CINXE.COM

<!DOCTYPE html> <html class="client-nojs skin-theme-clientpref-day mf-expand-sections-clientpref-0 mf-font-size-clientpref-small mw-mf-amc-clientpref-0" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <head> <meta charset="UTF-8"> <title>Dialect continuum - Wikipedia</title> <script>(function(){var className="client-js skin-theme-clientpref-day mf-expand-sections-clientpref-0 mf-font-size-clientpref-small mw-mf-amc-clientpref-0";var cookie=document.cookie.match(/(?:^|; )enwikimwclientpreferences=([^;]+)/);if(cookie){cookie[1].split('%2C').forEach(function(pref){className=className.replace(new RegExp('(^| )'+pref.replace(/-clientpref-\w+$|[^\w-]+/g,'')+'-clientpref-\\w+( |$)'),'$1'+pref+'$2');});}document.documentElement.className=className;}());RLCONF={"wgBreakFrames":false,"wgSeparatorTransformTable":["",""],"wgDigitTransformTable":["",""],"wgDefaultDateFormat":"dmy","wgMonthNames":["","January","February","March","April","May","June","July","August","September","October","November","December"],"wgRequestId":"c96f0455-8e65-4af6-921f-00d1e28644dd","wgCanonicalNamespace":"","wgCanonicalSpecialPageName":false,"wgNamespaceNumber":0,"wgPageName":"Dialect_continuum","wgTitle":"Dialect continuum","wgCurRevisionId":1273250801,"wgRevisionId":1273250801,"wgArticleId": 370878,"wgIsArticle":true,"wgIsRedirect":false,"wgAction":"view","wgUserName":null,"wgUserGroups":["*"],"wgPageViewLanguage":"en","wgPageContentLanguage":"en","wgPageContentModel":"wikitext","wgRelevantPageName":"Dialect_continuum","wgRelevantArticleId":370878,"wgIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRelevantPageIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRestrictionEdit":[],"wgRestrictionMove":[],"wgNoticeProject":"wikipedia","wgCiteReferencePreviewsActive":false,"wgFlaggedRevsParams":{"tags":{"status":{"levels":1}}},"wgMediaViewerOnClick":true,"wgMediaViewerEnabledByDefault":true,"wgPopupsFlags":0,"wgVisualEditor":{"pageLanguageCode":"en","pageLanguageDir":"ltr","pageVariantFallbacks":"en"},"wgMFMode":"stable","wgMFAmc":false,"wgMFAmcOutreachActive":false,"wgMFAmcOutreachUserEligible":false,"wgMFLazyLoadImages":true,"wgMFEditNoticesFeatureConflict":false,"wgMFDisplayWikibaseDescriptions":{"search":true,"watchlist":true,"tagline":false,"nearby":true},"wgMFIsSupportedEditRequest":true,"wgMFScriptPath":"", "wgWMESchemaEditAttemptStepOversample":false,"wgWMEPageLength":50000,"wgEditSubmitButtonLabelPublish":true,"wgSectionTranslationMissingLanguages":[{"lang":"ace","autonym":"Acèh","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ady","autonym":"адыгабзэ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"alt","autonym":"алтай тил","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"am","autonym":"አማርኛ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ami","autonym":"Pangcah","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ang","autonym":"Ænglisc","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ann","autonym":"Obolo","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"anp","autonym":"अंगिका","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ary","autonym":"الدارجة","dir":"rtl"},{"lang":"arz","autonym":"مصرى","dir":"rtl"},{"lang":"as","autonym":"অসমীয়া","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"av","autonym":"авар","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"avk","autonym":"Kotava","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"awa","autonym":"अवधी","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ay","autonym":"Aymar aru","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"azb","autonym":"تۆرکجه","dir":"rtl"},{"lang":"ba","autonym": "башҡортса","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ban","autonym":"Basa Bali","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"bbc","autonym":"Batak Toba","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"bcl","autonym":"Bikol Central","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"bdr","autonym":"Bajau Sama","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"be","autonym":"беларуская","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"bew","autonym":"Betawi","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"bho","autonym":"भोजपुरी","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"bi","autonym":"Bislama","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"bjn","autonym":"Banjar","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"blk","autonym":"ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"bm","autonym":"bamanankan","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"bo","autonym":"བོད་ཡིག","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"bpy","autonym":"বিষ্ণুপ্রিয়া মণিপুরী","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"br","autonym":"brezhoneg","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"bs","autonym":"bosanski","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"btm","autonym":"Batak Mandailing","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"bug","autonym":"Basa Ugi","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"cdo", "autonym":"閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ce","autonym":"нохчийн","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ceb","autonym":"Cebuano","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ch","autonym":"Chamoru","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"chr","autonym":"ᏣᎳᎩ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ckb","autonym":"کوردی","dir":"rtl"},{"lang":"co","autonym":"corsu","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"cr","autonym":"Nēhiyawēwin / ᓀᐦᐃᔭᐍᐏᐣ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"crh","autonym":"qırımtatarca","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"cs","autonym":"čeština","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"cu","autonym":"словѣньскъ / ⰔⰎⰑⰂⰡⰐⰠⰔⰍⰟ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"da","autonym":"dansk","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"dag","autonym":"dagbanli","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"dga","autonym":"Dagaare","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"din","autonym":"Thuɔŋjäŋ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"diq","autonym":"Zazaki","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"dsb","autonym":"dolnoserbski","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"dtp","autonym":"Kadazandusun","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"dv","autonym": "ދިވެހިބަސް","dir":"rtl"},{"lang":"dz","autonym":"ཇོང་ཁ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ee","autonym":"eʋegbe","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"eml","autonym":"emiliàn e rumagnòl","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"et","autonym":"eesti","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"fat","autonym":"mfantse","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ff","autonym":"Fulfulde","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"fj","autonym":"Na Vosa Vakaviti","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"fo","autonym":"føroyskt","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"fon","autonym":"fɔ̀ngbè","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"frp","autonym":"arpetan","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"frr","autonym":"Nordfriisk","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"fur","autonym":"furlan","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"gag","autonym":"Gagauz","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"gan","autonym":"贛語","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"gcr","autonym":"kriyòl gwiyannen","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"gn","autonym":"Avañe'ẽ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"gom","autonym":"गोंयची कोंकणी / Gõychi Konknni","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"gor","autonym":"Bahasa Hulontalo","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"gpe", "autonym":"Ghanaian Pidgin","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"gu","autonym":"ગુજરાતી","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"guc","autonym":"wayuunaiki","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"gur","autonym":"farefare","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"guw","autonym":"gungbe","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"gv","autonym":"Gaelg","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ha","autonym":"Hausa","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"hak","autonym":"客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"haw","autonym":"Hawaiʻi","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"hif","autonym":"Fiji Hindi","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"hr","autonym":"hrvatski","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"hsb","autonym":"hornjoserbsce","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ht","autonym":"Kreyòl ayisyen","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"hy","autonym":"հայերեն","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"hyw","autonym":"Արեւմտահայերէն","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ia","autonym":"interlingua","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"iba","autonym":"Jaku Iban","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ie","autonym":"Interlingue","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ig","autonym":"Igbo","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"igl","autonym":"Igala","dir": "ltr"},{"lang":"io","autonym":"Ido","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"iu","autonym":"ᐃᓄᒃᑎᑐᑦ / inuktitut","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"jam","autonym":"Patois","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"jv","autonym":"Jawa","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ka","autonym":"ქართული","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"kaa","autonym":"Qaraqalpaqsha","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"kab","autonym":"Taqbaylit","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"kbd","autonym":"адыгэбзэ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"kbp","autonym":"Kabɩyɛ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"kcg","autonym":"Tyap","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"kg","autonym":"Kongo","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"kge","autonym":"Kumoring","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ki","autonym":"Gĩkũyũ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"kl","autonym":"kalaallisut","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"km","autonym":"ភាសាខ្មែរ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"kn","autonym":"ಕನ್ನಡ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"knc","autonym":"Yerwa Kanuri","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"koi","autonym":"перем коми","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"krc","autonym":"къарачай-малкъар", "dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ks","autonym":"कॉशुर / کٲشُر","dir":"rtl"},{"lang":"ku","autonym":"kurdî","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"kus","autonym":"Kʋsaal","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"kv","autonym":"коми","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"kw","autonym":"kernowek","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ky","autonym":"кыргызча","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"lad","autonym":"Ladino","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"lb","autonym":"Lëtzebuergesch","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"lez","autonym":"лезги","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"lg","autonym":"Luganda","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"lld","autonym":"Ladin","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ln","autonym":"lingála","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"lo","autonym":"ລາວ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ltg","autonym":"latgaļu","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"lv","autonym":"latviešu","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"mad","autonym":"Madhurâ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"mai","autonym":"मैथिली","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"map-bms","autonym":"Basa Banyumasan","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"mdf","autonym":"мокшень","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"mg","autonym": "Malagasy","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"mhr","autonym":"олык марий","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"mi","autonym":"Māori","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"min","autonym":"Minangkabau","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ml","autonym":"മലയാളം","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"mn","autonym":"монгол","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"mni","autonym":"ꯃꯤꯇꯩ ꯂꯣꯟ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"mnw","autonym":"ဘာသာမန်","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"mos","autonym":"moore","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"mr","autonym":"मराठी","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"mrj","autonym":"кырык мары","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"mt","autonym":"Malti","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"mwl","autonym":"Mirandés","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"my","autonym":"မြန်မာဘာသာ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"myv","autonym":"эрзянь","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"mzn","autonym":"مازِرونی","dir":"rtl"},{"lang":"nah","autonym":"Nāhuatl","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"nan","autonym":"閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"nap","autonym":"Napulitano","dir":"ltr"} ,{"lang":"nb","autonym":"norsk bokmål","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"nds","autonym":"Plattdüütsch","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ne","autonym":"नेपाली","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"new","autonym":"नेपाल भाषा","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"nia","autonym":"Li Niha","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"nqo","autonym":"ߒߞߏ","dir":"rtl"},{"lang":"nr","autonym":"isiNdebele seSewula","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"nso","autonym":"Sesotho sa Leboa","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ny","autonym":"Chi-Chewa","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"oc","autonym":"occitan","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"om","autonym":"Oromoo","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"or","autonym":"ଓଡ଼ିଆ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"os","autonym":"ирон","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"pa","autonym":"ਪੰਜਾਬੀ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"pag","autonym":"Pangasinan","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"pam","autonym":"Kapampangan","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"pap","autonym":"Papiamentu","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"pcd","autonym":"Picard","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"pcm","autonym":"Naijá","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"pdc", "autonym":"Deitsch","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"pms","autonym":"Piemontèis","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"pnb","autonym":"پنجابی","dir":"rtl"},{"lang":"ps","autonym":"پښتو","dir":"rtl"},{"lang":"pwn","autonym":"pinayuanan","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"qu","autonym":"Runa Simi","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"rm","autonym":"rumantsch","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"rn","autonym":"ikirundi","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"rsk","autonym":"руски","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"rue","autonym":"русиньскый","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"rup","autonym":"armãneashti","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"rw","autonym":"Ikinyarwanda","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"sa","autonym":"संस्कृतम्","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"sah","autonym":"саха тыла","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"sat","autonym":"ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"sc","autonym":"sardu","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"scn","autonym":"sicilianu","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"sco","autonym":"Scots","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"sd","autonym":"سنڌي","dir":"rtl"},{"lang":"se","autonym":"davvisámegiella", "dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"sg","autonym":"Sängö","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"sgs","autonym":"žemaitėška","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"sh","autonym":"srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"shi","autonym":"Taclḥit","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"shn","autonym":"ၽႃႇသႃႇတႆး ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"si","autonym":"සිංහල","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"sk","autonym":"slovenčina","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"skr","autonym":"سرائیکی","dir":"rtl"},{"lang":"sl","autonym":"slovenščina","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"sm","autonym":"Gagana Samoa","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"smn","autonym":"anarâškielâ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"sn","autonym":"chiShona","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"so","autonym":"Soomaaliga","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"sq","autonym":"shqip","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"srn","autonym":"Sranantongo","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ss","autonym":"SiSwati","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"st","autonym":"Sesotho","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"stq","autonym":"Seeltersk","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"su","autonym":"Sunda","dir": "ltr"},{"lang":"sw","autonym":"Kiswahili","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"szl","autonym":"ślůnski","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"tay","autonym":"Tayal","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"tcy","autonym":"ತುಳು","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"tdd","autonym":"ᥖᥭᥰ ᥖᥬᥲ ᥑᥨᥒᥰ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"te","autonym":"తెలుగు","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"tet","autonym":"tetun","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"tg","autonym":"тоҷикӣ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"th","autonym":"ไทย","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ti","autonym":"ትግርኛ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"tig","autonym":"ትግሬ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"tk","autonym":"Türkmençe","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"tl","autonym":"Tagalog","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"tly","autonym":"tolışi","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"tn","autonym":"Setswana","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"to","autonym":"lea faka-Tonga","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"tpi","autonym":"Tok Pisin","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"trv","autonym":"Seediq","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ts","autonym":"Xitsonga","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"tt","autonym": "татарча / tatarça","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"tum","autonym":"chiTumbuka","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"tw","autonym":"Twi","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ty","autonym":"reo tahiti","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"tyv","autonym":"тыва дыл","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"udm","autonym":"удмурт","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ur","autonym":"اردو","dir":"rtl"},{"lang":"uz","autonym":"oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ve","autonym":"Tshivenda","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"vec","autonym":"vèneto","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"vep","autonym":"vepsän kel’","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"vls","autonym":"West-Vlams","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"vo","autonym":"Volapük","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"vro","autonym":"võro","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"wa","autonym":"walon","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"war","autonym":"Winaray","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"wo","autonym":"Wolof","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"wuu","autonym":"吴语","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"xal","autonym":"хальмг","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"xh","autonym":"isiXhosa","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"xmf","autonym": "მარგალური","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"yi","autonym":"ייִדיש","dir":"rtl"},{"lang":"yo","autonym":"Yorùbá","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"yue","autonym":"粵語","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"za","autonym":"Vahcuengh","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"zgh","autonym":"ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵖⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵜ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"zu","autonym":"isiZulu","dir":"ltr"}],"wgSectionTranslationTargetLanguages":["ace","ady","alt","am","ami","an","ang","ann","anp","ar","ary","arz","as","ast","av","avk","awa","ay","az","azb","ba","ban","bar","bbc","bcl","bdr","be","bew","bg","bho","bi","bjn","blk","bm","bn","bo","bpy","br","bs","btm","bug","ca","cdo","ce","ceb","ch","chr","ckb","co","cr","crh","cs","cu","cy","da","dag","de","dga","din","diq","dsb","dtp","dv","dz","ee","el","eml","eo","es","et","eu","fa","fat","ff","fi","fj","fo","fon","fr","frp","frr","fur","fy","gag","gan","gcr","gl","glk","gn","gom","gor","gpe","gu","guc","gur","guw","gv","ha","hak","haw","he","hi","hif","hr","hsb","ht","hu" ,"hy","hyw","ia","iba","ie","ig","igl","ilo","io","is","it","iu","ja","jam","jv","ka","kaa","kab","kbd","kbp","kcg","kg","kge","ki","kk","kl","km","kn","knc","ko","koi","krc","ks","ku","kus","kv","kw","ky","lad","lb","lez","lg","li","lij","lld","lmo","ln","lo","lt","ltg","lv","mad","mai","map-bms","mdf","mg","mhr","mi","min","mk","ml","mn","mni","mnw","mos","mr","mrj","ms","mt","mwl","my","myv","mzn","nah","nan","nap","nb","nds","nds-nl","ne","new","nia","nl","nn","nqo","nr","nso","ny","oc","om","or","os","pa","pag","pam","pap","pcd","pcm","pdc","pl","pms","pnb","ps","pt","pwn","qu","rm","rn","ro","rsk","rue","rup","rw","sa","sah","sat","sc","scn","sco","sd","se","sg","sgs","sh","shi","shn","si","sk","skr","sl","sm","smn","sn","so","sq","sr","srn","ss","st","stq","su","sv","sw","szl","ta","tay","tcy","tdd","te","tet","tg","th","ti","tig","tk","tl","tly","tn","to","tpi","tr","trv","ts","tt","tum","tw","ty","tyv","udm","ur","uz","ve","vec","vep","vi","vls","vo","vro","wa","war","wo", "wuu","xal","xh","xmf","yi","yo","yue","za","zgh","zh","zu"],"isLanguageSearcherCXEntrypointEnabled":true,"mintEntrypointLanguages":["ace","ast","azb","bcl","bjn","bh","crh","ff","fon","ig","is","ki","ks","lmo","min","sat","ss","tn","vec"],"wgWikibaseItemId":"Q215844","wgCheckUserClientHintsHeadersJsApi":["brands","architecture","bitness","fullVersionList","mobile","model","platform","platformVersion"],"GEHomepageSuggestedEditsEnableTopics":true,"wgGETopicsMatchModeEnabled":false,"wgGEStructuredTaskRejectionReasonTextInputEnabled":false,"wgGELevelingUpEnabledForUser":false,"wgMinervaPermissions":{"watchable":true,"watch":false},"wgMinervaFeatures":{"beta":false,"donate":true,"mobileOptionsLink":true,"categories":false,"pageIssues":true,"talkAtTop":true,"historyInPageActions":false,"overflowSubmenu":false,"tabsOnSpecials":true,"personalMenu":false,"mainMenuExpanded":false,"echo":true,"nightMode":true},"wgMinervaDownloadNamespaces":[0]};RLSTATE={"ext.globalCssJs.user.styles":"ready", "site.styles":"ready","user.styles":"ready","ext.globalCssJs.user":"ready","user":"ready","user.options":"loading","ext.cite.styles":"ready","skins.minerva.styles":"ready","skins.minerva.content.styles.images":"ready","mediawiki.hlist":"ready","skins.minerva.codex.styles":"ready","skins.minerva.icons":"ready","skins.minerva.amc.styles":"ready","ext.wikimediamessages.styles":"ready","mobile.init.styles":"ready","ext.relatedArticles.styles":"ready","wikibase.client.init":"ready","ext.wikimediaBadges":"ready"};RLPAGEMODULES=["ext.cite.ux-enhancements","mediawiki.page.media","ext.scribunto.logs","site","mediawiki.page.ready","skins.minerva.scripts","ext.centralNotice.geoIP","ext.centralNotice.startUp","ext.gadget.switcher","ext.urlShortener.toolbar","ext.centralauth.centralautologin","ext.popups","mobile.init","ext.echo.centralauth","ext.relatedArticles.readMore.bootstrap","ext.eventLogging","ext.wikimediaEvents","ext.navigationTiming","ext.cx.eventlogging.campaigns", "ext.cx.entrypoints.mffrequentlanguages","ext.cx.entrypoints.languagesearcher.init","mw.externalguidance.init","ext.checkUser.clientHints","ext.growthExperiments.SuggestedEditSession"];</script> <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.loader.impl(function(){return["user.options@12s5i",function($,jQuery,require,module){mw.user.tokens.set({"patrolToken":"+\\","watchToken":"+\\","csrfToken":"+\\"}); }];});});</script> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=ext.cite.styles%7Cext.relatedArticles.styles%7Cext.wikimediaBadges%7Cext.wikimediamessages.styles%7Cmediawiki.hlist%7Cmobile.init.styles%7Cskins.minerva.amc.styles%7Cskins.minerva.codex.styles%7Cskins.minerva.content.styles.images%7Cskins.minerva.icons%2Cstyles%7Cwikibase.client.init&only=styles&skin=minerva"> <script async="" src="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=startup&only=scripts&raw=1&skin=minerva"></script> <meta name="ResourceLoaderDynamicStyles" content=""> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=site.styles&only=styles&skin=minerva"> <meta name="generator" content="MediaWiki 1.44.0-wmf.16"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin-when-cross-origin"> <meta name="robots" content="max-image-preview:standard"> <meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no"> <meta name="theme-color" content="#eaecf0"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=device-width, initial-scale=1.0, user-scalable=yes, minimum-scale=0.25, maximum-scale=5.0"> <meta property="og:title" content="Dialect continuum - Wikipedia"> <meta property="og:type" content="website"> <link rel="preconnect" href="//upload.wikimedia.org"> <link rel="manifest" href="/w/api.php?action=webapp-manifest"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/x-wiki" title="Edit this page" href="/w/index.php?title=Dialect_continuum&action=edit"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png"> <link rel="icon" href="/static/favicon/wikipedia.ico"> <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml" href="/w/rest.php/v1/search" title="Wikipedia (en)"> <link rel="EditURI" type="application/rsd+xml" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?action=rsd"> <link rel="canonical" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialect_continuum"> <link rel="license" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//meta.wikimedia.org" /> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="login.wikimedia.org"> </head> <body class="mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject mw-editable page-Dialect_continuum rootpage-Dialect_continuum stable issues-group-B skin-minerva action-view skin--responsive mw-mf-amc-disabled mw-mf"><div id="mw-mf-viewport"> <div id="mw-mf-page-center"> <a class="mw-mf-page-center__mask" href="#"></a> <header class="header-container header-chrome"> <div class="minerva-header"> <nav class="navigation-drawer toggle-list view-border-box"> <input type="checkbox" id="main-menu-input" class="toggle-list__checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" aria-expanded="false" aria-labelledby="mw-mf-main-menu-button"> <label role="button" for="main-menu-input" id="mw-mf-main-menu-button" aria-hidden="true" data-event-name="ui.mainmenu" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet toggle-list__toggle"> </label> <div id="mw-mf-page-left" class="menu view-border-box"> <ul id="p-navigation" class="toggle-list__list"> <li class="toggle-list-item "> <a class="toggle-list-item__anchor menu__item--home" href="/wiki/Main_Page" data-mw="interface"> Home </a> </li> <li class="toggle-list-item "> <a class="toggle-list-item__anchor menu__item--random" href="/wiki/Special:Random" data-mw="interface"> Random </a> </li> <li class="toggle-list-item skin-minerva-list-item-jsonly"> <a class="toggle-list-item__anchor menu__item--nearby" href="/wiki/Special:Nearby" data-event-name="menu.nearby" data-mw="interface"> Nearby </a> </li> </ul> <ul id="p-personal" class="toggle-list__list"> <li class="toggle-list-item "> <a class="toggle-list-item__anchor mw-list-item menu__item--login" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Dialect+continuum" data-event-name="menu.login" data-mw="interface"> Log in </a> </li> </ul> <ul id="pt-preferences" class="toggle-list__list"> <li class="toggle-list-item skin-minerva-list-item-jsonly"> <a class="toggle-list-item__anchor menu__item--settings" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:MobileOptions&returnto=Dialect+continuum" data-event-name="menu.settings" data-mw="interface"> Settings </a> </li> </ul> <ul id="p-donation" class="toggle-list__list"> <li class="toggle-list-item "> <a class="toggle-list-item__anchor menu__item--donate" href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/?wmf_source=donate&wmf_medium=sidebar&wmf_campaign=en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en&wmf_key=minerva" data-event-name="menu.donate" data-mw="interface"> Donate </a> </li> </ul> <ul class="hlist"> <li class="toggle-list-item "> <a class="toggle-list-item__anchor menu__item--about" href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About" data-mw="interface"> About Wikipedia </a> </li> <li class="toggle-list-item "> <a class="toggle-list-item__anchor menu__item--disclaimers" href="/wiki/Wikipedia:General_disclaimer" data-mw="interface"> Disclaimers </a> </li> </ul> </div> <label class="main-menu-mask" for="main-menu-input"></label> </nav> <div class="branding-box"> <a href="/wiki/Main_Page"> <img src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" alt="Wikipedia" width="120" height="18" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"/> </a> </div> <form action="/w/index.php" method="get" class="minerva-search-form"> <div class="search-box"> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"/> <input class="search skin-minerva-search-trigger" id="searchInput" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia" aria-label="Search Wikipedia" autocapitalize="sentences" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f"> </div> <button id="searchIcon" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet skin-minerva-search-trigger"> Search </button> </form> <nav class="minerva-user-navigation" aria-label="User navigation"> </nav> </div> </header> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <div class="banner-container"> <div id="siteNotice"></div> </div> <div class="pre-content heading-holder"> <div class="page-heading"> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Dialect continuum</h1> <div class="tagline"></div> </div> <ul id="p-associated-pages" class="minerva__tab-container"> <li class="minerva__tab selected mw-list-item"> <a class="minerva__tab-text" href="/wiki/Dialect_continuum" rel="" data-event-name="tabs.main">Article</a> </li> <li class="minerva__tab mw-list-item"> <a class="minerva__tab-text" href="/wiki/Talk:Dialect_continuum" rel="discussion" data-event-name="tabs.talk">Talk</a> </li> </ul> <nav class="page-actions-menu"> <ul id="p-views" class="page-actions-menu__list"> <li id="language-selector" class="page-actions-menu__list-item"> <a role="button" href="#p-lang" data-mw="interface" data-event-name="menu.languages" title="Language" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet language-selector"> Language </a> </li> <li id="page-actions-watch" class="page-actions-menu__list-item"> <a role="button" id="ca-watch" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Dialect+continuum" data-event-name="menu.watch" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet menu__item--page-actions-watch"> Watch </a> </li> <li id="page-actions-edit" class="page-actions-menu__list-item"> <a role="button" id="ca-edit" href="/w/index.php?title=Dialect_continuum&action=edit" data-event-name="menu.edit" data-mw="interface" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet edit-page menu__item--page-actions-edit"> Edit </a> </li> </ul> </nav>  <div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="content"> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><script>function mfTempOpenSection(id){var block=document.getElementById("mf-section-"+id);block.className+=" open-block";block.previousSibling.className+=" open-block";}</script><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><section class="mf-section-0" id="mf-section-0"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a>. Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Dialect_continuum" title="Special:EditPage/Dialect continuum">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Dialect+continuum%22">"Dialect continuum"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Dialect+continuum%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> · <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Dialect+continuum%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> · <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Dialect+continuum%22+-wikipedia">books</a> · <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Dialect+continuum%22">scholar</a> · <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Dialect+continuum%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a> (May 2016) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1246091330">.mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:22em;float:right;clear:right;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa);border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.2em;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%;border-collapse:collapse;display:table}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:table!important;float:right!important;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em!important}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-subgroup{width:100%;margin:0;border-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-left{float:left;clear:left;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-none{float:none;clear:both;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-outer-title{padding:0 0.4em 0.2em;font-size:125%;line-height:1.2em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-image{padding:0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-caption,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle-with-top-image,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-caption{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle{padding:0.4em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.2em 0.8em;font-size:145%;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-image{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-heading{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content{padding:0 0.5em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content-with-subgroup{padding:0.1em 0.4em 0.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-below{padding:0.3em 0.8em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-below{border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-navbar{text-align:right;font-size:115%;padding:0 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:left;font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6em;font-size:105%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title-c{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:center;margin:0 3.3em}@media(max-width:640px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1234201967">.mw-parser-output .linguistics-body{max-width:20em}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"> A dialect continuum or dialect chain is a series of <a href="/wiki/Variety_(linguistics)" title="Variety (linguistics)">language varieties</a> spoken across some geographical area such that neighboring varieties are <a href="/wiki/Mutual_intelligibility" title="Mutual intelligibility">mutually intelligible</a>, but the differences accumulate over distance so that widely separated varieties may not be.<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a> This is a typical occurrence with widely spread languages and language families around the world, when these languages did not spread recently. Some prominent examples include the <a href="/wiki/Indo-Aryan_languages" title="Indo-Aryan languages">Indo-Aryan languages</a> across large parts of <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a>, <a href="/wiki/Varieties_of_Arabic" title="Varieties of Arabic">varieties of Arabic</a> across north Africa and southwest Asia, the <a href="/wiki/Turkic_languages" title="Turkic languages">Turkic languages</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Varieties_of_Chinese" title="Varieties of Chinese">varieties of Chinese</a>, and parts of the <a href="/wiki/Romance_languages" title="Romance languages">Romance</a>, <a href="/wiki/Germanic_languages" title="Germanic languages">Germanic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Slavic_languages" title="Slavic languages">Slavic</a> families in Europe. Terms used in older literature include dialect area (<a href="/wiki/Leonard_Bloomfield" title="Leonard Bloomfield">Leonard Bloomfield</a>)<a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a> and L-complex (<a href="/wiki/Charles_F._Hockett" title="Charles F. Hockett">Charles F. Hockett</a>).<a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a> Dialect continua typically occur in long-settled agrarian populations, as innovations spread from their various points of origin as <a href="/wiki/Wave_model" title="Wave model">waves</a>. In this situation, hierarchical classifications of varieties are impractical. Instead, <a href="/wiki/Dialectology" title="Dialectology">dialectologists</a> map variation of various language features across a dialect continuum, drawing lines called <a href="/wiki/Isogloss" title="Isogloss">isoglosses</a> between areas that differ with respect to some feature.<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a> A variety within a dialect continuum may be developed and codified as a <a href="/wiki/Standard_language" title="Standard language">standard language</a>, and then serve as an authority for part of the continuum, e.g. within a particular political unit or geographical area. Since the early 20th century, the increasing dominance of <a href="/wiki/Nation-states" class="mw-redirect" title="Nation-states">nation-states</a> and their standard languages has been steadily eliminating the nonstandard dialects that comprise dialect continua, making the boundaries ever more abrupt and well-defined. <div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none"><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Contents</h2><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></div> <ul> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Dialect_geography">1 Dialect geography</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-2"><a href="#Relationship_with_standard_varieties">2 Relationship with standard varieties</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-3"><a href="#Europe">3 Europe</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-4"><a href="#Germanic_languages">3.1 Germanic languages</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-5"><a href="#North_Germanic_continuum">3.1.1 North Germanic continuum</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-6"><a href="#Continental_West_Germanic_continuum">3.1.2 Continental West Germanic continuum</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-7"><a href="#Anglic_continuum">3.1.3 Anglic continuum</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-8"><a href="#Romance_languages">3.2 Romance languages</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-9"><a href="#Western_Romance_continuum">3.2.1 Western Romance continuum</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-10"><a href="#Eastern_Romance_continuum">3.2.2 Eastern Romance continuum</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-11"><a href="#Slavic_languages">3.3 Slavic languages</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-12"><a href="#North_Slavic_continuum">3.3.1 North Slavic continuum</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-13"><a href="#South_Slavic_continuum">3.3.2 South Slavic continuum</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-14"><a href="#Uralic_languages">3.4 Uralic languages</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-15"><a href="#Goidelic_continuum">3.5 Goidelic continuum</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-16"><a href="#Middle_East">4 Middle East</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-17"><a href="#Arabic">4.1 Arabic</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-18"><a href="#Aramaic">4.2 Aramaic</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-19"><a href="#Persian">4.3 Persian</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-20"><a href="#Turkic">4.4 Turkic</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-21"><a href="#Indo-Aryan_languages">5 Indo-Aryan languages</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-22"><a href="#Chinese">6 Chinese</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-23"><a href="#Cree_and_Ojibwa">7 Cree and Ojibwa</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-24"><a href="#See_also">8 See also</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-25"><a href="#Notes">9 Notes</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-26"><a href="#References">10 References</a></li> </ul> </div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(1)"><h2 id="Dialect_geography">Dialect geography</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Dialect_continuum&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Dialect geography" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-1 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-1"> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Aujourd%27hui.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Aujourd%27hui.JPG/220px-Aujourd%27hui.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="170" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1956" data-file-height="1510"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 170px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Aujourd%27hui.JPG/220px-Aujourd%27hui.JPG" data-width="220" data-height="170" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Aujourd%27hui.JPG/330px-Aujourd%27hui.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Aujourd%27hui.JPG/440px-Aujourd%27hui.JPG 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Part of map 72 of the <a href="/wiki/Atlas_linguistique_de_la_France" title="Atlas linguistique de la France">Atlas linguistique de la France</a>, recording local forms meaning "today"</figcaption></figure> Dialectologists record variation across a dialect continuum using maps of various features collected in a <a href="/wiki/Linguistic_atlas" class="mw-redirect" title="Linguistic atlas">linguistic atlas</a>, beginning with an atlas of <a href="/wiki/German_dialects" title="German dialects">German dialects</a> by <a href="/wiki/Georg_Wenker" title="Georg Wenker">Georg Wenker</a> (from 1888), based on a postal survey of schoolmasters. The influential <a href="/wiki/Atlas_linguistique_de_la_France" title="Atlas linguistique de la France">Atlas linguistique de la France</a> (1902–10) pioneered the use of a trained fieldworker.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChambersTrudgill199815%E2%80%9317-5">[5]</a> These atlases typically consist of display maps, each showing local forms of a particular item at the survey locations.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChambersTrudgill199825-6">[6]</a> Secondary studies may include interpretive maps, showing the areal distribution of various variants.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChambersTrudgill199825-6">[6]</a> A common tool in these maps is an <a href="/wiki/Isogloss" title="Isogloss">isogloss</a>, a line separating areas where different variants of a particular feature predominate.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChambersTrudgill199827-7">[7]</a> In a dialect continuum, isoglosses for different features are typically spread out, reflecting the gradual transition between varieties.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChambersTrudgill199893%E2%80%9394-8">[8]</a> A bundle of coinciding isoglosses indicates a stronger dialect boundary, as might occur at geographical obstacles or long-standing political boundaries.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChambersTrudgill199894%E2%80%9395-9">[9]</a> In other cases, intersecting isoglosses and more complex patterns are found.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChambersTrudgill199891%E2%80%9393-10">[10]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(2)"><h2 id="Relationship_with_standard_varieties">Relationship with standard varieties</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Dialect_continuum&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Relationship with standard varieties" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-2 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-2"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Autonomy_and_heteronomy_(sociolinguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Autonomy and heteronomy (sociolinguistics)">Autonomy and heteronomy (sociolinguistics)</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:West_Germanic_dialect_diagram.svg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/West_Germanic_dialect_diagram.svg/440px-West_Germanic_dialect_diagram.svg.png" decoding="async" width="440" height="147" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="200"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 440px;height: 147px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/West_Germanic_dialect_diagram.svg/440px-West_Germanic_dialect_diagram.svg.png" data-width="440" data-height="147" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/West_Germanic_dialect_diagram.svg/660px-West_Germanic_dialect_diagram.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/West_Germanic_dialect_diagram.svg/880px-West_Germanic_dialect_diagram.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Local dialects of the West Germanic continuum are oriented towards either Standard Dutch or Standard German, depending on which side of the international border they are spoken.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChambersTrudgill199810-11">[11]</a></figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Standard_language" title="Standard language">Standard varieties</a> may be developed and codified at one or more locations in a continuum until they have independent cultural status (autonomy), a process the <a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">German</a> linguist <a href="/wiki/Heinz_Kloss" title="Heinz Kloss">Heinz Kloss</a> called <a href="/wiki/Abstand_and_ausbau_languages" title="Abstand and ausbau languages">ausbau</a>. Speakers of local varieties typically read and write a related standard variety, use it for official purposes, hear it on radio and television, and consider it the standard form of their speech, so that any standardizing changes in their speech are towards that variety. In such cases the local variety is said to be dependent on, or heteronomous with respect to, the standard variety.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChambersTrudgill19989%E2%80%9312-12">[12]</a> A standard variety together with its dependent varieties is commonly considered a "language", with the dependent varieties called "dialects" of the language, even if the standard is mutually intelligible with another standard from the same continuum.<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChambersTrudgill199811-14">[14]</a> The <a href="/wiki/North_Germanic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="North Germanic language">Scandinavian languages</a>, <a href="/wiki/Danish_language" title="Danish language">Danish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Norwegian_language" title="Norwegian language">Norwegian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Swedish_language" title="Swedish language">Swedish</a>, are often cited as examples.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChambersTrudgill19983%E2%80%934-15">[15]</a> Conversely, a language defined in this way may include local varieties that are mutually unintelligible, such as the <a href="/wiki/German_dialects" title="German dialects">German dialects</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChambersTrudgill19984-16">[16]</a> The choice of standard is often determined by a political boundary, which may cut across a dialect continuum. As a result, speakers on either side of the boundary may use almost identical varieties, but treat them as dependent on different standards, and thus part of different "languages".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChambersTrudgill19989-17">[17]</a> The various local dialects then tend to be leveled towards their respective standard varieties, disrupting the previous dialect continuum.<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> Examples include the boundaries between <a href="/wiki/Dutch_language" title="Dutch language">Dutch</a> and <a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a>, between <a href="/wiki/Czech_language" title="Czech language">Czech</a>, <a href="/wiki/Slovak_language" title="Slovak language">Slovak</a> and <a href="/wiki/Polish_language" title="Polish language">Polish</a>, and between <a href="/wiki/Belarusian_language" title="Belarusian language">Belarusian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_language" title="Ukrainian language">Ukrainian</a>.<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a> The choice may be a matter of national, regional or religious identity, and may be controversial. Examples of controversies are regions such as the disputed territory of <a href="/wiki/Kashmir" title="Kashmir">Kashmir</a>, in which local <a href="/wiki/Muslim" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim">Muslims</a> usually regard their language as <a href="/wiki/Urdu" title="Urdu">Urdu</a>, the national standard of <a href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a>, while <a href="/wiki/Hinduism" title="Hinduism">Hindus</a> regard the same speech as <a href="/wiki/Hindi" title="Hindi">Hindi</a>, an official standard of <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a>. Even so, the <a href="/wiki/Languages_with_official_status_in_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Languages with official status in India">Eighth Schedule</a> to the Indian Constitution contains <a href="/wiki/Languages_with_official_status_in_India#Scheduled_languages_of_the_Indian_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="Languages with official status in India">a list of 22 scheduled languages</a> and Urdu is among them. During the time of the former <a href="/wiki/Socialist_Republic_of_Macedonia" title="Socialist Republic of Macedonia">Socialist Republic of Macedonia</a>, a standard was developed from local varieties of <a href="/wiki/Eastern_South_Slavic" title="Eastern South Slavic">Eastern South Slavic</a>, within a continuum with <a href="/wiki/Torlakian" class="mw-redirect" title="Torlakian">Torlakian</a> to the north and <a href="/wiki/Bulgarian_language" title="Bulgarian language">Bulgarian</a> to the east. The standard was based on varieties that were most different from standard Bulgarian. Now known as <a href="/wiki/Macedonian_language" title="Macedonian language">Macedonian</a>, it is the national standard of <a href="/wiki/North_Macedonia" title="North Macedonia">North Macedonia</a>, but viewed by Bulgarians as a dialect of Bulgarian.<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(3)"><h2 id="Europe">Europe</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Dialect_continuum&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Europe" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-3 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-3"> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dialect_continua_in_Europe.svg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Dialect_continua_in_Europe.svg/330px-Dialect_continua_in_Europe.svg.png" decoding="async" width="330" height="334" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="608"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 330px;height: 334px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Dialect_continua_in_Europe.svg/330px-Dialect_continua_in_Europe.svg.png" data-width="330" data-height="334" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Dialect_continua_in_Europe.svg/495px-Dialect_continua_in_Europe.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Dialect_continua_in_Europe.svg/660px-Dialect_continua_in_Europe.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Major dialect continua in Europe in the mid-20th century<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChambersTrudgill19986-22">[22]</a><a href="#cite_note-23">[a]</a></figcaption></figure> Europe provides several examples of dialect continua, the largest of which involve the <a href="/wiki/Germanic_languages" title="Germanic languages">Germanic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Romance_languages" title="Romance languages">Romance</a> and <a href="/wiki/Slavic_languages" title="Slavic languages">Slavic</a> branches of the <a href="/wiki/Indo-European_language_family" class="mw-redirect" title="Indo-European language family">Indo-European language family</a>, the continent's largest language branches. The Romance area spanned much of the territory of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> but was split into western and eastern portions by the <a href="/wiki/Slav_Migrations" class="mw-redirect" title="Slav Migrations">Slav Migrations</a> into the Balkans in the 7th and 8th centuries. The Slavic area was in turn split by the <a href="/wiki/Hungarian_conquest_of_the_Carpathian_Basin" title="Hungarian conquest of the Carpathian Basin">Hungarian conquest of the Carpathian Basin</a> in the 9th and 10th centuries. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Germanic_languages">Germanic languages</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Dialect_continuum&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Germanic languages" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:West_Germanic_dialect_continuum_(according_to_Wiesinger,_Heeringa_%26_K%C3%B6nig).png" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/West_Germanic_dialect_continuum_%28according_to_Wiesinger%2C_Heeringa_%26_K%C3%B6nig%29.png/350px-West_Germanic_dialect_continuum_%28according_to_Wiesinger%2C_Heeringa_%26_K%C3%B6nig%29.png" decoding="async" width="350" height="339" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2836" data-file-height="2749"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 350px;height: 339px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/West_Germanic_dialect_continuum_%28according_to_Wiesinger%2C_Heeringa_%26_K%C3%B6nig%29.png/350px-West_Germanic_dialect_continuum_%28according_to_Wiesinger%2C_Heeringa_%26_K%C3%B6nig%29.png" data-width="350" data-height="339" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/West_Germanic_dialect_continuum_%28according_to_Wiesinger%2C_Heeringa_%26_K%C3%B6nig%29.png/525px-West_Germanic_dialect_continuum_%28according_to_Wiesinger%2C_Heeringa_%26_K%C3%B6nig%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/West_Germanic_dialect_continuum_%28according_to_Wiesinger%2C_Heeringa_%26_K%C3%B6nig%29.png/700px-West_Germanic_dialect_continuum_%28according_to_Wiesinger%2C_Heeringa_%26_K%C3%B6nig%29.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>The varieties of the continental West Germanic dialect continuum after 1945:<a href="#cite_note-24">[23]</a><a href="#cite_note-25">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-26">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-27">[26]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r981673959">.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}</style><div class="legend"> <a href="/wiki/Frisian_languages" title="Frisian languages">Frisian</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"> <a href="/wiki/Low_Franconian" title="Low Franconian">Low Franconian</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"> <a href="/wiki/Low_Saxon" title="Low Saxon">Low Saxon</a>/<a href="/wiki/Low_German" title="Low German">Low German</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"> <a href="/wiki/Central_German" title="Central German">Central German</a> (part of <a href="/wiki/High_German_languages" title="High German languages">High German</a>)</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"> <a href="/wiki/Upper_German" title="Upper German">Upper German</a> (part of <a href="/wiki/High_German_languages" title="High German languages">High German</a>)</div></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="North_Germanic_continuum">North Germanic continuum</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Dialect_continuum&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: North Germanic continuum" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> The <a href="/wiki/Norwegian_dialects" title="Norwegian dialects">Norwegian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Danish_dialects" title="Danish dialects">Danish</a> and <a href="/wiki/Swedish_dialects" title="Swedish dialects">Swedish dialects</a> comprise a classic example of a dialect continuum, encompassing Norway, Denmark, Sweden and coastal parts of Finland. The Continental North Germanic standard languages (<a href="/wiki/Norwegian_language" title="Norwegian language">Norwegian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Danish_language" title="Danish language">Danish</a> and <a href="/wiki/Swedish_language" title="Swedish language">Swedish</a>) are close enough and intelligible enough for some [<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch">who?</a>] to consider them to be dialects of the same language, but the Insular ones (<a href="/wiki/Faroese_language" title="Faroese language">Faroese</a> and <a href="/wiki/Icelandic_language" title="Icelandic language">Icelandic</a>) are not immediately intelligible to the other North Germanic speakers. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Continental_West_Germanic_continuum">Continental West Germanic continuum</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Dialect_continuum&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Continental West Germanic continuum" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> Historically, the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_dialects" class="mw-redirect" title="Dutch dialects">Dutch</a>, <a href="/wiki/Frisian_languages" title="Frisian languages">Frisian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Low_German" title="Low German">Low Saxon</a> and <a href="/wiki/German_dialects" title="German dialects">High German dialects</a> formed a canonical dialect continuum, which has been gradually falling apart since the <a href="/wiki/Late_Middle_Ages" title="Late Middle Ages">Late Middle Ages</a> due to the pressures of modern education, standard languages, migration and weakening knowledge of the dialects.<a href="#cite_note-Niebaum-28">[27]</a> The transition from German dialects to Dutch variants followed two basic routes: <ul><li>From <a href="/wiki/Central_German" title="Central German">Central German</a> to Southeastern Dutch (<a href="/wiki/Limburgish" title="Limburgish">Limburgish</a>) in the so-called <a href="/wiki/Rhenish_fan" title="Rhenish fan">Rhenish fan</a>, an area corresponding largely to the modern <a href="/wiki/Lower_Rhine_region" title="Lower Rhine region">Niederrhein</a> in which gradual but geographically compact changes took place.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChambersTrudgill199892-29">[28]</a></li> <li>From Low Saxon<a href="#cite_note-30">[b]</a> to Northwestern Dutch (<a href="/wiki/Hollandic" class="mw-redirect" title="Hollandic">Hollandic</a>): This sub-continuum also included <a href="/wiki/West_Frisian_language" title="West Frisian language">West Frisian</a> dialects up until the 17th century, but faced external pressure from <a href="/wiki/Standard_Dutch" class="mw-redirect" title="Standard Dutch">Standard Dutch</a> and, after the collapse of the <a href="/wiki/Hanseatic_League" title="Hanseatic League">Hanseatic League</a>, from <a href="/wiki/Standard_German" title="Standard German">Standard German</a> which greatly influenced the vocabularies of these border dialects.<a href="#cite_note-Niebaum-28">[27]</a></li></ul> Though the internal dialect continua of both Dutch and German remain largely intact, the continuum which historically connected the Dutch, Frisian and German languages has largely disintegrated. Fragmentary areas of the Dutch-German border in which language change is more gradual than in other sections or a higher degree of <a href="/wiki/Mutual_intelligibility" title="Mutual intelligibility">mutual intelligibility</a> is present still exist, such as the <a href="/wiki/Aachen" title="Aachen">Aachen</a>-<a href="/wiki/Kerkrade" title="Kerkrade">Kerkrade</a> area, but the historical chain in which dialects were only divided by minor isoglosses and negligible differences in vocabulary has seen a rapid and ever-increasing decline since the 1850s.<a href="#cite_note-Niebaum-28">[27]</a> <a href="/wiki/Standard_Dutch" class="mw-redirect" title="Standard Dutch">Standard Dutch</a> was based on the dialects of the principal <a href="/wiki/Brabantian_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Brabantian dialect">Brabantic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hollandic_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Hollandic dialect">Hollandic</a> cities. The written form of <a href="/wiki/Standard_German" title="Standard German">Standard German</a> originated in the <a href="/wiki/East_Central_German" title="East Central German">East Central German</a> used at the <a href="/wiki/Chancery_(medieval_office)" title="Chancery (medieval office)">chancery</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Saxony" title="Kingdom of Saxony">kingdom of Saxony</a>, while the spoken form emerged later, based on North German pronunciations of the written standard.<a href="#cite_note-31">[29]</a> Being based on widely separated dialects, the Dutch and German standards do not show a high degree of <a href="/wiki/Mutual_intelligibility" title="Mutual intelligibility">mutual intelligibility</a> when spoken and only partially so when written. One study concluded that, when concerning written language, Dutch speakers could translate 50.2% of the provided German words correctly, while the German subjects were able to translate 41.9% of the Dutch equivalents correctly. In terms of orthography, 22% of the vocabulary of Dutch and German is identical or near-identical.<a href="#cite_note-32">[30]</a><a href="#cite_note-33">[31]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Anglic_continuum">Anglic continuum</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Dialect_continuum&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Anglic continuum" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> The <a href="/wiki/Anglic_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglic languages">Germanic dialects spoken on the island of Great Britain</a> comprise areal varieties of English in England and of <a href="/wiki/Scots_language" title="Scots language">Scots</a> in Scotland. Those of large areas north and south of the border are often mutually intelligible. In contrast, the <a href="/wiki/Orcadian_dialect" title="Orcadian dialect">Orcadian dialect</a> of Scots is very different from the dialects of <a href="/wiki/English_in_southern_England" class="mw-redirect" title="English in southern England">English in southern England</a>—but they are linked by a chain of intermediate varieties. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Romance_languages">Romance languages</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Dialect_continuum&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Romance languages" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Western_Romance_continuum">Western Romance continuum</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Dialect_continuum&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Western Romance continuum" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Romance_languages_accurate.png" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Romance_languages_accurate.png/300px-Romance_languages_accurate.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="218" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2100" data-file-height="1525"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 300px;height: 218px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Romance_languages_accurate.png/300px-Romance_languages_accurate.png" data-width="300" data-height="218" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Romance_languages_accurate.png/450px-Romance_languages_accurate.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Romance_languages_accurate.png/600px-Romance_languages_accurate.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Romance languages in Europe</figcaption></figure> The western continuum of <a href="/wiki/Romance_languages" title="Romance languages">Romance languages</a> comprises, from West to East: in Portugal, <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_language" title="Portuguese language">Portuguese</a>; in Spain, <a href="/wiki/Galician_language" title="Galician language">Galician</a>, <a href="/wiki/Leonese_language" title="Leonese language">Leonese</a> or <a href="/wiki/Asturian_language" title="Asturian language">Asturian</a>, Castilian or <a href="/wiki/Spanish_language" title="Spanish language">Spanish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aragonese_language" title="Aragonese language">Aragonese</a> and <a href="/wiki/Catalan_Language" class="mw-redirect" title="Catalan Language">Catalan</a> or <a href="/wiki/Valencian_language" title="Valencian language">Valencian</a>; in France, <a href="/wiki/Occitan_Language" class="mw-redirect" title="Occitan Language">Occitan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Franco-Proven%C3%A7al_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Franco-Provençal language">Franco-Provençal</a>, standard <a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a> and <a href="/wiki/Corsican_Language" class="mw-redirect" title="Corsican Language">Corsican</a> which is closely related to Italian; in Italy, <a href="/wiki/Ligurian_language" title="Ligurian language">Ligurian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Piedmontese_language" title="Piedmontese language">Piedmontese</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lombard_language" title="Lombard language">Lombard</a>, <a href="/wiki/Emilian_dialects" class="mw-redirect" title="Emilian dialects">Emilian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Romagnol_dialects" class="mw-redirect" title="Romagnol dialects">Romagnol</a>, <a href="/wiki/Italian_language" title="Italian language">Italian</a> Gallo-Picene, <a href="/wiki/Venetian_language" title="Venetian language">Venetian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Friulian_language" title="Friulian language">Friulian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ladin_language" title="Ladin language">Ladin</a>; and in Switzerland, <a href="/wiki/Lombard_language" title="Lombard language">Lombard</a> and <a href="/wiki/Romansh_language" title="Romansh language">Romansh</a>. This continuum is sometimes presented as another example, but the major languages in the group (i.e. Portuguese, Spanish, French and Italian) have had separate <a href="/wiki/Standard_language" title="Standard language">standards</a> for longer than the languages in the Continental West Germanic group, and so are not commonly classified as <a href="/wiki/Dialect" title="Dialect">dialects</a> of a common language. Focusing instead on the local Romance lects that pre-existed the establishment of national or regional standard languages, all evidence and principles point to Romania continua as having been, and to varying extents in some areas still being, what <a href="/wiki/Charles_Hockett" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles Hockett">Charles Hockett</a> called an L-complex, i.e. an unbroken chain of local differentiation such that, in principle and with appropriate caveats, intelligibility (due to sharing of features) attenuates with distance. This is perhaps most evident today in Italy, where, especially in rural and small-town contexts, local Romance is still often employed at home and work, and geolinguistic distinctions are such that while native speakers from any two nearby towns can understand each other with ease, they can also spot from linguistic features that the other is from elsewhere. In recent centuries, the intermediate dialects between the major Romance languages have been moving toward <a href="/wiki/Language_death" title="Language death">extinction</a>, as their speakers have switched to varieties closer to the more prestigious national standards. That has been most notable in France,[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] owing to the French government's <a href="/wiki/Language_policy_in_France" title="Language policy in France">refusal to recognise minority languages</a>,<a href="#cite_note-34">[32]</a> but it has occurred to some extent in all Western Romance speaking countries. Language change has also threatened the survival of stateless languages with existing literary standards, such as Occitan. The Romance <a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Italy" title="Languages of Italy">languages of Italy</a> are a less arguable example of a dialect continuum. For many decades since Italy's unification, the attitude of the French government towards the ethnolinguistic minorities was copied by the Italian government.<a href="#cite_note-35">[33]</a><a href="#cite_note-36">[34]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Eastern_Romance_continuum">Eastern Romance continuum</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Dialect_continuum&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Eastern Romance continuum" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> The eastern Romance continuum is dominated by <a href="/wiki/Romanian_language" title="Romanian language">Romanian</a>. Outside Romania and Moldova, across the other south-east European countries, various Romanian language groups are to be found: pockets of various Romanian and Aromanian subgroups survive throughout <a href="/wiki/Bulgaria" title="Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Serbia" title="Serbia">Serbia</a>, <a href="/wiki/North_Macedonia" title="North Macedonia">North Macedonia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Greece" title="Greece">Greece</a>, <a href="/wiki/Albania" title="Albania">Albania</a> and <a href="/wiki/Croatia" title="Croatia">Croatia</a> (mostly in <a href="/wiki/Istria" title="Istria">Istria</a>). <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Slavic_languages">Slavic languages</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Dialect_continuum&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Slavic languages" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> Conventionally, on the basis of extralinguistic features (such as writing systems or the former western frontier of the Soviet Union), the North Slavic continuum is split into East and West Slavic continua. From the perspective of linguistic features alone, only two Slavic (dialect) continua can be distinguished, namely North and South,<a href="#cite_note-37">[35]</a><a href="#cite_note-38">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-39">[37]</a> separated from each other by a band of non-Slavic languages: Romanian, Hungarian and German. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="North_Slavic_continuum">North Slavic continuum</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Dialect_continuum&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: North Slavic continuum" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> The North Slavic continuum covers the <a href="/wiki/East_Slavic_languages" title="East Slavic languages">East Slavic</a> and <a href="/wiki/West_Slavic_languages" title="West Slavic languages">West Slavic languages</a>. East Slavic includes <a href="/wiki/Russian_language" title="Russian language">Russian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Belarusian_language" title="Belarusian language">Belarusian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rusyn_language" title="Rusyn language">Rusyn</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_language" title="Ukrainian language">Ukrainian</a>; West Slavic languages of <a href="/wiki/Czech_language" title="Czech language">Czech</a>, <a href="/wiki/Polish_language" title="Polish language">Polish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Slovak_language" title="Slovak language">Slovak</a>, <a href="/wiki/Silesian_language" title="Silesian language">Silesian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kashubian_language" title="Kashubian language">Kashubian</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Upper_Sorbian_language" title="Upper Sorbian language">Upper</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lower_Sorbian_language" title="Lower Sorbian language">Lower Sorbian</a>. <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Slovak_dialects" title="Eastern Slovak dialects">Eastern Slovak</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pannonian_Rusyn" title="Pannonian Rusyn">Pannonian Rusyn</a> stand out as sharing features with Slovak, Polish and Rusyn, thus serving as a transition between West and East Slavic languages. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="South_Slavic_continuum">South Slavic continuum</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Dialect_continuum&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: South Slavic continuum" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Pluricentric_language#Serbo-Croatian" title="Pluricentric language">Pluricentric language § Serbo-Croatian</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:South_Slavic_dialect_continuum.svg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/South_Slavic_dialect_continuum.svg/200px-South_Slavic_dialect_continuum.svg.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="172" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="441"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 200px;height: 172px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/South_Slavic_dialect_continuum.svg/200px-South_Slavic_dialect_continuum.svg.png" data-width="200" data-height="172" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/South_Slavic_dialect_continuum.svg/300px-South_Slavic_dialect_continuum.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/South_Slavic_dialect_continuum.svg/400px-South_Slavic_dialect_continuum.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>South Slavic dialect continuum with major dialect groups</figcaption></figure> All South Slavic languages form a dialect continuum.<a href="#cite_note-40">[38]</a><a href="#cite_note-41">[39]</a> It comprises, from West to East, <a href="/wiki/Slovenia" title="Slovenia">Slovenia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Croatia" title="Croatia">Croatia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bosnia_and_Herzegovina" title="Bosnia and Herzegovina">Bosnia and Herzegovina</a>, <a href="/wiki/Montenegro" title="Montenegro">Montenegro</a>, <a href="/wiki/Serbia" title="Serbia">Serbia</a>, <a href="/wiki/North_Macedonia" title="North Macedonia">North Macedonia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Bulgaria" title="Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a>.<a href="#cite_note-42">[40]</a><a href="#cite_note-43">[41]</a> Standard <a href="/wiki/Slovene_language" title="Slovene language">Slovene</a>, <a href="/wiki/Macedonian_language" title="Macedonian language">Macedonian</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Bulgarian_language" title="Bulgarian language">Bulgarian</a> are each based on a distinct dialect, but the Bosnian, Croatian, Montenegrin, and Serbian <a href="/wiki/Differences_between_Serbo-Croatian_standard_varieties" class="mw-redirect" title="Differences between Serbo-Croatian standard varieties">standard varieties</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Pluricentric_language#Serbo-Croatian" title="Pluricentric language">pluricentric</a> <a href="/wiki/Serbo-Croatian_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Serbo-Croatian language">Serbo-Croatian language</a> are all based on the same dialect, <a href="/wiki/Shtokavian_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Shtokavian dialect">Shtokavian</a>.<a href="#cite_note-44">[42]</a><a href="#cite_note-45">[43]</a><a href="#cite_note-46">[44]</a> Therefore, <a href="/wiki/Croats" title="Croats">Croats</a>, <a href="/wiki/Serbs" title="Serbs">Serbs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bosniaks" title="Bosniaks">Bosniaks</a> and <a href="/wiki/Montenegrins" title="Montenegrins">Montenegrins</a> <a href="/wiki/Language_secessionism#In_Serbo-Croatian" title="Language secessionism">communicate fluently</a> with each other in their respective <a href="/wiki/Standard_language" title="Standard language">standardized varieties</a>.<a href="#cite_note-47">[45]</a><a href="#cite_note-48">[46]</a><a href="#cite_note-49">[47]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Croatia" title="Croatia">Croatia</a>, native speakers of Shtokavian may struggle to understand distinct <a href="/wiki/Kajkavian" title="Kajkavian">Kajkavian</a> or <a href="/wiki/Chakavian" title="Chakavian">Chakavian</a> dialects, as might the speakers of the two with each other.<a href="#cite_note-50">[48]</a><a href="#cite_note-51">[49]</a> Likewise in <a href="/wiki/Serbia" title="Serbia">Serbia</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Torlakian" class="mw-redirect" title="Torlakian">Torlakian</a> dialect differs significantly from Standard Serbian. Serbian is a Western South Slavic standard, but Torlakian is largely transitional with the Eastern South Slavic languages (Bulgarian and Macedonian). Collectively, the Torlakian dialects with Macedonian and Bulgarian share many grammatical features that set them apart from all other Slavic languages, such as the complete loss of its <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_case" title="Grammatical case">grammatical case</a> systems and adoption of features more commonly found among <a href="/wiki/Analytic_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Analytic languages">analytic languages</a>. The barrier between East South Slavic and West South Slavic is historical and natural, caused primarily by a one-time geographical distance between speakers. The two varieties started diverging early on (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 11th century CE) and evolved separately ever since without major mutual influence, as evidenced by distinguishable <a href="/wiki/Old_Bulgarian" class="mw-redirect" title="Old Bulgarian">Old Slavonic</a>, while the western dialect of common Old Slavic was still spoken across the modern Serbo-Croatian area in the 12th and early 13th centuries. An intermediate dialect linking western and eastern variations inevitably came into existence over time – <a href="/wiki/Torlakian_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Torlakian dialect">Torlakian</a> – spoken across a wide radius on which the tripoint of <a href="/wiki/Bulgaria" title="Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a>, <a href="/wiki/North_Macedonia" title="North Macedonia">North Macedonia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Serbia" title="Serbia">Serbia</a> is relatively pivotal. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Uralic_languages">Uralic languages</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Dialect_continuum&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Uralic languages" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> The other major language family in Europe besides Indo-European are the <a href="/wiki/Uralic_languages" title="Uralic languages">Uralic languages</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Sami_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Sami languages">Sami languages</a>, sometimes mistaken for a single language, are a dialect continuum, albeit with some disconnections like between <a href="/wiki/North_Sami_language" class="mw-redirect" title="North Sami language">North</a>, <a href="/wiki/Skolt_Sami_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Skolt Sami language">Skolt</a> and <a href="/wiki/Inari_S%C3%A1mi_language" title="Inari Sámi language">Inari Sami</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Baltic-Finnic_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Baltic-Finnic languages">Baltic-Finnic languages</a> spoken around the <a href="/wiki/Gulf_of_Finland" title="Gulf of Finland">Gulf of Finland</a> form a dialect continuum. Thus, although <a href="/wiki/Finnish_language" title="Finnish language">Finnish</a> and <a href="/wiki/Estonian_language" title="Estonian language">Estonian</a> are considered as separate languages, there is no definite linguistic border or isogloss that separates them. This is now more difficult to recognize because many of the intervening languages have declined or become extinct. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Goidelic_continuum">Goidelic continuum</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Dialect_continuum&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Goidelic continuum" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> The <a href="/wiki/Goidelic_languages" title="Goidelic languages">Goidelic languages</a> consist of <a href="/wiki/Irish_language" title="Irish language">Irish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Scottish_Gaelic" title="Scottish Gaelic">Scottish Gaelic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Manx_language" title="Manx language">Manx</a>. Prior to the 19th and 20th centuries, the continuum existed throughout Ireland, the Isle of Man and Scotland.<a href="#cite_note-52">[50]</a><a href="#cite_note-53">[51]</a> Many intermediate dialects have become extinct or have died out leaving major gaps between languages such as in the islands of <a href="/wiki/Rathlin" class="mw-redirect" title="Rathlin">Rathlin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Isle_of_Arran" title="Isle of Arran">Arran</a> or <a href="/wiki/Kintyre" title="Kintyre">Kintyre</a><a href="#cite_note-54">[52]</a> and also in the <a href="/wiki/Counties_of_Ireland" title="Counties of Ireland">Irish counties</a> of <a href="/wiki/County_Antrim" title="County Antrim">Antrim</a>, <a href="/wiki/County_Londonderry" title="County Londonderry">Londonderry</a> and <a href="/wiki/County_Down" title="County Down">Down</a>. The current Goidelic speaking areas of Ireland are also separated by extinct dialects but remain mutually intelligible. </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(4)"><h2 id="Middle_East">Middle East</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Dialect_continuum&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Middle East" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-4 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-4"> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Arabic">Arabic</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Dialect_continuum&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Arabic" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Arabic</a> is a standard case of <a href="/wiki/Diglossia" title="Diglossia">diglossia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-55">[53]</a> The standard written language, <a href="/wiki/Modern_Standard_Arabic" title="Modern Standard Arabic">Modern Standard Arabic</a>, is based on the <a href="/wiki/Classical_Arabic" title="Classical Arabic">Classical Arabic</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Qur%27an" class="mw-redirect" title="Qur'an">Qur'an</a>, while the <a href="/wiki/Varieties_of_Arabic" title="Varieties of Arabic">modern vernacular dialects</a> (or languages) branched from ancient Arabic dialects, from North Western <a href="/wiki/Africa" title="Africa">Africa</a> through <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sudan" title="Sudan">Sudan</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Fertile_Crescent" title="Fertile Crescent">Fertile Crescent</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Arabian_Peninsula" title="Arabian Peninsula">Arabian Peninsula</a> and <a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a>. The dialects use different analogues from the Arabic language inventory and have been influenced by different substrate and superstrate languages. Adjacent dialects are mutually understandable to a large extent, but those from distant regions are more difficult to be understood.<a href="#cite_note-56">[54]</a> The difference between the written standard and the vernaculars is apparent also in the written language, and children have to be taught Modern Standard Arabic in school to be able to read it. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Aramaic">Aramaic</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Dialect_continuum&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Aramaic" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> All <a href="/wiki/Modern_Aramaic" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern Aramaic">modern Aramaic</a> languages descend from a dialect continuum that historically existed through the Aramaization of the Levant (other than the original Aramaic-speaking parts) and Mesopotamia<a href="#cite_note-57">[55]</a> and before the Islamicization of the Levant and Mesopotamia. <a href="/wiki/Northeastern_Neo-Aramaic" title="Northeastern Neo-Aramaic">Northeastern Neo-Aramaic</a>, including distinct varieties spoken by both Jews and Christians, is a dialect continuum although greatly disrupted by population displacement during the twentieth century.<a href="#cite_note-58">[56]</a><a href="#cite_note-59">[57]</a><a href="#cite_note-60">[58]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Persian">Persian</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Dialect_continuum&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Persian" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> The varieties of the <a href="/wiki/Persian_language" title="Persian language">Persian language</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Tajik_language" title="Tajik language">Tajiki</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dari_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Dari language">Dari</a>, form a dialect continuum. The divergence of Tajik was accelerated by the shift from the Perso-Arabic alphabet to a Cyrillic one under Soviet rule. Western dialects of Persian show greater influence from Arabic and Oghuz Turkic languages,[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] but Dari and Tajik tend to preserve many classical features in grammar and vocabulary. [<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Also the <a href="/wiki/Tat_language_(Caucasus)" title="Tat language (Caucasus)">Tat language</a>, a dialect of Persian, is spoken in Azerbaijan. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Turkic">Turkic</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Dialect_continuum&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Turkic" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <a href="/wiki/Turkic_languages" title="Turkic languages">Turkic languages</a> are best described as a dialect continuum.<a href="#cite_note-61">[59]</a> Geographically this continuum starts at the <a href="/wiki/Balkans" title="Balkans">Balkans</a> in the west with <a href="/wiki/Balkan_Gagauz_Turkish_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Balkan Gagauz Turkish language">Balkan Turkish</a>, includes <a href="/wiki/Turkish_language" title="Turkish language">Turkish</a> in <a href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey">Turkey</a> and <a href="/wiki/Azerbaijani_language" title="Azerbaijani language">Azerbaijani language</a> in <a href="/wiki/Azerbaijan" title="Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a>, extends into <a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a> with <a href="/wiki/Azerbaijani_language" title="Azerbaijani language">Azeri</a> and <a href="/wiki/Turkic_Khalaj_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Turkic Khalaj language">Khalaj</a>, into <a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a> with <a href="/wiki/Turkmen_language" title="Turkmen language">Turkmen</a>, across <a href="/wiki/Central_Asia" title="Central Asia">Central Asia</a> to include <a href="/wiki/Turkmenistan" title="Turkmenistan">Turkmenistan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Uzbekistan" title="Uzbekistan">Uzbekistan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kazakhstan" title="Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kyrgyzstan" title="Kyrgyzstan">Kyrgyzstan</a>, to southern Regions of <a href="/wiki/Tajikistan" title="Tajikistan">Tajikistan</a> and into <a href="/wiki/Afghanistan" title="Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a>. In the south, the continuum starts in northern Afghanistan, northward to <a href="/wiki/Chuvashia_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Chuvashia Republic">Chuvashia</a>. In the east it extends to the Republic of <a href="/wiki/Tuva" title="Tuva">Tuva</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Xinjiang" title="Xinjiang">Xinjiang</a> autonomous region in Western China with the <a href="/wiki/Uyghur_language" title="Uyghur language">Uyghur language</a> and into <a href="/wiki/Mongolia" title="Mongolia">Mongolia</a> with <a href="/wiki/Khoton" class="mw-redirect" title="Khoton">Khoton</a>. The entire territory is inhabited by Turkic speaking peoples. There are three varieties of Turkic geographically outside the continuum: <a href="/wiki/Chuvash_language" title="Chuvash language">Chuvash</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sakha_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Sakha language">Yakut</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dolgan_language" title="Dolgan language">Dolgan</a>. They have been geographically separated from the other Turkic languages for an extensive period of time, and Chuvash language stands out as the most divergent from other Turkic languages. There are also <a href="/wiki/Gagauz_language" title="Gagauz language">Gagauz</a> speakers in <a href="/wiki/Moldavia" title="Moldavia">Moldavia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Urum_language" title="Urum language">Urum</a> speakers in <a href="/wiki/Georgia_(country)" title="Georgia (country)">Georgia</a>. The Turkic continuum makes internal genetic classification of the languages problematic. <a href="/wiki/Chuvash_language" title="Chuvash language">Chuvash</a>, Khalaj and <a href="/wiki/Sakha_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Sakha language">Yakut</a> are generally classified as significantly distinct, but the remaining <a href="/wiki/Turkic_languages" title="Turkic languages">Turkic languages</a> are quite similar, with a high degree of mutual intelligibility between not only geographically adjacent varieties but also among some varieties some distance apart.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Structurally, the Turkic languages are very close to one another, and they share basic features such as <a href="/wiki/Subject%E2%80%93object%E2%80%93verb" class="mw-redirect" title="Subject–object–verb">SOV</a> word order, <a href="/wiki/Vowel_harmony" title="Vowel harmony">vowel harmony</a> and <a href="/wiki/Agglutination" title="Agglutination">agglutination</a>.<a href="#cite_note-62">[60]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(5)"><h2 id="Indo-Aryan_languages">Indo-Aryan languages</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Dialect_continuum&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Indo-Aryan languages" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-5 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-5"> Many of the <a href="/wiki/Indo-Aryan_languages" title="Indo-Aryan languages">Indo-Aryan languages</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Indian_subcontinent" title="Indian subcontinent">Indian subcontinent</a> form a dialect continuum. What is called "<a href="/wiki/Hindi" title="Hindi">Hindi</a>" in India is frequently <a href="/wiki/Standard_Hindi" class="mw-redirect" title="Standard Hindi">Standard Hindi</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskritized</a> register of the colloquial <a href="/wiki/Hindustani_language" title="Hindustani language">Hindustani</a> spoken in the <a href="/wiki/Delhi" title="Delhi">Delhi</a> area, the other register being <a href="/wiki/Urdu" title="Urdu">Urdu</a>. However, the term Hindi is also used for the different dialects from <a href="/wiki/Bihar" title="Bihar">Bihar</a> to <a href="/wiki/Rajasthan" title="Rajasthan">Rajasthan</a> and, more widely, some of the Eastern and Northern dialects are sometimes grouped under Hindi.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] The Indo-Aryan <a href="/wiki/Prakrit" title="Prakrit">Prakrits</a> also gave rise to languages like <a href="/wiki/Gujarati_language" title="Gujarati language">Gujarati</a>, <a href="/wiki/Assamese_language" title="Assamese language">Assamese</a>, <a href="/wiki/Maithili_language" title="Maithili language">Maithili</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bengali_language" title="Bengali language">Bengali</a>, <a href="/wiki/Odia_language" title="Odia language">Odia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nepali_language" title="Nepali language">Nepali</a>, <a href="/wiki/Marathi_language" title="Marathi language">Marathi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Konkani_language" title="Konkani language">Konkani</a> and <a href="/wiki/Punjabi_language" title="Punjabi language">Punjabi</a>. </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(6)"><h2 id="Chinese">Chinese</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Dialect_continuum&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Chinese" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-6 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-6"> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_of_sinitic_languages_cropped-en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Map_of_sinitic_languages_cropped-en.svg/220px-Map_of_sinitic_languages_cropped-en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="333" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="620"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 333px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Map_of_sinitic_languages_cropped-en.svg/220px-Map_of_sinitic_languages_cropped-en.svg.png" data-width="220" data-height="333" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Map_of_sinitic_languages_cropped-en.svg/330px-Map_of_sinitic_languages_cropped-en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Map_of_sinitic_languages_cropped-en.svg/440px-Map_of_sinitic_languages_cropped-en.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Areas of Chinese dialect groups</figcaption></figure> Chinese consists of hundreds of mutually unintelligible <a href="/wiki/Varieties_of_Chinese" title="Varieties of Chinese">local varieties</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Norman_2003_p72-63">[61]</a><a href="#cite_note-64">[62]</a> The differences are similar to those within the <a href="/wiki/Romance_languages" title="Romance languages">Romance languages</a>, which are similarly descended from a language spread by imperial expansion over <a href="/wiki/Substrate_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Substrate language">substrate languages</a> 2000 years ago.<a href="#cite_note-65">[63]</a> Unlike Europe, however, Chinese political unity was restored in the late 6th century and has persisted (with interludes of division) until the present day. There are no equivalents of the local standard literary languages that developed in the numerous independent states of Europe.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman19882%E2%80%933-66">[64]</a> Chinese dialectologists have divided the local varieties into a number of dialect groups, largely based on phonological developments in comparison with <a href="/wiki/Middle_Chinese" title="Middle Chinese">Middle Chinese</a>.<a href="#cite_note-67">[65]</a> Most of these groups are found in the rugged terrain of the southeast, reflecting the greater variation in this area, particularly in <a href="/wiki/Fujian" title="Fujian">Fujian</a>.<a href="#cite_note-68">[66]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988183%E2%80%93190-69">[67]</a> Each of these groups contains numerous mutually unintelligible varieties.<a href="#cite_note-Norman_2003_p72-63">[61]</a> Moreover, in many cases the transitions between groups are smooth, as a result of centuries of interaction and multilingualism.<a href="#cite_note-70">[68]</a> The boundaries between the northern <a href="/wiki/Mandarin_Chinese" title="Mandarin Chinese">Mandarin</a> area and the central groups, <a href="/wiki/Wu_Chinese" title="Wu Chinese">Wu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gan_Chinese" title="Gan Chinese">Gan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Xiang_Chinese" title="Xiang Chinese">Xiang</a>, are particularly weak, due to the steady flow of northern features into these areas.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988190,_206%E2%80%93207-71">[69]</a><a href="#cite_note-72">[70]</a> Transitional varieties between the Wu, Gan and Mandarin groups have been variously classified, with some scholars assigning them to a separate <a href="/wiki/Huizhou_Chinese" title="Huizhou Chinese">Hui</a> group.<a href="#cite_note-73">[71]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988206-74">[72]</a> The boundaries between Gan, <a href="/wiki/Hakka_Chinese" title="Hakka Chinese">Hakka</a> and <a href="/wiki/Min_Chinese" title="Min Chinese">Min</a> are similarly indistinct.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988241-75">[73]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman200380-76">[74]</a> <a href="/wiki/Pinghua" title="Pinghua">Pinghua</a> and <a href="/wiki/Yue_Chinese" title="Yue Chinese">Yue</a> form a dialect continuum (excluding urban enclaves of <a href="/wiki/Cantonese" title="Cantonese">Cantonese</a>).<a href="#cite_note-77">[75]</a> There are sharper boundaries resulting from more recent expansion between Hakka and Yue, and between <a href="/wiki/Southwestern_Mandarin" title="Southwestern Mandarin">Southwestern Mandarin</a> and Yue, but even here there has been considerable convergence in contact areas.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHalliday196811%E2%80%9312-78">[76]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(7)"><h2 id="Cree_and_Ojibwa">Cree and Ojibwa</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Dialect_continuum&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Cree and Ojibwa" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-7 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-7"> <a href="/wiki/Cree_language" title="Cree language">Cree</a> is a group of closely related <a href="/wiki/Algonquian_languages" title="Algonquian languages">Algonquian languages</a> that are distributed from <a href="/wiki/Alberta" title="Alberta">Alberta</a> to <a href="/wiki/Labrador" title="Labrador">Labrador</a> in <a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a>. They form the Cree-Montagnais-Naskapi dialect continuum, with around 117,410 speakers. The languages can be roughly classified into nine groups, from west to east: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plains_Cree_language" title="Plains Cree language">Plains Cree</a> (y-dialect)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woods_Cree" title="Woods Cree">Woods Cree</a> or Woods/Rocky Cree (ð-dialect)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swampy_Cree" title="Swampy Cree">Swampy Cree</a> (n-dialect) <ul><li>Eastern Swampy Cree</li> <li>Western Swampy Cree</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moose_Cree" title="Moose Cree">Moose Cree</a> (l-dialect)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Cree" title="East Cree">East Cree</a> or James Bay Cree (y-dialect) <ul><li>Northern East Cree</li> <li>Southern East Cree</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atikamekw_language" title="Atikamekw language">Atikamekw</a> (r-dialect)</li> <li>Western Montagnais (l-dialect)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Innu_language" title="Innu language">Innu-aimun</a> or Eastern Montagnais (n-dialect)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naskapi_language" title="Naskapi language">Naskapi</a> (y-dialect)</li></ul> Various Cree languages are used as languages of instruction and taught as subjects: Plains Cree, Eastern Cree, Montagnais, etc. Mutual intelligibility between some dialects can be low. There is no accepted standard dialect.<a href="#cite_note-79">[77]</a><a href="#cite_note-80">[78]</a><a href="#cite_note-81">[79]</a> <a href="/wiki/Ojibwe_language" title="Ojibwe language">Ojibwa</a> (Chippewa) is a group of closely related <a href="/wiki/Algonquian_languages" title="Algonquian languages">Algonquian languages</a> in <a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a>, which is distributed from <a href="/wiki/British_Columbia" title="British Columbia">British Columbia</a> to <a href="/wiki/Quebec" title="Quebec">Quebec</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>, distributed from <a href="/wiki/Montana" title="Montana">Montana</a> to <a href="/wiki/Michigan" title="Michigan">Michigan</a>, with <a href="/wiki/Diaspora" title="Diaspora">diaspora</a> communities in <a href="/wiki/Kansas" title="Kansas">Kansas</a> and <a href="/wiki/Oklahoma" title="Oklahoma">Oklahoma</a>. With Cree, the <a href="/wiki/Ojibwe_language" title="Ojibwe language">Ojibwe</a> dialect continuum forms its own continuum, but the <a href="/wiki/Oji-Cree_language" title="Oji-Cree language">Oji-Cree language</a> of this continuum joins the Cree–Montagnais–Naskapi dialect continuum through <a href="/wiki/Swampy_Cree_language" title="Swampy Cree language">Swampy Cree</a>. The Ojibwe continuum has 70,606 speakers. Roughly from northwest to southeast, it has these dialects: <ul><li>Ojibwa-Ottawa <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Algonquin_language" title="Algonquin language">Algonquin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oji-Cree_language" title="Oji-Cree language">Oji-Cree (Northern Ojibwa)</a> or Severn</li> <li>Ojibwa <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Ojibwa_language" title="Western Ojibwa language">Western Ojibwa</a> or Saulteaux</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chippewa_language" title="Chippewa language">Chippewa (Southwestern Ojibwa)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northwestern_Ojibwa" title="Northwestern Ojibwa">Northwestern Ojibwa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Ojibwa_language" title="Central Ojibwa language">Central Ojibwa</a> or Nipissing</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Ojibwa_language" title="Eastern Ojibwa language">Eastern Ojibwa</a> or Mississauga</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottawa_dialect" title="Ottawa dialect">Ottawa (Southeastern Ojibwa)</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Potawatomi_language" title="Potawatomi language">Potawatomi</a></li></ul> Unlike the Cree–Montagnais–Naskapi dialect continuum, with distinct n/y/l/r/ð dialect characteristics and noticeable west–east k/č(ch) axis, the Ojibwe continuum is marked with <a href="/wiki/Syncope_(phonetics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Syncope (phonetics)">vowel syncope</a> along the west–east axis and ∅/n along the north–south axis. </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(8)"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Dialect_continuum&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: See also" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-8 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-8"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/A_language_is_a_dialect_with_an_army_and_navy" title="A language is a dialect with an army and navy">A language is a dialect with an army and navy</a> (an <a href="/wiki/Aphorism" title="Aphorism">aphorism</a> spread among linguists)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dialect" title="Dialect">Dialect</a>, including the classification units "dialect cluster", "language cluster" and "dialect group"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dialect_levelling" title="Dialect levelling">Dialect levelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dialectometry" title="Dialectometry">Dialectometry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diasystem" title="Diasystem">Diasystem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diglossia" title="Diglossia">Diglossia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koine_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Koine language">Koine language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_secessionism" title="Language secessionism">Language secessionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linkage_(linguistics)" title="Linkage (linguistics)">Linkage (linguistics)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_639_macrolanguage" title="ISO 639 macrolanguage">Macrolanguage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-creole_speech_continuum" class="mw-redirect" title="Post-creole speech continuum">Post-creole speech continuum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ring_species" title="Ring species">Ring species</a>, an analogous concept in ecology</li></ul> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(9)"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Dialect_continuum&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Notes" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-9 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-9"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-23"><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Carpathian_Ruthenia" class="mw-redirect" title="Carpathian Ruthenia">Carpathian Ruthenia</a> is mistakenly excluded from North Slavic on the map, even though <a href="/wiki/Rusyn_language" title="Rusyn language">Rusyn</a>, an East Slavic dialect group on the transition to West Slavic, is spoken there. </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a> In this context, "A group of related dialects of <a href="/wiki/Low_German" title="Low German">Low German</a>, spoken in northern Germany and parts of the Netherlands, formerly also in Denmark." (Definition from <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Low_Saxon" class="extiw" title="wikt:Low Saxon">Wiktionary</a>) </li> </ol></div></div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(10)"><h2 id="References">References</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Dialect_continuum&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: References" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-10 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-10"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFCrystal2006" class="citation book cs1">Crystal, David (2006). A Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics (6th ed.). Blackwell. p. 144. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-405-15296-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-405-15296-9"><bdi>978-1-405-15296-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Dictionary+of+Linguistics+and+Phonetics&rft.pages=144&rft.edition=6th&rft.pub=Blackwell&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-1-405-15296-9&rft.aulast=Crystal&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADialect+continuum" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBloomfield1935" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Leonard_Bloomfield" title="Leonard Bloomfield">Bloomfield, Leonard</a> (1935). Language. London: George Allen & Unwin. p. 51.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Language&rft.place=London&rft.pages=51&rft.pub=George+Allen+%26+Unwin&rft.date=1935&rft.aulast=Bloomfield&rft.aufirst=Leonard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADialect+continuum" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHockett1958" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Charles_F._Hockett" title="Charles F. Hockett">Hockett, Charles F.</a> (1958). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/courseinmodernli0000hock">A Course in Modern Linguistics</a>. New York: Macmillan. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/courseinmodernli0000hock/page/324">324–325</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Course+in+Modern+Linguistics&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=324-325&rft.pub=Macmillan&rft.date=1958&rft.aulast=Hockett&rft.aufirst=Charles+F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcourseinmodernli0000hock&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADialect+continuum" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChambersTrudgill1998" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jack_Chambers_(linguist)" title="Jack Chambers (linguist)">Chambers, J.K.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Peter_Trudgill" title="Peter Trudgill">Trudgill, Peter</a> (1998). Dialectology (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 13–19, 89–91. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-59646-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-59646-6"><bdi>978-0-521-59646-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dialectology&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E13-%3C%2Fspan%3E19%2C+%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E89-%3C%2Fspan%3E91&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-521-59646-6&rft.aulast=Chambers&rft.aufirst=J.K.&rft.au=Trudgill%2C+Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADialect+continuum" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChambersTrudgill199815–17-5"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChambersTrudgill199815%E2%80%9317_5-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFChambersTrudgill1998">Chambers & Trudgill (1998)</a>, pp. 15–17. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChambersTrudgill199825-6">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChambersTrudgill199825_6-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChambersTrudgill199825_6-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFChambersTrudgill1998">Chambers & Trudgill (1998)</a>, p. 25. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChambersTrudgill199827-7"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChambersTrudgill199827_7-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFChambersTrudgill1998">Chambers & Trudgill (1998)</a>, p. 27. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChambersTrudgill199893–94-8"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChambersTrudgill199893%E2%80%9394_8-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFChambersTrudgill1998">Chambers & Trudgill (1998)</a>, pp. 93–94. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChambersTrudgill199894–95-9"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChambersTrudgill199894%E2%80%9395_9-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFChambersTrudgill1998">Chambers & Trudgill (1998)</a>, pp. 94–95. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChambersTrudgill199891–93-10"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChambersTrudgill199891%E2%80%9393_10-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFChambersTrudgill1998">Chambers & Trudgill (1998)</a>, pp. 91–93. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChambersTrudgill199810-11"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChambersTrudgill199810_11-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFChambersTrudgill1998">Chambers & Trudgill (1998)</a>, p. 10. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChambersTrudgill19989–12-12"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChambersTrudgill19989%E2%80%9312_12-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFChambersTrudgill1998">Chambers & Trudgill (1998)</a>, pp. 9–12. </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStewart1968" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/William_Alexander_Stewart" title="William Alexander Stewart">Stewart, William A.</a> (1968). "A sociolinguistic typology for describing national multilingualism". In Fishman, Joshua A. (ed.). Readings in the Sociology of Language. De Gruyter. pp. 531–545. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1515%2F9783110805376.531">10.1515/9783110805376.531</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-080537-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-11-080537-6"><bdi>978-3-11-080537-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=A+sociolinguistic+typology+for+describing+national+multilingualism&rft.btitle=Readings+in+the+Sociology+of+Language&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E531-%3C%2Fspan%3E545&rft.pub=De+Gruyter&rft.date=1968&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1515%2F9783110805376.531&rft.isbn=978-3-11-080537-6&rft.aulast=Stewart&rft.aufirst=William+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADialect+continuum" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChambersTrudgill199811-14"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChambersTrudgill199811_14-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFChambersTrudgill1998">Chambers & Trudgill (1998)</a>, p. 11. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChambersTrudgill19983–4-15"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChambersTrudgill19983%E2%80%934_15-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFChambersTrudgill1998">Chambers & Trudgill (1998)</a>, pp. 3–4. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChambersTrudgill19984-16"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChambersTrudgill19984_16-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFChambersTrudgill1998">Chambers & Trudgill (1998)</a>, p. 4. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChambersTrudgill19989-17"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChambersTrudgill19989_17-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFChambersTrudgill1998">Chambers & Trudgill (1998)</a>, p. 9. </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWoolhiser2011" class="citation book cs1">Woolhiser, Curt (2011). "Border effects in European dialect continua: dialect divergence and convergence". In Kortmann, Bernd; van der Auwera, Johan (eds.). The Languages and Linguistics of Europe: A Comprehensive Guide. Walter de Gruyter. pp. 501–523. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-022025-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-11-022025-4"><bdi>978-3-11-022025-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Border+effects+in+European+dialect+continua%3A+dialect+divergence+and+convergence&rft.btitle=The+Languages+and+Linguistics+of+Europe%3A+A+Comprehensive+Guide&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E501-%3C%2Fspan%3E523&rft.pub=Walter+de+Gruyter&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-3-11-022025-4&rft.aulast=Woolhiser&rft.aufirst=Curt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADialect+continuum" class="Z3988"> p. 501. </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a> Woolhiser (2011), pp. 507, 516–517. </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTrudgill1997" class="citation book cs1">Trudgill, Peter (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sprakradet.no/Vi-og-vart/Om-oss/English-and-other-languages/English/Norwegian_as_a_Normal_Language/">"Norwegian as a Normal Language"</a>. In Røyneland, Unn (ed.). Language Contact and Language Conflict. Volda College. pp. 151–158. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-82-7661-078-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-82-7661-078-9"><bdi>978-82-7661-078-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Norwegian+as+a+Normal+Language&rft.btitle=Language+Contact+and+Language+Conflict&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E151-%3C%2Fspan%3E158&rft.pub=Volda+College&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-82-7661-078-9&rft.aulast=Trudgill&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sprakradet.no%2FVi-og-vart%2FOm-oss%2FEnglish-and-other-languages%2FEnglish%2FNorwegian_as_a_Normal_Language%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADialect+continuum" class="Z3988"> p. 152. </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTrudgill1992" class="citation journal cs1">Trudgill, Peter (1992). "Ausbau sociolinguistics and the perception of language status in contemporary Europe". International Journal of Applied Linguistics. 2 (2): 167–177. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1473-4192.1992.tb00031.x">10.1111/j.1473-4192.1992.tb00031.x</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Applied+Linguistics&rft.atitle=Ausbau+sociolinguistics+and+the+perception+of+language+status+in+contemporary+Europe&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E167-%3C%2Fspan%3E177&rft.date=1992&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1473-4192.1992.tb00031.x&rft.aulast=Trudgill&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADialect+continuum" class="Z3988"> pp. 173–174. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChambersTrudgill19986-22"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChambersTrudgill19986_22-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFChambersTrudgill1998">Chambers & Trudgill (1998)</a>, p. 6. </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a> W. Heeringa: Measuring Dialect Pronunciation Differences using Levenshtein Distance. University of Groningen, 2009, pp. 232–234. </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a> Peter Wiesinger: Die Einteilung der deutschen Dialekte. In: Werner Besch, Ulrich Knoop, Wolfgang Putschke, Herbert Ernst Wiegand (Hrsg.): Dialektologie. Ein Handbuch zur deutschen und allgemeinen Dialektforschung, 2. Halbband. de Gruyter, Berlin / New York 1983, ISBN 3-11-009571-8, pp. 807–900. </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a> Werner König: dtv-Atlas Deutsche Sprache. 19. Auflage. dtv, München 2019, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-423-03025-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-423-03025-0">978-3-423-03025-0</a>, pp. 230. </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a> C. Giesbers: Dialecten op de grens van twee talen. Radboud Universiteit Nijmegen, 2008, pp. 233. </li> <li id="cite_note-Niebaum-28">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Niebaum_28-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Niebaum_28-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Niebaum_28-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNiebaum2008" class="citation book cs1">Niebaum, Herman (2008). "Het Oostnederlandse taallandschap tot het begin van de 19de eeuw". In Van der Kooij, Jurgen (ed.). Handboek Nedersaksische taal- en letterkunde. Van Gorcum. pp. 52–64. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-232-4329-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-232-4329-8"><bdi>978-90-232-4329-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Het+Oostnederlandse+taallandschap+tot+het+begin+van+de+19de+eeuw&rft.btitle=Handboek+Nedersaksische+taal-+en+letterkunde&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E52-%3C%2Fspan%3E64&rft.pub=Van+Gorcum&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-90-232-4329-8&rft.aulast=Niebaum&rft.aufirst=Herman&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADialect+continuum" class="Z3988"> p. 54. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChambersTrudgill199892-29"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChambersTrudgill199892_29-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFChambersTrudgill1998">Chambers & Trudgill (1998)</a>, p. 92. </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHenriksenvan_der_Auwera1994" class="citation book cs1">Henriksen, Carol; van der Auwera, Johan (1994). König, Ekkehard; van der Auwera, Johan (eds.). The Germanic Languages. Routledge. pp. 1–18. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-05768-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-05768-4"><bdi>978-0-415-05768-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Germanic+Languages&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1-%3C%2Fspan%3E18&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-415-05768-4&rft.aulast=Henriksen&rft.aufirst=Carol&rft.au=van+der+Auwera%2C+Johan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADialect+continuum" class="Z3988"> p. 11. </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGooskensKürschner2009" class="citation book cs1">Gooskens, Charlotte; Kürschner, Sebastian (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.let.rug.nl/gooskens/pdf/publ_ZDL_2009b.pdf">"Cross-border intelligibility – on the intelligibility of Low German among speakers of Danish and Dutch"</a> (PDF). In Lenz, Alexandra N.; Gooskens, Charlotte; Reker, Siemon (eds.). Low Saxon dialects across borders – Niedersächsische Dialekte über Grenzen hinweg. Stuttgart: Steiner. pp. 273–295. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-515-09372-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-515-09372-9"><bdi>978-3-515-09372-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Cross-border+intelligibility+%E2%80%93+on+the+intelligibility+of+Low+German+among+speakers+of+Danish+and+Dutch&rft.btitle=Low+Saxon+dialects+across+borders+%E2%80%93+Nieders%C3%A4chsische+Dialekte+%C3%BCber+Grenzen+hinweg&rft.place=Stuttgart&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E273-%3C%2Fspan%3E295&rft.pub=Steiner&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-3-515-09372-9&rft.aulast=Gooskens&rft.aufirst=Charlotte&rft.au=K%C3%BCrschner%2C+Sebastian&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.let.rug.nl%2Fgooskens%2Fpdf%2Fpubl_ZDL_2009b.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADialect+continuum" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a> Gooskens & Heeringa (2004) </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.francetvinfo.fr/societe/le-senat-dit-non-a-la-charte-europeenne-des-langues-regionales_1712811.html">"Le Sénat dit non à la Charte européenne des langues régionales"</a>. Franceinfo. 27 October 2015. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231203070556/https://www.francetvinfo.fr/societe/le-senat-dit-non-a-la-charte-europeenne-des-langues-regionales_1712811.html">Archived</a> from the original on 3 December 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Franceinfo&rft.atitle=Le+S%C3%A9nat+dit+non+%C3%A0+la+Charte+europ%C3%A9enne+des+langues+r%C3%A9gionales&rft.date=2015-10-27&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.francetvinfo.fr%2Fsociete%2Fle-senat-dit-non-a-la-charte-europeenne-des-langues-regionales_1712811.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADialect+continuum" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140302163710/http://www.culturalpolicies.net/web/italy.php?aid=519">"Italy : 5.1 General legislation : 5.1.9 Language laws"</a>. Compendium of Cultural Policies and Trends in Europe. Council of Europe/ERICarts. 18 September 2013. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.culturalpolicies.net/web/italy.php?aid=519">the original</a> on 2 March 2014. Retrieved 26 February 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Compendium+of+Cultural+Policies+and+Trends+in+Europe&rft.atitle=Italy+%3A+5.1+General+legislation+%3A+5.1.9+Language+laws&rft.date=2013-09-18&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.culturalpolicies.net%2Fweb%2Fitaly.php%3Faid%3D519&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADialect+continuum" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCerruti2011" class="citation web cs1">Cerruti, Massimo (26 January 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.treccani.it/magazine/lingua_italiana/speciali/italiano_dialetti/Cerruti.html">"Italiano e dialetto oggi in Italia"</a>. Treccani. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221023143019/https://www.treccani.it/magazine/lingua_italiana/speciali/italiano_dialetti/Cerruti.html">Archived</a> from the original on 23 October 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Treccani&rft.atitle=Italiano+e+dialetto+oggi+in+Italia&rft.date=2011-01-26&rft.aulast=Cerruti&rft.aufirst=Massimo&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.treccani.it%2Fmagazine%2Flingua_italiana%2Fspeciali%2Fitaliano_dialetti%2FCerruti.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADialect+continuum" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Peter_Trudgill" title="Peter Trudgill">Peter Trudgill</a>. 2003. A Glossary of Sociolinguistics. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp 36, 95-96, 124-125. </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://src-h.slav.hokudai.ac.jp/publictn/slavic_eurasia_papers/no10/Maps.pdf#page=4">[1]</a><a href="/wiki/Tomasz_Kamusella" title="Tomasz Kamusella">Tomasz Kamusella</a>. 2017. Map A4, Dialect Continua in Central Europe, 1910 (p 94) and Map A5, Dialect Continua in Central Europe, 2009 (p 95). In: Tomasz Kamusella, Motoki Nomachi, and Catherine Gibson, eds. 2017. Central Europe Through the Lens of Language and Politics: On the Sample Maps from the Atlas of Language Politics in Modern Central Europe (Ser: Slavic Eurasia Papers, Vol 10). Sapporo, Japan: Slavic-Eurasian Research Center, Hokkaido University. </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKamusella2005" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Tomasz_Kamusella" title="Tomasz Kamusella">Kamusella, Tomasz</a> (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://research-repository.st-andrews.ac.uk/bitstream/handle/10023/12905/The_Triple_Division_of_the_Slavic_Langua.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y">"The Triple Division of the Slavic Languages: A Linguistic Finding, a Product of Politics, or an Accident?"</a> (Working Paper). Vienna: Institut für die Wissenschaften vom Menschen. 2005/1.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Triple+Division+of+the+Slavic+Languages%3A+A+Linguistic+Finding%2C+a+Product+of+Politics%2C+or+an+Accident%3F&rft.place=Vienna&rft.pub=Institut+f%C3%BCr+die+Wissenschaften+vom+Menschen&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Kamusella&rft.aufirst=Tomasz&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fresearch-repository.st-andrews.ac.uk%2Fbitstream%2Fhandle%2F10023%2F12905%2FThe_Triple_Division_of_the_Slavic_Langua.pdf%3Fsequence%3D1%26isAllowed%3Dy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADialect+continuum" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrystal1998" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_Crystal" title="David Crystal">Crystal, David</a> (1998) [1st pub. 1987]. The Cambridge encyclopedia of language. Cambridge, New York: Cambridge University Press. p. 25. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/300458429">300458429</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+encyclopedia+of+language&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+New+York&rft.pages=25&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F300458429&rft.aulast=Crystal&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADialect+continuum" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFriedman1999" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Victor_Friedman" title="Victor Friedman">Friedman, Victor</a> (1999). Linguistic emblems and emblematic languages: on language as flag in the Balkans. Kenneth E. Naylor memorial lecture series in South Slavic linguistics; vol. 1. Columbus, Ohio: Ohio State University, Dept. of Slavic and East European Languages and Literatures. p. 8. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/46734277">46734277</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Linguistic+emblems+and+emblematic+languages%3A+on+language+as+flag+in+the+Balkans&rft.place=Columbus%2C+Ohio&rft.series=Kenneth+E.+Naylor+memorial+lecture+series+in+South+Slavic+linguistics%3B+vol.+1&rft.pages=8&rft.pub=Ohio+State+University%2C+Dept.+of+Slavic+and+East+European+Languages+and+Literatures&rft.date=1999&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F46734277&rft.aulast=Friedman&rft.aufirst=Victor&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADialect+continuum" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlexander2000" class="citation book cs1">Alexander, Ronelle (2000). In honor of diversity: the linguistic resources of the Balkans. Kenneth E. Naylor memorial lecture series in South Slavic linguistics; vol. 2. Columbus, Ohio: Ohio State University, Dept. of Slavic and East European Languages and Literatures. p. 4. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/47186443">47186443</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=In+honor+of+diversity%3A+the+linguistic+resources+of+the+Balkans&rft.place=Columbus%2C+Ohio&rft.series=Kenneth+E.+Naylor+memorial+lecture+series+in+South+Slavic+linguistics%3B+vol.+2&rft.pages=4&rft.pub=Ohio+State+University%2C+Dept.+of+Slavic+and+East+European+Languages+and+Literatures&rft.date=2000&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F47186443&rft.aulast=Alexander&rft.aufirst=Ronelle&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADialect+continuum" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKristophson,_Jürgen2000" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Kristophson, Jürgen (2000). "Vom Widersinn der Dialektologie: Gedanken zum Štokavischen" [Nonsense of Dialectology: Thoughts on Shtokavian]. Zeitschrift für Balkanologie (in German). 36 (2): 180. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0044-2356">0044-2356</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Zeitschrift+f%C3%BCr+Balkanologie&rft.atitle=Vom+Widersinn+der+Dialektologie%3A+Gedanken+zum+%C5%A0tokavischen&rft.volume=36&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=180&rft.date=2000&rft.issn=0044-2356&rft.au=Kristophson%2C+J%C3%BCrgen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADialect+continuum" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKordić2004" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Snje%C5%BEana_Kordi%C4%87" title="Snježana Kordić">Kordić, Snježana</a> (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://bib.irb.hr/datoteka/430499.PRO_UND_KONTRA_SERBOKROATISCH.PDF">"Pro und kontra: "Serbokroatisch" heute"</a> [Pros and cons: "Serbo-Croatian" today] (PDF). In Krause, Marion; Sappok, Christian (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://bib.irb.hr/datoteka/430499.PRO_UND_KONTRA_SERBOKROATISCH.PDF">Slavistische Linguistik 2002: Referate des XXVIII. Konstanzer Slavistischen Arbeitstreffens, Bochum 10.-12. September 2002</a> (PDF). Slavistishe Beiträge; vol. 434 (in German). Munich: Otto Sagner. pp. 97–148. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-87690-885-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-87690-885-4"><bdi>978-3-87690-885-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/56198470">56198470</a>. <a href="/wiki/SSRN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="SSRN (identifier)">SSRN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3434516">3434516</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://bib.irb.hr/prikazi-rad?&lang=EN&rad=430499">CROSBI 430499</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120601174051/http://bib.irb.hr/datoteka/430499.PRO_UND_KONTRA_SERBOKROATISCH.PDF">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 1 June 2012. Retrieved 9 March 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Pro+und+kontra%3A+%22Serbokroatisch%22+heute&rft.btitle=Slavistische+Linguistik+2002%3A+Referate+des+XXVIII.+Konstanzer+Slavistischen+Arbeitstreffens%2C+Bochum+10.-12.+September+2002&rft.place=Munich&rft.series=Slavistishe+Beitr%C3%A4ge%3B+vol.+434&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E97-%3C%2Fspan%3E148&rft.pub=Otto+Sagner&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F56198470&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpapers.ssrn.com%2Fsol3%2Fpapers.cfm%3Fabstract_id%3D3434516%23id-name%3DSSRN&rft.isbn=978-3-87690-885-4&rft.aulast=Kordi%C4%87&rft.aufirst=Snje%C5%BEana&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbib.irb.hr%2Fdatoteka%2F430499.PRO_UND_KONTRA_SERBOKROATISCH.PDF&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADialect+continuum" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlum2002" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Blum, Daniel (2002). Sprache und Politik : Sprachpolitik und Sprachnationalismus in der Republik Indien und dem sozialistischen Jugoslawien (1945–1991) [Language and Policy: Language Policy and Linguistic Nationalism in the Republic of India and the Socialist Yugoslavia (1945–1991)]. Beiträge zur Südasienforschung; vol. 192 (in German). Würzburg: Ergon. p. 200. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-89913-253-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-89913-253-3"><bdi>978-3-89913-253-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/51961066">51961066</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sprache+und+Politik+%3A+Sprachpolitik+und+Sprachnationalismus+in+der+Republik+Indien+und+dem+sozialistischen+Jugoslawien+%281945%E2%80%931991%29&rft.place=W%C3%BCrzburg&rft.series=Beitr%C3%A4ge+zur+S%C3%BCdasienforschung%3B+vol.+192&rft.pages=200&rft.pub=Ergon&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F51961066&rft.isbn=978-3-89913-253-3&rft.aulast=Blum&rft.aufirst=Daniel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADialect+continuum" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGröschel2009" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Bernhard_Gr%C3%B6schel" title="Bernhard Gröschel">Gröschel, Bernhard</a> (2009). Das Serbokroatische zwischen Linguistik und Politik: mit einer Bibliographie zum postjugoslavischen Sprachenstreit [Serbo-Croatian Between Linguistics and Politics: With a Bibliography of the Post-Yugoslav Language Dispute]. Lincom Studies in Slavic Linguistics; vol 34 (in German). Munich: Lincom Europa. pp. 82–83. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-929075-79-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-929075-79-3"><bdi>978-3-929075-79-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2009473660">2009473660</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/428012015">428012015</a>. <a href="/wiki/OL_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OL (identifier)">OL</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openlibrary.org/works/OL15295665W">15295665W</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Das+Serbokroatische+zwischen+Linguistik+und+Politik%3A+mit+einer+Bibliographie+zum+postjugoslavischen+Sprachenstreit&rft.place=Munich&rft.series=Lincom+Studies+in+Slavic+Linguistics%3B+vol+34&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E82-%3C%2Fspan%3E83&rft.pub=Lincom+Europa&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F428012015&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2009473660&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopenlibrary.org%2Fworks%2FOL15295665W%23id-name%3DOL&rft.isbn=978-3-929075-79-3&rft.aulast=Gr%C3%B6schel&rft.aufirst=Bernhard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADialect+continuum" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKordić2010" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Snje%C5%BEana_Kordi%C4%87" title="Snježana Kordić">Kordić, Snježana</a> (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://bib.irb.hr/datoteka/475567.Jezik_i_nacionalizam.pdf">Jezik i nacionalizam</a> [Language and Nationalism] (PDF). Rotulus Universitas (in Croatian). Zagreb: Durieux. pp. 74–77. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2139%2Fssrn.3467646">10.2139/ssrn.3467646</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-953-188-311-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-953-188-311-5"><bdi>978-953-188-311-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2011520778">2011520778</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/729837512">729837512</a>. <a href="/wiki/OL_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OL (identifier)">OL</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openlibrary.org/works/OL15270636W">15270636W</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://bib.irb.hr/prikazi-rad?&lang=EN&rad=475567">CROSBI 475567</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120601175359/http://bib.irb.hr/datoteka/475567.Jezik_i_nacionalizam.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 1 June 2012. Retrieved 15 May 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Jezik+i+nacionalizam&rft.place=Zagreb&rft.series=Rotulus+Universitas&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E74-%3C%2Fspan%3E77&rft.pub=Durieux&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2139%2Fssrn.3467646&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopenlibrary.org%2Fworks%2FOL15270636W%23id-name%3DOL&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2011520778&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F729837512&rft.isbn=978-953-188-311-5&rft.aulast=Kordi%C4%87&rft.aufirst=Snje%C5%BEana&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbib.irb.hr%2Fdatoteka%2F475567.Jezik_i_nacionalizam.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADialect+continuum" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPohl1996" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Pohl, Hans-Dieter (1996). "Serbokroatisch – Rückblick und Ausblick" [Serbo-Croatian – Looking backward and forward]. In Ohnheiser, Ingeborg (ed.). Wechselbeziehungen zwischen slawischen Sprachen, Literaturen und Kulturen in Vergangenheit und Gegenwart : Akten der Tagung aus Anlaß des 25jährigen Bestehens des Instituts für Slawistik an der Universität Innsbruck, Innsbruck, 25–27 Mai 1995. Innsbrucker Beiträge zur Kulturwissenschaft, Slavica aenipontana; vol. 4 (in German). Innsbruck: Non Lieu. pp. 205–219. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/243829127">243829127</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Serbokroatisch+%E2%80%93+R%C3%BCckblick+und+Ausblick&rft.btitle=Wechselbeziehungen+zwischen+slawischen+Sprachen%2C+Literaturen+und+Kulturen+in+Vergangenheit+und+Gegenwart+%3A+Akten+der+Tagung+aus+Anla%C3%9F+des+25j%C3%A4hrigen+Bestehens+des+Instituts+f%C3%BCr+Slawistik+an+der+Universit%C3%A4t+Innsbruck%2C+Innsbruck%2C+25%E2%80%9327+Mai+1995&rft.place=Innsbruck&rft.series=Innsbrucker+Beitr%C3%A4ge+zur+Kulturwissenschaft%2C+Slavica+aenipontana%3B+vol.+4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E205-%3C%2Fspan%3E219&rft.pub=Non+Lieu&rft.date=1996&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F243829127&rft.aulast=Pohl&rft.aufirst=Hans-Dieter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADialect+continuum" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFŠipka2019" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Danko_Sipka" class="mw-redirect" title="Danko Sipka">Šipka, Danko</a> (2019). Lexical layers of identity: words, meaning, and culture in the Slavic languages. New York: Cambridge University Press. p. 166. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2F9781108685795">10.1017/9781108685795</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-953-313-086-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-953-313-086-6"><bdi>978-953-313-086-6</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2018048005">2018048005</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1061308790">1061308790</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:150383965">150383965</a>. <q>lexical differences between the ethnic variants are extremely limited, even when compared with those between closely related Slavic languages (such as standard Czech and Slovak, Bulgarian and Macedonian), and grammatical differences are even less pronounced. More importantly, complete understanding between the ethnic variants of the standard language makes translation and second language teaching impossible", leading Šipka "to consider it a pluricentric standard language</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lexical+layers+of+identity%3A+words%2C+meaning%2C+and+culture+in+the+Slavic+languages&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=166&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2019&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A150383965%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2F9781108685795&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1061308790&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2018048005&rft.isbn=978-953-313-086-6&rft.aulast=%C5%A0ipka&rft.aufirst=Danko&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADialect+continuum" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFŠkiljan2002" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Dubravko_%C5%A0kiljan" title="Dubravko Škiljan">Škiljan, Dubravko</a> (2002). Govor nacije: jezik, nacija, Hrvati [Voice of the Nation: Language, Nation, Croats]. Biblioteka Obrisi moderne (in Croatian). Zagreb: Golden marketing. p. 12. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/55754615">55754615</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Govor+nacije%3A+jezik%2C+nacija%2C+Hrvati&rft.place=Zagreb&rft.series=Biblioteka+Obrisi+moderne&rft.pages=12&rft.pub=Golden+marketing&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F55754615&rft.aulast=%C5%A0kiljan&rft.aufirst=Dubravko&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADialect+continuum" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThomas2003" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Thomas, Paul-Louis (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.persee.fr/web/revues/home/prescript/article/slave_0080-2557_2002_num_74_2_6801">"Le serbo-croate (bosniaque, croate, monténégrin, serbe): de l'étude d'une langue à l'identité des langues"</a> [Serbo-Croatian (Bosnian, Croatian, Montenegrin, Serbian): from the study of a language to the identity of languages]. Revue des études slaves (in French). 74 (2–3): 315. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0080-2557">0080-2557</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Revue+des+%C3%A9tudes+slaves&rft.atitle=Le+serbo-croate+%28bosniaque%2C+croate%2C+mont%C3%A9n%C3%A9grin%2C+serbe%29%3A+de+l%27%C3%A9tude+d%27une+langue+%C3%A0+l%27identit%C3%A9+des+langues&rft.volume=74&rft.issue=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E2%E2%80%93%3C%2Fspan%3E3&rft.pages=315&rft.date=2003&rft.issn=0080-2557&rft.aulast=Thomas&rft.aufirst=Paul-Louis&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.persee.fr%2Fweb%2Frevues%2Fhome%2Fprescript%2Farticle%2Fslave_0080-2557_2002_num_74_2_6801&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADialect+continuum" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMac_Eoin1993" class="citation book cs1">Mac Eoin, Gearóid (1993). "Irish". In Ball, Martin J. (ed.). The Celtic Languages. London: Routledge. pp. 101–44. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-01035-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-01035-1"><bdi>978-0-415-01035-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Irish&rft.btitle=The+Celtic+Languages&rft.place=London&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E101-%3C%2Fspan%3E44&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0-415-01035-1&rft.aulast=Mac+Eoin&rft.aufirst=Gear%C3%B3id&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADialect+continuum" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcManus1994" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">McManus, Damian (1994). "An Nua-Ghaeilge Chlasaiceach". In K. McCone; D. McManus; C. Ó Háinle; N. Williams; L. Breatnach (eds.). Stair na Gaeilge in ómós do Pádraig Ó Fiannachta (in Irish). Maynooth: Department of Old Irish, St. Patrick's College. pp. 335–445. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-901519-90-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-901519-90-0"><bdi>978-0-901519-90-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=An+Nua-Ghaeilge+Chlasaiceach&rft.btitle=Stair+na+Gaeilge+in+%C3%B3m%C3%B3s+do+P%C3%A1draig+%C3%93+Fiannachta&rft.place=Maynooth&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E335-%3C%2Fspan%3E445&rft.pub=Department+of+Old+Irish%2C+St.+Patrick%27s+College&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-901519-90-0&rft.aulast=McManus&rft.aufirst=Damian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADialect+continuum" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcLeod2017" class="citation web cs1">McLeod, Wilson (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220214181549/https://www.abdn.ac.uk/pfrlsu/documents/PFRLSU/W._McLeod_Dialectal_Diversity.pdf">"Dialectal diversity in contemporary Gaelic: perceptions, discourses and responses"</a> (PDF). University of Aberdeen. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.abdn.ac.uk/pfrlsu/documents/PFRLSU/W._McLeod_Dialectal_Diversity.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 14 February 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=University+of+Aberdeen&rft.atitle=Dialectal+diversity+in+contemporary+Gaelic%3A+perceptions%2C+discourses+and+responses&rft.date=2017&rft.aulast=McLeod&rft.aufirst=Wilson&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.abdn.ac.uk%2Fpfrlsu%2Fdocuments%2FPFRLSU%2FW._McLeod_Dialectal_Diversity.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADialect+continuum" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWahrmund1898" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Wahrmund, Adolf (1898). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0yUYAAAAYAAJ">Praktisches Handbuch der neu-arabischen Sprache ...</a> Vol. 1-2 of Praktisches Handbuch der neu-arabischen Sprache (3 ed.). J. Ricker. Retrieved 6 July 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Praktisches+Handbuch+der+neu-arabischen+Sprache+...&rft.edition=3&rft.pub=J.+Ricker&rft.date=1898&rft.aulast=Wahrmund&rft.aufirst=Adolf&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D0yUYAAAAYAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADialect+continuum" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKayeRosenhouse1997" class="citation book cs1">Kaye, Alan S.; Rosenhouse, Judith (1997). "Arabic Dialects and Maltese". In Hetzron, Robert (ed.). The Semitic Languages. Routledge. pp. 263–311. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-05767-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-05767-7"><bdi>978-0-415-05767-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Arabic+Dialects+and+Maltese&rft.btitle=The+Semitic+Languages&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E263-%3C%2Fspan%3E311&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-415-05767-7&rft.aulast=Kaye&rft.aufirst=Alan+S.&rft.au=Rosenhouse%2C+Judith&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADialect+continuum" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBunnens2009" class="citation journal cs1">Bunnens, Guy (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/20723920">"ASSYRIAN EMPIRE BUILDING AND ARAMIZATION OF CULTURE AS SEEN FROM TELL AHMAR/TIL BARSIB"</a>. Syria. Institut Francais du Proche-Orient.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Syria&rft.atitle=ASSYRIAN+EMPIRE+BUILDING+AND+ARAMIZATION+OF+CULTURE+AS+SEEN+FROM+TELL+AHMAR%2FTIL+BARSIB&rft.date=2009&rft.aulast=Bunnens&rft.aufirst=Guy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F20723920&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADialect+continuum" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKim2008" class="citation journal cs1">Kim, Ronald (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/25608409">""Stammbaum" or Continuum? The Subgrouping of Modern Aramaic Dialects Reconsidered"</a>. Journal of the American Oriental Society. 128 (3): 505–531. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0003-0279">0003-0279</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/25608409">25608409</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+American+Oriental+Society&rft.atitle=%22Stammbaum%22+or+Continuum%3F+The+Subgrouping+of+Modern+Aramaic+Dialects+Reconsidered&rft.volume=128&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E505-%3C%2Fspan%3E531&rft.date=2008&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F25608409%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.issn=0003-0279&rft.aulast=Kim&rft.aufirst=Ronald&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F25608409&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADialect+continuum" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMutzafi2018" class="citation journal cs1">Mutzafi, Hezy (23 August 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://brill.com/view/journals/jjl/6/2/article-p145_1.xml">"Further Jewish Neo-Aramaic Innovations"</a>. Journal of Jewish Languages. 6 (2): 145–181. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F22134638-06011130">10.1163/22134638-06011130</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2213-4638">2213-4638</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:165973597">165973597</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Jewish+Languages&rft.atitle=Further+Jewish+Neo-Aramaic+Innovations&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E145-%3C%2Fspan%3E181&rft.date=2018-08-23&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A165973597%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=2213-4638&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F22134638-06011130&rft.aulast=Mutzafi&rft.aufirst=Hezy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbrill.com%2Fview%2Fjournals%2Fjjl%2F6%2F2%2Farticle-p145_1.xml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADialect+continuum" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKhan2020" class="citation journal cs1">Khan, Geoffrey (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.repository.cam.ac.uk/handle/1810/301788">"The Neo-Aramaic Dialects of Iran"</a>. Iranian Studies. 53 (3–4): 445–463. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00210862.2020.1714430">10.1080/00210862.2020.1714430</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:216353456">216353456</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Iranian+Studies&rft.atitle=The+Neo-Aramaic+Dialects+of+Iran&rft.volume=53&rft.issue=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E3%E2%80%93%3C%2Fspan%3E4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E445-%3C%2Fspan%3E463&rft.date=2020&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F00210862.2020.1714430&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A216353456%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Khan&rft.aufirst=Geoffrey&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.repository.cam.ac.uk%2Fhandle%2F1810%2F301788&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADialect+continuum" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrenoble2003" class="citation book cs1">Grenoble, Lenore A. (2003). Language policy in the Soviet Union. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-306-48083-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-306-48083-2"><bdi>0-306-48083-2</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/53984252">53984252</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Language+policy+in+the+Soviet+Union&rft.place=Dordrecht&rft.pub=Kluwer+Academic+Publishers&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F53984252&rft.isbn=0-306-48083-2&rft.aulast=Grenoble&rft.aufirst=Lenore+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADialect+continuum" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrenoble2003" class="citation book cs1">Grenoble, Lenore A. (2003). Language Policy in the Soviet Union. Vol. 3. <a href="/wiki/Springer-Verlag" class="mw-redirect" title="Springer-Verlag">Springer-Verlag</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-1298-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-1298-3"><bdi>978-1-4020-1298-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Language+Policy+in+the+Soviet+Union&rft.pub=Springer-Verlag&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-1-4020-1298-3&rft.aulast=Grenoble&rft.aufirst=Lenore+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADialect+continuum" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Norman_2003_p72-63">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Norman_2003_p72_63-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Norman_2003_p72_63-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNorman2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jerry_Norman_(sinologist)" title="Jerry Norman (sinologist)">Norman, Jerry</a> (2003). "The Chinese dialects: phonology". In <a href="/wiki/Graham_Thurgood" title="Graham Thurgood">Thurgood, Graham</a>; <a href="/wiki/Randy_LaPolla" title="Randy LaPolla">LaPolla, Randy J.</a> (eds.). The Sino-Tibetan languages. Routledge. pp. 72–83. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7007-1129-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7007-1129-1"><bdi>978-0-7007-1129-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Chinese+dialects%3A+phonology&rft.btitle=The+Sino-Tibetan+languages&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E72-%3C%2Fspan%3E83&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-7007-1129-1&rft.aulast=Norman&rft.aufirst=Jerry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADialect+continuum" class="Z3988"> p. 72. </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHamed2005" class="citation journal cs1">Hamed, Mahé Ben (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1599877">"Neighbour-nets portray the Chinese dialect continuum and the linguistic legacy of China's demic history"</a>. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 272 (1567): 1015–1022. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frspb.2004.3015">10.1098/rspb.2004.3015</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/30047639">30047639</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1599877">1599877</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16024359">16024359</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+Royal+Society+B%3A+Biological+Sciences&rft.atitle=Neighbour-nets+portray+the+Chinese+dialect+continuum+and+the+linguistic+legacy+of+China%27s+demic+history&rft.volume=272&rft.issue=1567&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1015-%3C%2Fspan%3E1022&rft.date=2005&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1599877%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16024359&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F30047639%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1098%2Frspb.2004.3015&rft.aulast=Hamed&rft.aufirst=Mah%C3%A9+Ben&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1599877&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADialect+continuum" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNorman1988" class="citation book cs1">Norman, Jerry (1988). Chinese. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 187. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-29653-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-29653-3"><bdi>978-0-521-29653-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Chinese&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=187&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=978-0-521-29653-3&rft.aulast=Norman&rft.aufirst=Jerry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADialect+continuum" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman19882–3-66"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman19882%E2%80%933_66-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, pp. 2–3. </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKurpaska2010" class="citation book cs1">Kurpaska, Maria (2010). Chinese Language(s): A Look Through the Prism of "The Great Dictionary of Modern Chinese Dialects". <a href="/wiki/Walter_de_Gruyter" class="mw-redirect" title="Walter de Gruyter">Walter de Gruyter</a>. pp. 41–55. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-021914-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-11-021914-2"><bdi>978-3-11-021914-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Chinese+Language%28s%29%3A+A+Look+Through+the+Prism+of+%22The+Great+Dictionary+of+Modern+Chinese+Dialects%22&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E41-%3C%2Fspan%3E55&rft.pub=Walter+de+Gruyter&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-3-11-021914-2&rft.aulast=Kurpaska&rft.aufirst=Maria&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADialect+continuum" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRamsey1987" class="citation book cs1">Ramsey, S. Robert (1987). The Languages of China. Princeton University Press. p. 22. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-01468-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-01468-5"><bdi>978-0-691-01468-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Languages+of+China&rft.pages=22&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=978-0-691-01468-5&rft.aulast=Ramsey&rft.aufirst=S.+Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADialect+continuum" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988183–190-69"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1988183%E2%80%93190_69-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, pp. 183–190. </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSagart1998" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Laurent_Sagart" title="Laurent Sagart">Sagart, Laurent</a> (1998). "On distinguishing Hakka and non-Hakka dialects". Journal of Chinese Linguistics. 26 (2): 281–302. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/23756757">23756757</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Chinese+Linguistics&rft.atitle=On+distinguishing+Hakka+and+non-Hakka+dialects&rft.volume=26&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E281-%3C%2Fspan%3E302&rft.date=1998&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F23756757%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Sagart&rft.aufirst=Laurent&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADialect+continuum" class="Z3988"> p 299. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988190,_206–207-71"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1988190,_206%E2%80%93207_71-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, pp. 190, 206–207. </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHalliday1968" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Michael_Halliday" title="Michael Halliday">Halliday, M.A.K</a> (1968) [1964]. "The users and uses of language". In Fishman, Joshua A. (ed.). Readings in the Sociology of Language. Walter de Gruyter. pp. 139–169. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-080537-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-11-080537-6"><bdi>978-3-11-080537-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+users+and+uses+of+language&rft.btitle=Readings+in+the+Sociology+of+Language&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E139-%3C%2Fspan%3E169&rft.pub=Walter+de+Gruyter&rft.date=1968&rft.isbn=978-3-11-080537-6&rft.aulast=Halliday&rft.aufirst=M.A.K&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADialect+continuum" class="Z3988"> p. 12. </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYan2006" class="citation book cs1">Yan, Margaret Mian (2006). Introduction to Chinese Dialectology. LINCOM Europa. pp. 223–224. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-89586-629-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-89586-629-6"><bdi>978-3-89586-629-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+Chinese+Dialectology&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E223-%3C%2Fspan%3E224&rft.pub=LINCOM+Europa&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-3-89586-629-6&rft.aulast=Yan&rft.aufirst=Margaret+Mian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADialect+continuum" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988206-74"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1988206_74-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, p. 206. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988241-75"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1988241_75-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, p. 241. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman200380-76"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman200380_76-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorman2003">Norman (2003)</a>, p. 80. </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFde_Sousa2016" class="citation book cs1">de Sousa, Hilário (2016). "Language contact in Nanning: Nanning Pinghua and Nanning Cantonese". In Chappell, Hilary M. (ed.). Diversity in Sinitic Languages. Oxford University Press. pp. 157–189. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-872379-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-872379-0"><bdi>978-0-19-872379-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Language+contact+in+Nanning%3A+Nanning+Pinghua+and+Nanning+Cantonese&rft.btitle=Diversity+in+Sinitic+Languages&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E157-%3C%2Fspan%3E189&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-0-19-872379-0&rft.aulast=de+Sousa&rft.aufirst=Hil%C3%A1rio&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADialect+continuum" class="Z3988"> p. 162. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHalliday196811–12-78"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHalliday196811%E2%80%9312_78-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHalliday1968">Halliday (1968)</a>, pp. 11–12. </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://linguistlist.org/issues/6/6-744/">"LINGUIST List 6.744: Cree dialects"</a>. www.linguistlist.org. 29 May 1995.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.linguistlist.org&rft.atitle=LINGUIST+List+6.744%3A+Cree+dialects&rft.date=1995-05-29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flinguistlist.org%2Fissues%2F6%2F6-744%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADialect+continuum" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ethnologue.com/show_country.asp?name=CA">"Canada"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Canada&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ethnologue.com%2Fshow_country.asp%3Fname%3DCA&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADialect+continuum" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110404114314/http://www.native-languages.org/cree.htm">"Cree Language and the Cree Indian Tribe (Iyiniwok, Eenou, Eeyou, Iynu, Kenistenoag)"</a>. www.native-languages.org. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.native-languages.org/cree.htm">the original</a> on 4 April 2011. Retrieved 10 September 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.native-languages.org&rft.atitle=Cree+Language+and+the+Cree+Indian+Tribe+%28Iyiniwok%2C+Eenou%2C+Eeyou%2C+Iynu%2C+Kenistenoag%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.native-languages.org%2Fcree.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADialect+continuum" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div>    </section></div> <noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=mobile&type=1x1&usesul3=0" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dialect_continuum&oldid=1273250801">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dialect_continuum&oldid=1273250801</a>"</div></div> </div> <div class="post-content" id="page-secondary-actions"> </div> </main> <footer class="mw-footer minerva-footer" role="contentinfo"> <a class="last-modified-bar" href="/w/index.php?title=Dialect_continuum&action=history"> <div class="post-content last-modified-bar__content"> Last edited on 1 February 2025, at 13:27 </div> </a> <div class="post-content footer-content"> <div id='mw-data-after-content'> <div class="read-more-container"></div> </div> <div id="p-lang"> <h4>Languages</h4> <section> <ul id="p-variants" class="minerva-languages"></ul> <ul class="minerva-languages"><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%A9_%D9%84%D9%87%D8%AC%D9%88%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="سلسلة لهجوية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="سلسلة لهجوية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contino_dialectal" title="Contino dialectal – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Contino dialectal" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aragonés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continuu_dialeutal" title="Continuu dialeutal – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Continuu dialeutal" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialekt_kontinuumu" title="Dialekt kontinuumu – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Dialekt kontinuumu" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%94%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%AD%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B7%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%95_%E0%A6%A7%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BE" title="ঔপভাষিক ধারাবাহিকতা – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="ঔপভাষিক ধারাবাহিকতা" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BD_%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%83%D1%83%D0%BC" title="Диалектен континуум – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Диалектен континуум" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar mw-list-item"><a href="https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialektkontinuum" title="Dialektkontinuum – Bavarian" lang="bar" hreflang="bar" data-title="Dialektkontinuum" data-language-autonym="Boarisch" data-language-local-name="Bavarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Boarisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continu_dialectal" title="Continu dialectal – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Continu dialectal" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BD_%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%83%D1%83%D0%BC%C4%95" title="Диалектсен континуумĕ – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Диалектсен континуумĕ" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target">Чӑвашла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continiwm_tafodiaith" title="Continiwm tafodiaith – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Continiwm tafodiaith" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialektkontinuum" title="Dialektkontinuum – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Dialektkontinuum" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%94%CE%B9%CE%B1%CE%BB%CE%B5%CE%BA%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%BA%CF%8C_%CF%83%CF%85%CE%BD%CE%B5%CF%87%CE%AD%CF%82" title="Διαλεκτικό συνεχές – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Διαλεκτικό συνεχές" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continuo_dialectal" title="Continuo dialectal – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Continuo dialectal" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialekta_kontinua%C4%B5o" title="Dialekta kontinuaĵo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Dialekta kontinuaĵo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialektoen_continuum" title="Dialektoen continuum – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Dialektoen continuum" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B2%D9%86%D8%AC%DB%8C%D8%B1%D9%87_%DA%AF%D9%88%DB%8C%D8%B4%DB%8C" title="زنجیره گویشی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="زنجیره گویشی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continuum_linguistique" title="Continuum linguistique – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Continuum linguistique" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialektkontinuum" title="Dialektkontinuum – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Dialektkontinuum" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continuo_dialectal" title="Continuo dialectal – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Continuo dialectal" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-glk mw-list-item"><a href="https://glk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D9%81%D8%B8%CB%87_%D8%B2%D9%86%D8%AC%D9%8A%D9%84%D9%87" title="لفظˇ زنجيله – Gilaki" lang="glk" hreflang="glk" data-title="لفظˇ زنجيله" data-language-autonym="گیلکی" data-language-local-name="Gilaki" class="interlanguage-link-target">گیلکی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%B0%A9%EC%96%B8%EC%97%B0%EC%86%8D%EC%B2%B4" title="방언연속체 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="방언연속체" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%89%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF" title="उपभाषा सतति – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="उपभाषा सतति" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lugar_ti_dialekto" title="Lugar ti dialekto – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="Lugar ti dialekto" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="Iloko" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ilokano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kesinambungan_dialek" title="Kesinambungan dialek – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Kesinambungan dialek" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A1ll%C3%BDskusamfella" title="Mállýskusamfella – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Mállýskusamfella" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continuum_dialettale" title="Continuum dialettale – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Continuum dialettale" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A8%D7%A6%D7%A3_%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%91%D7%99%D7%9D" title="רצף ניבים – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="רצף ניבים" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%96%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%BA_%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%83%D1%83%D0%BC" title="Диалектілік континуум – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Диалектілік континуум" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continuum_dialectorum" title="Continuum dialectorum – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Continuum dialectorum" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tarmi%C5%B3_t%C4%99stinumas" title="Tarmių tęstinumas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Tarmių tęstinumas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lij mw-list-item"><a href="https://lij.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continuum_lengoistico" title="Continuum lengoistico – Ligurian" lang="lij" hreflang="lij" data-title="Continuum lengoistico" data-language-autonym="Ligure" data-language-local-name="Ligurian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ligure</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialekcontinu%C3%BCm" title="Dialekcontinuüm – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Dialekcontinuüm" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Limburgs</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continuum_dialetal" title="Continuum dialetal – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Continuum dialetal" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lombard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialektuskontinuum" title="Dialektuskontinuum – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Dialektuskontinuum" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BD_%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%83%D1%83%D0%BC" title="Дијалектен континуум – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Дијалектен континуум" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kontinum_dialek" title="Kontinum dialek – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Kontinum dialek" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continu%C3%BCm_(taalkunde)" title="Continuüm (taalkunde) – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Continuüm (taalkunde)" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds-nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialectcontinu%C3%BCm" title="Dialectcontinuüm – Low Saxon" lang="nds-NL" hreflang="nds-NL" data-title="Dialectcontinuüm" data-language-autonym="Nedersaksies" data-language-local-name="Low Saxon" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nedersaksies</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%96%B9%E8%A8%80%E9%80%A3%E7%B6%9A%E4%BD%93" title="方言連続体 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="方言連続体" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialektkontinuum" title="Dialektkontinuum – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Dialektkontinuum" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialektkontinuum" title="Dialektkontinuum – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Dialektkontinuum" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kontinuum_dialektalne" title="Kontinuum dialektalne – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Kontinuum dialektalne" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continuum_dialetal" title="Continuum dialetal – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Continuum dialetal" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continuum_dialectal" title="Continuum dialectal – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Continuum dialectal" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9_%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%83%D1%83%D0%BC" title="Диалектный континуум – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Диалектный континуум" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialect_continuum" title="Dialect continuum – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Dialect continuum" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%83%D1%83%D0%BC" title="Дијалекатски континуум – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Дијалекатски континуум" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Murrejatkumo" title="Murrejatkumo – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Murrejatkumo" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialektkontinuum" title="Dialektkontinuum – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Dialektkontinuum" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B3%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8A%E0%AE%B4%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%8A%E0%AE%9F%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D" title="கிளைமொழித் தொடர்மம் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="கிளைமொழித் தொடர்மம்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leh%C3%A7e_s%C3%BCreklili%C4%9Fi" title="Lehçe sürekliliği – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Lehçe sürekliliği" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D1%96%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%83%D1%83%D0%BC" title="Діалектний континуум – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Діалектний континуум" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C3%A3y_ph%C6%B0%C6%A1ng_ng%E1%BB%AF" title="Dãy phương ngữ – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Dãy phương ngữ" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%96%B9%E8%A8%80%E9%80%A3%E7%BA%8C%E9%AB%94" title="方言連續體 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="方言連續體" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%96%B9%E8%A8%80%E8%BF%9E%E7%BB%AD%E4%BD%93" title="方言连续体 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="方言连续体" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li></ul> </section> </div> <div class="minerva-footer-logo"><img src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" alt="Wikipedia" width="120" height="18" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"/> </div> <ul id="footer-info" class="footer-info hlist hlist-separated"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 1 February 2025, at 13:27 (UTC).</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Content is available under <a class="external" rel="nofollow" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en">CC BY-SA 4.0</a> unless otherwise noted.</li> </ul> <ul id="footer-places" class="footer-places hlist hlist-separated"> <li id="footer-places-privacy"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy">Privacy policy</a></li> <li id="footer-places-about"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About">About Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-disclaimers"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:General_disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-contact"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us">Contact Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-wm-codeofconduct"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Universal_Code_of_Conduct">Code of Conduct</a></li> <li id="footer-places-developers"><a href="https://developer.wikimedia.org">Developers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-statslink"><a href="https://stats.wikimedia.org/#/en.wikipedia.org">Statistics</a></li> <li id="footer-places-cookiestatement"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Cookie_statement">Cookie statement</a></li> <li id="footer-places-terms-use"><a href="https://foundation.m.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms_of_Use">Terms of Use</a></li> <li id="footer-places-desktop-toggle"><a id="mw-mf-display-toggle" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dialect_continuum&mobileaction=toggle_view_desktop" data-event-name="switch_to_desktop">Desktop</a></li> </ul> </div> </footer> </div> </div> <div class="mw-notification-area" data-mw="interface"></div>  <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-b766959bd-dhd6q","wgBackendResponseTime":275,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"0.886","walltime":"1.059","ppvisitednodes":{"value":6608,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":151247,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":7444,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":16,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":10,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":219167,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":0,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 905.325 1 -total"," 43.15% 390.681 2 Template:Reflist"," 27.27% 246.925 33 Template:Cite_book"," 12.09% 109.485 22 Template:Sfnp"," 11.40% 103.212 1 Template:Linguistics"," 11.10% 100.483 1 Template:Sidebar_with_collapsible_lists"," 8.50% 76.908 1 Template:More_citations_needed"," 8.26% 74.738 1 Template:Ambox"," 7.59% 68.675 1 Template:Short_description"," 5.56% 50.298 6 Template:Fix"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"0.556","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":9979441,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-logs":"anchor_id_list = table#1 {\n [\"CITEREFAlexander2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBloomfield1935\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBlum2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBunnens2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCerruti2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChambersTrudgill1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCrystal1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCrystal2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFriedman1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGooskensKürschner2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGrenoble2003\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFGröschel2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHalliday1968\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHamed2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHenriksenvan_der_Auwera1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHockett1958\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKamusella2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKayeRosenhouse1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKhan2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKim2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKordić2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKordić2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKristophson,_Jürgen2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKurpaska2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMac_Eoin1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcLeod2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcManus1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMutzafi2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNiebaum2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNorman1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNorman2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPohl1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRamsey1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSagart1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStewart1968\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThomas2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTrudgill1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTrudgill1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWahrmund1898\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWoolhiser2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYan2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFde_Sousa2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFŠipka2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFŠkiljan2002\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"CROSBI\"] = 2,\n [\"Circa\"] = 1,\n [\"Citation needed\"] = 5,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 33,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 9,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 8,\n [\"Efn\"] = 2,\n [\"Further\"] = 1,\n [\"Isbn\"] = 1,\n [\"Legend\"] = 5,\n [\"Linguistics\"] = 1,\n [\"Main\"] = 1,\n [\"More citations needed\"] = 1,\n [\"Notelist\"] = 1,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"Sfnp\"] = 22,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Use dmy dates\"] = 1,\n [\"Who\"] = 1,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\nciteref_patterns = table#1 {\n}\n"},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.main-b766959bd-zzfwx","timestamp":"20250215190513","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Dialect continuum","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dialect_continuum","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q215844","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q215844","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2003-11-18T04:20:55Z","dateModified":"2025-02-01T13:27:16Z","headline":"range of dialects that vary geographically"}</script><script>(window.NORLQ=window.NORLQ||[]).push(function(){var ns,i,p,img;ns=document.getElementsByTagName('noscript');for(i=0;i<ns.length;i++){p=ns[i].nextSibling;if(p&&p.className&&p.className.indexOf('lazy-image-placeholder')>-1){img=document.createElement('img');img.setAttribute('src',p.getAttribute('data-src'));img.setAttribute('width',p.getAttribute('data-width'));img.setAttribute('height',p.getAttribute('data-height'));img.setAttribute('alt',p.getAttribute('data-alt'));p.parentNode.replaceChild(img,p);}}});</script> </body> </html>