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id="toc-Organization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Scientific_Research_Institutes_(NII)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Scientific_Research_Institutes_(NII)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Scientific Research Institutes (NII)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Scientific_Research_Institutes_(NII)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ideological_restrictions_on_science" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ideological_restrictions_on_science"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Ideological restrictions on science</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ideological_restrictions_on_science-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-After_Soviet_collapse" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#After_Soviet_collapse"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>After Soviet collapse</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-After_Soviet_collapse-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Soviet_Nobel_Prize_winners_in_science" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Soviet_Nobel_Prize_winners_in_science"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Soviet Nobel Prize winners in science</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Soviet_Nobel_Prize_winners_in_science-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Soviet Nobel Prize winners in science subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Soviet_Nobel_Prize_winners_in_science-sublist" 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class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wissenschaft_und_Technik_in_der_Sowjetunion" title="Wissenschaft und Technik in der Sowjetunion – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Wissenschaft und Technik in der Sowjetunion" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ciencia_y_tecnolog%C3%ADa_en_la_Uni%C3%B3n_Sovi%C3%A9tica" title="Ciencia y tecnología en la Unión Soviética – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Ciencia y tecnología en la Unión Soviética" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85_%D9%88_%D9%81%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%88%D8%B1%DB%8C_%D8%AF%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D8%AA%D8%AD%D8%A7%D8%AF_%D8%AC%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%87%DB%8C%D8%B1_%D8%B4%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%88%DB%8C" title="علم و فناوری در اتحاد جماهیر شوروی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="علم و فناوری در اتحاد جماهیر شوروی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scienza_e_tecnologia_in_Unione_Sovietica" title="Scienza e tecnologia in Unione Sovietica – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Scienza e tecnologia in Unione Sovietica" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%B2_%D0%A1%D0%A1%D0%A1%D0%A0" title="Наука в СССР – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Наука в СССР" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sovyetler_Birli%C4%9Fi%27nde_bilim_ve_teknoloji" title="Sovyetler Birliği'nde bilim ve teknoloji – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Sovyetler Birliği'nde bilim ve teknoloji" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q1362029#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks vcard hlist"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Politics of the Soviet Union">Politics of the Soviet Union</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Coat_of_arms_of_the_Soviet_Union_(1956%E2%80%931991).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Coat_of_arms_of_the_Soviet_Union_%281956%E2%80%931991%29.svg/120px-Coat_of_arms_of_the_Soviet_Union_%281956%E2%80%931991%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Coat_of_arms_of_the_Soviet_Union_%281956%E2%80%931991%29.svg/180px-Coat_of_arms_of_the_Soviet_Union_%281956%E2%80%931991%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Coat_of_arms_of_the_Soviet_Union_%281956%E2%80%931991%29.svg/240px-Coat_of_arms_of_the_Soviet_Union_%281956%E2%80%931991%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="587" data-file-height="605" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">  </td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Leadership</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_leaders_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="List of leaders of the Soviet Union">Leaders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/President_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="President of the Soviet Union">President</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_heads_of_state_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="List of heads of state of the Soviet Union">list</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vice_President_of_the_Soviet_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Vice President of the Soviet Union">Vice President</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collective_leadership_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Collective leadership in the Soviet Union">Collective leadership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_Council_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="State Council of the Soviet Union">State Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidential_Council_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Presidential Council of the Soviet Union">Presidential Council</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Communist Party of the Soviet Union">Communist Party</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Congress_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">Congress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Committee_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">Central Committee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="History of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">History</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <i><a href="/wiki/General_Secretary_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">General Secretary</a></i></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Politburo_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Politburo of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">Politburo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secretariat_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Secretariat of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">Secretariat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orgburo" title="Orgburo">Orgburo</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Legislature</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <i><a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Soviets_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Congress of Soviets of the Soviet Union">Congress of Soviets</a></i></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Executive_Committee_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Central Executive Committee of the Soviet Union">Central Executive Committee</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <i><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Soviet_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union">Supreme Soviet</a></i></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_of_the_Union" title="Soviet of the Union">Soviet of the Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_of_Nationalities" title="Soviet of Nationalities">Soviet of Nationalities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidium_of_the_Supreme_Soviet" title="Presidium of the Supreme Soviet">Presidium</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <i><a href="/wiki/Congress_of_People%27s_Deputies_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Congress of People's Deputies of the Soviet Union">Congress of People's Deputies</a></i></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_heads_of_state_of_the_Soviet_Union#Chairmen_of_the_Supreme_Soviet_of_the_Soviet_Union_(1989–1990)" title="List of heads of state of the Soviet Union">Speaker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1989_Soviet_Union_legislative_election" title="1989 Soviet Union legislative election">1989 Legislative election</a></li></ul></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Governance</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <i><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Constitution of the Soviet Union">Constitution</a></i></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Official_names_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Official names of the Soviet Union">Official names</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1924_Soviet_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="1924 Soviet Constitution">1924</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1936_Soviet_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="1936 Soviet Constitution">1936</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1977_Soviet_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="1977 Soviet Constitution">1977</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <i><a href="/wiki/Government_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Government of the Soviet Union">Government</a></i></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ministries_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Ministries of the Soviet Union">Ministries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_Committee_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="State Committee of the Soviet Union">State Committees</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_governments_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="List of governments of the Soviet Union">Cabinets</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <i><a href="/wiki/Premier_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Premier of the Soviet Union">Premiership</a></i></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Deputy_Premier_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="First Deputy Premier of the Soviet Union">First Deputy Premier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deputy_Premier_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Deputy Premier of the Soviet Union">Deputy Premier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Administrator_of_Affairs_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Administrator of Affairs of the Soviet Union">Administrator of Affairs</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Judiciary</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Law of the Soviet Union">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Supreme Court of the Soviet Union">Supreme Court</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_Collegium_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Military Collegium of the Supreme Court of the Soviet Union">Military Collegium</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Court_(Soviet_Union)" title="People's Court (Soviet Union)">People's Court</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Procurator_General_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Procurator General of the Soviet Union">Procurator General</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Ideology_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Ideology of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">Ideology</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_democracy" title="Soviet democracy">Soviet democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxism%E2%80%93Leninism" title="Marxism–Leninism">Marxism–Leninism</a></li> <li><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Leninism" title="Leninism">Leninism</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Stalinism" title="Stalinism">Stalinism</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Khrushchevism" class="mw-redirect" title="Khrushchevism">Khrushchevism</a></li></ul></div></li> <li><a href="/wiki/De-Stalinization" title="De-Stalinization">De-Stalinization</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Perestroika" title="Perestroika">Perestroika</a></i> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Glasnost" title="Glasnost">Glasnost</a></i></li></ul></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Society</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <i><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Economy of the Soviet Union">Economy</a></i></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Agriculture in the Soviet Union">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consumer_goods_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Consumer goods in the Soviet Union">Consumer goods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five-year_plans_for_the_national_economy_of_the_Soviet_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Five-year plans for the national economy of the Soviet Union">Five-Year Plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1965_Soviet_economic_reform" title="1965 Soviet economic reform">Kosygin reform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Economic_Policy" title="New Economic Policy">New Economic Policy</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Science and technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Era_of_Stagnation" title="Era of Stagnation">Era of Stagnation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Material_balance_planning" title="Material balance planning">Material balance planning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Transport in the Soviet Union">Transport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_communism" title="War communism">War communism</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <i><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Culture of the Soviet Union">Culture</a></i></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Demographics of the Soviet Union">Demographics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Education in the Soviet Union">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Family in the Soviet Union">Family</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_phraseology" title="Soviet phraseology">Phraseology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Religion in the Soviet Union">Religion</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <i>Repression</i></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Censorship_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Censorship in the Soviet Union">Censorship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Censorship_of_images_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Censorship of images in the Soviet Union">Censorship of images</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Purge" title="Great Purge">Great Purge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gulag" title="Gulag">Gulag system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collectivization_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Collectivization in the Soviet Union">Collectivization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Human rights in the Soviet Union">Human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ideological_repression_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Ideological repression in the Soviet Union">Ideological repression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_abuse_of_psychiatry_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Political abuse of psychiatry in the Soviet Union">Political abuse of psychiatry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_repression_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Political repression in the Soviet Union">Political repression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_transfer_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Population transfer in the Soviet Union">Population transfer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propaganda_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Propaganda in the Soviet Union">Propaganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suppressed_research_in_the_Soviet_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Suppressed research in the Soviet Union">Suppressed research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Terror" title="Red Terror">Red Terror</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet Empire">Soviet Empire</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg/16px-Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg/24px-Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg/32px-Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Soviet_Union" title="Portal:Soviet Union">Soviet Union portal</a> <div class="hlist" style="text-align:center;font-weight:normal;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_political_science#Politics_by_region" title="Outline of political science">Other countries</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style 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abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Politics_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Template:Politics of the Soviet Union"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Politics_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Template talk:Politics of the Soviet Union"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Politics_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Politics of the Soviet Union"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Soviet_Union_1955_CPA_1382_I_stamp_(The_eighth_issue_of_definitive_stamps._Scientist).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/The_Soviet_Union_1955_CPA_1382_I_stamp_%28The_eighth_issue_of_definitive_stamps._Scientist%29.jpg/220px-The_Soviet_Union_1955_CPA_1382_I_stamp_%28The_eighth_issue_of_definitive_stamps._Scientist%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="303" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3f/The_Soviet_Union_1955_CPA_1382_I_stamp_%28The_eighth_issue_of_definitive_stamps._Scientist%29.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="234" data-file-height="322" /></a><figcaption>Scientist depicted on a 1955 Soviet stamp</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sputnik-stamp-ussr.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Sputnik-stamp-ussr.jpg/170px-Sputnik-stamp-ussr.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="246" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Sputnik-stamp-ussr.jpg/255px-Sputnik-stamp-ussr.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Sputnik-stamp-ussr.jpg/340px-Sputnik-stamp-ussr.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1267" data-file-height="1836" /></a><figcaption>Soviet stamp showing the orbit of <a href="/wiki/Sputnik_1" title="Sputnik 1">Sputnik 1</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:USSR._Calculator._Elektronika_MK-51.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/USSR._Calculator._Elektronika_MK-51.jpg/220px-USSR._Calculator._Elektronika_MK-51.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="405" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/USSR._Calculator._Elektronika_MK-51.jpg/330px-USSR._Calculator._Elektronika_MK-51.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/USSR._Calculator._Elektronika_MK-51.jpg/440px-USSR._Calculator._Elektronika_MK-51.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3309" data-file-height="6089" /></a><figcaption>The Elektronika MK-51 <a href="/wiki/Calculator" title="Calculator">calculator</a>, introduced in 1982.</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Science and technology in the Soviet Union</b> served as an important part of national <a href="/wiki/Politics" title="Politics">politics</a>, practices, and identity. From the time of <a href="/wiki/Lenin" class="mw-redirect" title="Lenin">Lenin</a> until the dissolution of the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">USSR</a> in the early 1990s, both science and technology were intimately linked to the ideology and practical functioning of the Soviet state and were pursued along paths both similar and distinct from models in other countries. Many great scientists who worked in <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Russia" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperial Russia">Imperial Russia</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Konstantin_Tsiolkovsky" title="Konstantin Tsiolkovsky">Konstantin Tsiolkovsky</a>, continued work in the USSR and gave birth to Soviet science. </p><p>The Soviet government made the development and advancement of science a national priority, emphasizing science at all levels of education and showering top scientists with honours. Very large numbers of <a href="/wiki/Engineer" title="Engineer">engineers</a> graduated every year. Soviet scientists won acclaim in several fields, marked by a highly developed pure science and innovation at the theoretical level, though interpretation and application fell short. They were at the cutting edge of science in fields such as <a href="/wiki/Mathematics" title="Mathematics">mathematics</a> and in several branches of <a href="/wiki/Physical_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Physical science">physical science</a>, notably theoretical <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_physics" title="Nuclear physics">nuclear physics</a>, chemistry, and <a href="/wiki/Astronomy" title="Astronomy">astronomy</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Physical_chemist" class="mw-redirect" title="Physical chemist">physical chemist</a> and <a href="/wiki/Physicist" title="Physicist">physicist</a> <a href="/wiki/Nikolay_Semenov" class="mw-redirect" title="Nikolay Semenov">Nikolay Semenov</a> was the first Soviet citizen to win a <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize" title="Nobel Prize">Nobel Prize</a>, in 1956 among several other Soviet Nobel Prize winners and the mathematician <a href="/wiki/Sergei_Novikov_(mathematician)" title="Sergei Novikov (mathematician)">Sergei Novikov</a> was the first Soviet citizen to win a <a href="/wiki/Fields_Medal" title="Fields Medal">Fields Medal</a> in 1970 followed by <a href="/wiki/Grigory_Margulis" title="Grigory Margulis">Grigory Margulis</a> in 1978 and <a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Drinfeld" title="Vladimir Drinfeld">Vladimir Drinfeld</a> in 1990. </p><p>Soviet technology was most highly developed in the fields of nuclear physics, where the arms race with the <a href="/wiki/Western_world" title="Western world">West</a> convinced policy makers to set aside sufficient resources for research. Due to a crash program directed by <a href="/wiki/Igor_Kurchatov" title="Igor Kurchatov">Igor Kurchatov</a> (based on spies of the <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_Five" title="Cambridge Five">Cambridge Five</a>), the Soviet Union was the second nation to develop an <a href="/wiki/Atomic_bomb" class="mw-redirect" title="Atomic bomb">atomic bomb</a>, in 1949, four years after the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>. The Soviet Union detonated a <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_bomb" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrogen bomb">hydrogen bomb</a> in 1953, a mere ten months after the United States. <a href="/wiki/Space_exploration" title="Space exploration">Space exploration</a> was also highly developed: in October 1957 the Soviet Union launched the first artificial <a href="/wiki/Satellite" title="Satellite">satellite</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sputnik_1" title="Sputnik 1">Sputnik 1</a>, into <a href="/wiki/Orbit" title="Orbit">orbit</a>; in April 1961 a Soviet <a href="/wiki/Cosmonaut" class="mw-redirect" title="Cosmonaut">cosmonaut</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yuri_Gagarin" title="Yuri Gagarin">Yuri Gagarin</a>, became the first man in space. The Soviets maintained a strong space program until economic problems led to cutbacks in the 1980s. The Soviet Union also had more <a href="/wiki/Scientists" class="mw-redirect" title="Scientists">scientists</a> and engineers, relative to the world population, than any other major country due to the strong levels of state support for scientific developments by the 1980s.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Although the sciences were less rigorously censored than other fields such as art, there were several examples of <a href="/wiki/Suppressed_research_in_the_Soviet_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Suppressed research in the Soviet Union">suppression of ideas</a>. In the most notorious, <a href="/wiki/Agronomist" class="mw-redirect" title="Agronomist">agronomist</a> <a href="/wiki/Trofim_Lysenko" title="Trofim Lysenko">Trofim Lysenko</a> refused to accept the <a href="/wiki/Chromosome" title="Chromosome">chromosome</a> theory of heredity usually accepted by modern <a href="/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">genetics</a>. Claiming his theories corresponded to <a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxism</a>, he managed to talk <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stalin" title="Joseph Stalin">Joseph Stalin</a> in 1948 into banning the practice and teaching of <a href="/wiki/Population_genetics" title="Population genetics">population genetics</a> and several other related fields of biological research; however, this decision was reversed in the 1960s.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Cybernetics_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Cybernetics in the Soviet Union">Cybernetics</a> was also marginalised during the Stalinist period and received a hostile public campaign in 1951. Although, the discipline was rehabilitated during the post-Stalinist period from 1954 until 1959.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Organization">Organization</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Science_and_technology_in_the_Soviet_Union&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Organization"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/USSR_Academy_of_Sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="USSR Academy of Sciences">USSR Academy of Sciences</a></div> <p>Unlike some Western countries, most of the research work in the USSR was conducted not at universities, but at specially set up research institutes. The more prestigious of them were parts of the <a href="/wiki/USSR_Academy_of_Sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="USSR Academy of Sciences">USSR Academy of Sciences</a>; others were within the system of specialized academies, or the research arms of various government ministries. </p><p>The core of fundamental science was the <a href="/wiki/USSR_Academy_of_Sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="USSR Academy of Sciences">USSR Academy of Sciences</a>, originally set up in 1925 and moved from <a href="/wiki/Saint_Petersburg" title="Saint Petersburg">Leningrad</a> to <a href="/wiki/Moscow" title="Moscow">Moscow</a> in 1934. It consisted of 250 research institutes and 60,500 full-time researchers in 1987, a large percentage in the <a href="/wiki/Natural_sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Natural sciences">natural sciences</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Biology" title="Biology">biology</a>. </p><p>All of the union's republics except the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic" title="Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic">Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic</a> had their own republican academies of science, while the Urals, Siberian, and Far Eastern <a href="/wiki/Russian_Academy_of_Sciences#Territorial_branches" title="Russian Academy of Sciences">regional branches</a> of the academy coordinated fundamental science in Eastern Russia. </p><p>Medical research was coordinated by the <a href="/wiki/USSR_Academy_of_Medical_Sciences" title="USSR Academy of Medical Sciences">USSR Academy of Medical Sciences</a> (<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D1%85_%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%83%D0%BA_%D0%A1%D0%A1%D0%A1%D0%A0" class="extiw" title="ru:Академия медицинских наук СССР">Академия медицинских наук СССР</a>), which after 1992 was reorganized into the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Academy_of_Medical_Sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian Academy of Medical Sciences">Russian Academy of Medical Sciences</a> (<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D1%85_%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%83%D0%BA" class="extiw" title="ru:Российская академия медицинских наук">Российская академия медицинских наук</a>). </p><p>Agricultural research was organized under the aegis of the <a href="/wiki/VASKhNIL" title="VASKhNIL">All-Union Academy of Agricultural Sciences of the Soviet Union</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Scientific_Research_Institutes_(NII)"><span id="Scientific_Research_Institutes_.28NII.29"></span>Scientific Research Institutes (NII)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Science_and_technology_in_the_Soviet_Union&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Scientific Research Institutes (NII)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A large part of research was conducted in <i>NII</i>s — "scientific <a href="/wiki/Research_Institute" class="mw-redirect" title="Research Institute">research institutes</a>" (<a href="/wiki/Russian_language" title="Russian language">Russian</a>: <span lang="ru">НИИ, нау́чно-иссле́довательский институ́т</span>). There have been a great number of NIIs, each specialized in a particular field. </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ioffe_Physico-Technical_Institute" class="mw-redirect" title="Ioffe Physico-Technical Institute">Ioffe Physico-Technical Institute</a> founded 1918</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institute_of_Anthropology_and_Ethnography" title="Institute of Anthropology and Ethnography">Institute of Anthropology and Ethnography</a> founded 1933</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institute_for_Physical_Problems" title="Institute for Physical Problems">Institute for Physical Problems</a> founded 1934</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moscow_Institute_of_Physics_and_Technology" title="Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology">Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology</a> founded 1946</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institute_of_Radio-engineering_and_Electronics" title="Institute of Radio-engineering and Electronics">Institute of Radio-engineering and Electronics</a> founded 1954</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joint_Institute_for_Nuclear_Research" title="Joint Institute for Nuclear Research">Joint Institute for Nuclear Research</a> founded 1956</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Novosibirsk_TB_Research_Institute" title="Novosibirsk TB Research Institute">Novosibirsk TB Research Institute</a> founded 1943</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ideological_restrictions_on_science">Ideological restrictions on science</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Science_and_technology_in_the_Soviet_Union&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Ideological restrictions on science"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Suppressed_research_in_the_Soviet_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Suppressed research in the Soviet Union">Suppressed research in the Soviet Union</a></div> <p>Already in the 1920s, certain fields of scientific research were labeled "bourgeois" and "idealist" by the Communist Party. All research, including natural sciences, was to be founded on the philosophy of <a href="/wiki/Dialectical_materialism" title="Dialectical materialism">dialectical materialism</a>. Humanities and social sciences were additionally tested for strict accordance with <a href="/wiki/Historical_materialism" title="Historical materialism">historical materialism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Graham_2004_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Graham_2004-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, many scientists were forbidden from cooperation with foreign researchers. The scientific community of the Soviet Union became increasingly closed. In addition to that, the party continued declaring various new theories "pseudo-scientific". <a href="/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">Genetics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Paedology" title="Paedology">pedology</a> and psychotechnics were already banned in 1936 by a special decree of the <a href="/wiki/Central_Committee_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">Central Committee</a>. On August 7, 1948, the <a href="/wiki/V.I._Lenin_Academy_of_Agricultural_Sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="V.I. Lenin Academy of Agricultural Sciences">V.I. Lenin Academy of Agricultural Sciences</a> announced that from that point on <a href="/wiki/Lamarckian_inheritance" class="mw-redirect" title="Lamarckian inheritance">Lamarckian inheritance</a>, the theory that personality traits acquired during life are passed on to offspring, would be taught as "the only correct theory". Soviet scientists were forced to redact prior work, and even after this ideology, known as <a href="/wiki/Lysenkoism" title="Lysenkoism">Lysenkoism</a>, was demonstrated to be false, it took many years for criticism of it to become acceptable.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After the 1960s, during the <a href="/wiki/Khrushchev_Thaw" title="Khrushchev Thaw">Khrushchev Thaw</a>, a policy of liberalization of science was implemented, but the policy of Lysenkoism continued. Lysenkoism was officially renounced in 1964, after <a href="/wiki/Leonid_Brezhnev" title="Leonid Brezhnev">Leonid Brezhnev</a> came to power. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="After_Soviet_collapse">After Soviet collapse</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Science_and_technology_in_the_Soviet_Union&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: After Soviet collapse"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>After the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, rapid inflation and decline in governmental revenues caused the scientific establishment to lose much of its funding and stability for the first time since the 1920s. Salaries were not paid for months, and research monies disappeared. International organizations offered aid programs to discourage emigration. In general, however, the Russian scientific community has been slow to recover from the political and economic shocks of the 1990s.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Soviet_Nobel_Prize_winners_in_science">Soviet Nobel Prize winners in science</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Science_and_technology_in_the_Soviet_Union&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Soviet Nobel Prize winners in science"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The following Soviet scientists were recipients of a <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize" title="Nobel Prize">Nobel Prize</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Physics">Physics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Science_and_technology_in_the_Soviet_Union&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Physics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>1958 <a href="/wiki/Pavel_Cherenkov" title="Pavel Cherenkov">Pavel Cherenkov</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ilya_Frank" title="Ilya Frank">Ilya Frank</a> and <a href="/wiki/Igor_Tamm" title="Igor Tamm">Igor Tamm</a> "for the discovery and interpretation of the <a href="/wiki/Cherenkov_effect" class="mw-redirect" title="Cherenkov effect">Cherenkov effect</a>"</li> <li>1962 <a href="/wiki/Lev_Landau" title="Lev Landau">Lev Landau</a> "for his theories about <a href="/wiki/Condensed_matter" class="mw-redirect" title="Condensed matter">condensed matter</a>, particularly about <a href="/wiki/Superfluid_helium-4" title="Superfluid helium-4">liquid helium superfluidity</a>"</li> <li>1964 <a href="/wiki/Nikolay_Basov" title="Nikolay Basov">Nikolay Basov</a> and <a href="/wiki/Aleksandr_Mikhailovich_Prokhorov" class="mw-redirect" title="Aleksandr Mikhailovich Prokhorov">Aleksandr Prokhorov</a> "for fundamental work in the area of the <a href="/wiki/Quantum_electronics" class="mw-redirect" title="Quantum electronics">quantum electronics</a>, which led to the construction of oscillators and amplifiers based on the <a href="/wiki/Maser" title="Maser">maser</a> <a href="/wiki/Laser" title="Laser">laser</a> principle"</li> <li>1978 <a href="/wiki/Pyotr_Kapitsa" title="Pyotr Kapitsa">Pyotr Kapitsa</a> "for his fundamental inventions and discoveries in <a href="/wiki/Cryophysics" class="mw-redirect" title="Cryophysics">Cryophysics</a>"</li> <li>2001 <a href="/wiki/Zhores_Alferov" title="Zhores Alferov">Zhores Alferov</a> (RU) "for the development of semiconductor <a href="/wiki/Heterostructures" class="mw-redirect" title="Heterostructures">heterostructures</a> for high-speed and <a href="/wiki/Opto-electronics" class="mw-redirect" title="Opto-electronics">opto-electronics</a>" (working in the time of the USSR)</li> <li>2003 <a href="/wiki/Alexei_Alexeyevich_Abrikosov" class="mw-redirect" title="Alexei Alexeyevich Abrikosov">Alexei Abrikosov</a> (RU), <a href="/wiki/Vitaly_Ginzburg" title="Vitaly Ginzburg">Vitaly Ginzburg</a> (RU) "for innovative work in the theory about <a href="/wiki/Superconductors" class="mw-redirect" title="Superconductors">superconductors</a>" (working in the time of the USSR)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Chemistry">Chemistry</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Science_and_technology_in_the_Soviet_Union&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Chemistry"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>1956 <a href="/wiki/Nikolai_Semenov" class="mw-redirect" title="Nikolai Semenov">Nikolai Semenov</a> For outstanding work on the mechanism of <a href="/wiki/Chemical_transformation" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemical transformation">chemical transformation</a> including an exhaustive analysis of the application of the <a href="/wiki/Chain_reaction#Chemical_chain_reactions" title="Chain reaction">chain theory</a> to varied reactions (1934–1954) and, more significantly, to combustion processes. He proposed a <a href="/wiki/Branching_(polymer_chemistry)" title="Branching (polymer chemistry)">theory of degenerate branching</a>, which led to a better understanding of the phenomena associated with the induction periods of oxidation processes.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="National_Prizes">National Prizes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Science_and_technology_in_the_Soviet_Union&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: National Prizes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The most prestigious government prize awarded for achievements in science and technology was originally the <a href="/wiki/USSR_State_Prize" title="USSR State Prize">Stalin Prize</a>. After the death of Stalin, the Stalin Prize was renamed the <a href="/wiki/USSR_State_Prize" title="USSR State Prize">USSR State Prize</a>, and the new <a href="/wiki/Lenin_Prize" title="Lenin Prize">Lenin Prize</a> became the top award. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Science_and_technology_in_the_Soviet_Union&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output 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srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg/48px-Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg/64px-Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Soviet_Union" title="Portal:Soviet Union">Soviet Union portal</a></span></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg/28px-Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg/42px-Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg.png 1.5x, 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title="Portal:Technology">Technology portal</a></span></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cybernetics_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Cybernetics in the Soviet Union">Cybernetics in the Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lysenkoism" title="Lysenkoism">Lysenkoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_Russia" title="Science and technology in Russia">Science and technology in Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sharashka" title="Sharashka">Sharashka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_Antarctic_Expedition" title="Soviet Antarctic Expedition">Soviet Antarctic Expedition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_cosmonauts" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet cosmonauts">Soviet cosmonauts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_explorers" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet explorers">Soviet explorers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_inventions" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet inventions">Soviet inventions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_inventors" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet inventors">Soviet inventors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_scientists" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet scientists">Soviet scientists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stalin_and_the_Scientists" title="Stalin and the Scientists">Stalin and the Scientists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suppressed_research_in_the_Soviet_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Suppressed research in the Soviet Union">Suppressed research in the Soviet Union</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Science_and_technology_in_the_Soviet_Union&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFChan2015" class="citation journal cs1">Chan, Chi Ling (11 June 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ojs.stanford.edu/ojs/index.php/intersect/article/view/691#:~:text=This%20essay%20argues%20that%20the,demands%20of%2021st%20century%20informationalization.">"Fallen Behind: Science, Technology and Soviet Statism"</a>. <i>Intersect: The Stanford Journal of Science, Technology, and Society</i>. <b>8</b> (3).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Intersect%3A+The+Stanford+Journal+of+Science%2C+Technology%2C+and+Society&rft.atitle=Fallen+Behind%3A+Science%2C+Technology+and+Soviet+Statism&rft.volume=8&rft.issue=3&rft.date=2015-06-11&rft.aulast=Chan&rft.aufirst=Chi+Ling&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fojs.stanford.edu%2Fojs%2Findex.php%2Fintersect%2Farticle%2Fview%2F691%23%3A~%3Atext%3DThis%2520essay%2520argues%2520that%2520the%2Cdemands%2520of%252021st%2520century%2520informationalization.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience+and+technology+in+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSoyfer2001" class="citation journal cs1">Soyfer, Valery N. (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220723160019/https://tauruspet.med.yale.edu/staff/edm42/IUPUI-website/emorris.tar/emorris/emorris/Ethics%20Course%2009/Journal%20articles/lysenko-nature-rev-genetics2001-nrg0901_723a.pdf">"The consequences of political dictatorship for Russian science"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Nature Reviews Genetics</i>. <b>2</b> (9): 723–729. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F35088598">10.1038/35088598</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11533721">11533721</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:46277758">46277758</a></span>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://tauruspet.med.yale.edu/staff/edm42/IUPUI-website/emorris.tar/emorris/emorris/Ethics%20Course%2009/Journal%20articles/lysenko-nature-rev-genetics2001-nrg0901_723a.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on Jul 23, 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature+Reviews+Genetics&rft.atitle=The+consequences+of+political+dictatorship+for+Russian+science&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=723-729&rft.date=2001&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A46277758%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11533721&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F35088598&rft.aulast=Soyfer&rft.aufirst=Valery+N.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ftauruspet.med.yale.edu%2Fstaff%2Fedm42%2FIUPUI-website%2Femorris.tar%2Femorris%2Femorris%2FEthics%2520Course%252009%2FJournal%2520articles%2Flysenko-nature-rev-genetics2001-nrg0901_723a.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience+and+technology+in+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPeters2016" class="citation book cs1">Peters, Benjamin (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hrFIDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA28"><i>How Not to Network a Nation: The Uneasy History of the Soviet Internet</i></a>. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press. pp. 27–35. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0262034180" title="Special:BookSources/978-0262034180"><bdi>978-0262034180</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=How+Not+to+Network+a+Nation%3A+The+Uneasy+History+of+the+Soviet+Internet&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+Massachusetts&rft.pages=27-35&rft.pub=MIT+Press&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-0262034180&rft.aulast=Peters&rft.aufirst=Benjamin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DhrFIDAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA28&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience+and+technology+in+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Graham_2004-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Graham_2004_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Loren_R._Graham" class="mw-redirect" title="Loren R. Graham">Loren R. Graham</a> (2004) <i>Science in Russia and the Soviet Union. A Short History</i>. Series: Cambridge Studies in the History of Science. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-28789-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-28789-0">978-0-521-28789-0</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Pamela N. Wrinch. "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/pss/2008893">Science and Politics in the U.S.S.R.: The Genetics Debate</a>". <i><a href="/wiki/World_Politics" title="World Politics">World Politics</a></i>, Vol. 3, No. 4 (Jul., 1951), pp. 486-519</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Encyclopedia of Russian history Volume: Volume 4, 2004, by James R. Millar</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Loren_Graham" title="Loren Graham">Loren Graham</a>, <i>What Have We Learned About Science and Technology from the Russian Experience</i> and <i>Science and Technology in Russia and the Soviet Union</i></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Science_and_technology_in_the_Soviet_Union&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://repository.library.georgetown.edu/handle/10822/552673">Soviet Technospies</a> from the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://repository.library.georgetown.edu/handle/10822/552494">Dean Peter Krogh Foreign Affairs Digital Archives</a></li></ul> <p><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="Public Domain" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/12px-PD-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/18px-PD-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/24px-PD-icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="196" data-file-height="196" /></span></span> This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the <a href="/wiki/Public_domain" title="Public domain">public domain</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loc.gov/collections/country-studies/about-this-collection/"><i>Country Studies</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Federal_Research_Division" title="Federal Research Division">Federal Research Division</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Country+Studies&rft.pub=Federal+Research+Division&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.loc.gov%2Fcollections%2Fcountry-studies%2Fabout-this-collection%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience+and+technology+in+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/sutoc.html">Soviet Union</a> </p> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output 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class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Soviet_Union_topics" title="Template:Soviet Union topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Soviet_Union_topics" title="Template talk:Soviet Union topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Soviet_Union_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Soviet Union topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Soviet_Union_topics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> topics</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="History of the Soviet Union">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_Soviet_Union%E2%80%93related_articles" title="Index of Soviet Union–related articles">Index of Soviet Union–related articles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Revolution" title="Russian Revolution">Russian Revolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/February_Revolution" title="February Revolution">February</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/October_Revolution" title="October Revolution">October</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Civil_War" title="Russian Civil War">Russian Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic" title="Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic">Russian SFSR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_on_the_Creation_of_the_Union_of_Soviet_Socialist_Republics" title="Treaty on the Creation of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics">Creation treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Economic_Policy" title="New Economic Policy">New Economic Policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stalinism" title="Stalinism">Stalinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Purge" title="Great Purge">Great Purge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union_in_World_War_II" title="Soviet Union in World War II">Great Patriotic War</a> (World War II) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evacuation_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Evacuation in the Soviet Union">Evacuation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="The Holocaust in the Soviet Union">The Holocaust</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khrushchev_Thaw" title="Khrushchev Thaw">Khrushchev Thaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Soviet_split" title="Sino-Soviet split">Sino-Soviet split</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_space_program" title="Soviet space program">Soviet space program</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1965_Soviet_economic_reform" title="1965 Soviet economic reform">1965 economic reform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Era_of_Stagnation" title="Era of Stagnation">Stagnation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet%E2%80%93Afghan_War" title="Soviet–Afghan War">Soviet–Afghan War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perestroika" title="Perestroika">Perestroika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glasnost" title="Glasnost">Glasnost</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1989" title="Revolutions of 1989">Revolutions of 1989</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Dissolution of the Soviet Union">Dissolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-Soviet_states" title="Post-Soviet states">Post-Soviet states</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nostalgia_for_the_Soviet_Union" title="Nostalgia for the Soviet Union">Nostalgia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Geography of the Soviet Union">Geography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Subdivisions_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Subdivisions of the Soviet Union">Subdivisions</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Republics_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Republics of the Soviet Union">Republics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Autonomous_Soviet_Socialist_Republics" title="Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republics">Autonomous</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krais_of_Russia" title="Krais of Russia">Krais</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oblasts_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Oblasts of the Soviet Union">Oblasts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Autonomous_oblasts_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Autonomous oblasts of the Soviet Union">Autonomous</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autonomous_okrugs_of_Russia" title="Autonomous okrugs of Russia">Autonomous okrugs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Closed_city" title="Closed city">Closed city</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Regions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Caspian_Sea" title="Caspian Sea">Caspian Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caucasus_Mountains" title="Caucasus Mountains">Caucasus Mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Russia" title="European Russia">European Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Caucasus" title="North Caucasus">North Caucasus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siberia" title="Siberia">Siberia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ural_Mountains" title="Ural Mountains">Ural Mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Siberian_Plain" title="West Siberian Plain">West Siberian Plain</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Politics of the Soviet Union">Politics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Constitution of the Soviet Union">Constitution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1936_Constitution_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="1936 Constitution of the Soviet Union">1936</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1977_Constitution_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="1977 Constitution of the Soviet Union">1977</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Elections in the Soviet Union">Elections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Foreign relations of the Soviet Union">Foreign relations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brezhnev_Doctrine" title="Brezhnev Doctrine">Brezhnev Doctrine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gun_control_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Gun control in the Soviet Union">Gun control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Government of the Soviet Union">Government</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_governments_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="List of governments of the Soviet Union">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Human rights in the Soviet Union">Human rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_the_post-Soviet_states" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights in the post-Soviet states">LGBT</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Law of the Soviet Union">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Capital punishment in the Soviet Union">Capital punishment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_leaders_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="List of leaders of the Soviet Union">Leaders</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Collective_leadership_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Collective leadership in the Soviet Union">Collective leadership</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_delimitation_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="National delimitation in the Soviet Union">National delimitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Passport_system_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Passport system in the Soviet Union">Passport system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propiska_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Propiska in the Soviet Union">Propiska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_parties_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="List of political parties in the Soviet Union">Political parties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ideology_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Ideology of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">State ideology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marxism%E2%80%93Leninism" title="Marxism–Leninism">Marxism–Leninism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leninism" title="Leninism">Leninism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stalinism" title="Stalinism">Stalinism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_anti-Zionism" title="Soviet anti-Zionism">Soviet anti-Zionism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Bodies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Communist Party of the Soviet Union">Communist Party</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Organization_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Organization of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">organisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congress_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">Congress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Committee_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">Central Committee</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Politburo_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Politburo of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">Presidium/Politburo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secretariat_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Secretariat of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">Secretariat</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_Secretary_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">General Secretary</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Soviets_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Congress of Soviets of the Soviet Union">Congress of Soviets</a> (1922–1936)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Soviet_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union">Supreme Soviet</a> (1938–1991)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congress_of_People%27s_Deputies_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Congress of People's Deputies of the Soviet Union">Congress of People's Deputies</a> (1989–1991)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Supreme Court of the Soviet Union">Supreme Court</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_Collegium_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Military Collegium of the Supreme Court of the Soviet Union">Military Collegium</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Offices</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_heads_of_state_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="List of heads of state of the Soviet Union">Heads of state</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/President_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="President of the Soviet Union">President</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Premier_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Premier of the Soviet Union">Premier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deputy_Premier_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Deputy Premier of the Soviet Union">Deputy Premier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Deputy_Premier_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="First Deputy Premier of the Soviet Union">First Deputy Premier</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Chronology_of_Soviet_secret_police_agencies" title="Chronology of Soviet secret police agencies">Security services</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cheka" title="Cheka">Cheka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_Political_Directorate" title="State Political Directorate">GPU</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NKVD" title="NKVD">NKVD</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Destruction_battalions" class="mw-redirect" title="Destruction battalions">Destruction battalions</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Internal_Affairs_(Soviet_Union)" title="Ministry of Internal Affairs (Soviet Union)">MVD</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Militsiya" title="Militsiya">Militsiya</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_State_Security_(Soviet_Union)" title="Ministry of State Security (Soviet Union)">MGB</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/KGB" title="KGB">KGB</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_chairmen_of_the_KGB" title="List of chairmen of the KGB">Chairmen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_Border_Troops" title="Soviet Border Troops">Soviet Border Troops</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_Armed_Forces" title="Soviet Armed Forces">Soviet Armed Forces</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_Army" title="Soviet Army">Soviet Army</a>/<a href="/wiki/Spetsnaz_GRU" title="Spetsnaz GRU">Spetsnaz GRU</a> • <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Navy" title="Soviet Navy">Soviet Navy</a> • <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Air_Forces" title="Soviet Air Forces">Soviet Air Forces</a>/<a href="/wiki/Soviet_Airborne_Forces" title="Soviet Airborne Forces">Soviet Airborne Forces</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Political_repression_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Political repression in the Soviet Union">Political repression</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Red_Terror" title="Red Terror">Red Terror</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collectivization_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Collectivization in the Soviet Union">Collectivization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Purge" title="Great Purge">Great Purge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_transfer_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Population transfer in the Soviet Union">Population transfer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_labor_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Forced labor in the Soviet Union">Forced labor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gulag" title="Gulag">Gulag</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Gulag_camps" title="List of Gulag camps">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holodomor" title="Holodomor">Holodomor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_abuse_of_psychiatry_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Political abuse of psychiatry in the Soviet Union">Political abuse of psychiatry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ideological_repression_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Ideological repression in the Soviet Union">Ideological repression</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Religion in the Soviet Union">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Repression_of_science_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Repression of science in the Soviet Union">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Censorship_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Censorship in the Soviet Union">Censorship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Censorship_of_images_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Censorship of images in the Soviet Union">Censorship of images</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Economy of the Soviet Union">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Agriculture in the Soviet Union">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gosbank" class="mw-redirect" title="Gosbank">Central Bank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet-type_economic_planning" title="Soviet-type economic planning">Economic planning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_policy_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Energy policy of the Soviet Union">Energy policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five-year_plans_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Five-year plans of the Soviet Union">Five-year plans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/.su" title=".su">Internet domain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Russian_innovation#Soviet_Union" title="Timeline of Russian innovation">Inventions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Net_material_product" title="Net material product">Net material product</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/OGAS" title="OGAS">OGAS</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Science and technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_ruble" title="Soviet ruble">Rouble <span style="font-size:85%;">(currency)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Transport in the Soviet Union">Transport</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Railway_system_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Railway system of the Soviet Union">Railway system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rail_transport_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Rail transport in the Soviet Union">Rail transport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_metro_systems_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="List of metro systems in the Soviet Union">List of metro systems</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Science</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Communist_Academy" title="Communist Academy">Communist Academy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cybernetics_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Cybernetics in the Soviet Union">Cybernetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Academy_of_Sciences#In_the_Soviet_Union" title="Russian Academy of Sciences">Academy of Sciences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/USSR_Academy_of_Medical_Sciences" title="USSR Academy of Medical Sciences">Academy of Medical Sciences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/VASKhNIL" title="VASKhNIL">Lenin All-Union Academy of Agricultural Sciences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sharashka" title="Sharashka">Sharashkas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naukograd" title="Naukograd">Naukograds</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Naukograds" title="Category:Naukograds">List</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Society_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Category:Society of the Soviet Union">Society</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antisemitism_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Antisemitism in the Soviet Union">Antisemitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Crime in the Soviet Union">Crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Demographics of the Soviet Union">Demographics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_people" title="Soviet people">Soviet people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_working_class" title="Soviet working class">Working class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1989_Soviet_census" title="1989 Soviet census">1989 census</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drug_policy_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Drug policy of the Soviet Union">Drug policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Family in the Soviet Union">Family</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Languages of the Soviet Union">Languages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Linguistics_of_the_Soviet_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Linguistics of the Soviet Union">Linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyrillisation_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Cyrillisation in the Soviet Union">Cyrillisation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prohibition_in_the_Russian_Empire_and_the_Soviet_Union" title="Prohibition in the Russian Empire and the Soviet Union">Prohibition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Racism in the Soviet Union">Racism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Culture of the Soviet Union">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Russian_ballet" title="Russian ballet">Ballet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinema_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Cinema of the Soviet Union">Cinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fashion_in_the_Soviet_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Fashion in the Soviet 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Union">Television</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Anti-Sovietism" title="Anti-Sovietism">Opposition</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_dissidents" title="Soviet dissidents">Soviet dissidents</a> and their groups <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Soviet_opposition_groups" title="Category:Soviet opposition groups">List</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Symbols</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/State_Anthem_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="State Anthem of the Soviet Union">Anthem</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthems_of_the_Soviet_Republics" title="Anthems of the Soviet Republics">Republics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a 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