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Available in 9 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-9" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">9 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerra_de_Shifta" title="Guerra de Shifta – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Guerra de Shifta" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerra_Shifta" title="Guerra Shifta – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Guerra Shifta" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shifta-Krieg" title="Shifta-Krieg – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Shifta-Krieg" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerra_de_Shifta" title="Guerra de Shifta – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Guerra de Shifta" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perang_Shifta" title="Perang Shifta – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Perang Shifta" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A8%E1%83%98%E1%83%A4%E1%83%A2%E1%83%90%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98" title="შიფტას ომი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="შიფტას ომი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shiftakrigen" title="Shiftakrigen – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Shiftakrigen" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerra_de_Shifta" title="Guerra de Shifta – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Guerra de Shifta" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%BE%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%81_%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%86%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B8_%C2%AB%D1%88%D0%B8%D1%84%D1%82%D0%B0%C2%BB" title="Война с повстанцами «шифта» – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Война с повстанцами «шифта»" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit 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and (min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .desktop-float-right{box-sizing:border-box;float:right;clear:right}}.mw-parser-output .infobox.vevent .status>p:first-child{margin:0}</style><table class="infobox vevent" style="width:25.5em;border-spacing:2px;"><tbody><tr><th class="summary" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Shifta War</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;">Part of the <a href="/wiki/Somali%E2%80%93Kenyan_conflict" title="Somali–Kenyan conflict">Somali–Kenyan conflict</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><table style="width:100%;margin:0;padding:0;border:0;display:inline-table"><tbody><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Date</th><td><abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> November 1963–1967<br />(4 years)<br /></td></tr><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Location</th><td><div class="location"><a href="/wiki/North_Eastern_Province_(Kenya)" title="North Eastern Province (Kenya)">North Eastern Province</a>, Kenya</div></td></tr><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Result</th><td class="status"> Ceasefire</td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Belligerents</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;"> <span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Flag_of_Kenya_%281921%E2%80%931963%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Kenya_%281921%E2%80%931963%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Flag_of_Kenya_%281921%E2%80%931963%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Kenya_%281921%E2%80%931963%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Flag_of_Kenya_%281921%E2%80%931963%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Kenya_%281921%E2%80%931963%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Kenya_Colony" title="Kenya Colony">Kenya Colony</a> (until Dec. 1963)<br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Kenya" title="Kenya"><img alt="Kenya" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Flag_of_Kenya.svg/23px-Flag_of_Kenya.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Flag_of_Kenya.svg/35px-Flag_of_Kenya.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Flag_of_Kenya.svg/45px-Flag_of_Kenya.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Kenya" title="Kenya">Kenya</a> (from Dec. 1963)<br /><b>Supported by:</b><br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a><br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Flag_of_Ethiopia_%281897%E2%80%931974%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Ethiopia_%281897%E2%80%931974%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Flag_of_Ethiopia_%281897%E2%80%931974%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Ethiopia_%281897%E2%80%931974%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Flag_of_Ethiopia_%281897%E2%80%931974%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_Ethiopia_%281897%E2%80%931974%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Empire" title="Ethiopian Empire">Ethiopian Empire</a><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBehr2018148_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBehr2018148-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em"> <p>Northern Frontier Districts Liberation Movement </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hawiye" title="Hawiye">Hawiye</a> group</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Darod" title="Darod">Darod</a> group</li></ul> <b>Supported by:</b><br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Somalia" title="Somalia"><img alt="Somalia" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Flag_of_Somalia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Somalia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Flag_of_Somalia.svg/35px-Flag_of_Somalia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Flag_of_Somalia.svg/45px-Flag_of_Somalia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Somali_Republic" title="Somali Republic">Somalia</a><br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Commanders and leaders</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;"> <a href="/wiki/Jomo_Kenyatta" title="Jomo Kenyatta">Jomo Kenyatta</a></td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em"> Maalim Mohammed Stamboul (Darod group)</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Strength</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;"> </td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em"> Hundreds (1963)<br />1,200+ (1966)</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Casualties and losses</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" style="text-align:center"> 4,200+ killed<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul 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.sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile vcard"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><div class="sidebar-pretitle" style="margin: -0.2em 0; font-size:69%; font-weight:normal;">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_Kenya" title="Category:History of Kenya">a series</a> on the</div></th> </tr><tr> <th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style=""><a href="/wiki/History_of_Kenya" title="History of Kenya">History of Kenya</a></th> </tr><tr><td style="padding-bottom: 0.4em; border-bottom: 1px solid #ccc;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Insigne_Keniae.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Coat of Arms of Kenya"><img alt="Coat of Arms of Kenya" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Insigne_Keniae.svg/50px-Insigne_Keniae.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="101" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Insigne_Keniae.svg/75px-Insigne_Keniae.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Insigne_Keniae.svg/100px-Insigne_Keniae.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="302" data-file-height="611" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content wrap"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Kenya" title="Timeline of Kenya">Overview</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div style="text-align:left"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Kenya" title="Timeline of Kenya">Timeline of Kenya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_years_in_Kenya" title="List of years in Kenya">List of years in Kenya</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content wrap"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Kenya#Paleolithic" title="History of Kenya">Pleistocene</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div style="text-align:left"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Koobi_Fora" title="Koobi Fora">Koobi Fora Hominins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olorgesailie" title="Olorgesailie">Olorgesailie Aechulean hand axe culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kariandusi_prehistoric_site" title="Kariandusi prehistoric site">Kariandusi prehistoric site</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enkapune_Ya_Muto" title="Enkapune Ya Muto">Enkapune Ya Muto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nataruk" title="Nataruk">Nataruk</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content wrap"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Kenya#Neolithic" title="History of Kenya">Neolithic</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div style="text-align:left"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lothagam_North_Pillar_Site" title="Lothagam North Pillar Site">Lothagam North Monumental Cemetery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalokol_Pillar_Site" title="Kalokol Pillar Site">Kalokol Pillar Site</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elmenteitan" title="Elmenteitan">Elmenteitan Culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Savanna_Pastoral_Neolithic" title="Savanna Pastoral Neolithic">Cushitic expansion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eburran_industry" title="Eburran industry">Eburran industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyrax_Hill" title="Hyrax Hill">Hyrax Hill</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content wrap"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Kenya#Iron_Age" title="History of Kenya">African Iron Age</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div style="text-align:left"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sirikwa_culture" title="Sirikwa culture">Sirikwa culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bantu_expansion" title="Bantu expansion">Bantu expansion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nilotic_peoples" title="Nilotic peoples">Nilotic expansion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urewe" title="Urewe">Urewe culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thimlich_Ohinga" title="Thimlich Ohinga">Thimlich Ohinga stone-built ruins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shungwaya" title="Shungwaya">Shungwaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaya_(Mijikenda)" title="Kaya (Mijikenda)">Mijikenda Kayas (Fortified settlements)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean_trade" title="Indian Ocean trade">Indian Ocean trade route</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content wrap"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Kenya#Swahili_culture_and_trade" title="History of Kenya">Swahili city-states</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div style="text-align:left"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Periplus_of_the_Erythraean_Sea" title="Periplus of the Erythraean Sea">Periplus of the Erythraean Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swahili_people" title="Swahili people">Swahili people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swahili_culture" title="Swahili culture">Swahili culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kilwa_Sultanate" title="Kilwa Sultanate">Kilwa Sultanate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mombasa#History" title="Mombasa">History of Mombasa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malindi#History" title="Malindi">History of Malindi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lamu#History" title="Lamu">History of Lamu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruins_of_Gedi" title="Ruins of Gedi">Ruins of Gedi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jumba_la_Mtwana" title="Jumba la Mtwana">Jumba la Mtwana</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content wrap"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Kenya#Portuguese_and_Omani_influences" title="History of Kenya">Portuguese and Omani period</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div style="text-align:left"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vasco_da_Gama" title="Vasco da Gama">Vasco da Gama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Empire" title="Portuguese Empire">Portuguese Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fort_Jesus" title="Fort Jesus">Fort Jesus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_African_slave_trade" class="mw-redirect" title="East African slave trade">East African slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omani_Empire" title="Omani Empire">Omani Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Said_bin_Sultan" title="Said bin Sultan">Said bin Sultan</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content wrap"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Kenya#British_rule_(1895–1963)" title="History of Kenya">British colonial period</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div style="text-align:left"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Ludwig_Krapf" title="Johann Ludwig Krapf">Johann Ludwig Krapf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_British_East_Africa_Company" title="Imperial British East Africa Company">Imperial British East Africa Company</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wanga_Kingdom" title="Wanga Kingdom">Wanga Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nabongo_Mumia" title="Nabongo Mumia">Nabongo Mumia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kenya-Uganda_Railway" class="mw-redirect" title="Kenya-Uganda Railway">Kenya-Uganda Railway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nandi_Resistance" title="Nandi Resistance">Nandi Resistance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_East_Africa" title="German East Africa">German East Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_East_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="British East Africa">British East Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uganda_Railway" title="Uganda Railway">Kenya-Uganda Railway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mekatilili_Wa_Menza" title="Mekatilili Wa Menza">Mekatilili Wa Menza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_African_campaign_(World_War_I)" title="East African campaign (World War I)">East African campaign (World War I)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kenya_Colony" title="Kenya Colony">Kenya Colony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mumboism" title="Mumboism">Mumboism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luo_Union_(Welfare_Organisation)" class="mw-redirect" title="Luo Union (Welfare Organisation)">Luo Union (Welfare Organisation)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harry_Thuku" title="Harry Thuku">Harry Thuku</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kenya_in_World_War_II" title="Kenya in World War II">Kenya in World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kenya_African_Union" title="Kenya African Union">Kenya African Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jomo_Kenyatta" title="Jomo Kenyatta">Jomo Kenyatta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mau_Mau_Rebellion" class="mw-redirect" title="Mau Mau Rebellion">Mau Mau Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dedan_Kimathi" title="Dedan Kimathi">Dedan Kimathi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tom_Mboya" title="Tom Mboya">Tom Mboya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oginga_Odinga" class="mw-redirect" title="Oginga Odinga">Oginga Odinga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nairobi_People%27s_Convention_Party" title="Nairobi People's Convention Party">Nairobi People's Convention Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Kennedy_Airlift" title="The Kennedy Airlift">The Kennedy Airlift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kenya_African_National_Union" title="Kenya African National Union">Kenya African National Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lancaster_House_Conferences_(Kenya)" title="Lancaster House Conferences (Kenya)">Lancaster House Conferences (Kenya)</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content wrap"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Kenya#Independence" title="History of Kenya">Early post-independence</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div style="text-align:left"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Shifta War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pio_Gama_Pinto" title="Pio Gama Pinto">Pio Gama Pinto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bildad_Kaggia" title="Bildad Kaggia">Bildad Kaggia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kenya_People%27s_Union" title="Kenya People's Union">Kenya People's Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1966_Kenyan_parliamentary_by-elections" title="1966 Kenyan parliamentary by-elections">'Little general election'</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kisumu_massacre" title="Kisumu massacre">Kisumu Massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gikuyu,_Embu,_and_Meru_Association" title="Gikuyu, Embu, and Meru Association">Gikuyu, Embu, and Meru Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Josiah_Mwangi_Kariuki" title="Josiah Mwangi Kariuki">Josiah Mwangi Kariuki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Jomo_Kenyatta" title="Presidency of Jomo Kenyatta">Presidency of Jomo Kenyatta</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content wrap"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Kenya#Moi_regime_(1978–2002)" title="History of Kenya">Moi era</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div style="text-align:left"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Arap_Moi" class="mw-redirect" title="Daniel Arap Moi">Daniel Arap Moi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1982_Kenyan_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat_attempt" class="mw-redirect" title="1982 Kenyan coup d'état attempt">1982 coup d'état attempt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wagalla_massacre" title="Wagalla massacre">Wagalla massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1992_Kenyan_general_election" title="1992 Kenyan general election">1992 Kenyan general election</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS_in_Kenya" title="HIV/AIDS in Kenya">HIV/AIDS in Kenya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1997_Kenyan_general_election" title="1997 Kenyan general election">1997 Kenyan general election</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1998_United_States_embassy_bombings" title="1998 United States embassy bombings">1998 United States embassy bombings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terrorism_in_Kenya" title="Terrorism in Kenya">Terrorism in Kenya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Daniel_Moi" title="Presidency of Daniel Moi">Presidency of Daniel Moi</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content wrap"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Kenya#Recent_history_(2002_to_present)" title="History of Kenya">Recent history</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div style="text-align:left"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2002_Kenyan_general_election" title="2002 Kenyan general election">2002 Kenyan general election</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mwai_Kibaki" title="Mwai Kibaki">Mwai Kibaki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2005_Kenyan_constitutional_referendum" title="2005 Kenyan constitutional referendum">2005 Kenyan constitutional referendum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2007-2008_Kenyan_crisis" class="mw-redirect" title="2007-2008 Kenyan crisis">2007-2008 Kenyan crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raila_Odinga" title="Raila Odinga">Raila Odinga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2010_Kenyan_constitutional_referendum" title="2010 Kenyan constitutional referendum">2010 Kenyan constitutional referendum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Linda_Nchi" title="Operation Linda Nchi">Operation Linda Nchi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Westgate_shopping_mall_attack" title="Westgate shopping mall attack">Westgate shopping mall attack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mpeketoni_attacks" title="Mpeketoni attacks">2014 Mpeketoni attacks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Mwai_Kibaki" title="Presidency of Mwai Kibaki">Presidency of Mwai Kibaki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uhuru_Kenyatta" title="Uhuru Kenyatta">Uhuru Kenyatta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Ruto" title="William Ruto">William Ruto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garissa_University_College_attack" title="Garissa University College attack">Garissa University College attack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/October_2017_Kenyan_presidential_election" title="October 2017 Kenyan presidential election">October 2017 Kenyan presidential election</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2018_Kenya_handshake" title="2018 Kenya handshake">2018 Kenya handshake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Kenya" title="COVID-19 pandemic in Kenya">COVID-19 pandemic in Kenya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Uhuru_Kenyatta" title="Presidency of Uhuru Kenyatta">Presidency of Uhuru Kenyatta</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Flag_of_Kenya.svg/16px-Flag_of_Kenya.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Flag_of_Kenya.svg/24px-Flag_of_Kenya.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Flag_of_Kenya.svg/32px-Flag_of_Kenya.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Kenya" title="Portal:Kenya">Kenya portal</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_Kenya" title="Template:History of Kenya"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_Kenya" title="Template talk:History of Kenya"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_Kenya" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of Kenya"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>Shifta War</b> or <b>Gaf Daba</b><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBloch201562_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBloch201562-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (1963–1967) was a <a href="/wiki/Secession" title="Secession">secessionist</a> conflict in which <a href="/wiki/Somalis_in_Kenya" title="Somalis in Kenya">ethnic Somalis</a> in the <a href="/wiki/North_Eastern_Province_(Kenya)" title="North Eastern Province (Kenya)">Northern Frontier District</a> (NFD) of <a href="/wiki/Kenya" title="Kenya">Kenya</a> attempted to join Somalia. The Kenyan government named the conflict "<a href="/wiki/Shifta" title="Shifta">shifta</a>", after the <a href="/wiki/Swahili_language" title="Swahili language">Swahili</a> word for "bandit", as part of a propaganda effort. The Kenyan <a href="/wiki/Counter-insurgency" class="mw-redirect" title="Counter-insurgency">counter-insurgency</a> <a href="/wiki/General_Service_Unit" class="mw-redirect" title="General Service Unit">General Service Units</a> forced civilians into "<a href="/wiki/Villagization" title="Villagization">protected villages</a>" (essentially <a href="/wiki/Concentration_camps" class="mw-redirect" title="Concentration camps">concentration camps</a>)<sup id="cite_ref-Howard_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Howard-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as well as killing livestock kept by the <a href="/wiki/Pastoralism" title="Pastoralism">pastoralist</a> Somalis. </p><p>The war ended in 1967 when <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Haji_Ibrahim_Egal" title="Muhammad Haji Ibrahim Egal">Muhammad Haji Ibrahim Egal</a>, Prime Minister of the <a href="/wiki/Somali_Republic" title="Somali Republic">Somali Republic</a>, signed a ceasefire with Kenya at the <a href="/wiki/Arusha" title="Arusha">Arusha</a> Conference on 23 October 1967.<sup id="cite_ref-standard_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-standard-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the violence in Kenya deteriorated into disorganised banditry, with occasional episodes for the next several decades. </p><p>The war and violent clampdowns by the Kenyan government caused large-scale disruption to the way of life in the district, resulting in a slight shift from pastoralist and <a href="/wiki/Transhumant" class="mw-redirect" title="Transhumant">transhumant</a> lifestyles to sedentary, urban lifestyles. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Background">Background</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shifta_War&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Background"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Northern Frontier District (NFD) came into being in 1925, when it was carved out of the <a href="/wiki/Jubaland" title="Jubaland">Jubaland</a> region in present-day southern <a href="/wiki/Somalia" title="Somalia">Somalia</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> At the time under British colonial administration, the northern half of Jubaland was ceded to <a href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italy</a> as a reward for the Italians' support of the Allies during <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOliver19637_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOliver19637-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Britain retained control of the southern half of the territory, which was later called the Northern Frontier District.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>From 1926 to 1934, the NFD, comprising the current <a href="/wiki/North_Eastern_Province_(Kenya)" title="North Eastern Province (Kenya)">North Eastern Province</a> and the districts of <a href="/wiki/Marsabit_District" title="Marsabit District">Marsabit</a>, <a href="/wiki/Moyale_District" title="Moyale District">Moyale</a> and <a href="/wiki/Isiolo_District" title="Isiolo District">Isiolo</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Ongeri_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ongeri-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> was closed by <a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British colonial authorities</a>. Movement in and out of the district was possible only through the use of passes.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite these restrictions, pastoralism was well-suited to the arid conditions and the non-Somali residents—who represented a tiny fraction of the region's population<sup id="cite_ref-AWC_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AWC-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-WRP_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WRP-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Vallat_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vallat-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>—were relatively prosperous, whereas the Somali owners of the land were calculated in underdevelopment.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p> In 1953, anthropologist John Baxter noted that:</p><blockquote><p>The <a href="/wiki/Boran_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Boran people">Boran</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Sakuye" class="mw-redirect" title="Sakuye">Sakuye</a> were well-nourished and well-clothed and, though a pastoral life is always physically demanding, people led dignified and satisfying life... They had clearly been prospering for some years. In 1940, the District Commissioner commented in his Handing Over Report: "The Ewaso Boran have degenerated through wealth and soft living into an idle and cowardly set"...<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEde_Waal199739_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_Waal199739-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>On 26 June 1960, four days before granting <a href="/wiki/British_Somaliland" title="British Somaliland">British Somaliland</a> independence, the British government declared that all Somali areas should be unified in one administrative region. However, after the dissolution of the former British colonies in East Africa, Britain granted administration of the Northern Frontier District to Kenya despite a) an informal plebiscite demonstrating the overwhelming desire of the region's population to join the newly formed <a href="/wiki/Somalia" title="Somalia">Somali Republic</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and b) the fact that the NFD was and still is almost exclusively inhabited by ethnic Somalis.<sup id="cite_ref-AWC_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AWC-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-WRP_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WRP-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Vallat_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vallat-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1962, <a href="/wiki/Kenya_African_National_Union" title="Kenya African National Union">Kenya African National Union</a> (KANU) leader <a href="/wiki/Jomo_Kenyatta" title="Jomo Kenyatta">Jomo Kenyatta</a> publicly declared that the NFD's future was "a domestic affair of Kenya", and dismissed fears about militant Somali <a href="/wiki/Irredentism" title="Irredentism">irredentism</a> by telling Somalis in Kenya to "pack up your camels and go to Somalia".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBranch2017104_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBranch2017104-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At this point, KANU was confident that any Somali uprising could be easily crushed; the party's leaders were more concerned that the British might provide support to possible separatist groups to recreate a scenario similar to <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_the_Congo_(L%C3%A9opoldville)" title="Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville)">Congo-Kinshasa</a> which had become independent in 1960, only to suffer from extensive, foreign-supported separatism. KANU believed the British colonial officials to be sympathetic toward the Somalis.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBranch2017104–105_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBranch2017104–105-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Led by the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Northern_Province_People%27s_Progressive_Party&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Northern Province People's Progressive Party (page does not exist)">Northern Province People's Progressive Party</a> (NPPPP), many Somalis in the NFD vigorously sought union with the Somali Republic to the north.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaker200183_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaker200183-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The NPPPP itself sidelined other separatist groups such as the Nairobi-based "Somali Independent Union".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWeitzberg2017Section:_The_Multiple_Visions_of_Greater_Somalia_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeitzberg2017Section:_The_Multiple_Visions_of_Greater_Somalia-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The proposal to unite the NFD with Somalia was widely supported in northern Kenya,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnderson2017122_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnderson2017122-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> even though there were substantial economic and cultural differences as well as tensions within the Somali community.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWeitzberg2017Section:_The_Multiple_Visions_of_Greater_Somalia_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeitzberg2017Section:_The_Multiple_Visions_of_Greater_Somalia-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the <a href="/wiki/1961_Kenyan_general_election" title="1961 Kenyan general election">1961 Kenyan general election</a>, the NPPPP gained the support of most Somalis in northern Kenya.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBranch2011Chapter_1_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBranch2011Chapter_1-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, anti-separatist groups also existed in the NFD, for example the "Northern Province United Association" (NPUA), mainly backed by urban <a href="/wiki/Borana_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Borana people">Borana people</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBehr2018186_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBehr2018186-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other parties like the "United Ogaden Somali Association" (UOSA) had less clear-cut aims;<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBehr2018187_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBehr2018187-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> UOSA repeatedly shifted its political position, at times even advocating the merger of several territories in Kenya, Somalia, and Ethiopia into an independent Greater <a href="/wiki/Ogaden" title="Ogaden">Ogaden</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWeitzberg2017Section:_The_Multiple_Visions_of_Greater_Somalia_17-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeitzberg2017Section:_The_Multiple_Visions_of_Greater_Somalia-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A minority of Somali pan-nationalists also believed that the NFD should stay part of Kenya, achieve separation through mediation, or become independent from both Kenya and Somalia; however, these viewpoints gradually faded as political camps became increasingly polarized and the discourse more toxic.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWeitzberg2017Section:_The_Multiple_Visions_of_Greater_Somalia_17-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeitzberg2017Section:_The_Multiple_Visions_of_Greater_Somalia-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Separatists and anti-separatists engaged in aggressive rhetoric, and there was occasional communal violence.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBehr2018187_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBehr2018187-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The British, while initially including NFD delegates in independence negotiations and appearing to entertain secession, eventually reached an agreement with Kenya's first ruling party, KANU, whereby the state's territorial status quo would be maintained.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhittaker2012392_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhittaker2012392-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The judgement of the Northern Frontier Commission of 1962 –which was supposed to examine the possibility of the NFD's separation– was thus rejected by Somali nationalists before it was even announced, as they concluded that the commission would follow the views of the Kenyan nationalists.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnderson2017122_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnderson2017122-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On 22 November 1963 the British government declared that there would be "no altering Kenya's frontier without the decision of the new Kenyan Government".<sup id="cite_ref-standard_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-standard-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As the colonial government had sided with the Kenyan nationalists, it began to move against the NPPPP. Between March and May 1963, security forces arrested three NPPPP leaders and exiled them to remote areas. Later on NPPPP secretary general Degho Maalim Stamboul was also detained. The latter's father, Chief Maalim Mohammed Stamboul, would consequently play a major role in the Shifta War.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBranch2011Chapter_1_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBranch2011Chapter_1-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Conflict">Conflict</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shifta_War&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Conflict"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Start_of_the_insurgency">Start of the insurgency</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shifta_War&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Start of the insurgency"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The conflict began in the weeks leading up to Kenya's independence,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBranch2017106_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBranch2017106-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnderson2017122_18-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnderson2017122-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as a few hundred Somalis in the NFD took up arms. Hoping to achieve unification with Somalia through a rebellion, NPPPP supporters formed the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Northern_Frontier_Districts_Liberation_Movement&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Northern Frontier Districts Liberation Movement (page does not exist)">Northern Frontier Districts Liberation Movement</a> (NFDLM). The NFDLM was divided into two separate groups, centered around the <a href="/wiki/Hawiye" title="Hawiye">Hawiye</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Darod" title="Darod">Darod</a> clans respectively. The former faction was active between <a href="/wiki/Wajir" title="Wajir">Wajir</a>, <a href="/wiki/Moyale" title="Moyale">Moyale</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Mandera" title="Mandera">Mandera</a>, whereas the latter was led by Maalim Mohammed Stamboul and operated near <a href="/wiki/Garissa" title="Garissa">Garissa</a> and Somalia's southwestern border.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBranch2017106_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBranch2017106-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Non-Somalis<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBranch2017106_25-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBranch2017106-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> such as <a href="/wiki/Turkana_people" title="Turkana people">Turkana</a> would also join the insurgents; members of these ethnic groups were mostly motivated by the fear of restrictions on their movement and lifestyle imposed by the Kenyan government.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBranch2011Chapter_1_19-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBranch2011Chapter_1-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite the insurgents' differing background and internal divisions, they were united by their opposition to the centralism associated with Kenya. Separatists believed that Somalia would interfere less with their affairs, keeping state control weak and thus maintain the local livelihoods which were adapted to a frontier zone with weak state presence.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBranch2017106_25-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBranch2017106-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The province thus entered a period of running skirmishes between the <a href="/wiki/Military_of_Kenya" class="mw-redirect" title="Military of Kenya">Kenya Army</a> and Somali-backed NFDLM insurgents. The first high-profile victims were two <a href="/wiki/Borana_Oromo_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Borana Oromo people">Borana</a> leaders, the first African <a href="/wiki/Colonial_Service" title="Colonial Service">District Commissioner</a> Dabaso Wabera and <a href="/wiki/Tribal_chief" title="Tribal chief">tribal chief</a> Haji Galma Dido, who were assassinated while a route to <a href="/wiki/Isiolo" title="Isiolo">Isiolo</a> to urge locals not to back the <a href="/wiki/Secession" title="Secession">secessionists</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-standard_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-standard-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The two assassins were Somali residents of Kenya who later escaped across the Somali border.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In November 1963 the security situation in the NFD rapidly declined as the <i>shifta</i> began directly attacking police and army personnel.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhittaker201472–73_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhittaker201472–73-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Kenya was granted independence on 12 December, and in response NPPPP militants staged evening attacks on northern police stations and administrative posts.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhittaker2012392_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhittaker2012392-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These attacks led the NPPPP leadership to publicly distance itself from the shiftas, and declare that it would work toward a union with Somalia through "constitutional means".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKeesing's1964_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeesing's1964-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This move effectively meant that the party contributed to the delegitimization the insurgents.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBehr2018195_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBehr2018195-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jomo_Kenyatta.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Jomo_Kenyatta.jpg/150px-Jomo_Kenyatta.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="215" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Jomo_Kenyatta.jpg/225px-Jomo_Kenyatta.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c2/Jomo_Kenyatta.jpg 2x" data-file-width="255" data-file-height="366" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Jomo_Kenyatta" title="Jomo Kenyatta">Jomo Kenyatta</a> (pictured 1966) tried to suppress the rebellion without empowering the <a href="/wiki/Military_of_Kenya" class="mw-redirect" title="Military of Kenya">Kenya Army</a>. </figcaption></figure> <p>Heavy rains prevented security forces from countering the initial insurgency, especially as the guerrillas enjoyed a high level of support among the NFD's civilian population during the rebellion's first year.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBranch2017106_25-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBranch2017106-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite this, the Kenyan central government under Kenyatta initially did not consider the fighting in the NFD a high priority issue. Kenyatta was far more concerned a possible army mutiny or a possible coup by his rivals within KANU, and feared that the military could be politically empowered by fighting the insurgents alone. As a result, he decided to turn around in regard to the British influence in the NFD, and request assistance from the United Kingdom to deal with the rebels.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBranch2017105_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBranch2017105-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Kenyatta restricted the Kenya Army's size despite the threat posed by separatists and tensions with Somalia.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBranch2017107_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBranch2017107-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He also relied on the paramilitary <a href="/wiki/General_Service_Unit_(Kenya)" title="General Service Unit (Kenya)">General Service Unit</a> (GSU) to combat the insurgency. Consisting of about 1,000 "shock troopers", it was trained by the British <a href="/wiki/Special_Air_Service" title="Special Air Service">Special Air Service</a>, mainly consisted of <a href="/wiki/Kikuyu_people" title="Kikuyu people">Kikuyu</a> (Kenyatta's ethnic group), and considered firmly loyal to the Kenyan government.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBranch2017107–108_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBranch2017107–108-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On 28 December 1963, the Kenyan government declared a <a href="/wiki/State_of_emergency" title="State of emergency">state of emergency</a> in the North Eastern Region.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhittaker2012391_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhittaker2012391-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This consisted of allowing security forces to detain people up to 56 days without trial, confiscating the property of communities allegedly in retaliation for acts of violence, and restricting the right to assembly and movement. A 'prohibited zone' was created along the Somali border, and the death penalty was made mandatory for unauthorised possession of firearms. "Special courts" without guarantee of <a href="/wiki/Due_process" title="Due process">due process</a> were also created. The northeast—declared a "special district"—was subject to nearly unfettered government control, including the authority to detain, arrest or forcibly move individuals or groups, as well as confiscate possessions and land.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEde_Waal199740_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_Waal199740-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, as part of its effort to reassure the public, the <a href="/wiki/Kenya_Broadcasting_Corporation" title="Kenya Broadcasting Corporation">Voice of Kenya</a> was warned not to refer to the conflict as a "border dispute", while a special government committee decided to refer to the rebels as "shiftas" to minimise the political nature of the war.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Kenyatta reinforced this portrayal by describing the rebels as mere criminals<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBehr2018181–182_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBehr2018181–182-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and claiming that the entire conflict was organized by citizens of Somalia without involvement of Kenyan nationals.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBranch2011Chapter_1_19-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBranch2011Chapter_1-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He further alleged that of about 2,000 shiftas, only 700 were actually operating in the NFD.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBehr2018195_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBehr2018195-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Stalemate">Stalemate</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shifta_War&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Stalemate"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Despite their initial successes and substantial local support, the shiftas were too weak in numbers and equipment to defeat the security forces. As a result, a stalemate developed.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBranch2017106_25-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBranch2017106-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While the shiftas sometimes traded livestock for firearms from civilians, they were generally reliant on weapons supplied by Somalia.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhittaker201473–74_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhittaker201473–74-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> From 1963, Somali support became "vital" for the insurgency.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBranch2017107_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBranch2017107-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus, in February 1964 rebel activity increased after Somalia had received an arms shipment from the Soviet Union but it declined in March as their supplies ran out.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhittaker201473–74_36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhittaker201473–74-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Backed by British troops, the Kenya Army also began a major offensive in that month, though this did not prevent the rebels from staging a major offensive of their own against the town of <a href="/wiki/Marsabit" title="Marsabit">Marsabit</a>. At this point, half of the Kenya Army was engaged in the NFD.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKeesing's1964_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeesing's1964-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Camels_in_Marsabit,_Kenya.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Camels_in_Marsabit%2C_Kenya.jpg/220px-Camels_in_Marsabit%2C_Kenya.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Camels_in_Marsabit%2C_Kenya.jpg/330px-Camels_in_Marsabit%2C_Kenya.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Camels_in_Marsabit%2C_Kenya.jpg/440px-Camels_in_Marsabit%2C_Kenya.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="332" /></a><figcaption>The shiftas <a href="/wiki/Cattle_raiding_in_Kenya" title="Cattle raiding in Kenya">raided cattle</a>, including camels, during the conflict. </figcaption></figure> <p>One immediate consequence of the Shifta insurgency was the signing in 1964 of a Mutual Defense Treaty between Jomo Kenyatta's administration and the government of Ethiopian Emperor <a href="/wiki/Haile_Selassie_I_of_Ethiopia" class="mw-redirect" title="Haile Selassie I of Ethiopia">Haile Selassie</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBranch2017108_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBranch2017108-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/1964_Ethiopian%E2%80%93Somali_Border_War" title="1964 Ethiopian–Somali Border War">outbreak of war</a> between Ethiopia and Somalia further limited the flow of weapons to the shifta, and thus in the latter part of the year the shiftas became more embroiled in local community conflicts and engaged in typical "criminal" activity. This new phase led Kenyan intelligence personnel to create three categories of shifta violence: hit and run attacks by small bands on <a href="/wiki/Soft_target" title="Soft target">soft targets</a>, larger attacks on convoys, and <a href="/wiki/Cattle_raiding_in_Kenya" title="Cattle raiding in Kenya">cattle theft</a> by "armed tribesmen". By 1965 cattle raids had become predominant in the recorded incidents, making it difficult for Kenyan authorities to distinguish violence from local "tribal" issues with attacks related to the secessionist conflict.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhittaker201474_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhittaker201474-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This impacted the rebels' popularity which diminished as the rebellion dragged on and the <i>shiftas</i> stole food and other supplies from civilians to keep fighting. In general, the insurgents "eked out a desperate existence", as support from Somalia reached many groups only sporadically.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBranch2011Chapter_1_19-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBranch2011Chapter_1-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>At the same time, the British influence on the war grew. In March 1964, the Kenyan and British governments signed an agreement to give the latter access to Kenyan airspace and military factilities.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBranch2017108_37-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBranch2017108-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Additional defence treaties were signed in the next two years.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBranch2017109_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBranch2017109-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a result, British colonial-era officers continued to keep important posts in the Kenyan security forces and administration,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBranch2017108_37-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBranch2017108-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> impacting their strategy. On one side, this meant that the Kenyan counter-insurgency was inspired by colonial methods, such as those taken by the British during the <a href="/wiki/Mau_Mau_Uprising" class="mw-redirect" title="Mau Mau Uprising">Mau Mau Uprising</a>, which had been spearheaded by the Kikuyu, who now ironically dominated the KANU-led government.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBranch2017109_39-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBranch2017109-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On the other side, however, the British had a moderating influence. The colonial-era counter-insurgencies had been very costly, and the United Kingdom was unwilling to supply Kenya with the money and weaponry to repeat them. Instead the British advisors urged restraint and pushed for less aggressive, more piecemeal tactics which were able to contain, but not defeat the rebels.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBranch2017109–110_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBranch2017109–110-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In this regard, they frustrated Kenyan government officials who tended to support more drastic and oppressive measures to force the Somali minority into submission.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBranch2017109–110_40-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBranch2017109–110-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the limited counter-insurgency also meant that security forces were unable to protect informants or establish supporter networks in the NFD, and generally lacked intelligence to identify rebel supporters. As a result, they resorted to indiscriminate violence against inhabitants of the NFD. Furthermore, the restrained operations also impacted state-building efforts which had been crucial to colonial-era operations; while Kenyatta's government promised modernisation to locals, it invested little.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBranch2017110–111_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBranch2017110–111-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Over the course of the war, the Kenyan government became increasingly concerned by the growing strength of the Somali military. At independence, Somalia had a weak army of 5,000 troops that was incapable of exerting itself beyond its borders. However, in 1963, the Somali government appealed for assistance from the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a>, which responded by lending money, providing weaponry, and sending trainers. This greatly strengthened the Somali military whose importance also grew in politics. Somali soldiers pressured their government to increase support for the insurgents, and began to directly train shiftas. By 1966, about 1,200 rebels had received training by the Somali military.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBranch2017108_37-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBranch2017108-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Government_advances">Government advances</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shifta_War&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Government advances"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>By 1966, the shiftas were launching raids into urban centers and making effective use of <a href="/wiki/Land_mine" title="Land mine">land mines</a> to ambush the security forces. However, the Kenya Army began to retake territory and adopted a policy of compulsory <a href="/wiki/Villagization" title="Villagization">villagization</a> in the war-affected area to deprive the insurgents of civilian support. Government authorities effectively banned cattle trade, driving many locals into destitution.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBranch2017106_25-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBranch2017106-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The disruption of border trading also negatively impacted the economy of Somalia which was already struggling. Furthermore, the idea of <a href="/wiki/Greater_Somalia" title="Greater Somalia">Greater Somalia</a> was losing its appeal in Somalia. The Somali government thus began to decrease support for the shiftas.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBranch2017107_31-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBranch2017107-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1967, Kenyan fears reached a fever pitch, and a special government committee was created to prepare for a full-scale war with Somalia.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEde_Waal199740_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_Waal199740-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Furthermore, the British influence lessened, as Kenyatta's government was now more secure. It believed that it had ensured the armed forces' loyalty through a variety of measures; the Europeans were no longer necessary. Disagreeing with the moderation advocated by the British, the last expatriate officers in the security forces were replaced with Kenyans who favored a more aggressive approach.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBranch2017110_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBranch2017110-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> embassy argued that the removal of the British officers resulted in the Kenya Army and GSU operating with "harsh brutality" in the NFD.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBranch2017109–110_40-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBranch2017109–110-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1967, the populace was moved into 14 <i>Manyattas</i>, villages that were guarded by troops (some referred to them as concentration camps). East Africa scholar <a href="/wiki/Alex_de_Waal" title="Alex de Waal">Alex de Waal</a> described the result as "a military assault upon the entire pastoral way of life," as enormous numbers of livestock were confiscated or killed, partly to deny their use by the guerrillas and partly to force the populace to abandon their flocks and move to a <i>Manyatta</i>. Thus, made destitute, many nomads became an urban underclass, while educated Somalis in Kenya fled the country.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEde_Waal199740_34-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_Waal199740-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The government also replaced the dynastic Sultans, who were the traditional leaders, with low-ranking government-appointed chiefs.<sup id="cite_ref-Mburu100_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mburu100-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These measures allowed the military and police to launch larger offensives against the rebels.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBranch2017107_31-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBranch2017107-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In an attempt to end the conflict, the Kenyan government offered two presidential amnesties to shiftas in 1967. The first lasted from 1 June to 15 July and led to 340 surrenders. The second, between 20 October and 20 November, led an additional 151 rebels to lay down their arms.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhittaker2014131_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhittaker2014131-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The surrenders were facilitated by the efforts of local elders and community leaders, who willingly carried out the government's request to negotiate the shiftas' return to civilian life so as to deescalate the conflict and avoid further burdens being placed on their locales.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhittaker2014132_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhittaker2014132-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Administrative officials were ordered to supply the former combatants with rations as a sign of goodwill; in Mandera, the government provided them with a weekly supply of fish and corn meal. Villages also threw parties to welcome surrendered families back into public life.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhittaker2014131_44-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhittaker2014131-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The active shiftas responded by attacking the families of those who had surrendered and stealing their cattle.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhittaker2014132_45-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhittaker2014132-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ceasefire">Ceasefire</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shifta_War&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Ceasefire"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In June 1967 <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Haji_Ibrahim_Egal" title="Muhammad Haji Ibrahim Egal">Muhammad Egal</a> was elected Prime Minister of Somalia. While he supported the unification of Greater Somalia, he sought to end diplomatic confrontation with Kenya. In September an <a href="/wiki/Organisation_of_African_Unity" title="Organisation of African Unity">Organisation of African Unity</a> summit was held in Kinshasa, and Kenyan and Somalian delegates decided to reach an agreement regarding the NFD. This resulted in another summit held in <a href="/wiki/Arusha,_Tanzania" class="mw-redirect" title="Arusha, Tanzania">Arusha, Tanzania</a> on 28 October under the chairmanship of <a href="/wiki/Zambia" title="Zambia">Zambian</a> President <a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Kaunda" title="Kenneth Kaunda">Kenneth Kaunda</a>. The governments of both states signed a <a href="/wiki/Memorandum_of_understanding" title="Memorandum of understanding">memorandum of understanding</a> and entailed the suspension of states of emergency in Kenya and Somalia and the full resumption of diplomatic and economic ties between both states.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhittaker2014130_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhittaker2014130-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On 23 November, the Kenyan Special Operations Committee announced that it would undertake no new offensive operations in the NFD.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhittaker2014131_44-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhittaker2014131-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Regional security did not prevail until 1969.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHogg1986[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_January_2022]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(January_2022)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHogg1986[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_January_2022]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(January_2022)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <i>Manyatta</i> strategy is seen as playing a key role in ending the insurgency, though the Somali government may have also decided that the potential benefits of a war simply was not worth the cost and risk.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBranch2011Chapter_1_19-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBranch2011Chapter_1-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As the remaining shiftas surrendered, few did so with their weapons. Instead, the rebels brought their weapons to Somalia before giving up to security forces in Kenya. Consequently, many formerly rebel-held weapons found their way into the hands of criminals who continued to launch cross-border raids from Somalia to steal cattle, causing continued insecurity.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBranch2011Chapter_1_19-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBranch2011Chapter_1-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Aftermath">Aftermath</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shifta_War&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Aftermath"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Government records put the official death toll in the thousands, but <a href="/wiki/Non-governmental_organization" title="Non-governmental organization">non-governmental organizations</a> reported that more than 10,000 people died.<sup id="cite_ref-standard_5-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-standard-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Strategic_implications">Strategic implications</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shifta_War&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Strategic implications"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Despite the end of the Shifta War, the Kenyan government continued to fear interference by Somalia.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBranch2017111_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBranch2017111-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Following the <a href="/wiki/1969_Somali_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1969 Somali coup d'état">1969 Somali coup d'état</a> by <a href="/wiki/Siad_Barre" title="Siad Barre">Siad Barre</a>, Kenya initially believed that Somalia and its <a href="/wiki/Eastern_bloc" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern bloc">Eastern bloc</a> allies were resuming the arming of insurgents in Kenya.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBranch2017112_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBranch2017112-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The war's end also impacted the Kenya Army. The soldiers had previously focused on battling rebels and operated with relatively high morale as well as a sense of purpose, receiving regular training and new equipment. From 1967, however, the government reduced its support for the military, leaving a growing number of Kenyan soldiers dissatisfied. The Kenya Army was also no longer allowed to exercise in the NFD, leaving the troops frustrated at having "simply not enough to do". This dissatisfaction resulted in unsuccessful coup plots within the Kenya Army.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBranch2017112_49-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBranch2017112-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ultimately, the renewed tensions with Somalia in the 1970s caused the Kenyan leadership to once again request foreign support by Great Britain, the United States, and Israel to improve its military, partially addressing the soldiers' complaints.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBranch2017113_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBranch2017113-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Local_effects">Local effects</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shifta_War&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Local effects"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Economically, the war in the NFD led to urbanization, the weakening of smaller pastoral herds, and increased poverty and reliance on external aid.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKhalifOba20135_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKhalifOba20135-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many herders who had lost cattle during the war due to seizures filed complaints seeking compensation for damages from the government, but there is no evidence that these were ever acted upon.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKhalifOba201313_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKhalifOba201313-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the end of the war, private holdings of small stock and camels in the NFD were greatly diminished, as small stock was increasingly slaughtered to provide food and camel herds were either taken by fleeing herders to Somalia or decimated by <a href="/wiki/Tsetse_flies" class="mw-redirect" title="Tsetse flies">tsetse flies</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKhalifOba201314_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKhalifOba201314-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The conflict also strengthened the Kenyan government's view that the NFD's Somalis were foreigners. In 1971, <a href="/wiki/Garissa_County" title="Garissa County">Garissa South</a> <a href="/wiki/Member_of_parliament" title="Member of parliament">MP</a> Abdi Haji Ahmed complained that the central government had not "forgiven" the NFD's residents for the rebellion, and did not "care if [the locals] live or die", pointing at the lack of water supply and schools in the area.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBranch2011Chapter_1_19-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBranch2011Chapter_1-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Anthropologist John Baxter wrote that within the <a href="/wiki/Isiolo_District" title="Isiolo District">Isiolo District</a> in 1982, "only a few fortunate ones still maintained themselves through stock pastoralism. Some 40 percent of the Boran and Sakuye of the District had been driven to peri-urban shanty villages in the new administrative townships. There, they eked out a bare subsistence, hanging around the petrol stations for odd jobs, hawking for <i><a href="/wiki/Khat" title="Khat">miraa</a></i>, making illicit alcohol, engaging in prostitution and the like."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEde_Waal199739_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_Waal199739-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Herds maintained in Isiolo District slowly recovered in the years after the war, but as late as 2007 had not yet surpassed their pre-war numbers.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKhalifOba201314_53-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKhalifOba201314-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The increased poverty rate and proliferation of arms also led to more crime and banditry. The insecurity remained problematic through the 1990s, and forced herders to have their cattle graze in restricted security zones, increasing their vulnerability to drought.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKhalifOba201314–16_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKhalifOba201314–16-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The war thus marked the beginning of decades of violent crackdowns and repressive measures by the police in the NFD, coupled with trumped-up allegations and unsubtle innuendo on the part of the Kenyan media, charging the region's almost-exclusively Somali inhabitants with "banditry" and other vices.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBroch-Due2005174–175_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBroch-Due2005174–175-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Ogaden_War" title="Ogaden War">Ogaden War</a> and growing instability of Somalia also resulted in foreign bandits crossing the border to operate in the NFD, causing further insecurity.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnderson2017124_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnderson2017124-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The worst abuses by security forces in the NFD took place during the 1980s.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnderson2017123_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnderson2017123-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A particularly violent incident referred to as the <a href="/wiki/Wagalla_massacre" title="Wagalla massacre">Wagalla Massacre</a> took place in 1984, when the Kenyan provincial commissioner ordered security forces to gather 5,000 men of the Somali <a href="/wiki/Degodia_(Clan)" class="mw-redirect" title="Degodia (Clan)">Degodia</a> clan onto the airstrip at <a href="/w/index.php?title=Wagalla&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Wagalla (page does not exist)">Wagalla</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wajir" title="Wajir">Wajir</a>, open fire on them, and then attempt to hide their bodies. In the year 2000, the government admitted to having killed 380 people, though independent estimates put the toll at over 2,000.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Not until late 2000 and the administration of Provincial Commissioner <a href="/w/index.php?title=Mohammoud_Saleh&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mohammoud Saleh (page does not exist)">Mohammoud Saleh</a> – a Somali—was there a serious drop in violent activities, partially attributable to Saleh's zero tolerance policy towards abuse by security forces. Ironically, Saleh himself was the target of the local police, having been arrested and booked several times. Wearing plain clothes, Saleh was apparently mistaken for an ordinary inhabitant of the NFD.<sup id="cite_ref-Ongeri_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ongeri-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Ex-NPPPP leader Degho Maalim Stamboul eventually went into exile in Somalia, and only returned to Kenya in the 2010s. He remains one of the few firm supporters of a union of Kenya's northeast with Somalia.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWeitzberg2017Section:_The_Creation_of_Homeland_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeitzberg2017Section:_The_Creation_of_Homeland-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the 2010s, most separatists in northeastern Kenya were instead backing autonomy or proposing a new state, fully independent from both Kenya as well as Somalia, while the concept of Greater Somalia has become fringe view.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWeitzberg2017Section:_The_Multiple_Visions_of_Greater_Somalia_17-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeitzberg2017Section:_The_Multiple_Visions_of_Greater_Somalia-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWeitzberg2017Section:_The_Creation_of_Homeland_59-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeitzberg2017Section:_The_Creation_of_Homeland-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Historiography">Historiography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shifta_War&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Historiography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In contemporary British and Kenyan official documents, the war was referred to as the "NFD dispute" or "Somali question".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhittaker2012392_22-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhittaker2012392-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Kenya, the phrase "gaf Daba" is frequently used to identify the conflict.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBloch201562_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBloch201562-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It originated as an idiom the <a href="/wiki/Boran_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Boran people">Boran people</a> used in their dialect to refer to the events<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBloch2015108_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBloch2015108-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and is literally rendered in English as "the time of stop", but is also translated as "time stopping" or "no-time". The term recalls the Kenyan authorities' use of internment camps, as "daba" was the word the Boran employed to refer to such installations.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBloch201514_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBloch201514-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> More generally, it referred to disruption in daily life.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKhalifOba20135_51-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKhalifOba20135-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Most historiography on the war has placed an emphasis on the role of Somali nationalism and the rebels' ideal of a Greater Somalia.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhittaker2012392_22-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhittaker2012392-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In turn, it has generally ignored the sectional divisions within the rebels and paid little attention to the participation of Boran and Rendille people in the insurgency.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhittaker2012393_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhittaker2012393-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nene Mburu wrote the only <a href="/wiki/Monograph" title="Monograph">monograph</a> dedicated to the subject.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhittaker2012392_22-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhittaker2012392-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shifta_War&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Garissa_Massacre" class="mw-redirect" title="Garissa Massacre">Garissa Massacre</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shifta_War&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Researcher Agnes Wanjiru Behr misidentified Maalim Mohammed Stamboul as the NPPPP's leader.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBehr2018194_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBehr2018194-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shifta_War&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBehr2018148-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBehr2018148_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBehr2018">Behr 2018</a>, p. 148.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jacob Bercovitch and Richard Jackson, International Conflict : A Chronological Encyclopedia of Conflicts and Their Management 1945-1995 (1997)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBloch201562-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBloch201562_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBloch201562_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBloch2015">Bloch 2015</a>, p. 62.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Howard-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Howard_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Rhoda E. Howard, <i>Human Rights in Commonwealth Africa</i>, (Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc.: 1986), p.95</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-standard-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-standard_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-standard_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-standard_5-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-standard_5-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.standardmedia.co.ke/article/2000041423/kenya-s-first-secessionist-war">"Kenya's first secessionist war"</a>. <i>The Standard</i>. 24 August 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnderson2017122_18-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnderson2017122_18-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAnderson2017">Anderson 2017</a>, p. 122.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBranch2011Chapter_1-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBranch2011Chapter_1_19-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBranch2011Chapter_1_19-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBranch2011Chapter_1_19-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBranch2011Chapter_1_19-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBranch2011Chapter_1_19-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBranch2011Chapter_1_19-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBranch2011Chapter_1_19-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a 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id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBranch2017105-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBranch2017105_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBranch2017">Branch 2017</a>, p. 105.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBranch2017107-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBranch2017107_31-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBranch2017107_31-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBranch2017107_31-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBranch2017107_31-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBranch2017">Branch 2017</a>, p. 107.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBranch2017107–108-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBranch2017107–108_32-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBranch2017">Branch 2017</a>, pp. 107–108.</span> </li> <li 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href="#CITEREFBranch2017">Branch 2017</a>, pp. 110–111.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBranch2017110-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBranch2017110_42-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBranch2017">Branch 2017</a>, p. 110.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Mburu100-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Mburu100_43-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mburu 1999, p. 100</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhittaker2014131-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhittaker2014131_44-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhittaker2014131_44-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhittaker2014131_44-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWhittaker2014">Whittaker 2014</a>, p. 131.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhittaker2014132-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhittaker2014132_45-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhittaker2014132_45-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWhittaker2014">Whittaker 2014</a>, p. 132.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhittaker2014130-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhittaker2014130_46-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWhittaker2014">Whittaker 2014</a>, p. 130.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHogg1986[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_January_2022]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(January_2022)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHogg1986[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_January_2022]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(January_2022)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_47-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHogg1986">Hogg 1986</a>, p. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (January 2022)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBranch2017111-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBranch2017111_48-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBranch2017">Branch 2017</a>, p. 111.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBranch2017112-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBranch2017112_49-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBranch2017112_49-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBranch2017">Branch 2017</a>, p. 112.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBranch2017113-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBranch2017113_50-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBranch2017">Branch 2017</a>, p. 113.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKhalifOba20135-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKhalifOba20135_51-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKhalifOba20135_51-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKhalifOba2013">Khalif & Oba 2013</a>, p. 5.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKhalifOba201313-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKhalifOba201313_52-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKhalifOba2013">Khalif & Oba 2013</a>, p. 13.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKhalifOba201314-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKhalifOba201314_53-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKhalifOba201314_53-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKhalifOba2013">Khalif & Oba 2013</a>, p. 14.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKhalifOba201314–16-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKhalifOba201314–16_54-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKhalifOba2013">Khalif & Oba 2013</a>, pp. 14–16.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBroch-Due2005174–175-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBroch-Due2005174–175_55-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBroch-Due2005">Broch-Due 2005</a>, pp. 174–175.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnderson2017124-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnderson2017124_56-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAnderson2017">Anderson 2017</a>, p. 124.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnderson2017123-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnderson2017123_57-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAnderson2017">Anderson 2017</a>, p. 123.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">de Waal 1997, p. 41; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080228121259/http://www.benadir-watch.com/2005%20News/0226_NFD_Wagalla_Massacre.pdf">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>"Wagalla Massacre: Families Demand Payment"<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.benadir-watch.com/2005%20News/0226_NFD_Wagalla_Massacre.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 28 February 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%22Wagalla+Massacre%3A+Families+Demand+Payment%22&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.benadir-watch.com%2F2005%2520News%2F0226_NFD_Wagalla_Massacre.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShifta+War" class="Z3988"></span> <span style="font-size:85%;">(13.4 <a href="/wiki/Kibibyte" class="mw-redirect" title="Kibibyte">KiB</a>)</span>, <i>The East African Standard</i>, 26 February 2005 (hosted by benadir-watch.com); and <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/978922.stm">"Kenya admits mistakes over 'massacre'"</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/BBC_News" title="BBC News">BBC News</a></i>, 18 October 2000</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeitzberg2017Section:_The_Creation_of_Homeland-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWeitzberg2017Section:_The_Creation_of_Homeland_59-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWeitzberg2017Section:_The_Creation_of_Homeland_59-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWeitzberg2017">Weitzberg 2017</a>, Section: The Creation of Homeland.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBloch2015108-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBloch2015108_60-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBloch2015">Bloch 2015</a>, p. 108.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBloch201514-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBloch201514_61-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBloch2015">Bloch 2015</a>, p. 14.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhittaker2012393-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhittaker2012393_62-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWhittaker2012">Whittaker 2012</a>, p. 393.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Works_cited">Works cited</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shifta_War&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Works cited"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnderson2017" class="citation book cs1">Anderson, David M. (2017). "Remembering Wagalla: state violence in northern Kenya, 1962–1991". In Anderson, David M.; Rolandsen, Øystein H. (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=AGNQDwAAQBAJ"><i>Politics and Violence in Eastern Africa: The Struggles of Emerging States</i></a>. London: Routledge. pp. 120–138. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-317-53952-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-317-53952-0"><bdi>978-1-317-53952-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Remembering+Wagalla%3A+state+violence+in+northern+Kenya%2C+1962%E2%80%931991&rft.btitle=Politics+and+Violence+in+Eastern+Africa%3A+The+Struggles+of+Emerging+States&rft.place=London&rft.pages=120-138&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-1-317-53952-0&rft.aulast=Anderson&rft.aufirst=David+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DAGNQDwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShifta+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaker2001" class="citation book cs1">Baker, Bruce (2001). <i>Escape from Domination in Africa: Political Disengagement & Its Consequences</i>. Trenton: Africa World Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780865438729" title="Special:BookSources/9780865438729"><bdi>9780865438729</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Escape+from+Domination+in+Africa%3A+Political+Disengagement+%26+Its+Consequences&rft.place=Trenton&rft.pub=Africa+World+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=9780865438729&rft.aulast=Baker&rft.aufirst=Bruce&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShifta+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBehr2018" class="citation thesis cs1">Behr, Agnes Wanjiru (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://erepo.usiu.ac.ke/handle/11732/4574"><i>Border, Identity and (In) Security: The Kenya-Somalia Border 1963-2016</i></a> (PhD thesis). United States International University Africa.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&rft.title=Border%2C+Identity+and+%28In%29+Security%3A+The+Kenya-Somalia+Border+1963-2016&rft.inst=United+States+International+University+Africa&rft.date=2018&rft.aulast=Behr&rft.aufirst=Agnes+Wanjiru&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ferepo.usiu.ac.ke%2Fhandle%2F11732%2F4574&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShifta+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBloch2015" class="citation thesis cs1">Bloch, Sean (2015). <i>The gaf Daba: Time, Violence, and Development in Mid-Twentieth Century Northeastern Kenya</i> (PhD thesis). University of Wisconsin-Madison. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1237223292">1237223292</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&rft.title=The+gaf+Daba%3A+Time%2C+Violence%2C+and+Development+in+Mid-Twentieth+Century+Northeastern+Kenya&rft.inst=University+of+Wisconsin-Madison&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1237223292&rft.aulast=Bloch&rft.aufirst=Sean&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShifta+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBranch2011" class="citation book cs1">Branch, Daniel (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=XPtUd899xWIC"><i>Kenya: Between Hope and Despair, 1963-2011</i></a>. New Heaven, London: Yale University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-14876-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-300-14876-3"><bdi>978-0-300-14876-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Kenya%3A+Between+Hope+and+Despair%2C+1963-2011&rft.place=New+Heaven%2C+London&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-300-14876-3&rft.aulast=Branch&rft.aufirst=Daniel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DXPtUd899xWIC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShifta+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBranch2017" class="citation book cs1">Branch, Daniel (2017). "Violence, decolonisation and the Cold War in Kenya's north-eastern province, 1963–1978". In Anderson, David M.; Rolandsen, Øystein H. (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=AGNQDwAAQBAJ"><i>Politics and Violence in Eastern Africa: The Struggles of Emerging States</i></a>. London: Routledge. pp. 104–119. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-317-53952-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-317-53952-0"><bdi>978-1-317-53952-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Violence%2C+decolonisation+and+the+Cold+War+in+Kenya%27s+north-eastern+province%2C+1963%E2%80%931978&rft.btitle=Politics+and+Violence+in+Eastern+Africa%3A+The+Struggles+of+Emerging+States&rft.place=London&rft.pages=104-119&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-1-317-53952-0&rft.aulast=Branch&rft.aufirst=Daniel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DAGNQDwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShifta+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBroch-Due2005" class="citation book cs1">Broch-Due, Vigdis (2005). <i>Violence and Belonging: The Quest for Identity in Post-colonial Africa</i> (1st ed.). London: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780203499979" title="Special:BookSources/9780203499979"><bdi>9780203499979</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Violence+and+Belonging%3A+The+Quest+for+Identity+in+Post-colonial+Africa&rft.place=London&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=9780203499979&rft.aulast=Broch-Due&rft.aufirst=Vigdis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShifta+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHogg1986" class="citation journal cs1">Hogg, Richard (1986). "The New Pastoralism: Poverty and Dependency in Northern Kenya". <i>Africa: Journal of the International African Institute</i>. <b>56</b> (3): 319–333. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1160687">10.2307/1160687</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1160687">1160687</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:146312775">146312775</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Africa%3A+Journal+of+the+International+African+Institute&rft.atitle=The+New+Pastoralism%3A+Poverty+and+Dependency+in+Northern+Kenya&rft.volume=56&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=319-333&rft.date=1986&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A146312775%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1160687%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1160687&rft.aulast=Hogg&rft.aufirst=Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShifta+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKhalifOba2013" class="citation journal cs1">Khalif, Zeinabu Kabale; Oba, Gufu (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1186%2F2041-7136-3-14">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>'Gaafa dhaabaa - the period of stop': Narrating impacts of shifta insurgency on pastoral economy in northern Kenya, c. 1963 to 2007"</a>. <i>Pastoralism: Research, Policy and Practice</i>. <b>3</b> (14): 14. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1186%2F2041-7136-3-14">10.1186/2041-7136-3-14</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Pastoralism%3A+Research%2C+Policy+and+Practice&rft.atitle=%27Gaafa+dhaabaa+-+the+period+of+stop%27%3A+Narrating+impacts+of+shifta+insurgency+on+pastoral+economy+in+northern+Kenya%2C+c.+1963+to+2007&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=14&rft.pages=14&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1186%2F2041-7136-3-14&rft.aulast=Khalif&rft.aufirst=Zeinabu+Kabale&rft.au=Oba%2C+Gufu&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1186%252F2041-7136-3-14&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShifta+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOliver1963" class="citation book cs1">Oliver, Roland Anthony, ed. (1963). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=pGkMAQAAIAAJ"><i>History of East Africa</i></a>. Vol. 2. Clarendon Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+East+Africa&rft.pub=Clarendon+Press&rft.date=1963&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DpGkMAQAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShifta+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWeitzberg2017" class="citation book cs1">Weitzberg, Keren (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=L_stDwAAQBAJ"><i>We Do Not Have Borders: Greater Somalia and the Predicaments of Belonging in Kenya</i></a>. Athens, Ohio: Ohio University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780821445952" title="Special:BookSources/9780821445952"><bdi>9780821445952</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=We+Do+Not+Have+Borders%3A+Greater+Somalia+and+the+Predicaments+of+Belonging+in+Kenya&rft.place=Athens%2C+Ohio&rft.pub=Ohio+University+Press&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=9780821445952&rft.aulast=Weitzberg&rft.aufirst=Keren&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DL_stDwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShifta+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWhittaker2014" class="citation book cs1">Whittaker, Hannah (2014). <i>Insurgency and Counterinsurgency in Kenya : A Social History of the Shifta Conflict, C. 1963-1968</i>. Brill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789004282674" title="Special:BookSources/9789004282674"><bdi>9789004282674</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Insurgency+and+Counterinsurgency+in+Kenya+%3A+A+Social+History+of+the+Shifta+Conflict%2C+C.+1963-1968&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=9789004282674&rft.aulast=Whittaker&rft.aufirst=Hannah&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShifta+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWhittaker2012" class="citation journal cs1">Whittaker, Hannah Alice (2012). "The Socioeconomic Dynamics of the Shifta Conflict in Kenya, c. 1963—8". <i>The Journal of African History</i>. <b>53</b> (3): 391–408. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0021853712000448">10.1017/S0021853712000448</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/23353682">23353682</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:162216153">162216153</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+African+History&rft.atitle=The+Socioeconomic+Dynamics+of+the+Shifta+Conflict+in+Kenya%2C+c.+1963%E2%80%948&rft.volume=53&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=391-408&rft.date=2012&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A162216153%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F23353682%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0021853712000448&rft.aulast=Whittaker&rft.aufirst=Hannah+Alice&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShifta+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFde_Waal1997" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Alex_de_Waal" title="Alex de Waal">de Waal, Alex</a> (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=UV3XROXhn5oC"><i>Famine Crimes: Politics & the Disaster Relief Industry in Africa</i></a>. African Issues (reprint ed.). Indiana University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780253211583" title="Special:BookSources/9780253211583"><bdi>9780253211583</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Famine+Crimes%3A+Politics+%26+the+Disaster+Relief+Industry+in+Africa&rft.series=African+Issues&rft.edition=reprint&rft.pub=Indiana+University+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=9780253211583&rft.aulast=de+Waal&rft.aufirst=Alex&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DUV3XROXhn5oC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShifta+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKeesing's1964" class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.stanford.edu/group/tomzgroup/pmwiki/uploads/1426-1964-04-KS-AMS.pdf">"April 1964 - Border Incidents, State of Emergency in Kenya North-Eastern Region, - Regional Elections"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Keesing's Record of World Events</i>. <b>10</b>. Keesing's Worldwide, LLC. April 1964.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Keesing%27s+Record+of+World+Events&rft.atitle=April+1964+-+Border+Incidents%2C+State+of+Emergency+in+Kenya+North-Eastern+Region%2C+-+Regional+Elections.&rft.volume=10&rft.date=1964-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.stanford.edu%2Fgroup%2Ftomzgroup%2Fpmwiki%2Fuploads%2F1426-1964-04-KS-AMS.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShifta+War" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output 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.navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Somali–Kenyan_conflict" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Somali%E2%80%93Kenyan_conflict" title="Template:Somali–Kenyan conflict"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Somali%E2%80%93Kenyan_conflict" title="Template talk:Somali–Kenyan conflict"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Somali%E2%80%93Kenyan_conflict" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Somali–Kenyan conflict"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Somali–Kenyan_conflict" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Somali%E2%80%93Kenyan_conflict" title="Somali–Kenyan conflict">Somali–Kenyan conflict</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Background</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kenya%E2%80%93Somalia_relations" title="Kenya–Somalia relations">Kenya–Somalia relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somalis_in_Kenya" title="Somalis in Kenya">Somalis in Kenya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_conflicts_in_Kenya" title="Ethnic conflicts in Kenya">Ethnic conflicts in Kenya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terrorism_in_Kenya" title="Terrorism in Kenya">Terrorism in Kenya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_border_dispute_between_Kenya_and_Somalia" class="mw-redirect" title="Maritime border dispute between Kenya and Somalia">Kenya–Somalia maritime border dispute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somali_Civil_War_(2009%E2%80%93present)" title="Somali Civil War (2009–present)">Somali Civil War (2009–present)</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="3" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Kenya_Somalia_Locator.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Kenya_Somalia_Locator.png/64px-Kenya_Somalia_Locator.png" decoding="async" width="64" height="73" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Kenya_Somalia_Locator.png/96px-Kenya_Somalia_Locator.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Kenya_Somalia_Locator.png/128px-Kenya_Somalia_Locator.png 2x" data-file-width="720" data-file-height="818" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Parties to the conflict</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Shabaab_(militant_group)" title="Al-Shabaab (militant group)">Al-Shabaab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kenya" title="Kenya">Kenya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somalia" title="Somalia">Somalia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Incidents</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Shifta War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wagalla_massacre" title="Wagalla massacre">Wagalla massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isiolo_massacre" title="Isiolo massacre">Isiolo massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garissa_massacre" title="Garissa massacre">Garissa massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garissa_University_College_attack" title="Garissa University College attack">Garissa University massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Linda_Nchi" title="Operation Linda Nchi">Operation Linda Nchi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Westgate_shopping_mall_attack" title="Westgate shopping mall attack">Westgate shopping mall attack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2011%E2%80%932014_terrorist_attacks_in_Kenya" title="2011–2014 terrorist attacks in Kenya">2011–2014 insurgency in Kenya</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2014_Nairobi_bus_bombings" title="2014 Nairobi bus bombings">2014 Nairobi bus bombings</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2019_Kenya_bus_shooting" title="2019 Kenya bus shooting">2019 Kenya bus shooting</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Shifta_War&oldid=1254026353">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Shifta_War&oldid=1254026353</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div 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