. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jstor.org/stable/2936218">in JSTOR</a></li> <li>Brock William R. <i>Welfare, Democracy and the New Deal</i> (1988), a British view</li> <li>Burns, Helen M. <i>The American Banking Community and New Deal Banking Reforms, 1933–1935</i> (1974)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burton_W._Folsom,_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="Burton W. Folsom, Jr.">Folsom, Burton</a>. <i>New Deal or Raw Deal? : How FDR's Economic Legacy has Damaged America</i> (2008) ISBN 1-4165-9222-9, conservative interpretation</li> <li>Gordon, Colin. <i>New Deals: Business, Labor, and Politics, 1920–1935</i> (1994)</li> <li>Grant, Michael Johnston. <i>Down and Out on the Family Farm: Rural Rehabilitation in the Great Plains, 1929–1945</i> (2002)</li> <li>Hawley, Ellis W. <i>The New Deal and the Problem of Monopoly</i> (1966)</li> <li>Howard, Donald S. <i>The WPA and Federal Relief Policy</i> (1943)</li> <li>Huibregtse, Jon R. <i>American Railroad Labor and the Genesis of the New Deal, 1919–1935; (University Press of Florida; 2010; 172 pages)</i></li> <li>Jensen, Richard J. "The Causes and Cures of Unemployment in the Great Depression", <i>Journal of Interdisciplinary History</i> 19 (1989) 553–83. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jstor.org/stable/203954">in JSTOR</a></li> <li>Leff, Mark H. <i>The Limits of Symbolic Reform: The New Deal and Taxation</i> (1984)</li> <li>Lindley, Betty Grimes and Ernest K. Lindley. <i>A New Deal for Youth: The Story of the National Youth Administration</i> (1938)</li> <li>Mathews, Jane De Hart. "Arts and the People: The New Deal Quest for a Cultural Democracy", <i>Journal of American History</i> 62 (1975): 316–39, in JSTOR</li> <li>Malamud; Deborah C. "'Who They Are—or Were': Middle-Class Welfare in the Early New Deal" <i>University of Pennsylvania Law Review</i> v 151 No. 6 2003. pp 2019+.</li> <li>McKinzie, Richard. <i>The New Deal for Artists</i> (1984), well illustrated scholarly study</li> <li>Meriam; Lewis. <i>Relief and Social Security</i> The Brookings Institution. 1946. Highly detailed analysis and statistical summary of all New Deal relief programs</li> <li>Mitchell, Broadus. <i>Depression Decade: From New Era through New Deal, 1929–1941</i> (1947), survey by economic historian</li> <li>Parker, Randall E. <i>Reflections on the Great Depression</i> (2002) interviews with 11 leading economists</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jim_Powell_(historian)" title="Jim Powell (historian)">Powell, Jim</a> <i>FDR's Folly: How Roosevelt and His New Deal Prolonged the Great Depression</i> (2003) ISBN 0-7615-0165-7</li> <li>Rosenof, Theodore. <i>Economics in the Long Run: New Deal Theorists and Their Legacies, 1933–1993</i> (1997)</li> <li>Rosen, Elliot A. <i>Roosevelt, the Great Depression, and the Economics of Recovery</i> (2005) ISBN 0-8139-2368-9</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rothbard,_Murray" class="mw-redirect" title="Rothbard, Murray">Rothbard, Murray</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/America%27s_Great_Depression" title="America's Great Depression">America's Great Depression</a></i> (1963). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mises.org/rothbard/agd.pdf">ibertarian critique</a></li> <li>Saloutos, Theodore. <i>The American Farmer and the New Deal</i> (1982).</li> <li>Singleton, Jeff. <i>The American Dole: Unemployment Relief and the Welfare State in the Great Depression</i> (2000)</li> <li>Skocpol, Theda, and Kenneth Finegold. "State Capacity and Economic Intervention in the Early New Deal". <i>Political Science Quarterly</i> 97 (1982): 255–78. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jstor.org/stable/2149478">at JSTOR</a></li> <li>Skocpol, Theda, and Kenneth Finegold. "Explaining New Deal Labor Policy" <i>American Political Science Reform</i> (1977) 84:1297–1304 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jstor.org/pss/1963265">in JSTOR</a></li> <li>Zelizer; Julian E. "The Forgotten Legacy of the New Deal: Fiscal Conservatism and the Roosevelt Administration, 1933–1938" <i>Presidential Studies Quarterly</i> (2000) 30#2 pp: 331+.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Politics">Politics</h3></div> <ul><li>Alswang, John. <i>The New Deal and American Politics</i> (1978), voting analysis</li> <li>Alter, Jonathan. <i>The Defining Moment: FDR's Hundred Days and the Triumph of Hope</i> (2006), popular account</li> <li>Badger, Anthony J. <i>FDR: The First Hundred Days</i> (2008)</li> <li>Badger, Anthony J. <i>New Deal / New South: An Anthony J. Badger Reader</i> (2007)</li> <li>Bernstein, Barton J. "The New Deal: The Conservative Achievements of Liberal Reform". In Barton J. Bernstein, ed., <i>Towards a New Past: Dissenting Essays in American History</i>, pp. 263–88. (1968), an influential New Left attack on the New Deal.</li> <li>Best, Gary Dean. <i>The Critical Press and the New Deal: The Press Versus Presidential Power, 1933–1938</i> (1993) ISBN 0-275-94350-X</li> <li>Best, Gary Dean. <i>Retreat from Liberalism: Collectivists versus Progressives in the New Deal Years</i> (2002) ISBN 0-275-94656-8</li> <li>Brinkley, Alan. <i>The End of Reform: New Deal Liberalism in Recession and War.</i> (1995) what happened after 1937</li> <li>Cobb, James and Michael Namaroto, eds. <i>The New Deal and the South</i> (1984).</li> <li>Conklin, Paul K. "The Myth of New Deal Radicalism" in <i>Myth America: A Historical Anthology, Volume II</i>. 1997. Gerster, Patrick, and Cords, Nicholas. (editors.) Brandywine Press, ISBN 1-881089-97-5</li> <li>Domhoff, G. William, and Michael J. Webber. <i>Class and Power in the New Deal: Corporate Moderates, Southern Democrats, and the Liberal-Labor Coalition</i> (Stanford University Press; 2011) 304 pages; uses class dominance theory to examine the Agricultural Adjustment Act, the National Labor Relations Act, and the Social Security Act.</li> <li>Ekirch Jr., Arthur A. <i>Ideologies and Utopias: The Impact of the New Deal on American Thought</i> (1971)</li> <li>Fraser, Steve and Gary Gerstle, eds., <i>The Rise and Fall of the New Deal Order,</i> (1989), essays focused on the long-term results.</li> <li>Garraty, John A. "The New Deal, National Socialism, and the Great Depression", <i>American Historical Review,</i> (1973) 78#4 pp. 907–44. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jstor.org/stable/1858346">in JSTOR</a></li> <li>Higgs, Robert. <i>Crisis and Leviathan: Critical Episodes in the Growth of American Government</i> (1987), libertarian critique</li> <li>Ladd, Everett Carll and Charles D. Hadley. <i>Transformations of the American Party System: Political Coalitions from the New Deal to the 1970s</i> (1975), voting behavior</li> <li>Lowitt, Richard. <i>The New Deal and the West</i> (1984).</li> <li>Manza; Jeff. "Political Sociological Models of the U.S. New Deal" <i>Annual Review of Sociology: 2000</i>, 26 (2000): 297–322.</li> <li>Milkis, Sidney M. and Jerome M. Mileur, eds. <i>The New Deal and the Triumph of Liberalism</i> (2002)</li> <li>Patterson, James T. <i>The New Deal and the States: Federalism in Transition</i> (Princeton UP, 1969).</li> <li>Sitkoff, Harvard. <i>A New Deal for Blacks: The Emergence of Civil Rights as a National Issue: The Depression Decade</i> (2008)</li> <li>Smith, Jason Scott. <i>Building New Deal Liberalism: The Political Economy of Public Works, 1933–1956</i> (2005).</li> <li>Sternsher, Bernard ed., <i>Hitting Home: The Great Depression in Town and Country</i> (1970), essays by scholars on local history</li> <li>Szalay, Michael. <i>New Deal Modernism: American Literature and the Invention of the Welfare State</i> (2000)</li> <li>Tindall George B. <i>The Emergence of the New South, 1915–1945</i> (1967). survey of entire South</li> <li>Trout Charles H. <i>Boston, the Great Depression, and the New Deal</i> (1977)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVenn1998" class="citation book cs1">Venn, Fiona (1998). <i>The New Deal</i>. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-57958-145-5" title="Special:BookSources/1-57958-145-5"><bdi>1-57958-145-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+New+Deal&rft.place=Edinburgh&rft.pub=Edinburgh+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=1-57958-145-5&rft.aulast=Venn&rft.aufirst=Fiona&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANew+Deal" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Ware, Susan. <i>Beyond Suffrage: Women and the New Deal</i> (1981)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Primary_sources">Primary sources</h3></div> <ul><li>Bureau of the Census, <i>Statistical Abstract of the United States: 1951</i> (1951) full of useful data; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www2.census.gov/prod2/statcomp/documents/1951-01.pdf">online</a></li> <li>Bureau of the Census, <i>Historical Statistics of the United States: Colonial Times to 1970</i> (1976) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www2.census.gov/prod2/statcomp/documents/CT1970p1.zip">part 1 online</a>; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www2.census.gov/prod2/statcomp/documents/CT1970p2.zip">part 2 online</a></li> <li>Cantril, Hadley and Mildred Strunk, eds. <i>Public Opinion, 1935–1946</i> (1951), massive compilation of many public opinion polls</li> <li>Carter, Susan B. et al. eds. <i>The Historical Statistics of the United States</i> (6 vol: Cambridge UP, 2006); huge compilation of statistical data; online at some universities</li> <li>Gallup, George Horace, ed. <i>The Gallup Poll; Public Opinion, 1935–1971</i> 3 vol (1972) summarizes results of each poll.</li> <li>Lowitt, Richard and Beardsley Maurice, eds. <i>One Third of a Nation: Lorena Hickock Reports on the Great Depression</i> (1981)</li> <li>Moley, Raymond. <i>After Seven Years</i> (1939), conservative memoir by ex-Brain Truster</li> <li>Nixon, Edgar B. ed. <i>Franklin D. Roosevelt and Foreign Affairs</i> (3 vol 1969), covers 1933–37. 2nd series 1937–39 available on microfiche and in a 14 vol print edition at some academic libraries.</li> <li>Roosevelt, Franklin D.; Rosenman, Samuel Irving, ed. <i>The Public Papers and Addresses of Franklin D. Roosevelt</i> (13 vol, 1938, 1945); public material only (no letters); covers 1928–1945.</li> <li>Zinn, Howard, ed. <i>New Deal Thought</i> (1966), a compilation of primary sources.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:New_Deal" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:New Deal">New Deal</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/34px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="34" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/51px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/68px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikiquote has quotations related to <i><b><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/New_Deal" class="extiw" title="q:Special:Search/New Deal">New Deal</a></b></i>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://americanart.si.edu/exhibitions/archive/2009/1934/">The Smithsonian American Art Museum's Exhibition "1934: A New Deal for Artists"</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/system/topicRoot/The_new_deal/">The New Deal</a> Original reports and pictures from The Times</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.loc.gov/folklife/newdeal/index.html">Art, Culture, and Government: The New Deal at 75</a> <a href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress" title="Library of Congress">Library of Congress</a>, <a href="/wiki/American_Folklife_Center" title="American Folklife Center">American Folklife Center</a> Documentation of March 13–14, 2008 Symposium including webcasts of presentations</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.levy.org/pubs/wp_581.pdf">Hannsgen, Greg E.and Papadimitriou, Dimitri B.<i>Lessons from the New Deal: Did the New Deal Prolong or Worsen the Great Depression?</i> Working Paper No. 581, The Levy Economics Institute of Bard College. October 2009</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://livingnewdeal.berkeley.edu/">California's Living New Deal Project</a>, database of the lasting effects of the New Deal in California</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.history.com/topics/new-deal">New Deal</a> by Alan Brinkley on History.com</li></ul> <p><br /> </p> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:New_Deal" title="Template:New Deal"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:New_Deal" title="Template talk:New Deal"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:New_Deal" title="Special:EditPage/Template:New Deal"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="New_Deal" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">New Deal</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Causes and legacy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Depression" title="Great Depression">Great Depression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Deal_coalition" title="New Deal coalition">New Deal Coalition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brain_Trust" class="mw-redirect" title="Brain Trust">Brain Trust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_critics_of_the_New_Deal" title="List of critics of the New Deal">Criticism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">New Deal</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emergency_Banking_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Emergency Banking Act">Emergency Banking Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Economy Act">Economy Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_Adjustment_Act" title="Agricultural Adjustment Act">Agricultural Adjustment Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civilian_Conservation_Corps" title="Civilian Conservation Corps">Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Works_Administration" title="Civil Works Administration">Civil Works Administration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communications_Act_of_1934" title="Communications Act of 1934">Communications Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Executive_Order_6102" title="Executive Order 6102">Executive Order 6102</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homeowners_Refinancing_Act" title="Homeowners Refinancing Act">Homeowners Refinancing Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Farm_Credit_Administration" title="Farm Credit Administration">Farm Credit Administration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_Deposit_Insurance_Corporation" title="Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation">Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_Emergency_Relief_Administration" title="Federal Emergency Relief Administration">Federal Emergency Relief Administration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frazier%E2%80%93Lemke_Farm_Bankruptcy_Act" title="Frazier–Lemke Farm Bankruptcy Act">Frazier–Lemke Farm Bankruptcy Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glass%E2%80%93Steagall_legislation" title="Glass–Steagall legislation">Glass–Steagall Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Industrial_Recovery_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="National Industrial Recovery Act">National Industrial Recovery Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Housing_Act_of_1934" title="National Housing Act of 1934">National Housing Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Recovery_Administration" title="National Recovery Administration">National Recovery Administration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Youth_Administration" title="National Youth Administration">National Youth Administration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_Works_Administration" title="Public Works Administration">Public Works Administration (PWA)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_Works_of_Art_Project" title="Public Works of Art Project">Public Works of Art Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reciprocal_Tariff_Act" title="Reciprocal Tariff Act">Reciprocal Tariff Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Railroad_Retirement_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Railroad Retirement Act">Railroad Retirement Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Securities_Act_of_1933" title="Securities Act of 1933">Securities Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tennessee_Valley_Authority" title="Tennessee Valley Authority">Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Second New Deal</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Works_Progress_Administration" title="Works Progress Administration">Works Progress Administration (WPA)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_Project_Number_One" title="Federal Project Number One">Federal Project Number One</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_Energy_Regulatory_Commission" title="Federal Energy Regulatory Commission">Federal Energy Regulatory Commission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Farm_Security_Administration" title="Farm Security Administration">Farm Security Administration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judicial_Procedures_Reform_Bill_of_1937" title="Judicial Procedures Reform Bill of 1937">Judicial Procedures Reform Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guffey_Coal_Act" title="Guffey Coal Act">National Bituminous Coal Conservation Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Labor_Relations_Board" title="National Labor Relations Board">National Labor Relations Board</a> (<a href="/wiki/National_Labor_Relations_Act_of_1935" title="National Labor Relations Act of 1935">Act</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rural_Electrification_Act" title="Rural Electrification Act">Rural Electrification Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rural_Utilities_Service" title="Rural Utilities Service">Rural Electrification Administration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_Security_(United_States)" title="Social Security (United States)">Social Security</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Housing_Authority" title="United States Housing Authority">United States Housing Authority</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fair_Labor_Standards_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Fair Labor Standards Act">Fair Labor Standards Act</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Individuals</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Franklin D. Roosevelt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eleanor_Roosevelt" title="Eleanor Roosevelt">Eleanor Roosevelt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harry_Hopkins" title="Harry Hopkins">Harry Hopkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harold_L._Ickes" title="Harold L. Ickes">Harold L. Ickes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Morgenthau_Jr." title="Henry Morgenthau Jr.">Henry Morgenthau Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frances_Perkins" title="Frances Perkins">Frances Perkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_F._Wagner" title="Robert F. Wagner">Robert F. Wagner</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight:bold;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:New_Deal" title="Category:New Deal">Category</a></li> <li><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:New_Deal" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:New Deal">Commons</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Great_Depression" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Great_Depression" title="Template:Great Depression"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Great_Depression" title="Template talk:Great Depression"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Great_Depression" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Great Depression"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Great_Depression" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Great_Depression" title="Great Depression">Great Depression</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent; line-height:1.4em;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Causes_of_the_Great_Depression" title="Causes of the Great Depression">Causes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wall_Street_Crash_of_1929" class="mw-redirect" title="Wall Street Crash of 1929">Wall Street Crash of 1929</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smoot%E2%80%93Hawley_Tariff_Act" title="Smoot–Hawley Tariff Act">Smoot-Hawley Tariff Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dust_Bowl" title="Dust Bowl">Dust Bowl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cities_in_the_Great_Depression" title="Cities in the Great Depression">Effect in cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recession_of_1937%E2%80%931938" title="Recession of 1937–1938">Recession of 1937–1938</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Great_Depression" title="Timeline of the Great Depression">Timeline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By country</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent; line-height:1.4em;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Depression_in_Argentina" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Depression in Argentina">Argentina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Depression_in_Australia" title="Great Depression in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Depression_in_Brazil" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Depression in Brazil">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Depression_in_Canada" title="Great Depression in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Depression_in_Chile" title="Great Depression in Chile">Chile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Depression_in_France" title="Great Depression in France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weimar_Republic#Renewed_crisis_and_decline_(1930–1933)" title="Weimar Republic">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Depression_in_India" title="Great Depression in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Depression_in_Italy" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Depression in Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Depression#Japan" title="Great Depression">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Depression_in_Latin_America" title="Great Depression in Latin America">Latin America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Depression_in_the_Netherlands" title="Great Depression in the Netherlands">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Depression_in_Romania" title="Great Depression in Romania">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Depression_in_South_Africa" title="Great Depression in South Africa">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Depression_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Great Depression in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Depression_in_the_United_States" title="Great Depression in the United States">United States</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">United States</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent; line-height:1.4em;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bonus_Army" title="Bonus Army">Bonus Army</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">New Deal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2" style="font-weight:bold;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Great_Depression" title="Category:Great Depression">Category</a></li> <li><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Great_Depression" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Great Depression">Commons</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="History_of_the_United_States" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:US_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Template:US history"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:US_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Template talk:US history"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:US_history" title="Special:EditPage/Template:US history"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="History_of_the_United_States" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States" title="History of the United States">History of the United States</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight: bold;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_United_States_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Timeline of United States history">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_United_States_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Outline of United States history">Outline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Events" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Events</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pre-Colonial</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Geological_history_of_North_America" title="Geological history of North America">Prehistoric</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Pre-Columbian_era" title="Pre-Columbian era">Pre-Columbian Era</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Colonial_history_of_the_United_States" title="Colonial history of the United States">Colonial</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Exploration_of_North_America" title="Exploration of North America">Exploration of North America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="European colonization of the Americas">European colonization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_disease_and_epidemics" title="Native American disease and epidemics">Native American epidemics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Jamestown,_Virginia_(1607%E2%80%931699)" title="History of Jamestown, Virginia (1607–1699)">Settlement of Jamestown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirteen_Colonies" title="Thirteen Colonies">Thirteen Colonies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">Atlantic slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/King_William%27s_War" title="King William's War">King William's War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queen_Anne%27s_War" title="Queen Anne's War">Queen Anne's War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dummer%27s_War" title="Dummer's War">Dummer's War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Great_Awakening" title="First Great Awakening">First Great Awakening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_Jenkins%27_Ear" title="War of Jenkins' Ear">War of Jenkins' Ear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/King_George%27s_War" title="King George's War">King George's War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Revolution#Origin" title="American Revolution">Prelude to Revolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Enlightenment" title="American Enlightenment">American Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_and_Indian_War" title="French and Indian War">French and Indian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Proclamation_of_1763" title="Royal Proclamation of 1763">Proclamation of 1763</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sugar_Act" title="Sugar Act">Sugar Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stamp_Act_Congress" title="Stamp Act Congress">Stamp Act Congress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sons_of_Liberty" title="Sons of Liberty">Sons of Liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boston_Massacre" title="Boston Massacre">Boston Massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boston_Tea_Party" title="Boston Tea Party">Boston Tea Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intolerable_Acts" title="Intolerable Acts">Intolerable Acts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Continental_Congress" title="First Continental Congress">First Continental Congress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_Association" title="Continental Association">Continental Association</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1776%E2%80%931789)" title="History of the United States (1776–1789)">1776–1789</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">American Revolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War" title="American Revolutionary War">War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Continental_Congress" title="Second Continental Congress">Second Continental Congress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lee_Resolution" title="Lee Resolution">Lee Resolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Declaration_of_Independence" title="United States Declaration of Independence">Declaration of Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Paris_(1783)" title="Treaty of Paris (1783)">Treaty of Paris</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confederation_period" title="Confederation period">Confederation period</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Articles_of_Confederation" title="Articles of Confederation">Articles of Confederation</a> <a href="/wiki/Perpetual_Union" title="Perpetual Union">and Perpetual Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania_Mutiny_of_1783" title="Pennsylvania Mutiny of 1783">Pennsylvania Mutiny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shays%27_Rebellion" class="mw-redirect" title="Shays' Rebellion">Shays' Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northwest_Ordinance" title="Northwest Ordinance">Northwest Ordinance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="History of the United States Constitution">Drafting and ratification of the Constitution</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1789%E2%80%931815)" title="History of the United States (1789–1815)">1789–1815</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Bill_of_Rights" title="United States Bill of Rights">Bill of Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federalist_Era" title="Federalist Era">Federalist Era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Whiskey_Rebellion" title="Whiskey Rebellion">Whiskey Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quasi-War" title="Quasi-War">Quasi-War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeffersonian_democracy" title="Jeffersonian democracy">Jeffersonian era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Purchase" title="Louisiana Purchase">Louisiana Purchase</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_1812" title="War of 1812">War of 1812</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1815%E2%80%931849)" title="History of the United States (1815–1849)">1815–1849</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Era_of_Good_Feelings" title="Era of Good Feelings">Era of Good Feelings</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Missouri_Compromise" title="Missouri Compromise">Missouri Compromise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monroe_Doctrine" title="Monroe Doctrine">Monroe Doctrine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacksonian_democracy" title="Jacksonian democracy">Jacksonian era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Trail_of_Tears" title="Trail of Tears">Trail of Tears</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nat_Turner%27s_slave_rebellion" class="mw-redirect" title="Nat Turner's slave rebellion">Nat Turner's slave rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nullification_crisis" title="Nullification crisis">Nullification crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manifest_destiny" title="Manifest destiny">Westward expansion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mexican%E2%80%93American_War" title="Mexican–American War">Mexican–American War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seneca_Falls_Convention" title="Seneca Falls Convention">Seneca Falls Convention</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution#United_States" title="Industrial Revolution">First Industrial Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Great_Awakening" title="Second Great Awakening">Second Great Awakening</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1849%E2%80%931865)" title="History of the United States (1849–1865)">1849–1865</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antebellum_South" title="Antebellum South">Antebellum Era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/California_Gold_Rush" class="mw-redirect" title="California Gold Rush">California Gold Rush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origins_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Origins of the American Civil War">Prelude to War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Compromise_of_1850" title="Compromise of 1850">Compromise of 1850</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fugitive_Slave_Act_of_1850" title="Fugitive Slave Act of 1850">Fugitive Slave Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kansas%E2%80%93Nebraska_Act" title="Kansas–Nebraska Act">Kansas–Nebraska Act</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bleeding_Kansas" title="Bleeding Kansas">Bleeding Kansas</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dred_Scott_v._Sandford" title="Dred Scott v. Sandford">Dred Scott decision</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1860_United_States_presidential_election" title="1860 United States presidential election">Election of Lincoln</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confederate_States_of_America#Secession" title="Confederate States of America">Secession</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">Civil War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emancipation_Proclamation" title="Emancipation Proclamation">Emancipation Proclamation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_Abraham_Lincoln" title="Assassination of Abraham Lincoln">Assassination of Abraham Lincoln</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1865%E2%80%931917)" title="History of the United States (1865–1917)">1865–1917</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_era" title="Reconstruction era">Reconstruction era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_Amendments" title="Reconstruction Amendments">Amendments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_transcontinental_railroad" title="First transcontinental railroad">First transcontinental railroad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ku_Klux_Klan" title="Ku Klux Klan">Ku Klux Klan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enforcement_Acts" title="Enforcement Acts">Enforcement Acts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compromise_of_1877" title="Compromise of 1877">Compromise of 1877</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Industrial_Revolution#United_States" title="Second Industrial Revolution">Second Industrial Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilded_Age" title="Gilded Age">Gilded Age</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Gospel_of_Wealth" title="The Gospel of Wealth">The Gospel of Wealth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_James_A._Garfield" title="Assassination of James A. Garfield">Assassination of James A. Garfield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Exclusion_Act" title="Chinese Exclusion Act">Chinese Exclusion Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pendleton_Civil_Service_Reform_Act" title="Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act">Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haymarket_affair" title="Haymarket affair">Haymarket affair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sherman_Antitrust_Act" title="Sherman Antitrust Act">Sherman Antitrust Act</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressive_Era" title="Progressive Era">Progressive Era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spanish%E2%80%93American_War" title="Spanish–American War">Spanish–American War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_imperialism" title="American imperialism">Imperialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_William_McKinley" title="Assassination of William McKinley">Assassination of William McKinley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Square_Deal" title="Square Deal">Square Deal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nadir_of_American_race_relations" title="Nadir of American race relations">Nadir of American race relations</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1917%E2%80%931945)" title="History of the United States (1917–1945)">1917–1945</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_in_World_War_I" title="United States in World War I">World War I</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paris_Peace_Conference_(1919%E2%80%931920)#American_approach" title="Paris Peace Conference (1919–1920)">Paris Peace Conference</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Red_Scare" title="First Red Scare">First Red Scare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roaring_Twenties" title="Roaring Twenties">Roaring Twenties</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prohibition_in_the_United_States" title="Prohibition in the United States">Prohibition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage_in_the_United_States" title="Women's suffrage in the United States">Women's suffrage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tulsa_race_massacre" title="Tulsa race massacre">Tulsa race massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ku_Klux_Klan#Second_Klan:_1915–1944" title="Ku Klux Klan">Second Klan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bath_School_disaster" title="Bath School disaster">Bath School disaster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harlem_Renaissance" title="Harlem Renaissance">Harlem Renaissance</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Depression" title="Great Depression">Great Depression</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wall_Street_Crash_of_1929" class="mw-redirect" title="Wall Street Crash of 1929">Wall Street Crash of 1929</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dust_Bowl" title="Dust Bowl">Dust Bowl</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">New Deal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_United_States_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of the United States during World War II">World War II</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Attack_on_Pearl_Harbor" title="Attack on Pearl Harbor">Pearl Harbor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_home_front_during_World_War_II" title="United States home front during World War II">home front</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manhattan_Project" title="Manhattan Project">Manhattan Project</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atomic_bombings_of_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki" title="Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki">Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1945%E2%80%931964)" title="History of the United States (1945–1964)">1945–1964</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_strike_wave_of_1945%E2%80%931946" title="United States strike wave of 1945–1946">Strike wave of 1945–1946</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War_(1947%E2%80%931948)" title="Cold War (1947–1948)">Start of Cold War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Truman_Doctrine" title="Truman Doctrine">Truman Doctrine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War_(1948%E2%80%931953)" title="Cold War (1948–1953)">Early Cold War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/North_Atlantic_Treaty" title="North Atlantic Treaty">North Atlantic Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_War" title="Korean War">Korean War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ivy_Mike" title="Ivy Mike">Ivy Mike</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/McCarthyism" title="McCarthyism">McCarthyism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post%E2%80%93World_War_II_economic_expansion" title="Post–World War II economic expansion">Post-war boom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Project_Mercury" title="Project Mercury">Project Mercury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">Civil Rights Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War_(1953%E2%80%931962)" title="Cold War (1953–1962)">Early–mid Cold War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cuban_Missile_Crisis" title="Cuban Missile Crisis">Cuban Missile Crisis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_John_F._Kennedy" title="Assassination of John F. Kennedy">Assassination of John F. Kennedy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1964%E2%80%931980)" title="History of the United States (1964–1980)">1964–1980</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Society" title="Great Society">Great Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_Race" title="Space Race">Space Race</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Project_Gemini" title="Project Gemini">Project Gemini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apollo_program" title="Apollo program">Apollo program</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War_(1962%E2%80%931979)" title="Cold War (1962–1979)">Mid Cold War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/D%C3%A9tente" title="Détente">Détente</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnam_War" title="Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Saigon" title="Fall of Saigon">Fall of Saigon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Assassination of Martin Luther King Jr.">Assassination of Martin Luther King Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counterculture_of_the_1960s" title="Counterculture of the 1960s">Counterculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second-wave_feminism" title="Second-wave feminism">Second-wave feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gay_liberation" title="Gay liberation">Gay liberation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stonewall_riots" title="Stonewall riots">Stonewall riots</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Watergate_scandal" title="Watergate scandal">Watergate scandal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iran_hostage_crisis" title="Iran hostage crisis">Iran hostage crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_Majority" title="Moral Majority">Moral Majority</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1980%E2%80%931991)" title="History of the United States (1980–1991)">1980–1991</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reagan_era" title="Reagan era">Reagan era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reaganomics" title="Reaganomics">Reaganomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93Contra_affair" title="Iran–Contra affair">Iran–Contra affair</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crack_epidemic_in_the_United_States" title="Crack epidemic in the United States">Crack epidemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War_(1979%E2%80%931985)" title="Cold War (1979–1985)">Late Cold War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_invasion_of_Grenada" title="United States invasion of Grenada">Invasion of Grenada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reagan_Doctrine" title="Reagan Doctrine">Reagan Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War_(1985%E2%80%931991)" title="Cold War (1985–1991)">End of the Cold War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle_program" title="Space Shuttle program">Space Shuttle program</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_on_drugs" title="War on drugs">War on drugs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_invasion_of_Panama" title="United States invasion of Panama">Invasion of Panama</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1991%E2%80%932008)" title="History of the United States (1991–2008)">1991–2008</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gulf_War" title="Gulf War">Gulf War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_American_Free_Trade_Agreement" title="North American Free Trade Agreement">NAFTA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1992_Los_Angeles_riots" title="1992 Los Angeles riots"> Los Angeles riots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1993_World_Trade_Center_bombing" title="1993 World Trade Center bombing">WTC bombing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waco_siege" title="Waco siege">Waco siege</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republican_Revolution" title="Republican Revolution">Republican Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oklahoma_City_bombing" title="Oklahoma City bombing">Oklahoma City bombing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Columbine_High_School_massacre" title="Columbine High School massacre">Columbine</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bush_v._Gore" title="Bush v. Gore">Bush v. Gore</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/September_11_attacks" title="September 11 attacks">September 11 attacks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_on_terror" title="War on terror">War on terror</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/War_in_Afghanistan_(2001%E2%80%932021)" title="War in Afghanistan (2001–2021)">War in Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraq_War" title="Iraq War">Iraq War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hurricane_Katrina" title="Hurricane Katrina">Hurricane Katrina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virginia_Tech_shooting" title="Virginia Tech shooting">Virginia Tech shooting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Recession_in_the_United_States" title="Great Recession in the United States">Great Recession</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(2008%E2%80%93present)" title="History of the United States (2008–present)">2008–present</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Killing_of_Osama_bin_Laden" title="Killing of Osama bin Laden">Killing of Osama bin Laden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mass_shootings_in_the_United_States" title="List of mass shootings in the United States">Rise in mass shootings</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2011_Tucson_shooting" title="2011 Tucson shooting">Tucson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2012_Aurora_theater_shooting" title="2012 Aurora theater shooting">Aurora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sandy_Hook_Elementary_School_shooting" title="Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting">Sandy Hook</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pulse_nightclub_shooting" title="Pulse nightclub shooting">Orlando</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2017_Las_Vegas_shooting" title="2017 Las Vegas shooting">Las Vegas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parkland_high_school_shooting" title="Parkland high school shooting">Parkland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2019_El_Paso_shooting" class="mw-redirect" title="2019 El Paso shooting">El Paso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uvalde_school_shooting" title="Uvalde school shooting">Uvalde</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Lives_Matter" title="Black Lives Matter">Black Lives Matter</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Obergefell_v._Hodges" title="Obergefell v. Hodges">Obergefell v. Hodges</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unite_the_Right_rally" title="Unite the Right rally">Unite the Right rally</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_United_States" title="COVID-19 pandemic in the United States">COVID-19 pandemic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_recession" title="COVID-19 recession">recession</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Floyd_protests" title="George Floyd protests">George Floyd protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/January_6_United_States_Capitol_attack" title="January 6 United States Capitol attack">January 6 insurrection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2020%E2%80%932021_US_troop_withdrawal_from_Afghanistan" class="mw-redirect" title="2020–2021 US troop withdrawal from Afghanistan">Afghanistan withdrawal</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dobbs_v._Jackson_Women%27s_Health_Organization" title="Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization">Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_involvement_in_the_Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine" title="Foreign involvement in the Russian invasion of Ukraine">Support of Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_Trump#Investigations,_criminal_charges,_civil_lawsuits" title="Donald Trump">Indictments of Donald Trump</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Topics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Topics</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/American_Century" title="American Century">American Century</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_antisemitism_in_the_United_States" title="History of antisemitism in the United States">Antisemitism</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Cultural_history_of_the_United_States" title="Cultural history of the United States">Cultural</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_cinema_in_the_United_States" title="History of cinema in the United States">Cinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_history_of_the_United_States" title="Music history of the United States">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_American_newspapers" title="History of American newspapers">Newspapers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_sports_in_the_United_States" title="History of sports in the United States">Sports</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Demographic_history_of_the_United_States" title="Demographic history of the United States">Demography</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_immigration_to_the_United_States" title="History of immigration to the United States">Immigration</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_the_United_States" title="Economic history of the United States">Economy</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_banking_in_the_United_States" title="History of banking in the United States">Banking</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_education_in_the_United_States" title="History of education in the United States">Education</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_higher_education_in_the_United_States" title="History of higher education in the United States">Higher education</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/List_of_flags_of_the_United_States" title="List of flags of the United States">Flag</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_government" title="History of the United States government">Government</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_abortion_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="History of abortion in the United States">Abortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_capital_punishment_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="History of capital punishment in the United States">Capital punishment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_civil_rights_in_the_United_States" title="History of civil rights in the United States">Civil Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_corruption_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="History of corruption in the United States">Corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="History of the United States Constitution">The Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_debt_ceiling" title="History of the United States debt ceiling">Debt ceiling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_direct_democracy_in_the_United_States" title="History of direct democracy in the United States">Direct democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_United_States_foreign_policy" class="mw-redirect" title="History of United States foreign policy">Foreign policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_law_enforcement_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="History of law enforcement in the United States">Law enforcement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postage_stamps_and_postal_history_of_the_United_States" title="Postage stamps and postal history of the United States">Postal service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_taxation_in_the_United_States" title="History of taxation in the United States">Taxation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voting_rights_in_the_United_States" title="Voting rights in the United States">Voting rights</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_American_journalism" title="History of American journalism">Journalism</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Merchant_Marine" title="History of the United States Merchant Marine">Merchant Marine</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_United_States" title="Military history of the United States">Military</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Army" title="History of the United States Army">Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Marine_Corps" title="History of the United States Marine Corps">Marine Corps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Navy" title="History of the United States Navy">Navy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Air_Force" title="History of the United States Air Force">Air Force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Space_Force" title="History of the United States Space Force">Space Force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Coast_Guard" title="History of the United States Coast Guard">Coast Guard</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Political_eras_of_the_United_States" title="Political eras of the United States">Party Systems</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Party_System" title="First Party System">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Party_System" title="Second Party System">Second</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Party_System" title="Third Party System">Third</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Party_System" title="Fourth Party System">Fourth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifth_Party_System" title="Fifth Party System">Fifth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sixth_Party_System" title="Sixth Party System">Sixth</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_religion_in_the_United_States" title="History of religion in the United States">Religion</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Native_American_genocide_in_the_United_States" title="Native American genocide in the United States">Genocide</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">Slavery</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_sexual_slavery_in_the_United_States" title="History of sexual slavery in the United States">Sexual slavery</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Technological_and_industrial_history_of_the_United_States" title="Technological and industrial history of the United States">Technology and industry</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_agriculture_in_the_United_States" title="History of agriculture in the United States">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labor_history_of_the_United_States" title="Labor history of the United States">Labor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_lumber_industry_in_the_United_States" title="History of the lumber industry in the United States">Lumber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_medicine_in_the_United_States" title="History of medicine in the United States">Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_rail_transportation_in_the_United_States" title="History of rail transportation in the United States">Railway</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Groups" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Groups</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/African-American_history" title="African-American history">African American</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_Asian_Americans" title="History of Asian Americans">Asian American</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Chinese_Americans" title="History of Chinese Americans">Chinese American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Filipino_Americans" title="History of Filipino Americans">Filipino American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian-American_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian-American history">Indian American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Japanese_Americans" title="History of Japanese Americans">Japanese American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Korean_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Korean Americans">Korean American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Thai_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Thai Americans">Thai American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Vietnamese_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Vietnamese Americans">Vietnamese American</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/European_American#History" class="mw-redirect" title="European American">European American</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Albanian_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Albanian Americans">Albanian American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_English_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of English Americans">English American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Estonian_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Estonian Americans">Estonian American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Finnish_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Finnish Americans">Finnish American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_Americans#History" title="Irish Americans">Irish American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_American#History" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian American">Italian American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Lithuanian_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Lithuanian Americans">Lithuanian American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Poles_in_the_United_States" title="History of Poles in the United States">Polish American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Serbian_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Serbian Americans">Serbian American</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_Hispanic_and_Latino_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Hispanic and Latino Americans">Hispanic and Latino American</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Mexican_Americans" title="History of Mexican Americans">Mexican American</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_United_States" title="History of the Jews in the United States">Jewish American</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_Middle_Eastern_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Middle Eastern Americans">Middle Eastern American</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Egyptian_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Egyptian Americans">Egyptian American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Iranian_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Iranian Americans">Iranian American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Iraqi_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Iraqi Americans">Iraqi American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Lebanese_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Lebanese Americans">Lebanese American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Palestinian_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Palestinian Americans">Palestinian American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Saudi_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Saudi Americans">Saudi American</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="History of Native Americans in the United States">Native Americans</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_history" title="Cherokee history">Cherokee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comanche_history" title="Comanche history">Comanche</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_women_in_the_United_States" title="History of women in the United States">Women</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_history_in_the_United_States" title="LGBTQ history in the United States">LGBTQ</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_gay_men_in_the_United_States" title="History of gay men in the United States">Gay men</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_lesbianism_in_the_United_States" title="History of lesbianism in the United States">Lesbians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transgender_history_in_the_United_States" title="Transgender history in the United States">Transgender people</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Places" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Places</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Territorial_evolution_of_the_United_States" title="Territorial evolution of the United States">Territorial evolution</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._states_by_date_of_admission_to_the_Union" title="List of U.S. states by date of admission to the Union">Admission to the Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_regions_of_the_United_States" title="Historical regions of the United States">Historical regions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_frontier" title="American frontier">American frontier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manifest_destiny" title="Manifest destiny">Manifest destiny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_removal" title="Indian removal">Indian removal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Regions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_New_England" title="History of New England">New England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Southern_United_States" title="History of the Southern United States">The South</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_west_coast_of_North_America" title="History of the west coast of North America">The West Coast</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">States</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Alabama" title="History of Alabama">Alabama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Alaska" title="History of Alaska">Alaska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Arizona" title="History of Arizona">Arizona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Arkansas" title="History of Arkansas">Arkansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_California" title="History of California">California</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Colorado" title="History of Colorado">Colorado</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Connecticut" title="History of Connecticut">Connecticut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Delaware" title="History of Delaware">Delaware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Florida" title="History of Florida">Florida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Georgia_(U.S._state)" title="History of Georgia (U.S. state)">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Hawaii" title="History of Hawaii">Hawaii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Idaho" title="History of Idaho">Idaho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Illinois" title="History of Illinois">Illinois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Indiana" title="History of Indiana">Indiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Iowa" title="History of Iowa">Iowa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Kansas" title="History of Kansas">Kansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Kentucky" title="History of Kentucky">Kentucky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Louisiana" title="History of Louisiana">Louisiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Maine" title="History of Maine">Maine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Maryland" title="History of Maryland">Maryland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Massachusetts" title="History of Massachusetts">Massachusetts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Michigan" title="History of Michigan">Michigan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Minnesota" title="History of Minnesota">Minnesota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Mississippi" title="History of Mississippi">Mississippi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Missouri" title="History of Missouri">Missouri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Montana" title="History of Montana">Montana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Nebraska" title="History of Nebraska">Nebraska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Nevada" title="History of Nevada">Nevada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_New_Hampshire" title="History of New Hampshire">New Hampshire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_New_Jersey" title="History of New Jersey">New Jersey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_New_Mexico" title="History of New Mexico">New Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_New_York_(state)" title="History of New York (state)">New York</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_North_Carolina" title="History of North Carolina">North Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_North_Dakota" title="History of North Dakota">North Dakota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Ohio" title="History of Ohio">Ohio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Oklahoma" title="History of Oklahoma">Oklahoma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Oregon" title="History of Oregon">Oregon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Pennsylvania" title="History of Pennsylvania">Pennsylvania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Rhode_Island" title="History of Rhode Island">Rhode Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_South_Carolina" title="History of South Carolina">South Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_South_Dakota" title="History of South Dakota">South Dakota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Tennessee" title="History of Tennessee">Tennessee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Texas" title="History of Texas">Texas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Utah" title="History of Utah">Utah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Vermont" title="History of Vermont">Vermont</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Virginia" title="History of Virginia">Virginia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Washington_(state)" title="History of Washington (state)">Washington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_West_Virginia" title="History of West Virginia">West Virginia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Wisconsin" title="History of Wisconsin">Wisconsin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Wyoming" title="History of Wyoming">Wyoming</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Federal District</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Washington,_D.C." title="History of Washington, D.C.">Washington, D.C.</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Insular areas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_American_Samoa" title="History of American Samoa">American Samoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Guam" title="History of Guam">Guam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Northern_Mariana_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Northern Mariana Islands">Northern Mariana Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Puerto_Rico" title="History of Puerto Rico">Puerto Rico </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Virgin_Islands" title="History of the United States Virgin Islands">U.S. Virgin Islands</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Outlying islands</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Baker_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Baker Island">Baker Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Howland_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Howland Island">Howland Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Jarvis_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Jarvis Island">Jarvis Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Johnston_Atoll" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Johnston Atoll">Johnston Atoll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Kingman_Reef" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Kingman Reef">Kingman Reef</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Midway_Atoll" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Midway Atoll">Midway Atoll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Navassa_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Navassa Island">Navassa Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Palmyra_Atoll" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Palmyra Atoll">Palmyra Atoll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Wake_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Wake Island">Wake Island</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Cities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_urban_history" title="American urban history">Urban history</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" 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