Russia | History, Flag, Population, Map, President, & Facts

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class="next-button js-next-button position-absolute btn btn-circle shadow btn-blue " aria-label="Next"> <span class="material-icons md-24" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></span> </button> </div> </div> </div> <main> <div class="md-page-wrapper"> <div id="content" class="md-content"> <div class="md-article-container template-desktop infinite-pagination"> <div class="infinite-scroll-container article last"> <article class="article-content container-lg qa-content px-0 pt-0 pb-40 py-lg-20 content md-expanded" data-topic-id="513251"> <div class="grid gx-0"> <div class="col-auto"> <div class="topic-left-rail md-article-drawer position-relative d-flex border-right-sm border-left-sm open"> <div class="drawer d-flex flex-column open"> <div class="left-rail-section-content"> <div class="topic-left-rail-header text-truncate bg-gray-50 position-relative text-right d-flex align-items-center"> <div class="tlr-title px-20 py-15 text-left"> <em class="material-icons text-gray-400 d-lg-none" data-icon="toc"></em> <a class="font-serif font-weight-bold text-black link-blue" href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Russia">Russia</a> </div> <button aria-label="Close" class="js-sections-close-button btn-link btn-sm btn d-lg-none position-absolute top-0 p-10 right-0" > <em class="material-icons font-26" data-icon="close"></em> </button> </div> <div class="section-content pl-10 pr-20 pl-sm-50 pr-sm-60 pl-lg-5 pr-lg-10 pt-10 pt-lg-0 bg-gray-50 clear-catfish-ad"> <div class="toc mb-20"> <div class="font-serif font-14 font-weight-bold mx-15 mb-15 mt-20"> Table of Contents </div> <ul class="list-unstyled my-0" data-level="h1"><li data-target="#ref1"><div class="pl-25"><a class="link-gray-900 w-100" href="/place/Russia">Introduction & Quick Facts</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"></div></li><li data-target="#ref38573"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia#ref38573">Land</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref38574"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia#ref38574">Relief</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref38575"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia#ref38575">The Kola-Karelian region</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref38576"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia#ref38576">The Russian Plain</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref38577"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/The-Ural-Mountains">The Ural Mountains</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref38578"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/The-Ural-Mountains#ref38578">The West Siberian Plain</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref38579"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/The-Ural-Mountains#ref38579">The Central Siberian Plateau</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref38580"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/The-Ural-Mountains#ref38580">The mountains of the south and east</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref38581"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/The-Ural-Mountains#ref38581">Drainage</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref38582"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/The-Ural-Mountains#ref38582">Rivers</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref38583"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/The-Ural-Mountains#ref38583">Lakes</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref38584"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/Climate">Climate</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref38585"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/Climate#ref38585">Atmospheric pressure and winds</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref38586"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/Climate#ref38586">Temperature</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref38587"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/Climate#ref38587">Precipitation</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref38588"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/Climate#ref38588">Soils and plant and animal life</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref38589"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/Climate#ref38589">Arctic desert</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref38590"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/Climate#ref38590">Tundra</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref38591"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/Climate#ref38591">Taiga</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref38592"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/Mixed-and-deciduous-forest">Mixed and deciduous forest</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref38593"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/Mixed-and-deciduous-forest#ref38593">Wooded steppe and steppe</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></li><li data-target="#ref38595"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/Mixed-and-deciduous-forest#ref38595">People</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref38596"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/Mixed-and-deciduous-forest#ref38596">Ethnic groups and languages</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref38597"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/Mixed-and-deciduous-forest#ref38597">The Indo-European group</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref38598"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/Mixed-and-deciduous-forest#ref38598">The Altaic group</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref38599"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/Mixed-and-deciduous-forest#ref38599">The Uralic group</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref38600"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/Mixed-and-deciduous-forest#ref38600">The Caucasian group</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref38601"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/Mixed-and-deciduous-forest#ref38601">Other groups</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref38602"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/Religion">Religion</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref38594"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/Religion#ref38594">Settlement patterns</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref38603"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/Religion#ref38603">Demographic trends</a></li></ul></div></li><li data-target="#ref38604"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/Economy">Economy</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref38612"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/Economy#ref38612">Agriculture, forestry, and fishing</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref38613"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/Economy#ref38613">Agriculture</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref38614"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/Economy#ref38614">Forestry</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref38615"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/Economy#ref38615">Fishing</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref38605"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/Economy#ref38605">Resources and power</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref38608"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/Manufacturing">Manufacturing</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref38609"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/Manufacturing#ref38609">Machine building</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref38610"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/Manufacturing#ref38610">Chemicals</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref38611"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/Manufacturing#ref38611">Light industry</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref257908"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/Manufacturing#ref257908">Finance</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref38616"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/Manufacturing#ref38616">Trade</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref257909"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/Manufacturing#ref257909">Services</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref257910"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/Manufacturing#ref257910">Labour and taxation</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref38617"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/Manufacturing#ref38617">Transportation and telecommunications</a></li></ul></div></li><li data-target="#ref38618"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/Government-and-society">Government and society</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref257911"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/Government-and-society#ref257911">Constitutional framework</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref257912"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/Government-and-society#ref257912">Regional and local government</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref38623"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/Justice">Justice</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref257913"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/Justice#ref257913">Political process</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref38624"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/Justice#ref38624">Security</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref38626"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/Justice#ref38626">Health and welfare</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref257914"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/Housing">Housing</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref38625"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/Housing#ref38625">Education</a></li></ul></div></li><li data-target="#ref38627"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/Cultural-life">Cultural life</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref38628"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/Cultural-life#ref38628">The development of Russian culture</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref38629"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/Cultural-life#ref38629">The Kievan period</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref38630"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/Cultural-life#ref38630">The Muscovite period</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref38631"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/Cultural-life#ref38631">The emergence of modern Russian culture</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref257915"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/Daily-life-and-social-customs">Daily life and social customs</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref38632"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/Daily-life-and-social-customs#ref38632">The arts</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref38633" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/Daily-life-and-social-customs#ref38633">Literature</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref38634"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/Daily-life-and-social-customs#ref38634">The 19th century</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref38635"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/Daily-life-and-social-customs#ref38635">The 20th century</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref38636" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/Music">Music</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref38637"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/Music#ref38637">The 19th century</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref38638"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/Music#ref38638">The 20th century</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref38639" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/The-visual-arts">The visual arts</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref38640"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/The-visual-arts#ref38640">The 19th century</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref38641"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/The-visual-arts#ref38641">The 20th century</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref38642" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/The-visual-arts#ref38642">The performing arts</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref38643"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/The-visual-arts#ref38643">The 19th century</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref38644"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/The-visual-arts#ref38644">The 20th century</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref38645"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/Motion-pictures">Motion pictures</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref38646"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/Motion-pictures#ref38646">Cultural institutions</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref38650"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/Sports-and-recreation">Sports and recreation</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref38647"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/Sports-and-recreation#ref38647">Media and publishing</a></li></ul></div></li><li data-target="#ref213966"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/History">History</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref38490"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/History#ref38490">From the beginnings to <em>c.</em> 1700</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref38491"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/History#ref38491">Prehistory and the rise of the Rus</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref38492" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/History#ref38492">Kiev</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref38493"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/History#ref38493">The rise of Kiev</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref38494"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/The-decline-of-Kiev">The decline of Kiev</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref38495"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/The-decline-of-Kiev#ref38495">Social and political institutions</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref38496" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/The-decline-of-Kiev#ref38496">The lands of Rus</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref38497"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/Novgorod">Novgorod</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref38498"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/Novgorod#ref38498">The northwest</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref38499"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/Novgorod#ref38499">The northeast</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref38500"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/Novgorod#ref38500">The southwest</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref38501" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/Novgorod#ref38501">The Mongol period</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref38502"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/Novgorod#ref38502">The Mongol invasion</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref38503"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/Tatar-rule">Tatar rule</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref38504"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/Tatar-rule#ref38504">The rise of Muscovy</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref38505"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/Tatar-rule#ref38505">Cultural life and the “Tatar influence”</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref38506"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/Tatar-rule#ref38506">The post-Sarai period</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref38507" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/Rurikid-Muscovy">Rurikid Muscovy</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref38508"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/Rurikid-Muscovy#ref38508">Ivan III</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref38509"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/Rurikid-Muscovy#ref38509">Vasily III</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref38510"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/Ivan-IV-the-Terrible">Ivan IV (the Terrible)</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref38511"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/Ivan-IV-the-Terrible#ref38511">Boris Godunov</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref38512"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/The-Time-of-Troubles">The Time of Troubles</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref38513"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/The-Time-of-Troubles#ref38513">Social and economic conditions</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref38514"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/The-Time-of-Troubles#ref38514">Cultural trends</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref38515" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/Romanov-Muscovy">Romanov Muscovy</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref38516"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/Romanov-Muscovy#ref38516">Michael</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref38517"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/Romanov-Muscovy#ref38517">Alexis</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref38518"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/Romanov-Muscovy#ref38518">Trends in the 17th century</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref38519"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/Romanov-Muscovy#ref38519">Cultural life</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref38520"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/The-great-schism">The great schism</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref38521"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/The-great-schism#ref38521">The 18th century</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref38522" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/The-great-schism#ref38522">The reign of Peter I (the Great; 1689–1725)</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref38523"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/The-great-schism#ref38523">Peter’s youth and early reign</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref38524"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/The-Petrine-state">The Petrine state</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref38525"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/The-Petrine-state#ref38525">Assessment of Peter’s reign</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref38526" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/Peter-Is-successors-1725-62">Peter I’s successors (1725–62)</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref38527"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/Peter-Is-successors-1725-62#ref38527">Anna (1730–40)</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref38528"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/Peter-Is-successors-1725-62#ref38528">Elizabeth (1741–62)</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref38529" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/The-reign-of-Catherine-II-the-Great-1762-96">The reign of Catherine II (the Great; 1762–96)</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref38530"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/The-reign-of-Catherine-II-the-Great-1762-96#ref38530">Expansion of the empire</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref38531"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/Government-administration-under-Catherine">Government administration under Catherine</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref38532"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/Government-administration-under-Catherine#ref38532">Education and social change in the 18th century</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref38533"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/Government-administration-under-Catherine#ref38533">The reign of Paul I (1796–1801)</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref38534"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/Russia-from-1801-to-1917">Russia from 1801 to 1917</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref38535" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/Russia-from-1801-to-1917#ref38535">The reigns of Alexander I and Nicholas I</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref38536"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/Russia-from-1801-to-1917#ref38536">General survey</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref38537"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/Russia-from-1801-to-1917#ref38537">Government</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref38538"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/Russia-from-1801-to-1917#ref38538">Social classes</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref38539"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/Russia-from-1801-to-1917#ref38539">Education and intellectual life</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref38540"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/The-Russian-Empire">The Russian Empire</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref38541"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/The-Russian-Empire#ref38541">Foreign policy</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref38542" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/From-Alexander-II-to-Nicholas-II">From Alexander II to Nicholas II</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref38543"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/From-Alexander-II-to-Nicholas-II#ref38543">Emancipation and reform</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref38544"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/From-Alexander-II-to-Nicholas-II#ref38544">Revolutionary activities</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref38545"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/From-Alexander-II-to-Nicholas-II#ref38545">Economic and social development</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref38546"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/From-Alexander-II-to-Nicholas-II#ref38546">Education and ideas</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref38547"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/Russification-policies">Russification policies</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref38548"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/Russification-policies#ref38548">Foreign policy</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref38549" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/The-last-years-of-tsardom">The last years of tsardom</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref38550"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/The-last-years-of-tsardom#ref38550">The revolution of 1905–06</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref38551"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/The-last-years-of-tsardom#ref38551">The State Duma</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref38552"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/The-last-years-of-tsardom#ref38552">Agrarian reforms</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref38553"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/War-and-the-fall-of-the-monarchy">War and the fall of the monarchy</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref38554"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/Soviet-Russia">Soviet Russia</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref38555"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/Soviet-Russia#ref38555">After the monarchy</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref38556"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/Soviet-Russia#ref38556">The October (November) Revolution</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref38557" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/The-Civil-War-and-War-Communism-1918-21">The Civil War and War Communism (1918–21)</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref38558"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/The-Civil-War-and-War-Communism-1918-21#ref38558">The Civil War</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref38559"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/The-Civil-War-and-War-Communism-1918-21#ref38559">War Communism</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref38560"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/The-Civil-War-and-War-Communism-1918-21#ref38560">New Economic Policy (1921–28)</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref38561"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/The-Stalin-era-1928-53">The Stalin era (1928–53)</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref38562"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/The-Khrushchev-era-1953-64">The Khrushchev era (1953–64)</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref38563"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/The-Khrushchev-era-1953-64#ref38563">The Brezhnev era (1964–82)</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref38564"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/The-Gorbachev-era-perestroika-and-glasnost">The Gorbachev era: perestroika and glasnost</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref38565"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/The-Gorbachev-era-perestroika-and-glasnost#ref38565">Collapse of the Soviet Union</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref274471"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/Post-Soviet-Russia">Post-Soviet Russia</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref274472" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/Post-Soviet-Russia#ref274472">The Yeltsin presidency (1991–99)</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref274473"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/Post-Soviet-Russia#ref274473">Economic reforms</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref274474"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/Post-Soviet-Russia#ref274474">Political and social changes</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref274475"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/Ethnic-relations-and-Russias-near-abroad">Ethnic relations and Russia’s “near-abroad”</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref274476"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/Ethnic-relations-and-Russias-near-abroad#ref274476">Foreign affairs</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref274477"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/Ethnic-relations-and-Russias-near-abroad#ref274477">Rewriting history</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref274478" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/The-Putin-presidency">The Putin presidency</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref274479"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/The-Putin-presidency#ref274479">Separatism</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref274480"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/The-Putin-presidency#ref274480">Foreign affairs</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref274481"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/The-Putin-presidency#ref274481">The oligarchs</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref274482"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/The-Putin-presidency#ref274482">Political and economic reforms</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref278250"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/The-Putin-presidency#ref278250">The Medvedev presidency</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref311089" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/The-second-Putin-presidency">The second Putin presidency</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref338994"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/The-second-Putin-presidency#ref338994">The Ukraine crisis</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref338995"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/The-second-Putin-presidency#ref338995">Consolidation of power, Syria, and campaign against the West</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref349685"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/The-second-Putin-presidency#ref349685">Putin’s fourth term as president, novichok attacks, and military action against Ukraine</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></div></li><li data-target="#ref275877"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><div class="ml-25"></div><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Russia/Leaders-of-Russia-from-1276">Leaders of Russia from 1276</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"></div></li></ul> <a class="toc-extra-link link-gray-900" href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Russia/additional-info">References & Edit History</a> <a class="toc-extra-link link-gray-900" href="/facts/Russia">Facts & Stats</a> </div> <div class="tlr-media-slider pb-10 mb-30"> <a class="section-header link-gray-900 font-serif font-14 font-weight-bold mb-10 mx-10" href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Russia/images-videos">Images, Videos & Interactives</a> <div class="slider js-slider position-relative d-inline-flex align-items-center mw-100 "> <div class="slider-container js-slider-container overflow-hidden d-flex overflow-hidden text-nowrap ml-15"> <a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/42/3842-050-68EEE2C4/Flag-Russia.jpg" data-href="/media/1/513251/61714" class="media-overlay-link d-inline-block mr-5"> <img loading="lazy" 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Wachtel</div> <div class="editor-description font-12 font-serif mt-5 clamp-description text-black">Associate Professor of Slavic Languages and Literatures, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois. Author of <i>The Battle for Childhood: Creation of a Russian Myth.</i></div> </a> <div data-popper-arrow></div> </div> <span class="btn btn-link editor-link p-0 qa-byline-link gtm-byline font-12 byline-contributor text-decoration-underline"> Andrew B. Wachtel</span>, <div class="editor-popover popover p-0"> <a class="d-block p-20 gtm-byline font-12 byline-contributor" href="/contributor/Olga-L-Medvedkov/5852" > <div class="editor-title font-16 font-weight-bold">Olga L. Medvedkov</div> <div class="editor-description font-12 font-serif mt-5 clamp-description text-black">Chair and Professor, Department of Geography, Wittenberg University, Springfield, Ohio.</div> </a> <div data-popper-arrow></div> </div> <span class="btn btn-link editor-link p-0 qa-byline-link gtm-byline font-12 byline-contributor text-decoration-underline"> Olga L. 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They write new content and verify and edit content received from contributors.</div> </a> <div data-popper-arrow></div> </div> <span class="btn btn-link editor-link p-0 qa-byline-link font-12 "> The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica</span></div> <div class="last-updated font-12 font-serif"> <span class="text-gray-700"> Last Updated: <time datetime="2024-11-28T00:00:00CST" >Nov 28, 2024</time> •</span> <a class="byline-edit-history" href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Russia/additional-info#history" rel="nofollow">Article History</a> </div></div> </div> <button class="d-flex d-lg-none btn btn-outline-blue border rounded-sm shadow-sm mobile-toc-button gtm-mobile-toc-inline-button d-none d-sm-block js-sections-inline-button module-spacing btn d-lg-none"> <em class="material-icons mr-5 ml-n10 my-n5 md-icon" data-icon="toc"></em> Table of Contents </button> <div class="d-flex d-sm-none flex-row"> <button class="d-flex d-lg-none btn btn-outline-blue border rounded-sm shadow-sm 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overflow-hidden d-flex"><div class="rw-track d-flex align-items-center"><div class="position-relative rw-slide col-100 px-20 "><figure class="md-assembly m-0 mb-md-0 card card-borderless print-false" data-assembly-id="566" data-asm-type="image"><div class="md-assembly-wrapper card-media " data-type="image"><a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/38/5938-050-62817D08/range-Greater-Caucasus-Mount-Dombay-Ulgen-Russia-Stavropol.jpg" class="gtm-assembly-link position-relative d-flex align-items-center justify-content-center media-overlay-link card-media" data-href="/media/1/513251/566"><picture><source media="(min-width: 680px)" srcset="https://cdn.britannica.com/38/5938-050-62817D08/range-Greater-Caucasus-Mount-Dombay-Ulgen-Russia-Stavropol.jpg?w=300"><img src="https://cdn.britannica.com/38/5938-050-62817D08/range-Greater-Caucasus-Mount-Dombay-Ulgen-Russia-Stavropol.jpg?w=300" alt="western Greater Caucasus range" data-width="1321" data-height="939" loading="eager"></picture><button class="magnifying-glass btn btn-circle position-absolute shadow btn-white top-10 right-10" aria-label="Zoom in"><em class="material-icons link-blue" data-icon="zoom_in"></em></button></a></div><figcaption class="card-body"><div class="md-assembly-caption text-muted font-14 font-serif line-clamp"><span><a class="gtm-assembly-link md-assembly-title font-weight-bold d-inline font-sans-serif mr-5 media-overlay-link" href="https://cdn.britannica.com/38/5938-050-62817D08/range-Greater-Caucasus-Mount-Dombay-Ulgen-Russia-Stavropol.jpg" data-href="/media/1/513251/566">western Greater Caucasus range</a><span>The western Greater Caucasus range near Mount Dombay-Ulgen, Stavropol <em>kray</em> (territory), Russia.</span><button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-white js-content" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"><span class="link-blue">(more)</span></button></span></div></figcaption></figure></div></div></div><button disabled="true" class="prev-button js-prev-button position-absolute btn btn-circle shadow btn-lg btn-blue-dark m-20"><span class="material-icons" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_left"></span></button><button disabled="true" class="next-button js-next-button position-absolute btn btn-circle shadow btn-lg btn-blue-dark m-20"><span class="material-icons" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></span></button></div><p class="topic-paragraph"><strong><span id="ref422219"></span>Russia</strong>, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/nation-state" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">country</a> that stretches over a vast expanse of eastern <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Europe" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Europe</a> and northern <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Asia" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Asia</a>. Once the preeminent republic of the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Soviet-Union" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Union of Soviet Socialist Republics</a> (U.S.S.R.; commonly known as the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Soviet-Union" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Soviet Union</a>), Russia became an independent country after the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/the-collapse-of-the-Soviet-Union" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">dissolution of the Soviet Union</a> in December 1991.</p><span class="marker MOD1 mod-inline"></span><span class="marker PREMOD2 mod-inline"></span><div class="assemblies"><div class="w-100"><figure class="md-assembly m-0 mb-md-0 card card-borderless print-false" data-assembly-id="208555" data-asm-type="image"><div class="md-assembly-wrapper card-media " data-type="image"><a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/41/183741-050-0FE7D7E8/World-Data-Locator-Map-Russia.jpg" class="gtm-assembly-link position-relative d-flex align-items-center justify-content-center media-overlay-link card-media" data-href="/media/1/513251/208555"><picture><source media="(min-width: 680px)" srcset="https://cdn.britannica.com/41/183741-050-0FE7D7E8/World-Data-Locator-Map-Russia.jpg"><img src="https://cdn.britannica.com/41/183741-050-0FE7D7E8/World-Data-Locator-Map-Russia.jpg?w=300" alt="Russia" data-width="1600" data-height="1533" loading="eager"></picture><button class="magnifying-glass btn btn-circle position-absolute shadow btn-white top-10 right-10" aria-label="Zoom in"><em class="material-icons link-blue" data-icon="zoom_in"></em></button></a></div><figcaption class="card-body"><div class="md-assembly-caption text-muted font-14 font-serif line-clamp"><span><a class="gtm-assembly-link md-assembly-title font-weight-bold d-inline font-sans-serif mr-5 media-overlay-link" href="https://cdn.britannica.com/41/183741-050-0FE7D7E8/World-Data-Locator-Map-Russia.jpg" data-href="/media/1/513251/208555">Russia</a><button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-white js-content" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"><span class="link-blue">(more)</span></button></span></div></figcaption></figure></div></div><p class="topic-paragraph">Russia is a land of superlatives. By far the world’s largest country, it covers nearly twice the territory of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Canada" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Canada</a>, the second largest. It extends across the whole of northern Asia and the eastern third of Europe, spanning 11 <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/time-zone" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">time zones</a> and incorporating a great range of <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="environments" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/environments" data-type="MW">environments</a> and landforms, from deserts to semiarid steppes to deep forests and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Arctic" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Arctic</a> <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/tundra" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">tundra</a>. Russia contains Europe’s longest river, the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Volga-River" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Volga</a>, and its largest lake, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Lake-Ladoga" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Ladoga</a>. Russia also is home to the world’s deepest lake, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Lake-Baikal" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Baikal</a>, and the country recorded the world’s lowest temperature outside the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/North-Pole" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">North</a> and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/South-Pole" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">South</a> poles.</p><div class="js-qf-module qf-module px-40 px-sm-20 py-15 mx-auto module-spacing font-14 bg-gray-50 rounded"> <div class="qf-title font-weight-bold font-14 mb-10 text-center"> Quick Facts</div> <div class="m-n10 "> <div class="slider js-slider position-relative d-inline-flex align-items-center mw-100 media-slider card-snap-slider col-100"> <div class="slider-container js-slider-container overflow-hidden d-flex col-100"> <div class="rw-track w-100"> <div class="pt-10 d-inline-flex col-100"> <div class="w-100"> <a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/42/3842-050-68EEE2C4/Flag-Russia.jpg" data-href="/media/1/513251/61714" class="media-overlay-link card-media d-flex align-items-center justify-content-center px-20" > <div class="position-relative"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/42/3842-050-68EEE2C4/Flag-Russia.jpg" alt="Russia" class="cropped-false w-100 " /> <em class="material-icons qf-zoom" data-icon="zoom_in"></em> </div> </a> <div class="card-body text-center pt-5 pb-10 font-14"> <span>See article: <a href="/topic/flag-of-Russia">flag of Russia</a> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <button disabled class="prev-button js-prev-button position-absolute btn btn-circle shadow btn-lg btn-blue btn-blue-dark" aria-label="Previous"> <span class="material-icons md-24" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_left"></span> </button> <button disabled class="next-button js-next-button position-absolute btn btn-circle shadow btn-lg btn-blue btn-blue-dark" aria-label="Next"> <span class="material-icons md-24" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></span> </button> </div> </div> <audio src="https://cdn.britannica.com/70/145770-005-D8B12301/instrumental-national-anthem-Russia.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" controls=""></audio> <div class="text-center font-12 mt-5"> <span>Audio File:</span> National anthem of Russia</div> <div class="facts-list mt-10"> <div class=""> <div class="js-fact mb-10 line-clamp clamp-3"> <dl> <dt>Also Known As: </dt> <dd>Rossiyskaya Federatsiya</dd> <dd>Rossija</dd> <dd>Russian Federation</dd> <dd>Russian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic</dd> <dd>Russian S.F.S.R.</dd> <dd>Rossiya</dd> </dl> <button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-gray-50" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"> <em class="js-content link-blue">(Show more)</em> </button> </div> </div> <div class=""> <div class="js-fact mb-10 line-clamp clamp-3"> <dl> <dt>Head Of Government: </dt> <dd>Prime Minister: Mikhail Mishustin</dd> </dl> <button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-gray-50" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"> <em class="js-content link-blue">(Show more)</em> </button> </div> </div> <div class=""> <div class="js-fact mb-10 line-clamp clamp-3"> <dl> <dt>Capital: </dt> <dd><a href="/place/Moscow">Moscow</a></dd> </dl> <button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-gray-50" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"> <em class="js-content link-blue">(Show more)</em> </button> </div> </div> <div class=""> <div class="js-fact mb-10 line-clamp clamp-3"> <dl> <dt>Population: </dt> <dd>(2024 est.) 145,165,000</dd> </dl> <button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-gray-50" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"> <em class="js-content link-blue">(Show more)</em> </button> </div> </div> <div class=""> <div class="js-fact mb-10 line-clamp clamp-3"> <dl> <dt>Currency Exchange Rate: </dt> <dd>1 USD equals 91.956 Russian ruble</dd> </dl> <button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-gray-50" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"> <em class="js-content link-blue">(Show more)</em> </button> </div> </div> <div class="facts-item-none d-none"> <div class="js-fact mb-10 line-clamp clamp-3"> <dl> <dt>Head Of State: </dt> <dd>President: <a href="/biography/Vladimir-Putin">Vladimir Putin</a></dd> </dl> <button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-gray-50" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"> <em class="js-content link-blue">(Show more)</em> </button> </div> </div> <div class="facts-item-none d-none"> <div class="js-fact mb-10 line-clamp clamp-3"> <dl> <dt>Form Of Government: </dt> <dd>federal multiparty republic with a bicameral legislative body (Federal Assembly comprising the Federation Council [170] and the State Duma [450])</dd> </dl> <button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-gray-50" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"> <em class="js-content link-blue">(Show more)</em> </button> </div> </div> <div class="facts-item-none d-none"> <div class="js-fact mb-10 line-clamp clamp-3"> <dl> <dt>Official Language: </dt> <dd>Russian</dd> </dl> <button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-gray-50" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"> <em class="js-content link-blue">(Show more)</em> </button> </div> </div> <div class="facts-item-none d-none"> <div class="js-fact mb-10 line-clamp clamp-3"> <dl> <dt>Official Religion: </dt> <dd>none</dd> </dl> <button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-gray-50" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"> <em class="js-content link-blue">(Show more)</em> </button> </div> </div> <div class="facts-item-none d-none"> <div class="js-fact mb-10 line-clamp clamp-3"> <dl> <dt>Official Name: </dt> <dd>Rossiyskaya Federatsiya (Russian Federation), or Rossia (Russia)</dd> </dl> <button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-gray-50" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"> <em class="js-content link-blue">(Show more)</em> </button> </div> </div> <div class="facts-item-none d-none"> <div class="js-fact mb-10 line-clamp clamp-3"> <dl> <dt>Total Area (Sq Km): </dt> <dd>17,075,400</dd> </dl> <button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-gray-50" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"> <em class="js-content link-blue">(Show more)</em> </button> </div> </div> <div class="facts-item-none d-none"> <div class="js-fact mb-10 line-clamp clamp-3"> <dl> <dt>Total Area (Sq Mi): </dt> <dd>6,592,812</dd> </dl> <button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-gray-50" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"> <em class="js-content link-blue">(Show more)</em> </button> </div> </div> <div class="facts-item-none d-none"> <div class="js-fact mb-10 line-clamp clamp-3"> <dl> <dt>Monetary Unit: </dt> <dd>ruble (RUB)</dd> </dl> <button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-gray-50" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"> <em class="js-content link-blue">(Show more)</em> </button> </div> </div> <div class="facts-item-none d-none"> <div class="js-fact mb-10 line-clamp clamp-3"> <dl> <dt>Population Rank: </dt> <dd>(2023) 9</dd> </dl> <button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-gray-50" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"> <em class="js-content link-blue">(Show more)</em> </button> </div> </div> <div class="facts-item-none d-none"> <div class="js-fact mb-10 line-clamp clamp-3"> <dl> <dt>Population Projection 2030: </dt> <dd>139,599,000</dd> </dl> <button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-gray-50" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"> <em class="js-content link-blue">(Show more)</em> </button> </div> </div> <div class="facts-item-none d-none"> <div class="js-fact mb-10 line-clamp clamp-3"> <dl> <dt>Density: Persons Per Sq Mi: </dt> <dd>(2024) 22</dd> </dl> <button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-gray-50" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"> <em class="js-content link-blue">(Show more)</em> </button> </div> </div> <div class="facts-item-none d-none"> <div class="js-fact mb-10 line-clamp clamp-3"> <dl> <dt>Density: Persons Per Sq Km: </dt> <dd>(2024) 8.5</dd> </dl> <button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-gray-50" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"> <em class="js-content link-blue">(Show more)</em> </button> </div> </div> <div class="facts-item-none d-none"> <div class="js-fact mb-10 line-clamp clamp-3"> <dl> <dt>Urban-Rural Population: </dt> <dd>Urban: (2018) 74%</dd> <dd>Rural: (2018) 26%</dd> </dl> <button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-gray-50" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"> <em class="js-content link-blue">(Show more)</em> </button> </div> </div> <div class="facts-item-none d-none"> <div class="js-fact mb-10 line-clamp clamp-3"> <dl> <dt>Life Expectancy At Birth: </dt> <dd>Male: (2020) 66.5 years</dd> <dd>Female: (2020) 76.4 years</dd> </dl> <button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-gray-50" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"> <em class="js-content link-blue">(Show more)</em> </button> </div> </div> <div class="facts-item-none d-none"> <div class="js-fact mb-10 line-clamp clamp-3"> <dl> <dt>Literacy: Percentage Of Population Age 15 And Over Literate: </dt> <dd>Male: (2020) 100%</dd> <dd>Female: (2020) 100%</dd> </dl> <button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-gray-50" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"> <em class="js-content link-blue">(Show more)</em> </button> </div> </div> <div class="facts-item-none d-none"> <div class="js-fact mb-10 line-clamp clamp-3"> <dl> <dt>Gni (U.S.$ ’000,000): </dt> <dd>(2023) 2,084,758</dd> </dl> <button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-gray-50" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"> <em class="js-content link-blue">(Show more)</em> </button> </div> </div> <div class="facts-item-none d-none"> <div class="js-fact mb-10 line-clamp clamp-3"> <dl> <dt>Gni Per Capita (U.S.$): </dt> <dd>(2023) 14,250</dd> </dl> <button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-gray-50" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"> <em class="js-content link-blue">(Show more)</em> </button> </div> <div class="text-center"> <a class="btn btn-sm btn-link p-0" href="/facts/Russia"> See all related content </a> </div> </div> </div> <button class="facts-list-show-more-btn mt-15 p-0 mx-auto btn font-14 d-block font-weight-normal"> <span class="material-icons" data-icon="expand_more"></span> <span class="show-more-label">Show More</span> </button> </div><span class="marker MOD2 mod-inline"></span><span class="marker PREMOD3 mod-inline"></span><div class="assemblies multiple medialist slider js-slider position-relative d-inline-flex align-items-center mw-100" data-type="other"><div class="slider-container js-slider-container overflow-hidden d-flex"><div class="rw-track d-flex align-items-center"><div class="position-relative rw-slide col-100 px-20 "><figure class="md-assembly m-0 mb-md-0 card card-borderless print-false" data-assembly-id="92711" data-asm-type="image"><div class="md-assembly-wrapper card-media " data-type="image"><a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/23/94423-050-D6C5F670/Buildings-waterway-banks-Saint-Petersburg-Russia-city.jpg" class="gtm-assembly-link position-relative d-flex align-items-center justify-content-center media-overlay-link card-media" data-href="/media/1/513251/92711"><picture><source media="(min-width: 680px)" srcset="https://cdn.britannica.com/23/94423-050-D6C5F670/Buildings-waterway-banks-Saint-Petersburg-Russia-city.jpg?w=300"><img src="https://cdn.britannica.com/23/94423-050-D6C5F670/Buildings-waterway-banks-Saint-Petersburg-Russia-city.jpg?w=300" alt="St. Petersburg" data-width="1600" data-height="1056" loading="eager"></picture><div class="position-absolute top-10 left-10 assembly-slide-tag rounded-lg">1 of 2</div><button class="magnifying-glass btn btn-circle position-absolute shadow btn-white top-10 right-10" aria-label="Zoom in"><em class="material-icons link-blue" data-icon="zoom_in"></em></button></a></div><figcaption class="card-body"><div class="md-assembly-caption text-muted font-14 font-serif line-clamp"><span><a class="gtm-assembly-link md-assembly-title font-weight-bold d-inline font-sans-serif mr-5 media-overlay-link" href="https://cdn.britannica.com/23/94423-050-D6C5F670/Buildings-waterway-banks-Saint-Petersburg-Russia-city.jpg" data-href="/media/1/513251/92711">St. Petersburg</a><span>St. Petersburg, Russia.</span><button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-white js-content" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"><span class="link-blue">(more)</span></button></span></div></figcaption></figure></div><div class="position-relative rw-slide col-100 px-20 "><figure class="md-assembly m-0 mb-md-0 card card-borderless print-false" data-assembly-id="212676" data-asm-type="image"><div class="md-assembly-wrapper card-media " data-type="image"><a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/19/167919-050-776461B5/Cathedral-of-the-Resurrection-Christ-St-Petersburg.jpg" class="gtm-assembly-link position-relative d-flex align-items-center justify-content-center media-overlay-link card-media" data-href="/media/1/513251/212676"><picture><source media="(min-width: 680px)" srcset="https://cdn.britannica.com/19/167919-050-776461B5/Cathedral-of-the-Resurrection-Christ-St-Petersburg.jpg?w=300"><img src="https://cdn.britannica.com/19/167919-050-776461B5/Cathedral-of-the-Resurrection-Christ-St-Petersburg.jpg?w=300" alt="Cathedral of the Resurrection of Christ, St. Petersburg, Russia" data-width="764" data-height="509" loading="eager"></picture><div class="position-absolute top-10 left-10 assembly-slide-tag rounded-lg">2 of 2</div><button class="magnifying-glass btn btn-circle position-absolute shadow btn-white top-10 right-10" aria-label="Zoom in"><em class="material-icons link-blue" data-icon="zoom_in"></em></button></a></div><figcaption class="card-body"><div class="md-assembly-caption text-muted font-14 font-serif line-clamp"><span><a class="gtm-assembly-link md-assembly-title font-weight-bold d-inline font-sans-serif mr-5 media-overlay-link" href="https://cdn.britannica.com/19/167919-050-776461B5/Cathedral-of-the-Resurrection-Christ-St-Petersburg.jpg" data-href="/media/1/513251/212676">Cathedral of the Resurrection of Christ, St. Petersburg, Russia</a><span>The Cathedral of the Resurrection of Christ (commonly known as the Church of the Savior on Spilled Blood) is illuminated at night in St. Petersburg, Russia.</span><button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-white js-content" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"><span class="link-blue">(more)</span></button></span></div></figcaption></figure></div></div></div><button disabled="true" class="prev-button js-prev-button position-absolute btn btn-circle shadow btn-lg btn-blue-dark m-20"><span class="material-icons" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_left"></span></button><button disabled="true" class="next-button js-next-button position-absolute btn btn-circle shadow btn-lg btn-blue-dark m-20"><span class="material-icons" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></span></button></div><p class="topic-paragraph">The inhabitants of Russia are quite <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="diverse" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/diverse" data-type="MW">diverse</a>. Most are ethnic Russians, but there also are more than 120 other ethnic groups present, speaking many languages and following <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="disparate" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/disparate" data-type="MW">disparate</a> religious and cultural traditions. Most of the Russian population is concentrated in the European portion of the country, especially in the fertile region surrounding <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Moscow" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Moscow</a>, the capital. <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Moscow-oblast-Russia" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Moscow</a> and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/St-Petersburg-Russia" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">St. Petersburg</a> (formerly Leningrad) are the two most important cultural and financial centres in Russia and are among the most picturesque cities in the world. Russians are also populous in Asia, however; beginning in the 17th century, and particularly pronounced throughout much of the 20th century, a steady flow of ethnic Russians and Russian-speaking people moved eastward into <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Siberia" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Siberia</a>, where cities such as <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Vladivostok" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Vladivostok</a> and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Irkutsk-Russia" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Irkutsk</a> now flourish.</p><span class="marker MOD3 mod-inline"></span><span class="marker PREMOD4 mod-inline"></span><div class="assemblies"><div class="w-100"><figure class="md-assembly m-0 mb-md-0 card card-borderless print-false" data-assembly-id="146024" data-asm-type="image"><div class="md-assembly-wrapper card-media " data-type="image"><a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/37/139937-050-BCCC9567/Russia-administrative-divisions-country.jpg" class="gtm-assembly-link position-relative d-flex align-items-center justify-content-center media-overlay-link card-media" data-href="/media/1/513251/146024"><picture><source media="(min-width: 680px)" srcset="https://cdn.britannica.com/37/139937-050-BCCC9567/Russia-administrative-divisions-country.jpg"><img src="https://cdn.britannica.com/37/139937-050-BCCC9567/Russia-administrative-divisions-country.jpg?w=300" alt="Russia: administrative divisions" data-width="1600" data-height="1758" loading="eager"></picture><button class="magnifying-glass btn btn-circle position-absolute shadow btn-white top-10 right-10" aria-label="Zoom in"><em class="material-icons link-blue" data-icon="zoom_in"></em></button></a></div><figcaption class="card-body"><div class="md-assembly-caption text-muted font-14 font-serif line-clamp"><span><a class="gtm-assembly-link md-assembly-title font-weight-bold d-inline font-sans-serif mr-5 media-overlay-link" href="https://cdn.britannica.com/37/139937-050-BCCC9567/Russia-administrative-divisions-country.jpg" data-href="/media/1/513251/146024">Russia: administrative divisions</a><span>Administrative divisions of Russia.</span><button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-white js-content" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"><span class="link-blue">(more)</span></button></span></div></figcaption></figure></div></div><p class="topic-paragraph">Russia’s climate is extreme, with forbidding winters that have several times famously saved the country from foreign invaders. Although the climate adds a layer of difficulty to daily life, the land is a generous source of crops and materials, including vast reserves of oil, gas, and <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="precious" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/precious" data-type="MW">precious</a> metals. That richness of resources has not translated into an easy life for most of the country’s people, however; indeed, much of Russia’s history has been a grim tale of the very wealthy and powerful few ruling over a great mass of their poor and powerless compatriots. <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/serfdom" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Serfdom</a> endured well into the modern era; the years of Soviet communist rule (1917–91), especially the long dictatorship of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Joseph-Stalin" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Joseph Stalin</a>, saw subjugation of a different and more exacting sort.</p><span class="marker MOD4 mod-inline"></span><span class="marker PREMOD5 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">The Russian republic was established immediately after the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Russian-Revolution" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Russian Revolution of 1917</a> and became a union republic in 1922. During the post-World War II era, Russia was a central player in international affairs, locked in a <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Cold-War" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Cold War</a> struggle with the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/United-States" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">United States</a>. In 1991, following the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Russia joined with several other former Soviet republics to form a loose coalition, the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Commonwealth-of-Independent-States" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Commonwealth of Independent States</a> (CIS). Although the <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="demise" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/demise" data-type="MW">demise</a> of Soviet-style <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/communism" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">communism</a> and the subsequent collapse of the Soviet Union brought profound political and economic changes, including the beginnings of the formation of a large middle class, for much of the postcommunist era Russians had to endure a generally weak economy, high inflation, and a complex of social ills that served to lower <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/life-expectancy" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">life expectancy</a> significantly. Despite such profound problems, Russia showed promise of achieving its potential as a world power once again, as if to exemplify a favourite proverb, stated in the 19th century by Austrian statesman <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Klemens-von-Metternich" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Klemens, Fürst (prince) von Metternich</a>: “Russia is never as strong as she appears, and never as weak as she appears.”</p><a class="link-module shadow-sm d-block qa-quiz-module" href="/quiz/guess-the-country-by-its-neighbors-quiz" data-link-module-iframe-link=""> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/38/247338-131-37776892/passport-visas-stamps-world-map.jpg" alt="Opened passport with visas, stamps, seals, world map. (travel, tourism)" class="rounded-sm mr-15" width="70" /> <div class="line-clamp clamp-5"> <div class="module-title bg-green">Britannica Quiz</div> <div class="font-weight-semi-bold mt-5">Guess the Country by Its Neighbors Quiz</div> </div> </a><span class="marker MOD5 mod-inline"></span><span class="marker PREMOD6 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">Russia can boast a long tradition of excellence in every aspect of the arts and sciences. Prerevolutionary Russian society produced the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/art/Russian-literature" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">writings</a> and music of such giants of world <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="culture" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/culture" data-type="MW">culture</a> as <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Anton-Chekhov" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Anton Chekhov</a>, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Aleksandr-Sergeyevich-Pushkin" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Aleksandr Pushkin</a>, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Leo-Tolstoy" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Leo Tolstoy</a>, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Nikolay-Gogol" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Nikolay Gogol</a>, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Fyodor-Dostoyevsky" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Fyodor Dostoyevsky</a>, and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Pyotr-Ilyich-Tchaikovsky" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky</a>. The 1917 revolution and the changes it brought were reflected in the works of such noted figures as the novelists <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Maxim-Gorky" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Maxim Gorky</a>, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Boris-Pasternak" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Boris Pasternak</a>, and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Aleksandr-Solzhenitsyn" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn</a> and the composers <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Dmitri-Shostakovich" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Dmitry Shostakovich</a> and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Sergey-Prokofiev" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Sergey Prokofiev</a>. And the late Soviet and postcommunist eras witnessed a revival of interest in once-forbidden artists such as the poets <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Vladimir-Vladimirovich-Mayakovsky" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Vladimir Mayakovsky</a> and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Anna-Akhmatova" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Anna Akhmatova</a> while ushering in new talents such as the novelist <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Viktor-Pelevin" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Victor Pelevin</a> and the writer and journalist Tatyana Tolstaya, whose celebration of the arrival of winter in St. Petersburg, a beloved event, suggests the <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="resilience" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/resilience" data-type="MW">resilience</a> and stoutheartedness of her people:</p><span class="marker MOD6 mod-inline"></span><blockquote> <p>The snow begins to fall in October. People watch for it impatiently, turning repeatedly to look outside. If only it would come! Everyone is tired of the cold rain that taps stupidly on windows and roofs. The houses are so drenched that they seem about to crumble into sand. But then, just as the gloomy sky sinks even lower, there comes the hope that the boring drum of water from the clouds will finally give way to a flurry of…and there it goes: tiny dry grains at first, then an exquisitely carved flake, two, three ornate stars, followed by fat fluffs of snow, then more, more, more—a great store of cotton tumbling down.</p> </blockquote> <span class="marker PREMOD8 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">For the geography and history of the other former Soviet republics, <em>see</em> <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Moldova" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Moldova</a>, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Estonia" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Estonia</a>, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Latvia" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Latvia</a>, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Lithuania" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Lithuania</a>, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Belarus" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Belarus</a>, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Kazakhstan" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Kazakhstan</a>, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Kyrgyzstan" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Kyrgyzstan</a>, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Tajikistan" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Tajikistan</a>, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Turkmenistan" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Turkmenistan</a>, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Uzbekistan" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Uzbekistan</a>, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Armenia" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Armenia</a>, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Azerbaijan" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Azerbaijan</a>, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Georgia" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Georgia</a>, and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Ukraine" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Ukraine</a>. <em>See also</em> <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Soviet-Union" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Union of Soviet Socialist Republics</a>.</p><div class="module-spacing"> <DIV class="marketing-INLINE_SUBSCRIPTION marketing-content" data-marketing-id="INLINE_SUBSCRIPTION"><style> .student-promo-banner-wrapper { container-type: inline-size; margin-bottom: 15px; } @container (min-width: 475px) { .student-promo-banner { flex-direction: row; } .student-promo-banner-img-wrapper { margin-bottom: 0; margin-right: 10px; justify-content: flex-start; } .student-promo-banner-text-wrapper { text-align: left; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 10px; } .student-promo-banner-button-wrapper { margin-right: 0; } }</style> <div class="student-promo-banner-wrapper"> <div class="student-promo-banner d-flex flex-column align-items-center bg-blue rounded p-20"> <div class="student-promo-banner-img-wrapper mb-20 mr-0 d-flex justify-content-center"> <img class="rounded" style="max-width: 100px; min-width: 80px" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/marketing/BlueThistle.webp" /> </div> <div class="student-promo-banner-text-wrapper ml-0 mb-10 text-center text-white"> <div class="h2 mb-10">Get Unlimited Access</div> <div class="h4 font-weight-semi-bold">Try Britannica Premium for free and discover more.</div> </div> <div class="student-promo-banner-button-wrapper d-flex justify-content-center align-items-center ml-auto mr-auto"> <a class="btn btn-m btn-orange" href="https://premium.britannica.com/premium-membership/?utm_source=premium&utm_medium=inline-cta&utm_campaign=black-friday-2024">Subscribe</a> </div> </div> </div> </DIV></div><span class="marker MOD8 mod-inline"></span> </section> <span class="marker h2"></span><section data-level="1" id="ref38573"> <h2 class="h1"><span id="ref422222"></span>Land</h2> <span class="marker PREMOD9 mod-inline"></span><div class="assemblies multiple medialist slider js-slider position-relative d-inline-flex align-items-center mw-100" data-type="other"><div class="slider-container js-slider-container overflow-hidden d-flex"><div class="rw-track d-flex align-items-center"><div class="position-relative rw-slide col-100 px-20 "><figure class="md-assembly m-0 mb-md-0 card card-borderless print-false" data-assembly-id="61716" data-asm-type="image"><div class="md-assembly-wrapper card-media " data-type="image"><a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/55/3855-050-64458495/Russia-physical-features.jpg" class="gtm-assembly-link position-relative d-flex align-items-center justify-content-center media-overlay-link card-media" data-href="/media/1/513251/61716"><picture><source media="(min-width: 680px)" srcset="https://cdn.britannica.com/55/3855-050-64458495/Russia-physical-features.jpg"><img src="https://cdn.britannica.com/55/3855-050-64458495/Russia-physical-features.jpg?w=300" alt="Physical features of Russia" data-width="1600" data-height="1148" loading="eager"></picture><div class="position-absolute top-10 left-10 assembly-slide-tag rounded-lg">1 of 3</div><button class="magnifying-glass btn btn-circle position-absolute shadow btn-white top-10 right-10" aria-label="Zoom in"><em class="material-icons link-blue" data-icon="zoom_in"></em></button></a></div><figcaption class="card-body"><div class="md-assembly-caption text-muted font-14 font-serif line-clamp"><span><a class="gtm-assembly-link md-assembly-title font-weight-bold d-inline font-sans-serif mr-5 media-overlay-link" href="https://cdn.britannica.com/55/3855-050-64458495/Russia-physical-features.jpg" data-href="/media/1/513251/61716">Physical features of Russia</a><button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-white js-content" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"><span class="link-blue">(more)</span></button></span></div></figcaption></figure></div><div class="position-relative rw-slide col-100 px-20 "><figure class="md-assembly m-0 mb-md-0 card card-borderless print-false" data-assembly-id="521" data-asm-type="image"><div class="md-assembly-wrapper card-media " data-type="image"><a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/52/3852-050-4D3FECFA/Western-Russia-political-physical-features.jpg" class="gtm-assembly-link position-relative d-flex align-items-center justify-content-center media-overlay-link card-media" data-href="/media/1/513251/521"><picture><source media="(min-width: 680px)" srcset="https://cdn.britannica.com/52/3852-050-4D3FECFA/Western-Russia-political-physical-features.jpg"><img src="https://cdn.britannica.com/52/3852-050-4D3FECFA/Western-Russia-political-physical-features.jpg?w=300" alt="Western Russia" data-width="1457" data-height="2000" loading="eager"></picture><div class="position-absolute top-10 left-10 assembly-slide-tag rounded-lg">2 of 3</div><button class="magnifying-glass btn btn-circle position-absolute shadow btn-white top-10 right-10" aria-label="Zoom in"><em class="material-icons link-blue" data-icon="zoom_in"></em></button></a></div><figcaption class="card-body"><div class="md-assembly-caption text-muted font-14 font-serif line-clamp"><span><a class="gtm-assembly-link md-assembly-title font-weight-bold d-inline font-sans-serif mr-5 media-overlay-link" href="https://cdn.britannica.com/52/3852-050-4D3FECFA/Western-Russia-political-physical-features.jpg" data-href="/media/1/513251/521">Western Russia</a><button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-white js-content" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"><span class="link-blue">(more)</span></button></span></div></figcaption></figure></div><div class="position-relative rw-slide col-100 px-20 "><figure class="md-assembly m-0 mb-md-0 card card-borderless print-false" data-assembly-id="518" data-asm-type="image"><div class="md-assembly-wrapper card-media " data-type="image"><a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/47/3847-050-7F0C9A7E/buildings-village-Central-Ural-Mountains-Russia-Kungur.jpg" class="gtm-assembly-link position-relative d-flex align-items-center justify-content-center media-overlay-link card-media" data-href="/media/1/513251/518"><picture><source media="(min-width: 680px)" srcset="https://cdn.britannica.com/47/3847-050-7F0C9A7E/buildings-village-Central-Ural-Mountains-Russia-Kungur.jpg?w=300"><img src="https://cdn.britannica.com/47/3847-050-7F0C9A7E/buildings-village-Central-Ural-Mountains-Russia-Kungur.jpg?w=300" alt="typical Russian rural buildings" data-width="1071" data-height="1600" loading="eager"></picture><div class="position-absolute top-10 left-10 assembly-slide-tag rounded-lg">3 of 3</div><button class="magnifying-glass btn btn-circle position-absolute shadow btn-white top-10 right-10" aria-label="Zoom in"><em class="material-icons link-blue" data-icon="zoom_in"></em></button></a></div><figcaption class="card-body"><div class="md-assembly-caption text-muted font-14 font-serif line-clamp"><span><a class="gtm-assembly-link md-assembly-title font-weight-bold d-inline font-sans-serif mr-5 media-overlay-link" href="https://cdn.britannica.com/47/3847-050-7F0C9A7E/buildings-village-Central-Ural-Mountains-Russia-Kungur.jpg" data-href="/media/1/513251/518">typical Russian rural buildings</a><span>Typical wooden buildings in a village in the Central Ural Mountains near Kungur, Russia.</span><button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-white js-content" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"><span class="link-blue">(more)</span></button></span></div></figcaption></figure></div></div></div><button disabled="true" class="prev-button js-prev-button position-absolute btn btn-circle shadow btn-lg btn-blue-dark m-20"><span class="material-icons" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_left"></span></button><button disabled="true" class="next-button js-next-button position-absolute btn btn-circle shadow btn-lg btn-blue-dark m-20"><span class="material-icons" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></span></button></div><p class="topic-paragraph">Russia is bounded to the north and east by the Arctic and Pacific oceans, and it has small frontages in the northwest on the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Baltic-Sea" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Baltic Sea</a> at <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/St-Petersburg-Russia" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">St. Petersburg</a> and at the detached Russian <em>oblast</em> (region) of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Kaliningrad-oblast-Russia" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Kaliningrad</a> (a part of what was once <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/East-Prussia" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">East Prussia</a> <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="annexed" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/annexed" data-type="EB">annexed</a> in 1945), which also abuts <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Poland" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Poland</a> and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Lithuania" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Lithuania</a>. To the south Russia borders <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/North-Korea" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">North Korea</a>, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/China" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">China</a>, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Mongolia" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Mongolia</a>, and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Kazakhstan" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Kazakhstan</a>, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Azerbaijan" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Azerbaijan</a>, and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Georgia" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Georgia</a>. To the southwest and west it borders <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Ukraine" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Ukraine</a>, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Belarus" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Belarus</a>, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Latvia" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Latvia</a>, and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Estonia" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Estonia</a>, as well as <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Finland" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Finland</a> and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Norway" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Norway</a>.</p><span class="marker MOD9 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD10 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">Extending nearly halfway around the Northern Hemisphere and covering much of eastern and northeastern <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Europe" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Europe</a> and all of northern <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Asia" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Asia</a>, Russia has a maximum east-west extent of some 5,600 miles (9,000 km) and a north-south width of 1,500 to 2,500 miles (2,500 to 4,000 km). There is an enormous variety of landforms and landscapes, which occur mainly in a series of broad latitudinal belts. Arctic deserts lie in the extreme north, giving way southward to the tundra and then to the forest zones, which cover about half of the country and give it much of its character. South of the forest zone lie the wooded <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/steppe-grassland" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">steppe</a> and the steppe, beyond which are small sections of semidesert along the northern shore of the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Caspian-Sea" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Caspian Sea</a>. Much of Russia lies at latitudes where the winter cold is intense and where evaporation can barely keep <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="pace" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/pace" data-type="EB">pace</a> with the accumulation of moisture, engendering abundant rivers, lakes, and swamps. <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/permafrost" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Permafrost</a> covers some 4 million square miles (10 million square km)—an area seven times larger than the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/drainage-basin" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">drainage basin</a> of the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Volga-River" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Volga River</a>, Europe’s longest river—making settlement and road building difficult in vast areas. In the European areas of Russia, the permafrost occurs in the tundra and the forest-tundra zone. In western Siberia permafrost occurs along the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Yenisey-River" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Yenisey River</a>, and it covers almost all areas east of the river, except for south <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Kamchatka" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Kamchatka</a> province, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Sakhalin-Island" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Sakhalin Island</a>, and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Primorye" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Primorsky Kray</a> (the Maritime Region).</p><span class="marker MOD10 mod-inline"></span> <section data-level="2" id="ref38574"> <h2 class="h2">Relief</h2> <span class="marker PREMOD11 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">On the basis of geologic structure and relief, Russia can be divided into two main parts—western and eastern—roughly along the line of the Yenisey River. In the western section, which occupies some two-fifths of Russia’s total area, lowland plains predominate over <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="vast" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/vast" data-type="EB">vast</a> areas broken only by low hills and plateaus. In the eastern section the bulk of the terrain is mountainous, although there are some extensive lowlands. Given these topological factors, Russia may be subdivided into six main relief regions: the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Russia#ref38575" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Kola-Karelian region</a>, the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Russia#ref38576" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Russian Plain</a>, the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Russia/The-Ural-Mountains" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Ural Mountains</a>, the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Russia/The-Ural-Mountains#ref38578" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">West Siberian Plain</a>, the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Russia/The-Ural-Mountains#ref38579" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Central Siberian Plateau</a>, and the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Russia/The-Ural-Mountains#ref38580" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">mountains of the south and east</a>.</p><span class="marker MOD11 mod-inline"></span> <section data-level="3" id="ref38575"> <h2 class="h3">The <span id="ref422223"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Kola-Peninsula" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Kola-Karelian region</a></h2> <span class="marker PREMOD12 mod-inline"></span><div class="assemblies"><div class="w-100"><figure class="md-assembly m-0 mb-md-0 card card-borderless print-false" data-assembly-id="12414" data-asm-type="image"><div class="md-assembly-wrapper card-media " data-type="image"><a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/13/10413-004-5B75EC58/Botanical-garden-Kola-Peninsula-Russia.jpg" class="gtm-assembly-link position-relative d-flex align-items-center justify-content-center media-overlay-link card-media" data-href="/media/1/513251/12414"><picture><source media="(min-width: 680px)" srcset="https://cdn.britannica.com/13/10413-004-5B75EC58/Botanical-garden-Kola-Peninsula-Russia.jpg?w=300"><img src="https://cdn.britannica.com/13/10413-004-5B75EC58/Botanical-garden-Kola-Peninsula-Russia.jpg?w=300" alt="Russian botanical garden" data-width="300" data-height="300" loading="eager"></picture><button class="magnifying-glass btn btn-circle position-absolute shadow btn-white top-10 right-10" aria-label="Zoom in"><em class="material-icons link-blue" data-icon="zoom_in"></em></button></a></div><figcaption class="card-body"><div class="md-assembly-caption text-muted font-14 font-serif line-clamp"><span><a class="gtm-assembly-link md-assembly-title font-weight-bold d-inline font-sans-serif mr-5 media-overlay-link" href="https://cdn.britannica.com/13/10413-004-5B75EC58/Botanical-garden-Kola-Peninsula-Russia.jpg" data-href="/media/1/513251/12414">Russian botanical garden</a><span>Botanical garden on the Kola Peninsula, Russia</span><button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-white js-content" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"><span class="link-blue">(more)</span></button></span></div></figcaption></figure></div></div><p class="topic-paragraph"><span id="ref"></span><span id="ref422224"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Karelia" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Kola-Karelia</a>, the smallest of Russia’s relief regions, lies in the northwestern part of European Russia between the Finnish border and the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/White-Sea" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">White Sea</a>. <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Karelia" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Karelia</a> is a low, ice-scraped plateau with a maximum elevation of 1,896 feet (578 metres), but for the most part it is below 650 feet (200 metres); low ridges and knolls <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="alternate" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/alternate" data-type="EB">alternate</a> with lake- and marsh-filled hollows. The <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Kola-Peninsula" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Kola Peninsula</a> is similar, but the small <span id="ref422225"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Khibiny-Mountains" class="md-crosslink ">Khibiny mountain</a> range rises to nearly 4,000 feet (1,200 metres). Mineral-rich ancient rocks lie at or near the surface in many places.</p><div class="one-good-fact-module"> </div><span class="marker MOD12 mod-inline"></span> </section> <section data-level="3" id="ref38576"> <h2 class="h3">The <span id="ref422226"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Russian-Plain" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Russian Plain</a></h2> <span class="marker PREMOD13 mod-inline"></span><div class="assemblies"><div class="w-100"><figure class="md-assembly m-0 mb-md-0 card card-borderless print-false" data-assembly-id="112222" data-asm-type="image"><div class="md-assembly-wrapper card-media " data-type="image"><a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/01/115101-050-208ADF53/Caucasus-Mountains-Russia.jpg" class="gtm-assembly-link position-relative d-flex align-items-center justify-content-center media-overlay-link card-media" data-href="/media/1/513251/112222"><picture><source media="(min-width: 680px)" srcset="https://cdn.britannica.com/01/115101-050-208ADF53/Caucasus-Mountains-Russia.jpg?w=300"><img src="https://cdn.britannica.com/01/115101-050-208ADF53/Caucasus-Mountains-Russia.jpg?w=300" alt="Caucasus Mountains" data-width="1600" data-height="1078" loading="eager"></picture><button class="magnifying-glass btn btn-circle position-absolute shadow btn-white top-10 right-10" aria-label="Zoom in"><em class="material-icons link-blue" data-icon="zoom_in"></em></button></a></div><figcaption class="card-body"><div class="md-assembly-caption text-muted font-14 font-serif line-clamp"><span><a class="gtm-assembly-link md-assembly-title font-weight-bold d-inline font-sans-serif mr-5 media-overlay-link" href="https://cdn.britannica.com/01/115101-050-208ADF53/Caucasus-Mountains-Russia.jpg" data-href="/media/1/513251/112222">Caucasus Mountains</a><span>Caucasus Mountains in Russia.</span><button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-white js-content" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"><span class="link-blue">(more)</span></button></span></div></figcaption></figure></div></div><p class="topic-paragraph">Western Russia makes up the largest part of one of the great lowland areas of the world, the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Russian-Plain" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Russian Plain</a> (also called the East European Plain), which extends into Russia from the western border eastward for 1,000 miles (1,600 km) to the Ural Mountains and from the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Arctic-Ocean" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Arctic Ocean</a> more than 1,500 miles (2,400 km) to the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Caucasus" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Caucasus</a> Mountains and the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Caspian-Sea" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Caspian Sea</a>. About half of this vast area lies at elevations of less than 650 feet (200 metres) above <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/sea-level" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">sea level</a>, and the highest point (in the <span id="ref422227"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Valdai-Hills" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Valdai Hills</a>, northwest of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Moscow" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Moscow</a>) reaches only 1,125 feet (343 metres). Nevertheless, the detailed <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="topography" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/topography" data-type="MW">topography</a> is quite varied. North of the latitude on which Moscow lies, features characteristic of lowland glacial <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="deposition" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/deposition" data-type="MW">deposition</a> predominate, and morainic ridges, of which the most pronounced are the Valdai Hills and the <span id="ref422228"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Smolensk-Upland" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Smolensk Upland</a>, which rises to 1,050 feet (320 metres), stand out above low, poorly drained hollows interspersed with lakes and marshes. South of Moscow there is a west-east alternation of rolling plateaus and extensive plains. In the west the <span id="ref422229"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Central-Russian-Upland" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Central Russian Upland</a>, with a maximum elevation of 950 feet (290 metres), separates the lowlands of the upper <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Dnieper-River" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Dnieper River</a> valley from those of the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Oka-River" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Oka</a> and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Don-River" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Don</a> rivers, beyond which the <span id="ref422230"></span>Volga Hills rise gently to 1,230 feet (375 metres) before <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="descending" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/descending" data-type="EB">descending</a> abruptly to the <span id="ref422231"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Volga-River" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Volga River</a>. Small river valleys are sharply incised into these uplands, whereas the major rivers cross the lowlands in broad, shallow floodplains. East of the Volga is the large <span id="ref422232"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Caspian-Depression" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Caspian Depression</a>, parts of which lie more than 90 feet (25 metres) below sea level. The Russian Plain also extends southward through the Azov-Caspian isthmus (in the North <span id="ref422233"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Caucasus" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Caucasus</a> region) to the foot of the Caucasus Mountains, the crest line of which forms the boundary between Russia and the Transcaucasian states of Georgia and Azerbaijan; just inside this border is <span id="ref422234"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Mount-Elbrus" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Mount Elbrus</a>, which at 18,510 feet (5,642 metres) is the highest point in Russia. The large <span id="ref422235"></span>Kuban and <span id="ref422236"></span>Kuma plains of the North Caucasus are separated by the <span id="ref422237"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Stavropol-Upland" class="md-crosslink ">Stavropol Upland</a> at elevations of 1,000 to 2,000 feet (300 to 600 metres).</p><span class="marker MOD13 mod-inline"></span> </section> </section></section><span class="marker end-of-content"></span><span class="marker after-article"></span></div> <div id="chatbot-root"></div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="ai-dialog-placeholder"></div> </div> </div> <aside class="col-md-da-320"></aside> </div> </div> </div> </div> </article></div> </div></div> </div> </main> <div id="md-footer"></div> <noscript><iframe src="//www.googletagmanager.com/ns.html?id=GTM-5W6NC8" height="0" width="0" style="display:none;visibility:hidden"></iframe></noscript> <script type="text/javascript" id="_informizely_script_tag"> var IzWidget = IzWidget || {}; (function (d) { var scriptElement = d.createElement('script'); scriptElement.type = 'text/javascript'; scriptElement.async = true; scriptElement.src = "https://insitez.blob.core.windows.net/site/f780f33e-a610-4ac2-af81-3eb184037547.js"; var node = d.getElementById('_informizely_script_tag'); node.parentNode.insertBefore(scriptElement, node); } )(document); </script>  <script> window.ap3c = window.ap3c || {}; var ap3c = window.ap3c; ap3c.cmd = ap3c.cmd || []; ap3c.cmd.push(function() { ap3c.init('ZO4siT4cLwnykPnzZWJtd3Byb2Q', 'https://engage.email.britannica.com/'); ap3c.track({v: 0}); }); ap3c.activity = function(act) { ap3c.act = (ap3c.act || []); ap3c.act.push(act); }; var s, t; s = document.createElement('script'); s.type = 'text/javascript'; s.src = "https://engage.email.britannica.com/app.js"; t = document.getElementsByTagName('script')[0]; t.parentNode.insertBefore(s, t); </script> <script class="marketing-page-info" type="application/json"> {"pageType":"Topic","templateName":"DESKTOP","pageNumber":1,"pagesTotal":45,"pageId":513251,"pageLength":1665,"initialLoad":true,"lastPageOfScroll":false} </script> <script class="marketing-content-info" type="application/json"> [] </script> <script src="https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel-resources/3-130/js/libs/jquery-3.5.0.min.js?v=3.130.14"></script> <script type="text/javascript" data-type="Init Mendel Code Splitting"> (function() { $.ajax({ dataType: 'script', cache: true, url: 'https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel-resources/3-130/dist/topic-page.js?v=3.130.14' }); })(); </script> <script class="analytics-metadata" type="application/json"> {"leg":"B","adLeg":"B","userType":"ANONYMOUS","pageType":"Topic","pageSubtype":null,"articleTemplateType":"COUNTRY_PAGINATED","gisted":false,"pageNumber":1,"hasSummarizeButton":false,"hasAskButton":false} </script> <script type="text/javascript"> EBStat={accountId:-1,hostnameOverride:'webstats.eb.com',domain:'www.britannica.com', json:''}; </script> <script type="text/javascript"> ( function() { $.ajax( { dataType: 'script', cache: true, url: '//www.britannica.com/webstats/mendelstats.js?v=1' } ) .done( function() { try {writeStat(null,EBStat);} catch(err){} } ); })(); </script> <div id="bc-fixed-dialogue"></div> </body> </html>

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