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id="toc-Discovery_and_uses_of_horses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Discovery_and_uses_of_horses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Discovery and uses of horses</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Discovery_and_uses_of_horses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Enemies_and_warrior_culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Enemies_and_warrior_culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Enemies and warrior culture</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Enemies_and_warrior_culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-First_contact_with_Europeans_and_the_fur_trade" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#First_contact_with_Europeans_and_the_fur_trade"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>First contact with Europeans and the fur trade</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-First_contact_with_Europeans_and_the_fur_trade-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Indian_Wars" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Indian_Wars"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6</span> <span>Indian Wars</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Indian_Wars-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_encroachment_by_Canada_and_United_States" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_encroachment_by_Canada_and_United_States"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.7</span> <span>Further encroachment by Canada and United States</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_encroachment_by_Canada_and_United_States-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Culture</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Culture-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Culture subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Electing_a_leader" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Electing_a_leader"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Electing a leader</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Electing_a_leader-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Societies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Societies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Societies</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Societies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ethnobotany" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ethnobotany"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Ethnobotany</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ethnobotany-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Marriage" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Marriage"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Marriage</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Marriage-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Responsibilities_and_clothing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Responsibilities_and_clothing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Responsibilities and clothing</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Responsibilities_and_clothing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Headdresses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Headdresses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6</span> <span>Headdresses</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Headdresses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sun_and_the_Moon" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sun_and_the_Moon"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.7</span> <span>Sun and the Moon</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sun_and_the_Moon-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Blackfoot_creation_story" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Blackfoot_creation_story"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.8</span> <span>Blackfoot creation story</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Blackfoot_creation_story-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-People" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#People"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>People</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-People-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle People subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-People-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Ethnic_divisions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ethnic_divisions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Ethnic divisions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ethnic_divisions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_communities" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_communities"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Modern communities</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modern_communities-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Economy_and_services" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economy_and_services"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.1</span> <span>Economy and services</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Economy_and_services-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Traditional_culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Traditional_culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.2</span> <span>Traditional culture</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Traditional_culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notable_Blackfoot_people" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notable_Blackfoot_people"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Notable Blackfoot people</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notable_Blackfoot_people-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Representation_in_other_media" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Representation_in_other_media"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Representation in other media</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Representation_in_other_media-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.1</span> <span>Citations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.2</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Blackfoot Confederacy</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 38 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-38" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">38 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qara_ayaqlar" title="Qara ayaqlar – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Qara ayaqlar" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A7%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Чарнаногія – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Чарнаногія" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A7%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%B8" title="Чернокраки – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Чернокраки" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confederaci%C3%B3_blackfoot" title="Confederació blackfoot – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Confederació blackfoot" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%8Cernono%C5%BEci" title="Černonožci – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Černonožci" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blackfoot" title="Blackfoot – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Blackfoot" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blackfoot" title="Blackfoot – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Blackfoot" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nv mw-list-item"><a href="https://nv.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%A9%CA%BC_%C5%82izhin%C3%AD" title="Kéʼ łizhiní – Navajo" lang="nv" hreflang="nv" data-title="Kéʼ łizhiní" data-language-autonym="Diné bizaad" data-language-local-name="Navajo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Diné bizaad</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9C%CF%80%CE%BB%CE%AC%CE%BA%CF%86%CE%BF%CF%85%CF%84" title="Μπλάκφουτ – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Μπλάκφουτ" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pies_negros" title="Pies negros – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Pies negros" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nigrapieduloj" title="Nigrapieduloj – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Nigrapieduloj" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oinbeltz" title="Oinbeltz – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Oinbeltz" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conf%C3%A9d%C3%A9ration_des_Pieds-Noirs" title="Confédération des Pieds-Noirs – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Confédération des Pieds-Noirs" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pobo_p%C3%A9s_negros" title="Pobo pés negros – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Pobo pés negros" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%8B%9D%EC%8B%9C%EC%B9%B4_%EC%97%B0%EB%A7%B9" title="식시카 연맹 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="식시카 연맹" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%AB%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%9F_%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%97" title="ब्लैकफूट लोग – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="ब्लैकफूट लोग" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blackfoot" title="Blackfoot – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Blackfoot" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konfederasi_Blackfoot" title="Konfederasi Blackfoot – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Konfederasi Blackfoot" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confederazione_dei_Piedi_Neri" title="Confederazione dei Piedi Neri – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Confederazione dei Piedi Neri" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%91%D7%9C%D7%90%D7%A7%D7%A4%D7%95%D7%98" title="בלאקפוט – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="בלאקפוט" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siksiki" title="Siksiki – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Siksiki" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juodakojai" title="Juodakojai – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Juodakojai" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blackfeet" title="Blackfeet – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Blackfeet" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blackfoot_(volk)" title="Blackfoot (volk) – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Blackfoot (volk)" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%96%E3%83%A9%E3%83%83%E3%82%AF%E3%83%95%E3%83%83%E3%83%88%E6%97%8F" title="ブラックフット族 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ブラックフット族" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Svartfot-sammenslutningen" title="Svartfot-sammenslutningen – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Svartfot-sammenslutningen" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blackfoot_Confederacy" title="Blackfoot Confederacy – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Blackfoot Confederacy" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian 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.hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Blackfoot" redirects here. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Blackfoot_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Blackfoot (disambiguation)">Blackfoot (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vcard"><caption class="infobox-title fn org">Blackfoot Confederacy</caption><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image logo"><span class="mw-default-size mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_the_Blackfoot_Confederacy.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Flag_of_the_Blackfoot_Confederacy.jpg/220px-Flag_of_the_Blackfoot_Confederacy.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Flag_of_the_Blackfoot_Confederacy.jpg/330px-Flag_of_the_Blackfoot_Confederacy.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Flag_of_the_Blackfoot_Confederacy.jpg/440px-Flag_of_the_Blackfoot_Confederacy.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="720" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">Flag of the Blackfoot Confederacy</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image logo"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Six_Blackfeet_Chiefs_-_Paul_Kane.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Six_Blackfeet_Chiefs_-_Paul_Kane.jpg/300px-Six_Blackfeet_Chiefs_-_Paul_Kane.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="250" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Six_Blackfeet_Chiefs_-_Paul_Kane.jpg/450px-Six_Blackfeet_Chiefs_-_Paul_Kane.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Six_Blackfeet_Chiefs_-_Paul_Kane.jpg/600px-Six_Blackfeet_Chiefs_-_Paul_Kane.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="533" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">Six chiefs of the Blackfoot Confederacy in 1859</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.6em;">Type</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Military_alliance" title="Military alliance">Military alliance</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.6em;">Origins</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Great_Plains" title="Great Plains">Great Plains</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.6em;">Membership</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kainai_Nation" title="Kainai Nation">Kainai Nation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piegan_Blackfeet" title="Piegan Blackfeet">Piegan Blackfeet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piikani_Nation" title="Piikani Nation">Piikani Nation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siksika_Nation" title="Siksika Nation">Siksika Nation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.6em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Official language </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Blackfoot_language" title="Blackfoot language">Blackfoot language</a></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>Blackfoot Confederacy</b>, <i><b>Niitsitapi</b></i>, or <i><b>Siksikaitsitapi</b></i><sup id="cite_ref-Dempsey_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dempsey-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (<b>ᖹᐟᒧᐧᒣᑯ</b>, meaning "the people" or "<a href="/wiki/Blackfoot_language" title="Blackfoot language">Blackfoot-speaking</a> real people"<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>), is a historic collective name for linguistically related groups that make up the Blackfoot or Blackfeet people: the <i><a href="/wiki/Siksika" class="mw-redirect" title="Siksika">Siksika</a></i> ("Blackfoot"), the <i><a href="/wiki/Kainai_Nation" title="Kainai Nation">Kainai or Blood</a></i> ("Many Chiefs"), and two sections of the <a href="/wiki/Piegan_Blackfeet" title="Piegan Blackfeet">Peigan or Piikani</a> ("Splotchy Robe") – the <a href="/wiki/Piikani_Nation" title="Piikani Nation">Northern Piikani</a> (<i>Aapátohsipikáni</i>) and the <a href="/wiki/Blackfeet_Nation" title="Blackfeet Nation">Southern Piikani</a> (<i>Amskapi Piikani</i> or <i>Pikuni</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-10things_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10things-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Broader definitions include groups such as the <i>Tsúùtínà</i> (<a href="/wiki/Tsuut%CA%BCina_Nation" title="Tsuutʼina Nation">Sarcee</a>) and <i>A'aninin</i> (<a href="/wiki/Gros_Ventre" title="Gros Ventre">Gros Ventre</a>) who spoke quite different languages but allied with or joined the Blackfoot Confederacy. </p><p>Historically, the member peoples of the Confederacy were nomadic <a href="/wiki/Bison_hunting" title="Bison hunting">bison hunters</a> and trout fishermen, who ranged across large areas of the northern <a href="/wiki/Great_Plains" title="Great Plains">Great Plains</a> of western North America, specifically the <a href="/wiki/Semi-arid_climate" title="Semi-arid climate">semi-arid</a> <a href="/wiki/Shortgrass_prairie" title="Shortgrass prairie">shortgrass prairie</a> ecological region. They followed the bison herds as they migrated between what are now the United States and Canada, as far north as the <a href="/wiki/Bow_River" title="Bow River">Bow River</a>. In the first half of the 18th century, they acquired horses and firearms from <a href="/wiki/Native_American_trade" title="Native American trade">white traders</a> and their <a href="/wiki/Iron_Confederacy" title="Iron Confederacy">Cree and Assiniboine go-betweens</a>. The Blackfoot used these to expand their territory at the expense of neighboring tribes. </p><p>Today, three Blackfoot <a href="/wiki/First_Nations_in_Canada" title="First Nations in Canada">First Nation</a> <a href="/wiki/Band_government" title="Band government">band governments</a> (the Siksika, Kainai, and Piikani Nations) reside in the Canadian province of <a href="/wiki/Alberta" title="Alberta">Alberta</a>, while the <a href="/wiki/Blackfeet_Nation" title="Blackfeet Nation">Blackfeet Nation</a> is a federally recognized <a href="/wiki/Tribe_(Native_American)" title="Tribe (Native American)">Native American tribe</a> of Southern Piikani in <a href="/wiki/Montana" title="Montana">Montana</a>, United States. Additionally, the Gros Ventre are members of the federally recognized <a href="/wiki/Fort_Belknap_Indian_Community_of_the_Fort_Belknap_Reservation_of_Montana" class="mw-redirect" title="Fort Belknap Indian Community of the Fort Belknap Reservation of Montana">Fort Belknap Indian Community of the Fort Belknap Reservation of Montana</a> in the United States and the Tsuutʼina Nation is a First Nation band government in Alberta, Canada. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Government">Government</h2></div> <p>The four Blackfoot nations come together to make up what is known as the Blackfoot Confederacy, meaning that they have banded together to help one another. The nations have their own separate governments ruled by a head chief, but regularly come together for religious and social celebrations. </p><p>Originally the Blackfoot/Plains Confederacy consisted of three peoples ("nation", "tribes", "tribal nations") based on <a href="/wiki/Kinship" title="Kinship">kinship</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dialect" title="Dialect">dialect</a>, but all speaking the common language of <a href="/wiki/Blackfoot_language" title="Blackfoot language">Blackfoot</a>, one of the <a href="/wiki/Algonquian_languages" title="Algonquian languages">Algonquian languages</a> family. The three were the <i>Piikáni</i> (historically called "Piegan Blackfeet" in English-language sources), the <i>Káínaa</i> (called "Bloods"), and the <i>Siksikáwa</i> ("Blackfoot"). They later allied with the unrelated <i>Tsuu T'ina</i> ("Sarcee"), who became merged into the Confederacy and, (for a time) with the <i>Atsina,</i> or A'aninin (<i>Gros Ventre</i>). </p><p>Each of these highly decentralized peoples were divided into many <a href="/wiki/Band_societies" class="mw-redirect" title="Band societies">bands</a>, which ranged in size from 10 to 30 <a href="/wiki/Tipi" title="Tipi">lodges</a>, or about 80 to 240 persons. The band was the basic unit of organization for hunting and defence.<sup id="cite_ref-alberta_culture_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-alberta_culture-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Confederacy occupied a large territory where they hunted and foraged; in the 19th century it was divided by the current Canada–US international border. But during the late nineteenth century, both governments forced the peoples to end their nomadic traditions and settle on "<a href="/wiki/Indian_reserves" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian reserves">Indian reserves</a>" (Canadian terminology) or "<a href="/wiki/Indian_reservations" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian reservations">Indian reservations</a>" (US terminology). The South Peigan are the only group who chose to settle in Montana. The other three Blackfoot-speaking peoples and the Sarcee are located in Alberta. Together, the Blackfoot-speakers call themselves the <i>Niitsítapi</i> (the "Original People"). After leaving the Confederacy, the Gros Ventres also settled on a reservation in Montana. </p><p>When these peoples were forced to end their nomadic traditions, their social structures changed. Tribal nations, which had formerly been mostly ethnic associations, were institutionalized as governments (referred to as "tribes" in the United States and "bands" or "First Nations" in Canada). The Piegan were divided into the <a href="/wiki/North_Peigan" class="mw-redirect" title="North Peigan">North Peigan</a> in Alberta, and the <a href="/wiki/South_Peigan" class="mw-redirect" title="South Peigan">South Peigan</a> in Montana. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div> <p>The Confederacy had<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers"><span title="The time period mentioned near this tag is ambiguous. (November 2012)">when?</span></a></i>]</sup> a territory that stretched from the <a href="/wiki/North_Saskatchewan_River" title="North Saskatchewan River">North Saskatchewan River</a> (called <i>Ponoká'sisaahta</i>)<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Accuracy_dispute#Disputed_statement" title="Wikipedia:Accuracy dispute"><span title="The material near this tag is possibly inaccurate or nonfactual. (November 2012)">dubious</span></a> – <a href="/wiki/Talk:Blackfoot_Confederacy#Dubious" title="Talk:Blackfoot Confederacy">discuss</a></i>]</sup> along what is now <a href="/wiki/Edmonton" title="Edmonton">Edmonton</a>, Alberta, in <a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a>, to the <a href="/wiki/Yellowstone_River" title="Yellowstone River">Yellowstone River</a> (called <i>Otahkoiitahtayi</i>) of Montana in the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>, and from the <a href="/wiki/Rocky_Mountains" title="Rocky Mountains">Rocky Mountains</a> (called <i>Miistakistsi</i>) and along the <a href="/wiki/South_Saskatchewan_River" title="South Saskatchewan River">South Saskatchewan River</a> to the present Alberta-Saskatchewan border (called <i>Kaayihkimikoyi</i>),<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> east past the <a href="/wiki/Cypress_Hills_(Canada)" title="Cypress Hills (Canada)">Cypress Hills</a>. They called their tribal territory <i>Niitsitpiis-stahkoii</i> (ᖹᐟᒧᐧᐨᑯᐧ ᓴᐦᖾᐟ)- "Original People s Land." To the east, the <a href="/wiki/Innu_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Innu people">Innu</a> and <a href="/wiki/Naskapi" title="Naskapi">Naskapi</a> called their territory <i><a href="/wiki/Nitassinan" title="Nitassinan">Nitassinan</a></i> – "Our Land."<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They had adopted the use of the horse from other Plains tribes, probably by the early eighteenth century, which gave them expanded range and mobility, as well as advantages in hunting. </p><p>The basic <a href="/wiki/Social_group" title="Social group">social unit</a> of the <i>Niitsitapi</i> above the family was <a href="/wiki/Band_society" title="Band society">the band</a>, varying from about 10 to 30 lodges, about 80 to 241 people. This size group was large enough to defend against attack and to undertake communal hunts, but was also small enough for flexibility. Each band consisted of a respected leader <sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2014)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>, possibly his brothers and parents, and others who were not related. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2014)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Since the band was defined by place of residence, rather than by kinship, a person was free to leave one band and join another, which tended to ameliorate leadership disputes. Also, should a band fall upon hard times, its members could split up and join other bands. In practice, bands were constantly forming and breaking up. The system maximized flexibility and was an ideal organization for a hunting people on the northwestern <a href="/wiki/Great_Plains" title="Great Plains">Great Plains</a>. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Aatsista-Mahkan.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Aatsista-Mahkan.jpg/220px-Aatsista-Mahkan.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="306" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/60/Aatsista-Mahkan.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="288" data-file-height="400" /></a><figcaption>Chief <a href="/wiki/Aatsista-Mahkan" title="Aatsista-Mahkan">Aatsista-Mahkan</a>, c.1905.</figcaption></figure> <p>During the summer, the people assembled for nation gatherings. In these large assemblies, warrior societies played an important role for the men. Membership into these societies was based on brave acts and deeds. </p><p>For almost half the year in the long northern winter, the Niitsitapi lived in their winter camps along a wooded river valley. They were located perhaps a day's march apart, not moving camp unless food for the people and horses, or firewood became depleted. Where there was adequate wood and game resources, some bands would camp together. During this part of the year, <a href="/wiki/American_Bison" class="mw-redirect" title="American Bison">buffalo</a> also wintered in wooded areas, where they were partially sheltered from storms and snow. They were easier prey as their movements were hampered. In spring the buffalo moved out onto the grasslands to forage on new spring growth. The Blackfoot did not follow immediately, for fear of late <a href="/wiki/Blizzard" title="Blizzard">blizzards</a>. As dried food or game became depleted, the bands would split up and begin to hunt the buffalo. </p><p>In midsummer, when the <a href="/wiki/Chokecherry" class="mw-redirect" title="Chokecherry">chokecherries</a> ripened, the people regrouped for their major ceremony, the <i>Okan</i> (<a href="/wiki/Sun_Dance" title="Sun Dance">Sun Dance</a>). This was the only time of year when the four nations would assemble. The gathering reinforced the bonds among the various groups and linked individuals with the nations. Communal buffalo hunts provided food for the people, as well as offerings of the bulls' tongues (a delicacy) for the ceremonies. These ceremonies are sacred to the people. After the <i>Okan</i>, the people again separated to follow the buffalo. They used the buffalo hides to make their dwellings and temporary tipis. </p><p>In the fall, the people would gradually shift to their wintering areas. The men would prepare the buffalo jumps and pounds for capturing or driving the bison for hunting. Several groups of people might join at particularly good sites, such as <a href="/wiki/Head-Smashed-In_Buffalo_Jump" title="Head-Smashed-In Buffalo Jump">Head-Smashed-In Buffalo Jump</a>. As the buffalo were naturally driven into the area by the gradual late summer drying off of the open grasslands, the Blackfoot would carry out great communal buffalo kills. </p><p>The women processed the buffalo, preparing dried meat, and combining it for nutrition and flavor with dried fruits into <a href="/wiki/Pemmican" title="Pemmican">pemmican</a>, to last them through winter and other times when hunting was poor. At the end of the fall, the Blackfoot would move to their winter camps. The women worked the buffalo and other game skins for clothing, as well as to reinforce their dwellings; other elements were used to make warm fur robes, leggings, cords and other needed items. Animal sinews were used to tie arrow points and lances to throwing sticks, or for bridles for horses. </p><p>The Niitsitapi maintained this traditional way of life based on hunting bison, until the near <a href="/wiki/Local_extinction" title="Local extinction">extirpation</a> of the bison by 1881 forced them to adapt their ways of life in response to the encroachment of the <a href="/wiki/European_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="European colonization of the Americas">European settlers</a> and their descendants. In the United States, they were restricted to land assigned in the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Fort_Laramie_(1851)" title="Treaty of Fort Laramie (1851)">Fort Laramie Treaty of 1851</a>. Nearly three decades later, they were given a distinct reservation in the Sweetgrass Hills Treaty of 1887. In 1877, the Canadian Niitsitapi signed <a href="/wiki/Treaty_7" title="Treaty 7">Treaty 7</a> and settled on <a href="/wiki/Indian_reserve" title="Indian reserve">reserves</a> in southern Alberta. </p><p>This began a period of great struggle and economic hardship; the Niitsitapi had to try to adapt to a completely new way of life. They suffered a high rate of fatalities when exposed to Eurasian diseases, for which they had no natural immunity. </p><p>Eventually, they established a viable economy based on farming, ranching, and light industry. Their population has increased to about 16,000 in Canada and 15,000 in the U.S. today. With their new economic stability, the Niitsitapi have been free to adapt their culture and traditions to their new circumstances, renewing their connection to their ancient roots. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_history">Early history</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Blackfoot_tipis.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Blackfoot_tipis.jpg/220px-Blackfoot_tipis.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="151" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Blackfoot_tipis.jpg/330px-Blackfoot_tipis.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Blackfoot_tipis.jpg/440px-Blackfoot_tipis.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="440" /></a><figcaption>Blackfoot <a href="/wiki/Teepee" class="mw-redirect" title="Teepee">teepees</a>, <a href="/wiki/Glacier_National_Park_(U.S.)" title="Glacier National Park (U.S.)">Glacier National Park</a>, 1933</figcaption></figure> <p>The Niitsitapi, also known as the Blackfoot or Blackfeet Indians, reside in the Great Plains of Montana and the Canadian provinces of Alberta and Saskatchewan.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Originally, only one of the Niitsitapi tribes was called Blackfoot or Siksika. The name is said to have come from the color of the peoples' <a href="/wiki/Moccasins" class="mw-redirect" title="Moccasins">moccasins</a>, made of leather. They had typically dyed or painted the soles of their moccasins black. One legendary story claimed that the Siksika walked through ashes of prairie fires, which in turn colored the bottoms of their moccasins black.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kainai_travois.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Kainai_travois.jpg/220px-Kainai_travois.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="153" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Kainai_travois.jpg/330px-Kainai_travois.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Kainai_travois.jpg/440px-Kainai_travois.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="445" /></a><figcaption>Kainai (Blood) women with travois.</figcaption></figure> <p>Due to language and cultural patterns, <a href="/wiki/Anthropologists" class="mw-redirect" title="Anthropologists">anthropologists</a> believe the Niitsitapi did not originate in the Great Plains of the Midwest North America, but migrated from the upper Northeastern part of the country. They coalesced as a group while living in the forests of what is now the Northeastern United States. They were mostly located around the modern-day border between Canada and the state of Maine. By 1200, the Niitsitapi were moving in search of more land.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2012)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> They moved west and settled for a while north of the <a href="/wiki/Great_Lakes" title="Great Lakes">Great Lakes</a> in present-day Canada, but had to compete for resources with existing tribes. They left the Great Lakes area and kept moving west.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>When they moved, they usually packed their belongings on an A-shaped sled called a <i><a href="/wiki/Travois" title="Travois">travois</a>.</i> The travois was designed for transport over dry land.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Blackfoot had relied on dogs to pull the <i>travois</i>; they did not acquire horses until the 18th century. From the Great Lakes area, they continued to move west and eventually settled in the Great Plains. </p><p>The Plains had covered approximately 780,000 square miles (2,000,000 km<sup>2</sup>) with the <a href="/wiki/Saskatchewan_River" title="Saskatchewan River">Saskatchewan River</a> to the north, the <a href="/wiki/Rio_Grande" title="Rio Grande">Rio Grande</a> to the south, the <a href="/wiki/Mississippi_River" title="Mississippi River">Mississippi River</a> to the east, and the <a href="/wiki/Rocky_Mountains" title="Rocky Mountains">Rocky Mountains</a> to the west.<sup id="cite_ref-taylor9_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-taylor9-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Adopting the use of the horse, the Niitsitapi established themselves as one of the most powerful Indian tribes on the Plains in the late 18th century, earning themselves the name "The Lords of the Plains."<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Niitsitapi stories trace their residence and possession of their plains territory to "time immemorial." </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Importance_and_uses_of_bison">Importance and uses of bison</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:BuffaloHunters.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/BuffaloHunters.jpg/220px-BuffaloHunters.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="182" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/BuffaloHunters.jpg/330px-BuffaloHunters.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/BuffaloHunters.jpg/440px-BuffaloHunters.jpg 2x" data-file-width="528" data-file-height="437" /></a><figcaption>Bison hunters with wolf skin disguises.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Alfred_Jacob_Miller_-_Hunting_Buffalo_-_Walters_371940190.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Alfred_Jacob_Miller_-_Hunting_Buffalo_-_Walters_371940190.jpg/220px-Alfred_Jacob_Miller_-_Hunting_Buffalo_-_Walters_371940190.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="123" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Alfred_Jacob_Miller_-_Hunting_Buffalo_-_Walters_371940190.jpg/330px-Alfred_Jacob_Miller_-_Hunting_Buffalo_-_Walters_371940190.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Alfred_Jacob_Miller_-_Hunting_Buffalo_-_Walters_371940190.jpg/440px-Alfred_Jacob_Miller_-_Hunting_Buffalo_-_Walters_371940190.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1799" data-file-height="1005" /></a><figcaption>Depiction of Bison being driven over a "buffalo jump".</figcaption></figure> <p>The Niitsitapi main source of food on the plains was the <a href="/wiki/American_bison" title="American bison">American bison</a> (buffalo), the largest mammal in North America, standing about <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1154941027">.mw-parser-output .frac{white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output .frac .num,.mw-parser-output .frac .den{font-size:80%;line-height:0;vertical-align:super}.mw-parser-output .frac .den{vertical-align:sub}.mw-parser-output .sr-only{border:0;clip:rect(0,0,0,0);clip-path:polygon(0px 0px,0px 0px,0px 0px);height:1px;margin:-1px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;position:absolute;width:1px}</style><span class="frac">6<span class="sr-only">+</span><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">2</span></span> feet (2.0 m) tall and weighing up to 2,000 pounds (910 kg).<sup id="cite_ref-David_Murdoch_1937_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-David_Murdoch_1937-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Before the introduction of horses, the Niitsitapi needed other ways to get in range. The <a href="/wiki/Buffalo_jump" title="Buffalo jump">buffalo jump</a> was one of the most common ways. The hunters would round up the buffalo into V-shaped pens, and drive them over a cliff (they hunted <a href="/wiki/Pronghorn" title="Pronghorn">pronghorn</a> antelopes in the same way). Afterwards the hunters would go to the bottom and take as much meat as they could carry back to camp. They also used camouflage for hunting.<sup id="cite_ref-David_Murdoch_1937_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-David_Murdoch_1937-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The hunters would take buffalo skins from previous hunting trips and drape them over their bodies to blend in and mask their scent. By subtle moves, the hunters could get close to the herd. When close enough, the hunters would attack with arrows or spears to kill wounded animals. </p><p>The people used virtually all parts of the body and skin. The women prepared the meat for food: by boiling, roasting or drying for <a href="/wiki/Jerky" title="Jerky">jerky</a>. This processed it to last a long time without spoiling, and they depended on bison meat to get through the winters.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The winters were long, harsh, and cold due to the lack of trees in the Plains, so people stockpiled meat in summer.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a ritual, hunters often ate the bison heart minutes after the kill. The women tanned and prepared the skins to cover the tepees. These were made of log poles, with the skins draped over it. The tepee remained warm in the winter and cool in the summer, and was a great shield against the wind.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The women also made clothing from the skins, such as robes and moccasins, and made soap from the fat. Both men and women made utensils, sewing needles and tools from the bones, using tendon for fastening and binding. The stomach and bladder were cleaned and prepared for use for storing liquids. Dried bison dung was fuel for the fires. The Niitsitapi considered the animal sacred and integral to their lives.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Discovery_and_uses_of_horses">Discovery and uses of horses</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bodmer_--_Blackfoot_Indian,_1840-1843.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Bodmer_--_Blackfoot_Indian%2C_1840-1843.jpg/220px-Bodmer_--_Blackfoot_Indian%2C_1840-1843.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Bodmer_--_Blackfoot_Indian%2C_1840-1843.jpg/330px-Bodmer_--_Blackfoot_Indian%2C_1840-1843.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Bodmer_--_Blackfoot_Indian%2C_1840-1843.jpg/440px-Bodmer_--_Blackfoot_Indian%2C_1840-1843.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2792" data-file-height="2141" /></a><figcaption>Mounted Blackfoot warrior on horse painted from life by <a href="/wiki/Karl_Bodmer" title="Karl Bodmer">Karl Bodmer</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Up until around 1730, the Blackfoot traveled by foot and used dogs to carry and pull some of their goods. They had not seen horses in their previous lands, but were introduced to them on the Plains, as other tribes, such as the <a href="/wiki/Shoshone" title="Shoshone">Shoshone</a>, had already adopted their use.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They saw the advantages of horses and wanted some. The Blackfoot called the horses <i>ponokamita</i> (elk dogs).<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The horses could carry much more weight than dogs and moved at a greater speed. They could be ridden for hunting and travel.<sup id="cite_ref-Murdoch,_North_American_Indian,_28_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Murdoch,_North_American_Indian,_28-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Three_chiefs_Piegan_p.39-2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Three_chiefs_Piegan_p.39-2.jpg/220px-Three_chiefs_Piegan_p.39-2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Three_chiefs_Piegan_p.39-2.jpg/330px-Three_chiefs_Piegan_p.39-2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Three_chiefs_Piegan_p.39-2.jpg/440px-Three_chiefs_Piegan_p.39-2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3047" data-file-height="2077" /></a><figcaption>Three mounted Piegan chiefs on the prairie. Photographed by <a href="/wiki/Edward_S._Curtis" title="Edward S. Curtis">Edward S. Curtis</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Horses revolutionised life on the Great Plains and soon came to be regarded as a measure of wealth. Warriors regularly raided other tribes for their best horses. Horses were generally used as universal standards of barter. <a href="/wiki/Medicine_Man" class="mw-redirect" title="Medicine Man">Medicine men</a> were paid for cures and healing with horses. Those who designed shields or war bonnets were also paid in horses.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The men gave horses to those who were owed gifts as well as to the needy. An individual's wealth rose with the number of horses accumulated, but a man did not keep an abundance of them. The individual's prestige and status was judged by the number of horses that he could give away. For the Indians who lived on the Plains, the principal value of property was to share it with others.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Blackfoot_warriors,_Macleod,_Alberta_(HS85-10-18724).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Blackfoot_warriors%2C_Macleod%2C_Alberta_%28HS85-10-18724%29.jpg/220px-Blackfoot_warriors%2C_Macleod%2C_Alberta_%28HS85-10-18724%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="175" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Blackfoot_warriors%2C_Macleod%2C_Alberta_%28HS85-10-18724%29.jpg/330px-Blackfoot_warriors%2C_Macleod%2C_Alberta_%28HS85-10-18724%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Blackfoot_warriors%2C_Macleod%2C_Alberta_%28HS85-10-18724%29.jpg/440px-Blackfoot_warriors%2C_Macleod%2C_Alberta_%28HS85-10-18724%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1497" data-file-height="1191" /></a><figcaption>Blackfoot warriors at Fort MacLeod, 1907</figcaption></figure> <p>After driving the hostile Shoshone and <a href="/wiki/Arapaho_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Arapaho people">Arapaho</a> from the Northwestern Plains, the Niitsitapi began in 1800 a long phase of keen competition in the fur trade with their former Cree allies, which often escalated militarily. In addition both groups had adapted to using horses about 1730, so by mid-century an adequate supply of horses became a question of survival. Horse theft was at this stage not only a proof of courage, but often a desperate contribution to survival, for many ethnic groups competed for hunting in the grasslands. </p><p>The Cree and Assiniboine continued horse raiding against the Gros Ventre (in Cree: <i>Pawistiko Iyiniwak</i> – "Rapids People" – "People of the Rapids"), allies of the Niitsitapi. The Gros Ventres were also known as <i>Niya Wati Inew</i>, <i>Naywattamee</i> ("They Live in Holes People"), because their tribal lands were along the <a href="/wiki/Saskatchewan_River_Forks" title="Saskatchewan River Forks">Saskatchewan River Forks</a> (the confluence of North and South Saskatchewan River). They had to withstand attacks of enemies with guns. In retaliation for <a href="/wiki/Hudson%27s_Bay_Company" title="Hudson's Bay Company">Hudson's Bay Company</a> (HBC) supplying their enemies with weapons, the Gros Ventre attacked and burned in 1793 <a href="/wiki/South_Branch_House" title="South Branch House">South Branch House</a> of the HBC on the South Saskatchewan River near the present village of <a href="/wiki/St._Louis,_Saskatchewan" title="St. Louis, Saskatchewan">St. Louis, Saskatchewan</a>. Then, the tribe moved southward to the <a href="/wiki/Milk_River_(Alberta%E2%80%93Montana)" title="Milk River (Alberta–Montana)">Milk River</a> in Montana and allied themselves with the Blackfoot. The area between the North Saskatchewan River and <a href="/wiki/Battle_River" title="Battle River">Battle River</a> (the name derives from the war fought between these two tribal groups) was the limit of the now warring tribal alliances.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Enemies_and_warrior_culture">Enemies and warrior culture</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:CM_Russell_When_Blackfoot_And_Sioux_Meet.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/CM_Russell_When_Blackfoot_And_Sioux_Meet.jpeg/220px-CM_Russell_When_Blackfoot_And_Sioux_Meet.jpeg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/CM_Russell_When_Blackfoot_And_Sioux_Meet.jpeg/330px-CM_Russell_When_Blackfoot_And_Sioux_Meet.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/CM_Russell_When_Blackfoot_And_Sioux_Meet.jpeg/440px-CM_Russell_When_Blackfoot_And_Sioux_Meet.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="768" /></a><figcaption> <i>When Blackfoot and Sioux Meet</i> by western artist <a href="/wiki/Charles_Marion_Russell" title="Charles Marion Russell">Charles Marion Russell</a>.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Death_of_Omoxesisixany_or_Big_Snake.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/The_Death_of_Omoxesisixany_or_Big_Snake.jpg/220px-The_Death_of_Omoxesisixany_or_Big_Snake.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="175" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/The_Death_of_Omoxesisixany_or_Big_Snake.jpg/330px-The_Death_of_Omoxesisixany_or_Big_Snake.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/The_Death_of_Omoxesisixany_or_Big_Snake.jpg/440px-The_Death_of_Omoxesisixany_or_Big_Snake.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="510" /></a><figcaption><i>The Death of Omoxesisixany or Big Snake</i> by <a href="/wiki/Paul_Kane" title="Paul Kane">Paul Kane</a>, depicting a battle between a Blackfoot and Plains Cree warrior on horseback.</figcaption></figure> <p>Blackfoot war parties would ride hundreds of miles on raids. A boy on his first war party was given a silly or derogatory name. But after he had stolen his first horse or killed an enemy, he was given a name to honor him. Warriors would strive to perform various acts of bravery called <a href="/wiki/Counting_coup" title="Counting coup">counting coup</a>, in order to move up in social rank. The coups in order of importance were: taking a gun from a living enemy and or touching him directly; capturing lances, and bows; scalping an enemy; killing an enemy; freeing a tied horse from in front of an enemy lodge; leading a war party; scouting for a war party; stealing headdresses, shields, pipes (sacred ceremonial pipes); and driving a herd of stolen horses back to camp.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Blackfeet_Burning_Crow_Buffalo_Range.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Blackfeet_Burning_Crow_Buffalo_Range.jpg/220px-Blackfeet_Burning_Crow_Buffalo_Range.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="153" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Blackfeet_Burning_Crow_Buffalo_Range.jpg/330px-Blackfeet_Burning_Crow_Buffalo_Range.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Blackfeet_Burning_Crow_Buffalo_Range.jpg/440px-Blackfeet_Burning_Crow_Buffalo_Range.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1216" data-file-height="844" /></a><figcaption><i>Blackfeet Burning Crow Buffalo Range</i> by <a href="/wiki/Charles_Marion_Russell" title="Charles Marion Russell">Charles Marion Russell</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>The Niitsitapi were enemies of the <a href="/wiki/Crow_Nation" class="mw-redirect" title="Crow Nation">Crow</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cheyenne" title="Cheyenne">Cheyenne</a> (<i>kiihtsipimiitapi</i> – ″Pinto People″), and <a href="/wiki/Sioux" title="Sioux">Sioux</a> (Dakota, Lakota, and Nakota) (called <i>pinaapisinaa</i> – "East Cree") on the Great Plains; and the <a href="/wiki/Shoshone" title="Shoshone">Shoshone</a>, <a href="/wiki/Confederated_Salish_and_Kootenai_Tribes_of_the_Flathead_Nation" class="mw-redirect" title="Confederated Salish and Kootenai Tribes of the Flathead Nation">Flathead</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pend_d%27Oreilles_(tribe)" class="mw-redirect" title="Pend d'Oreilles (tribe)">Kalispel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ktunaxa" class="mw-redirect" title="Ktunaxa">Kootenai</a> (called <i>kotonáá'wa</i>) and <a href="/wiki/Nez_Perce_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Nez Perce people">Nez Perce</a> (called <i>komonóítapiikoan</i>) in the mountain country to their west and southwest. Their most mighty and most dangerous enemy, however, were the political/military/trading alliance of the <a href="/wiki/Iron_Confederacy" title="Iron Confederacy">Iron Confederacy</a> or <i>Nehiyaw-Pwat</i> (in <a href="/wiki/Plains_Cree_language" title="Plains Cree language">Plains Cree</a>: <i>Nehiyaw</i> – 'Cree' and <i>Pwat</i> or <i>Pwat-sak</i> – 'Sioux, i.e. Assiniboine') – named after the dominating <a href="/wiki/Cree" title="Cree">Plains Cree</a> (called <i>Asinaa</i>) and <a href="/wiki/Assiniboine_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Assiniboine people">Assiniboine</a> (called <i>Niitsísinaa</i> – "Original Cree"). These included the <a href="/wiki/Nakoda_(Stoney)" class="mw-redirect" title="Nakoda (Stoney)">Stoney</a> (called <i>Saahsáísso'kitaki</i> or <i>Sahsi-sokitaki</i> – ″Sarcee trying to cut″),<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Saulteaux" title="Saulteaux">Saulteaux</a> (or <a href="/wiki/Plains_Ojibwe" class="mw-redirect" title="Plains Ojibwe">Plains Ojibwe</a>), and <a href="/wiki/M%C3%A9tis_people_(Canada)" class="mw-redirect" title="Métis people (Canada)">Métis</a> to the north, east and southeast. </p><p>With the expansion of the <i>Nehiyaw-Pwat</i> to the north, west and southwest, they integrated larger groups of <a href="/wiki/Iroquois" title="Iroquois">Iroquois</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chipewyan" title="Chipewyan">Chipewyan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Danezaa_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Danezaa people">Danezaa</a> (<i>Dunneza</i> – 'The real (prototypical) people'),<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ktunaxa, Flathead, and later <a href="/wiki/Gros_Ventre_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Gros Ventre people">Gros Ventre</a> (called <i>atsíína</i> – "Gut People" or "like a Cree"), in their local groups. Loosely allied with the <i>Nehiyaw-Pwat</i>, but politically independent, were neighboring tribes like the <a href="/wiki/Ktunaxa" class="mw-redirect" title="Ktunaxa">Ktunaxa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Secwepemc" class="mw-redirect" title="Secwepemc">Secwepemc</a> and in particular the arch enemy of the Blackfoot, the Crow, or Indian trading partners like the Nez Perce and Flathead.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Shoshone acquired horses much sooner than the Blackfoot and soon occupied much of present-day Alberta, most of Montana, and parts of Wyoming, and raided the Blackfoot frequently. Once the Piegan gained access to horses of their own and guns, obtained from the HBC via the Cree and Assiniboine, the situation changed. By 1787 David Thompson reports that the Blackfoot had completely conquered most of Shoshone territory, and frequently captured Shoshone women and children and forcibly assimilated them into Blackfoot society, further increasing their advantages over the Shoshone. Thompson reports that Blackfoot territory in 1787 was from the North Saskatchewan River in the north to the Missouri River in the South, and from Rocky Mountains in the west out to a distance of 300 miles (480 km) to the east.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Between 1790 and 1850, the <i>Nehiyaw-Pwat</i> were at the height of their power; they could successfully defend their territories against the Sioux (Lakota, Nakota and Dakota) and the Niitsitapi Confederacy. During the so-called Buffalo Wars (about 1850 – 1870), they penetrated further and further into the territory from the Niitsitapi Confederacy in search for the buffalo, so that the Piegan were forced to give way in the region of the Missouri River (in Cree: <i>Pikano Sipi</i> – "Muddy River", "Muddy, turbid River"), the Kainai withdrew to the <a href="/wiki/Bow_River" title="Bow River">Bow River</a> and <a href="/wiki/Belly_River" title="Belly River">Belly River</a>; only the Siksika could hold their tribal lands along the <a href="/wiki/Red_Deer_River" title="Red Deer River">Red Deer River</a>. Around 1870, the alliance between the Blackfoot and the Gros Ventre broke, and the latter began to look to their former enemies, the Southern Assiniboine (or Plains Assiniboine), for protection. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="First_contact_with_Europeans_and_the_fur_trade">First contact with Europeans and the fur trade</h3></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Anthony_Henday" title="Anthony Henday">Anthony Henday</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Hudson%27s_Bay_Company" title="Hudson's Bay Company">Hudson's Bay Company</a> (HBC) met a large Blackfoot group in 1754 in what is now <a href="/wiki/Alberta" title="Alberta">Alberta</a>. The Blackfoot had established dealings with traders connected to the Canadian and English fur trade before meeting the <a href="/wiki/Lewis_and_Clark_Expedition" title="Lewis and Clark Expedition">Lewis and Clark Expedition</a> in 1806.<sup id="cite_ref-Ambrose_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ambrose-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Lewis and Clark and their men had embarked on mapping the Louisiana Territory and upper <a href="/wiki/Missouri_River" title="Missouri River">Missouri River</a> for the <a href="/wiki/United_States_government" class="mw-redirect" title="United States government">United States government</a>. </p><p>On their return trip from the Pacific Coast, Lewis and three of his men encountered a group of young Blackfoot warriors with a large herd of horses, and it was clear to <a href="/wiki/Meriwether_Lewis" title="Meriwether Lewis">Meriwether Lewis</a> that they were not far from much larger groups of warriors. Lewis explained to them that the United States government wanted peace with all Indian nations,<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and that the US leaders had successfully formed alliances with other Indian nations.<sup id="cite_ref-Ambrose_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ambrose-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The group camped together that night, and at dawn there was a scuffle as it was discovered that the Blackfoot were trying to steal guns and run off with their horses while the Americans slept. In the ensuing struggle, one warrior was fatally stabbed and another shot by Lewis and presumed killed.<sup id="cite_ref-Gibson,_23-29_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gibson,_23-29-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In subsequent years, American <a href="/wiki/Mountain_man" title="Mountain man">mountain men</a> trapping in Blackfoot country generally encountered hostility. When <a href="/wiki/John_Colter" title="John Colter">John Colter</a>, a member of the Lewis and Clark Expedition, returned to Blackfoot country soon after, he barely escaped with his life. In 1809, Colter and his companion were trapping on the Jefferson River by canoe when they were surrounded by hundreds of Blackfoot warriors on horseback on both sides of the river bank. Colter's companion, John Potts, did not surrender and was killed. Colter was stripped of his clothes and forced to run for his life, after being given a head start (famously known in the annals of the West as "Colter's Run.") He eventually escaped by reaching a river five miles away and diving under either an island of <a href="/wiki/Driftwood" title="Driftwood">driftwood</a> or a <a href="/wiki/Beaver_dam" title="Beaver dam">beaver dam</a>, where he remained concealed until after nightfall. He trekked another 300 miles to a fort.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:George_Catlin_-_Buffalo_Bulls_Back_Fat_-_Smithsonian.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/George_Catlin_-_Buffalo_Bulls_Back_Fat_-_Smithsonian.jpg/220px-George_Catlin_-_Buffalo_Bulls_Back_Fat_-_Smithsonian.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="268" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/George_Catlin_-_Buffalo_Bulls_Back_Fat_-_Smithsonian.jpg/330px-George_Catlin_-_Buffalo_Bulls_Back_Fat_-_Smithsonian.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/George_Catlin_-_Buffalo_Bulls_Back_Fat_-_Smithsonian.jpg/440px-George_Catlin_-_Buffalo_Bulls_Back_Fat_-_Smithsonian.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3289" data-file-height="4000" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Buffalo_Bull%27s_Back_Fat" title="Buffalo Bull's Back Fat">Buffalo Bull's Back Fat</a>, Head Chief, of the Blood Tribe by <a href="/wiki/George_Catlin" title="George Catlin">George Catlin</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>In the context of shifting tribal politics due to the spread of horses and guns, the Niitsitapi initially tried to increase their trade with the HBC traders in <a href="/wiki/Rupert%27s_Land" title="Rupert's Land">Rupert's Land</a> whilst blocking access to the HBC by neighboring peoples to the West. But the HBC trade eventually reached into what is now inland British Columbia. </p> <blockquote><p>By the late 1820s, [this prompted] the Niitsitapiksi, and in particular the Piikani, whose territory was rich in beaver, [to] temporarily put aside cultural prohibitions and environmental constraints to trap enormous numbers of these animals and, in turn, receive greater quantities of trade items.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mehkskeme-Sukahs_cropped.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Mehkskeme-Sukahs_cropped.jpg/220px-Mehkskeme-Sukahs_cropped.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="296" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Mehkskeme-Sukahs_cropped.jpg/330px-Mehkskeme-Sukahs_cropped.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Mehkskeme-Sukahs_cropped.jpg/440px-Mehkskeme-Sukahs_cropped.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1791" data-file-height="2407" /></a><figcaption><i>Mehkskeme-Sukahs</i>, Blackfoot chief (c. 1840).</figcaption></figure> <p>The HBC encouraged Niitsitapiksi to trade by setting up posts on the <a href="/wiki/North_Saskatchewan_River" title="North Saskatchewan River">North Saskatchewan River</a>, on the northern boundary of their territory. In the 1830s the Rocky Mountain region and the wider Saskatchewan District were the HBC's most profitable, and <a href="/wiki/Rocky_Mountain_House" title="Rocky Mountain House">Rocky Mountain House</a> was the HBC's busiest post. It was primarily used by the Piikani. Other Niitsitapiksi nations traded more in pemmican and buffalo skins than beaver, and visited other posts such as <a href="/wiki/Fort_Edmonton" title="Fort Edmonton">Fort Edmonton</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Meanwhile, in 1822, the <a href="/wiki/American_Fur_Company" title="American Fur Company">American Fur Company</a> entered the Upper Missouri region from the south for the first time, without Niitsitapiksi permission. This led to tensions and conflict until 1830, when peaceful trade was established. This was followed by the opening of Fort Piegan as the first American trading post in Niitsitapi territory in 1831, joined by <a href="/wiki/Fort_MacKenzie" class="mw-redirect" title="Fort MacKenzie">Fort MacKenzie</a> in 1833. The Americans offered better terms of trade and were more interested in buffalo skins than the HBC, which brought them more trade from the Niitsitapi. The HBC responded by building Bow Fort (Peigan Post) on the <a href="/wiki/Bow_River" title="Bow River">Bow River</a> in 1832, but it was not a success.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1833, German explorer <a href="/wiki/Prince_Maximilian_of_Wied-Neuwied" title="Prince Maximilian of Wied-Neuwied">Prince Maximilian of Wied-Neuwied</a> and Swiss painter <a href="/wiki/Karl_Bodmer" title="Karl Bodmer">Karl Bodmer</a> spent months with the Niitsitapi to get a sense of their culture. Bodmer portrayed their society in paintings and drawings.<sup id="cite_ref-Gibson,_23-29_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gibson,_23-29-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Contact with the Europeans caused a spread of <a href="/wiki/Infectious_diseases" class="mw-redirect" title="Infectious diseases">infectious diseases</a> to the Niitsitapi, mostly <a href="/wiki/Cholera" title="Cholera">cholera</a> and <a href="/wiki/Smallpox" title="Smallpox">smallpox</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In one instance in 1837, an <a href="/wiki/American_Fur_Company" title="American Fur Company">American Fur Company</a> steamboat, the <i>St. Peter's</i>, was headed to <a href="/wiki/Fort_Union_National_Monument" title="Fort Union National Monument">Fort Union</a> and several passengers contracted smallpox on the way. They continued to send a smaller vessel with supplies farther up the river to posts among the Niitsitapi. The Niitsitapi contracted the disease and eventually 6,000 died, marking an end to their dominance among tribes over the Plains. The <a href="/wiki/Hudson%27s_Bay_Company" title="Hudson's Bay Company">Hudson's Bay Company</a> did not require or help their employees get vaccinated; the English doctor <a href="/wiki/Edward_Jenner" title="Edward Jenner">Edward Jenner</a> had developed a technique 41 years before but its use was not yet widespread.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Indian_Wars">Indian Wars</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Single-Handed,_Charles_Marion_Russell_1912.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Single-Handed%2C_Charles_Marion_Russell_1912.jpg/220px-Single-Handed%2C_Charles_Marion_Russell_1912.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="196" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Single-Handed%2C_Charles_Marion_Russell_1912.jpg/330px-Single-Handed%2C_Charles_Marion_Russell_1912.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Single-Handed%2C_Charles_Marion_Russell_1912.jpg/440px-Single-Handed%2C_Charles_Marion_Russell_1912.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1800" data-file-height="1605" /></a><figcaption><i>Single-Handed</i>, <a href="/wiki/Charles_Marion_Russell" title="Charles Marion Russell">Charles Marion Russell</a> 1912. The painting shows a North-West Mounted Police officer attempting to arrest a defiant warrior at a Blood camp, probably in Alberta or Saskatchewan.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Winnipeg_Jack_1890.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Winnipeg_Jack_1890.jpg/220px-Winnipeg_Jack_1890.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="271" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Winnipeg_Jack_1890.jpg/330px-Winnipeg_Jack_1890.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Winnipeg_Jack_1890.jpg/440px-Winnipeg_Jack_1890.jpg 2x" data-file-width="554" data-file-height="682" /></a><figcaption>Dog Child (<i>Winnipeg Jack</i>), a Blackfoot scout and interpreter for the NWMP.</figcaption></figure> <p>Like many other Great Plains Indian nations, the Niitsitapi often had hostile relationships with white settlers. Despite the hostilities, the Blackfoot stayed largely out of the Great Plains Indian Wars, neither fighting against nor scouting for the United States army. One of their friendly bands, however, was attacked by mistake and nearly destroyed by the US Army in the <a href="/wiki/Marias_Massacre" title="Marias Massacre">Marias Massacre</a> on 23 January 1870, undertaken as an action to suppress violence against settlers. A friendly relationship with the <a href="/wiki/North-West_Mounted_Police" title="North-West Mounted Police">North-West Mounted Police</a> and learning of the brutality of the Marias Massacre discouraged the Blackfoot from engaging in wars against Canada and the United States. </p><p>When the <a href="/wiki/Lakota_people" title="Lakota people">Lakota</a>, together with their <a href="/wiki/Cheyenne_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Cheyenne people">Cheyenne</a> and <a href="/wiki/Arapaho" title="Arapaho">Arapaho</a> allies, were fighting the United States Army, they sent runners into Blackfoot territory, urging them to join the fight. <a href="/wiki/Crowfoot" title="Crowfoot">Crowfoot</a>, one of the most influential Blackfoot chiefs, dismissed the Lakota messengers. He threatened to ally with the NWMP to fight them if they came north into Blackfoot country again. News of Crowfoot's loyalty reached <a href="/wiki/Ottawa" title="Ottawa">Ottawa</a> and from there <a href="/wiki/London" title="London">London</a>; <a href="/wiki/Queen_Victoria" title="Queen Victoria">Queen Victoria</a> praised Crowfoot and the Blackfoot for their loyalty.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite his threats, Crowfoot later met those Lakota who had fled with <a href="/wiki/Sitting_Bull" title="Sitting Bull">Sitting Bull</a> into Canada after defeating <a href="/wiki/George_Armstrong_Custer" title="George Armstrong Custer">George Armstrong Custer</a> and his battalion at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Little_Big_Horn" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Little Big Horn">Battle of Little Big Horn</a>. Crowfoot considered the Lakota then to be refugees and was sympathetic to their strife, but retained his anti-war stance. Sitting Bull and Crowfoot fostered peace between the two nations by a ceremonial offering of tobacco, ending hostilities between them. Sitting Bull was so impressed by Crowfoot that he named one of his sons after him.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Blackfoot also chose to stay out of the <a href="/wiki/North-West_Rebellion" title="North-West Rebellion">North-West Rebellion</a>, led by the famous <a href="/wiki/M%C3%A9tis" title="Métis">Métis</a> leader <a href="/wiki/Louis_Riel" title="Louis Riel">Louis Riel</a>. Louis Riel and his men added to the already unsettled conditions facing the Blackfoot by camping near them. They tried to spread discontent with the government and gain a powerful ally. The North-West Rebellion was made up mostly of Métis, <a href="/wiki/Assiniboine_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Assiniboine people">Assiniboine</a> (Nakota) and <a href="/wiki/Cree" title="Cree">Plains Cree</a>, who all fought against European encroachment and destruction of Bison herds. The Plains Cree were one of the Blackfoot's most hated enemies; however, the two nations made peace when Crowfoot adopted <a href="/wiki/Poundmaker" title="Poundmaker">Poundmaker</a>, an influential Cree chief and great peacemaker, as his son. Although he refused to fight, Crowfoot had sympathy for those with the rebellion, especially the Cree led by such notable chiefs as Poundmaker, <a href="/wiki/Big_Bear" title="Big Bear">Big Bear</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wandering_Spirit_(Cree_leader)" title="Wandering Spirit (Cree leader)">Wandering Spirit</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fine-Day" title="Fine-Day">Fine-Day</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Dempsey_1972_pp._188-192_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dempsey_1972_pp._188-192-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>When news of continued Blackfoot neutrality reached Ottawa, <a href="/wiki/Henry_Petty-Fitzmaurice,_5th_Marquess_of_Lansdowne" title="Henry Petty-Fitzmaurice, 5th Marquess of Lansdowne">Lord Lansdowne</a>, the governor general, expressed his thanks to Crowfoot again on behalf of the Queen back in London. The cabinet of <a href="/wiki/John_A._Macdonald" title="John A. Macdonald">John A. Macdonald</a> (the current <a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Canada" title="Prime Minister of Canada">Prime Minister of Canada</a> at the time) gave Crowfoot a round of applause.<sup id="cite_ref-Dempsey_1972_pp._188-192_39-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dempsey_1972_pp._188-192-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Further_encroachment_by_Canada_and_United_States">Further encroachment by Canada and United States</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chief_Mountain,_Blackfeet.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Chief_Mountain%2C_Blackfeet.jpg/220px-Chief_Mountain%2C_Blackfeet.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="279" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Chief_Mountain%2C_Blackfeet.jpg/330px-Chief_Mountain%2C_Blackfeet.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Chief_Mountain%2C_Blackfeet.jpg/440px-Chief_Mountain%2C_Blackfeet.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1183" data-file-height="1500" /></a><figcaption>Colorized photograph of chief <a href="/wiki/Mountain_Chief" title="Mountain Chief">Mountain Chief</a></figcaption></figure> <p>During the mid-1800s, the Niitsitapi faced a dwindling food supply, as European-American hunters were hired by the U.S. government to kill bison so the Blackfeet would remain in their reservation. Settlers were also encroaching on their territory. Without the buffalo, the Niitsitapi were forced to depend on the United States government for food supplies.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1855, the Niitsitapi chief Lame Bull made a peace treaty with the United States government. The Lame Bull Treaty promised the Niitsitapi $20,000 annually in goods and services in exchange for their moving onto a reservation.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1860, very few buffalo were left, and the Niitsitapi became completely dependent on government supplies. Often the food was spoiled by the time they received it, or supplies failed to arrive at all. Hungry and desperate, Blackfoot raided white settlements for food and supplies, and outlaws on both sides stirred up trouble.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="what kind of outlaw, what kind of trouble (June 2023)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Events were catalyzed by Owl Child, a young Piegan warrior who stole a herd of horses in 1867 from an American trader named Malcolm Clarke. Clarke retaliated by tracking Owl Child down and severely beating him in full view of Owl Child's camp, and humiliating him. According to Piegan oral history, Clarke had also raped Owl Child's wife. But, Clarke was long married to Coth-co-co-na, a Piegan woman who was Owl Child's cousin.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The raped woman gave birth to a child as a result of the rape, which oral history said was stillborn or killed by band elders.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Two years after the beating, in 1869 Owl Child and some associates killed Clarke at his ranch after dinner, and severely wounded his son Horace. Public outcry from news of the event led to General <a href="/wiki/Philip_Sheridan" title="Philip Sheridan">Philip Sheridan</a> to dispatch a band of cavalry, led by Major Eugene Baker, to find Owl Child and his camp and punish them. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Frances_Densmore_recording_Mountain_Chief2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Frances_Densmore_recording_Mountain_Chief2.jpg/220px-Frances_Densmore_recording_Mountain_Chief2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="274" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Frances_Densmore_recording_Mountain_Chief2.jpg/330px-Frances_Densmore_recording_Mountain_Chief2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Frances_Densmore_recording_Mountain_Chief2.jpg/440px-Frances_Densmore_recording_Mountain_Chief2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2986" data-file-height="3724" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Frances_Densmore" title="Frances Densmore">Frances Densmore</a> plays a recording for chief <a href="/wiki/Mountain_Chief" title="Mountain Chief">Mountain Chief</a> for the <a href="/wiki/Bureau_of_American_Ethnology" title="Bureau of American Ethnology">Bureau of American Ethnology</a> in 1916.</figcaption></figure> <p>On 23 January 1870, a camp of Piegan Indians were spotted by army scouts and reported to the dispatched cavalry, but it was mistakenly identified as a hostile band. Around 200 soldiers surrounded the camp the following morning and prepared for an ambush. Before the command to fire, the chief Heavy Runner was alerted to soldiers on the snowy bluffs above the encampment. He walked toward them, carrying his safe-conduct paper. Heavy Runner and his band of Piegans shared peace between American settlers and troops at the time of the event. Heavy Runner was shot and killed by army scout Joe Cobell, whose wife was part of the camp of the hostile <a href="/wiki/Mountain_Chief" title="Mountain Chief">Mountain Chief</a>, further along the river, from whom he wanted to divert attention. Fellow scout Joe Kipp had realized the error and tried to signal the troops. He was threatened by the cavalry for reporting that the people they attacked were friendly.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Following the death of Heavy Runner, the soldiers attacked the camp. According to their count, they killed 173 Piegan and suffered just one U.S. Army soldier casualty, who fell off his horse and broke his leg, dying of complications. Most of the victims were women, children and the elderly, as most of the younger men were out hunting. The Army took 140 Piegan prisoner and then released them. With their camp and belongings destroyed, they suffered terribly from exposure, making their way as refugees to <a href="/wiki/Fort_Benton,_Montana" title="Fort Benton, Montana">Fort Benton</a>. </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The greatest slaughter of Indians ever made by U.S. Troops</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Lieutenant <a href="/wiki/Gus_Doane" class="mw-redirect" title="Gus Doane">Gus Doane</a>, commander of F Company</cite></div></blockquote> <p>As reports of the massacre gradually were learned in the east, members of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Congress" title="United States Congress">United States Congress</a> and press were outraged. General <a href="/wiki/William_Tecumseh_Sherman" title="William Tecumseh Sherman">William Tecumseh Sherman</a> reported that most of the killed were warriors under Mountain Chief. An official investigation never occurred, and no official monument marks the spot of the massacre. Compared to events such as the massacres at <a href="/wiki/Wounded_Knee_Massacre" title="Wounded Knee Massacre">Wounded Knee</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sand_Creek_Massacre" class="mw-redirect" title="Sand Creek Massacre">Sand Creek</a>, the Marias Massacre remains largely unknown. But, it confirmed President <a href="/wiki/Ulysses_S._Grant" title="Ulysses S. Grant">Ulysses S. Grant</a> in his decision not to allow the Army to take over the Bureau of Indian Affairs, as it had been suggesting to combat corruption among Indian agents. Grant chose to appoint numerous Quakers to those positions as he pursued a peace policy with Native Americans. </p><p>The Cree and Assiniboine also suffered from the dwindling herds of the buffalo. By 1850 herds were found almost exclusively on the territory of the Blackfoot. Therefore, in 1870 various <i>Nehiyaw-Pwat</i> bands began a final effort to get hold of their prey, by beginning a war. They hoped to defeat the Blackfoot weakened by smallpox and attacked a camp near <a href="/wiki/Fort_Whoop-Up" title="Fort Whoop-Up">Fort Whoop-Up</a> (called <i>Akaisakoyi</i> – "Many Dead"). But they were defeated in the so-called <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Belly_River" title="Battle of the Belly River">Battle of the Belly River</a> (near <a href="/wiki/Lethbridge" title="Lethbridge">Lethbridge</a>, called <i>Assini-etomochi</i> – "where we slaughtered the Cree") and lost over 300 warriors. The next winter the hunger compelled them to negotiate with the Niitsitapi, with whom they made a final lasting peace. </p><p>The United States passed laws that adversely affected the Niitsitapi. In 1874, the US Congress voted to change the Niitsitapi reservation borders without discussing it with the Niitsitapi. They received no other land or compensation for the land lost, and in response, the Kainai, Siksika, and Piegan moved to Canada; only the Pikuni remained in Montana.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The winter of 1883–1884 became known as "Starvation Winter" because no government supplies came in, and the buffalo were gone. That winter, 600 Niitsitapi died of hunger.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In efforts to <a href="/wiki/Cultural_assimilation_of_Native_Americans" title="Cultural assimilation of Native Americans">assimilate</a> the Native Americans to European-American ways, in 1898, the government dismantled tribal governments and outlawed the practice of traditional Indian religions. They required Blackfoot children to go to <a href="/wiki/American_Indian_boarding_schools" title="American Indian boarding schools">boarding schools</a>, where they were forbidden to speak their native language, practise customs, or wear traditional clothing.<sup id="cite_ref-Gibson,_31-42_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gibson,_31-42-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1907, the United States government adopted a policy of allotment of reservation land to individual heads of families to encourage family farming and break up the communal tribal lands. Each household received a 160-acre (65 ha) farm, and the government declared the remainder "surplus" to the tribe's needs. It put it up for sale for development.<sup id="cite_ref-Gibson,_31-42_47-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gibson,_31-42-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The allotments were too small to support farming on the arid plains. A 1919 drought destroyed crops and increased the cost of beef. Many Indians were forced to sell their allotted land and pay taxes which the government said they owed.<sup id="cite_ref-Murdoch,_North_American_Indian,_29_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Murdoch,_North_American_Indian,_29-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1934 the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Reorganization_Act" title="Indian Reorganization Act">Indian Reorganization Act</a>, passed by the Franklin D. Roosevelt administration, ended allotments and allowed the tribes to choose their own government. They were also allowed to practise their cultures.<sup id="cite_ref-Murdoch,_North_American_Indian,_29_48-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Murdoch,_North_American_Indian,_29-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1935, the <a href="/wiki/Blackfeet_Indian_Reservation" class="mw-redirect" title="Blackfeet Indian Reservation">Blackfeet Nation</a> of Montana began a Tribal Business Council. After that, they wrote and passed their own Constitution, with an elected representative government.<sup id="cite_ref-Gibson,_35-42_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gibson,_35-42-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Culture">Culture</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Electing_a_leader">Electing a leader</h3></div> <p>Family was highly valued by the Blackfoot Indians. For traveling, they also split into bands of 20–30 people, but would come together for times of celebration.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They valued leadership skills and chose the <a href="/wiki/Tribal_chief" title="Tribal chief">chiefs</a> who would run their settlements wisely. During times of peace, the people would elect a peace chief, meaning someone who could lead the people and improve relations with other tribes. The title of war chief could not be gained through election and needed to be earned by successfully performing various acts of bravery including touching a living enemy.<sup id="cite_ref-gibson17_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gibson17-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Blackfoot bands often had minor chiefs in addition to an appointed head chief. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Societies">Societies</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Scalp_dance,_Blackfoot_Indians_(HS85-10-18743).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Scalp_dance%2C_Blackfoot_Indians_%28HS85-10-18743%29.jpg/220px-Scalp_dance%2C_Blackfoot_Indians_%28HS85-10-18743%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="175" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Scalp_dance%2C_Blackfoot_Indians_%28HS85-10-18743%29.jpg/330px-Scalp_dance%2C_Blackfoot_Indians_%28HS85-10-18743%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Scalp_dance%2C_Blackfoot_Indians_%28HS85-10-18743%29.jpg/440px-Scalp_dance%2C_Blackfoot_Indians_%28HS85-10-18743%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1414" data-file-height="1122" /></a><figcaption>Scalp dance, Blackfoot Indians, 1907</figcaption></figure> <p>Within the Blackfoot nation, there were different societies to which people belonged, each of which had functions for the tribe. Young people were invited into societies after proving themselves by recognized passages and rituals. For instance, young men had to perform a vision quest, begun by a spiritual cleansing in a <a href="/wiki/Sweat_lodge" title="Sweat lodge">sweat lodge</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They went out from the camp alone for four days of fasting and praying. Their main goal was to see a vision that would explain their future. After having the vision, a youth returned to the village ready to join society. </p><p>In a warrior society, the men had to be prepared for battle. Again, the warriors would prepare by spiritual cleansing, then paint themselves symbolically; they often painted their horses for war as well. Leaders of the warrior society carried spears or lances called a <i>coup</i> stick, which was decorated with feathers, skin, and other tokens. They won prestige by "<a href="/wiki/Counting_coup" title="Counting coup">counting coup</a>", tapping the enemy with the stick and getting away. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Blood_squaws_in_war_dress_(HS85-10-18744).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Blood_squaws_in_war_dress_%28HS85-10-18744%29.jpg/220px-Blood_squaws_in_war_dress_%28HS85-10-18744%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="174" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Blood_squaws_in_war_dress_%28HS85-10-18744%29.jpg/330px-Blood_squaws_in_war_dress_%28HS85-10-18744%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Blood_squaws_in_war_dress_%28HS85-10-18744%29.jpg/440px-Blood_squaws_in_war_dress_%28HS85-10-18744%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1422" data-file-height="1122" /></a><figcaption>Women of the Blood Nation in battle dress, 1907</figcaption></figure> <p>Members of the religious society protected sacred Blackfoot items and conducted religious ceremonies. They blessed the warriors before battle. Their major ceremony was the Sun Dance, or Medicine Lodge Ceremony. By engaging in the Sun Dance, their prayers would be carried up to the Creator, who would bless them with well-being and abundance of buffalo. </p><p>Women's societies also had important responsibilities for the communal tribe. They designed refined quillwork on clothing and ceremonial shields, helped prepare for battle, prepared skins and cloth to make clothing, cared for the children and taught them tribal ways, skinned and tanned the leathers used for clothing and other purposes, prepared fresh and dried foods, and performed ceremonies to help hunters in their journeys.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ethnobotany">Ethnobotany</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Joseph_Henry_Sharp_-_Making_Sweet_Grass_Medicine,_Blackfoot_Ceremony_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Joseph_Henry_Sharp_-_Making_Sweet_Grass_Medicine%2C_Blackfoot_Ceremony_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/220px-Joseph_Henry_Sharp_-_Making_Sweet_Grass_Medicine%2C_Blackfoot_Ceremony_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="184" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Joseph_Henry_Sharp_-_Making_Sweet_Grass_Medicine%2C_Blackfoot_Ceremony_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/330px-Joseph_Henry_Sharp_-_Making_Sweet_Grass_Medicine%2C_Blackfoot_Ceremony_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Joseph_Henry_Sharp_-_Making_Sweet_Grass_Medicine%2C_Blackfoot_Ceremony_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/440px-Joseph_Henry_Sharp_-_Making_Sweet_Grass_Medicine%2C_Blackfoot_Ceremony_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4001" data-file-height="3338" /></a><figcaption>Blackfoot making <a href="/wiki/Hierochloe_odorata" title="Hierochloe odorata">sweet grass</a> medicine for a ceremony.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Big_Mouth_Spring.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Big_Mouth_Spring.jpg/220px-Big_Mouth_Spring.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="294" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Big_Mouth_Spring.jpg/330px-Big_Mouth_Spring.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Big_Mouth_Spring.jpg/440px-Big_Mouth_Spring.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2646" data-file-height="3531" /></a><figcaption>Blackfoot man with braided sweet grass ropes</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Artemisia_tridentata" title="Artemisia tridentata">Sage</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hierochloe_odorata" title="Hierochloe odorata">sweet grass</a> are both used by Blackfoot and other Plains tribes for ceremonial purposes and are considered sacred plants. Sage and sweet grass are burned with the user inhaling and covering themselves in the smoke in a process known widely as smudging. Sage is said to rid the body of negative emotions such as anger. Sweet grass is said to draw in positive energy. Both are used for purification purposes. The pleasant and natural odor of the burning grass is said to attract spirits. Sweet grass is prepared for ceremony by braiding the stems together then drying them before burning. </p><p>Sweet grass is also often present and burned in pipe-smoking mixtures alongside <a href="/wiki/Arctostaphylos_uva-ursi" title="Arctostaphylos uva-ursi">bearberry</a> and red willow plants. The smoke from the pipe is said to carry the users prayers up to the creator with the rising smoke. Large medicine bags often decorated with ornate beaded designs were used by medicine men to carry sage, sweet grass, and other important plants.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Blackfoot also used sweet grass smoke, or sachets of sweet grass in their clothing, as an effective insect repellent.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>They apply a poultice of chewed roots <a href="/wiki/Asclepias_viridiflora" title="Asclepias viridiflora">Asclepias viridiflora</a> to swellings, to "diarrhea rash", to rashes, to the sore gums of nursing infants<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHellson197475_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHellson197475-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and to sore eyes.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHellson197480_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHellson197480-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They also chew the root of <a href="/wiki/Asclepias_viridiflora" title="Asclepias viridiflora">Asclepias viridiflora</a> for sore throats,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHellson197471_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHellson197471-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and use the plant to spice soups, and use the fresh roots for food.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHellson1974101_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHellson1974101-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They make use of <a href="/wiki/Viola_adunca" title="Viola adunca">Viola adunca</a>, applying an infusion of the roots and leaves to sore and swollen joints,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHellson197479_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHellson197479-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> giving an infusion of the leaves and roots to asthmatic children,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHellson197474_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHellson197474-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and using the plant to dye their arrows blue.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHellson1974123_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHellson1974123-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They put <a href="/wiki/Carex" title="Carex">Carex</a> in <a href="/wiki/Moccasins" class="mw-redirect" title="Moccasins">moccasins</a> to protect the feet during winter horse stealing expeditions.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Marriage">Marriage</h3></div> <p>In the Blackfoot culture, men were responsible for choosing their marriage partners, but women had the choice to accept them or not. The male had to show the woman's father his skills as a hunter or warrior. If the father was impressed and approved of the marriage, the man and woman would exchange gifts of horses and clothing and were considered married. The married couple would reside in their own tipi or with the husband's family. Although the man was permitted more than one wife, typically he only chose one. In cases of more than one wife, quite often the male would choose a sister of the wife, believing that sisters would not argue as much as total strangers.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Responsibilities_and_clothing">Responsibilities and clothing</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Horned_bonnet_of_weasel_skins,_worn_by_Grass_Dance_leader,_Blackfoot,_Alberta,_c._1900,_with_ceremonial_shirt,_Blackfoot,_c._1880_-_Royal_Ontario_Museum_-_DSC00325.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Horned_bonnet_of_weasel_skins%2C_worn_by_Grass_Dance_leader%2C_Blackfoot%2C_Alberta%2C_c._1900%2C_with_ceremonial_shirt%2C_Blackfoot%2C_c._1880_-_Royal_Ontario_Museum_-_DSC00325.JPG/220px-thumbnail.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Horned_bonnet_of_weasel_skins%2C_worn_by_Grass_Dance_leader%2C_Blackfoot%2C_Alberta%2C_c._1900%2C_with_ceremonial_shirt%2C_Blackfoot%2C_c._1880_-_Royal_Ontario_Museum_-_DSC00325.JPG/330px-thumbnail.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Horned_bonnet_of_weasel_skins%2C_worn_by_Grass_Dance_leader%2C_Blackfoot%2C_Alberta%2C_c._1900%2C_with_ceremonial_shirt%2C_Blackfoot%2C_c._1880_-_Royal_Ontario_Museum_-_DSC00325.JPG/440px-thumbnail.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3240" data-file-height="4320" /></a><figcaption>Horned bonnet with <a href="/wiki/Stoat" title="Stoat">ermine</a> skin.</figcaption></figure> <p>In a typical Blackfoot family, the father would go out and hunt and bring back supplies that the family might need. The mother would stay close to home and watch over the children while the father was out. The children were taught basic survival skills and culture as they grew up. It was generally said that both boys and girls learned to ride horses early. Boys would usually play with toy bows and arrows until they were old enough to learn how to hunt.<sup id="cite_ref-gibson17_51-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gibson17-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p> They would also play a popular game called shinny, which later became known as ice hockey. They used a long curved wooden stick to knock a ball, made of baked clay covered with buckskin, over a goal line. Girls were given a doll to play with, which also doubled as a learning tool because it was fashioned with typical tribal clothing and designs and also taught the young women how to care for a child.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As they grew older, more responsibilities were placed upon their shoulders. The girls were then taught to cook, prepare hides for leather, and gather wild plants and berries. The boys were held accountable for going out with their father to prepare food by means of hunting.<sup id="cite_ref-taylor14_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-taylor14-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}}</style></p><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:204px;max-width:204px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Three_Blackfoot_Chiefs.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Three_Blackfoot_Chiefs.jpg/200px-Three_Blackfoot_Chiefs.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="247" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Three_Blackfoot_Chiefs.jpg/300px-Three_Blackfoot_Chiefs.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Three_Blackfoot_Chiefs.jpg/400px-Three_Blackfoot_Chiefs.jpg 2x" data-file-width="621" data-file-height="768" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Three_Blackfoot_(Piegan)_men.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Three_Blackfoot_%28Piegan%29_men.jpg/200px-Three_Blackfoot_%28Piegan%29_men.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="240" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Three_Blackfoot_%28Piegan%29_men.jpg/300px-Three_Blackfoot_%28Piegan%29_men.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Three_Blackfoot_%28Piegan%29_men.jpg/400px-Three_Blackfoot_%28Piegan%29_men.jpg 2x" data-file-width="641" data-file-height="768" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">Three Piegan Blackfoot men in traditional clothing including straight-up and standard war bonnets.</div></div></div></div></div><p>Typically clothing was made primarily of softened and tanned antelope and deer hides. The women would make and decorate the clothes for everyone in the tribe. Men wore moccasins, long leggings that went up to their hips, a loincloth, and a belt. Occasionally they would wear shirts but generally they would wrap buffalo robes around their shoulders. The distinguished men of bravery would wear a necklace made of grizzly bear claws.<sup id="cite_ref-taylor14_66-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-taylor14-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Boys dressed much like the older males, wearing leggings, loincloths, moccasins, and occasionally an undecorated shirt. They kept warm by wearing a buffalo robe over their shoulders or over their heads if it became cold. Women and girls wore dresses made from two or three deerskins. The women wore decorative earrings and bracelets made from sea shells, obtained through trade with distant tribes, or different types of metal. They would sometimes wear beads in their hair or paint the part in their hair red, which signified that they were old enough to bear children.<sup id="cite_ref-taylor14_66-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-taylor14-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Headdresses">Headdresses</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Head_Carry-Piegan_Blackfoot_Indian-_Edward_S._Curtis.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Head_Carry-Piegan_Blackfoot_Indian-_Edward_S._Curtis.jpg/220px-Head_Carry-Piegan_Blackfoot_Indian-_Edward_S._Curtis.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="290" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Head_Carry-Piegan_Blackfoot_Indian-_Edward_S._Curtis.jpg/330px-Head_Carry-Piegan_Blackfoot_Indian-_Edward_S._Curtis.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Head_Carry-Piegan_Blackfoot_Indian-_Edward_S._Curtis.jpg/440px-Head_Carry-Piegan_Blackfoot_Indian-_Edward_S._Curtis.jpg 2x" data-file-width="644" data-file-height="850" /></a><figcaption>Head Carry, a Piegan man wearing a split horn headdress. Photographed by <a href="/wiki/Edward_S._Curtis" title="Edward S. Curtis">Edward S. Curtis</a>, 1900.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Headdress_Case,Blackfoot_(Native_American),_late_19th_century,_50.67.30.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Headdress_Case%2CBlackfoot_%28Native_American%29%2C_late_19th_century%2C_50.67.30.jpg/220px-Headdress_Case%2CBlackfoot_%28Native_American%29%2C_late_19th_century%2C_50.67.30.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="153" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Headdress_Case%2CBlackfoot_%28Native_American%29%2C_late_19th_century%2C_50.67.30.jpg/330px-Headdress_Case%2CBlackfoot_%28Native_American%29%2C_late_19th_century%2C_50.67.30.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Headdress_Case%2CBlackfoot_%28Native_American%29%2C_late_19th_century%2C_50.67.30.jpg/440px-Headdress_Case%2CBlackfoot_%28Native_American%29%2C_late_19th_century%2C_50.67.30.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1536" data-file-height="1067" /></a><figcaption><i>Headdress Case,</i> Blackfoot (Native American), late 19th century, <a href="/wiki/Brooklyn_Museum" title="Brooklyn Museum">Brooklyn Museum</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Similar to other Indigenous Peoples of the Great Plains, the Blackfoot developed a variety of different headdresses that incorporated elements of creatures important to them; these served different purposes and symbolized different associations. The typical <a href="/wiki/War_bonnet" title="War bonnet">war bonnet</a> was made from eagle feathers, because the bird was considered powerful. It was worn by prestigious warriors and chiefs (including war-chiefs) of the Blackfoot. The straight-up headdress is a uniquely Blackfoot headdress that, like the war bonnet, is made with eagle feathers. The feathers on the straight-up headdress point directly straight upwards from the rim (hence the name). Often a red plume is attached to the front of the headdress; it also points straight upward. </p><p>The split-horn headdress was very popular among Northern Plains Indians, particularly those nations of the Blackfoot Confederacy. Many warrior societies, including the Horn Society of the Blackfoot, wore the split-horn headdress. The split-horn headdress was made from a single bison horn, split in two and reshaped as slimmer versions of a full-sized bison horn, and polished. The horns were attached to a beaded, rimmed felt hat. Furs from weasels (taken when carrying heavy winter coats) were attached to the top of the headdress, and dangled from the sides. The side furs were often finished with bead work where attached to the headdress. A similar headdress, called the antelope horn headdress, was made in a similar fashion using the horn or horns from a <a href="/wiki/Pronghorn" title="Pronghorn">pronghorn</a> antelope. </p><p>Blackfoot men, particularly warriors, sometimes wore a <a href="/wiki/Roach_(headdress)" title="Roach (headdress)">roach</a> made from <a href="/wiki/Porcupine" title="Porcupine">porcupine</a> hair. The hairs of the porcupine are most often dyed red. Eagle and other bird feathers were occasionally attached to the roach. </p><p>Buffalo scalps, often with horns still attached and often with a beaded rim, were also worn. Fur "turbans" made from soft animal fur (most often otter) were also popular. Buffalo scalps and fur turbans were worn in the winter to protect the head from the cold. </p><p>The Blackfoot have continued to wear traditional headdresses at special ceremonies. They are worn mostly by elected chiefs, members of various traditional societies (including the Horn, Crazy Dog and Motokik societies), powwow dancers and spiritual leaders.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sun_and_the_Moon">Sun and the Moon</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:MedicineMan.Catlin.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/MedicineMan.Catlin.jpg/220px-MedicineMan.Catlin.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="263" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/MedicineMan.Catlin.jpg/330px-MedicineMan.Catlin.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/MedicineMan.Catlin.jpg/440px-MedicineMan.Catlin.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1171" data-file-height="1400" /></a><figcaption>A Siksika Blackfeet Medicine Man, painted by <a href="/wiki/George_Catlin" title="George Catlin">George Catlin</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>One of the most famous traditions held by the Blackfoot is their story of sun and the moon. It starts with a family of a man, wife, and two sons, who live off berries and other food they can gather, as they have no bows and arrows, or other tools (albeit a stone axe). One night, the man had a dream: he was told by the dream to get a large spider web and put it on the trail where the animals roamed, and they would get caught up and could be easily killed with the stone axe he had. The man had done so and saw that it was true. One day, he came home from bringing in some fresh meat from the trail and discovered his wife to be applying perfume on herself. He thought that she must have another lover since she never did this before. He then told his wife that he was going to move a web and asked if she could bring in the meat and wood he had left outside from a previous hunt. She had reluctantly gone out and passed over a hill. The wife looked back three times and saw her husband in the same place she had left him, so she continued on to retrieve the meat. The father then asked his children if they went with their mother to find wood, but they never had. However they knew the location in which she retrieved it from. </p><p>The man set out and found the timber along with a den of rattlesnakes, one of which was his wife's lover. He set the timber on fire and killed the snakes. He knew by doing this that his wife would become enraged, so the man returned home. He told the children to flee and gave them a stick, stone, and moss to use if their mother chased after them. He remained at the house and put a web over his front door. The wife tried to get in but became stuck and had her leg cut off. She then put her head through and he cut that off also. While the body followed the husband to the creek, the head followed the children. The oldest boy saw the head behind them and threw the stick. The stick turned into a great forest. The head made it through, so the younger brother instructed the elder to throw the stone. He did so, and where the stone landed a huge mountain popped up. It spanned from big water (ocean) to big water and the head was forced to go through it, not around. The head met a group of rams and said to them she would marry their chief if they butted their way through the mountain. The chief agreed and they butted until their horns were worn down, but this still was not through. She then asked the ants if they could burrow through the mountain with the same stipulations, it was agreed and they get her the rest of the way through. The children were far ahead, but eventually saw the head rolling behind them. The boys wet the moss and wrung it out behind themselves. They were then in a different land surrounded by an expanse of water (the 'new land' is commonly interpreted as <a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</a>, with the expanse of water being the <a href="/wiki/Bering_Strait" title="Bering Strait">Bering Strait</a>). The head rolled into the water and drowned. The children decided to build a raft and head back. Once they returned to their land, however, they discovered that it was now occupied by the <a href="/wiki/Crow_people" title="Crow people">Crow people</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Snake_Indians" title="Snake Indians">Snake people</a>, so they decided to split up. </p><p>One brother was simple and went north to discover what he could and make people. The other was smart and went south to make white people. He taught them how to forge and make advanced weapons, which is how the Blackfoot people believe the whites became so technologically advanced. The simple brother created the Blackfoot nation and was unable to teach them anything. He became known as Left Hand, and later by the Blackfoot as Old Man (or Napiw, the Creator). The woman still chases the man: she is the moon and he is the sun, and if she ever catches him, it will always be night.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Blackfoot_creation_story">Blackfoot creation story</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Blackfoot_religion" title="Blackfoot religion">Blackfoot religion</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Blackfoot_mythology" title="Blackfoot mythology">Blackfoot mythology</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Creation_myth" title="Creation myth">creation myth</a> is part of the oral history of the Blackfoot nation. It was said that in the beginning, Napio floated on a log with four animals. The animals were: Mameo (fish), Matcekups (frog), Maniskeo (lizard), and Sopeo (turtle). Napio sent all of them into the deep water, one after another. The first three had gone down and returned with nothing. The turtle went down and retrieved mud from the bottom and gave it to Napio. </p><p>He took the mud and rolled it in his hand and created the earth. He let it roll out of his hand and over time, it has grown to what it is today. After he created the earth, he created women first, followed by men. He had them living separately from one another. The men were shy and afraid, but Napio said to them to not fear and take one as their wife. They had done as he asked, and Napio continued to create the buffalo and bows and arrows for the people so that they could hunt them.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="People">People</h2></div> <div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Ethnic group</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox vcard"><caption class="infobox-title fn org">Blackfoot, Niitsítapi, Siksikaitsitapi ᖹᐟᒧᐧᒣᑯ</caption><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Blackfoot_-_Bear_Bull.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Blackfoot_-_Bear_Bull.jpg/200px-Blackfoot_-_Bear_Bull.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="268" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Blackfoot_-_Bear_Bull.jpg/300px-Blackfoot_-_Bear_Bull.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Blackfoot_-_Bear_Bull.jpg/400px-Blackfoot_-_Bear_Bull.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="1338" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure>Bear Bull, Blackfoot translator photographed by <a href="/wiki/Edward_S._Curtis" title="Edward S. Curtis">Edward S. Curtis</a> (1926)</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color:#b0c4de; color:inherit;">Total population</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data">32,000</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color:#b0c4de; color:inherit;">Regions with significant populations</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada"><img alt="Canada" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Flag_of_Canada_%28Pantone%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Canada_%28Pantone%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Flag_of_Canada_%28Pantone%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Canada_%28Pantone%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Flag_of_Canada_%28Pantone%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Canada_%28Pantone%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a></b><br />(<span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Saskatchewan" title="Saskatchewan"><img alt="Saskatchewan" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Flag_of_Saskatchewan.svg/23px-Flag_of_Saskatchewan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Flag_of_Saskatchewan.svg/35px-Flag_of_Saskatchewan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Flag_of_Saskatchewan.svg/46px-Flag_of_Saskatchewan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="992" data-file-height="496" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Saskatchewan" title="Saskatchewan">Saskatchewan</a>, <span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Alberta" title="Alberta"><img alt="Alberta" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Flag_of_Alberta.svg/23px-Flag_of_Alberta.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Flag_of_Alberta.svg/35px-Flag_of_Alberta.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Flag_of_Alberta.svg/46px-Flag_of_Alberta.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="500" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Alberta" title="Alberta">Alberta</a>, <span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/British_Columbia" title="British Columbia"><img alt="British Columbia" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Flag_of_British_Columbia.svg/23px-Flag_of_British_Columbia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Flag_of_British_Columbia.svg/35px-Flag_of_British_Columbia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Flag_of_British_Columbia.svg/46px-Flag_of_British_Columbia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/British_Columbia" title="British Columbia">British Columbia</a> (part))<br /><br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States"><img alt="United States" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /></a></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a></b><br />(<span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Montana" title="Montana"><img alt="Montana" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Flag_of_Montana.svg/23px-Flag_of_Montana.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Flag_of_Montana.svg/35px-Flag_of_Montana.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Flag_of_Montana.svg/45px-Flag_of_Montana.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="768" data-file-height="512" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Montana" title="Montana">Montana</a>, <span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Wyoming" title="Wyoming"><img alt="Wyoming" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Flag_of_Wyoming.svg/22px-Flag_of_Wyoming.svg.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Flag_of_Wyoming.svg/33px-Flag_of_Wyoming.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Flag_of_Wyoming.svg/43px-Flag_of_Wyoming.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="700" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Wyoming" title="Wyoming">Wyoming</a> (part) <span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Idaho" title="Idaho"><img alt="Idaho" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_Idaho.svg/19px-Flag_of_Idaho.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_Idaho.svg/29px-Flag_of_Idaho.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_Idaho.svg/38px-Flag_of_Idaho.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="3168" data-file-height="2496" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Idaho" title="Idaho">Idaho</a>)</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color:#b0c4de; color:inherit;">Languages</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a>, <a href="/wiki/Blackfoot_language" title="Blackfoot language">Blackfoot</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color:#b0c4de; color:inherit;">Religion</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><a href="/wiki/Blackfoot_religion" title="Blackfoot religion">Traditional beliefs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sun_Dance" title="Sun Dance">Sun Dance</a>, <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color:#b0c4de; color:inherit;">Related ethnic groups</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><a href="/wiki/Algonquian_peoples" title="Algonquian peoples">Algonquian peoples</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ethnic_divisions">Ethnic divisions</h3></div> <p>The largest ethnic group in the Confederacy is the <i>Piegan</i>, also spelled <i>Peigan</i> or <i>Pikuni</i>. Their name derives from the Blackfoot term <i>Piikáni</i>. They are divided into the <a href="/wiki/Piikani_Nation" title="Piikani Nation">Piikani Nation</a> (<i>Aapátohsipikáni</i> ("the companion up there") or simply <i>Piikáni</i>) in present-day Alberta, and the <a href="/wiki/South_Peigan" class="mw-redirect" title="South Peigan">South Peigan</a> or <a href="/wiki/Piegan_Blackfeet" title="Piegan Blackfeet">Piegan Blackfeet</a> (<i>Aamsskáápipikani</i>) in Montana, United States. A once large and mighty division of the Piegan were the Inuk'sik ("the humans")<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> of southwestern Montana. Today they survive only as a clan or band of the South Peigan. </p><p>The modern <a href="/wiki/Kainai_Nation" title="Kainai Nation">Kainai Nation</a> is named for the Blackfoot-language term <i>Káínaa</i>, meaning "Many Chief people". These were historically also called the "Blood," from a <a href="/wiki/Plains_Cree_language" title="Plains Cree language">Plains Cree</a> name for the Kainai: <i>Miko-Ew</i>, meaning "stained with blood" (i.e. "the bloodthirsty, cruel"). The common English name for the tribe is Blood or the Blood tribe. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Siksika_Nation" title="Siksika Nation">Siksika Nation</a>'s name derives from <i>Siksikáwa,</i> meaning "Those of like". The Siksika also call themselves <i>Sao-kitapiiksi,</i> meaning "Plains People".<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Sarcee_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Sarcee people">Sarcee</a> call themselves the <i>Tsu T'ina,</i> meaning "a great number of people." During early years of conflict, the Blackfoot called them <i>Saahsi</i> or <i>Sarsi</i>, "the stubborn ones", in their language.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> The Sarcee are from an entirely different language family; they are part of the <a href="/wiki/Athabascan" class="mw-redirect" title="Athabascan">Athabascan</a> or <a href="/wiki/Den%C3%A9" class="mw-redirect" title="Dené">Dené</a> language family, most of whose members are located in the <a href="/wiki/Subarctic_peoples" class="mw-redirect" title="Subarctic peoples">Subarctic</a> of <a href="/wiki/Northern_Canada" title="Northern Canada">Northern Canada</a>. Specifically, the Sarcee are an offshoot of the <a href="/wiki/Beaver_(Danezaa)" class="mw-redirect" title="Beaver (Danezaa)">Beaver (Danezaa)</a> people, who migrated south onto the plains sometime in the early eighteenth century. They later joined the Confederacy and essentially merged with the Pikuni ("Once had"). </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Gros_Ventre_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Gros Ventre people">Gros Ventre people</a> call themselves the <i>Haaninin</i> ("white clay people"), also spelled <i>A'aninin.</i> The French called them <i>Gros Ventres</i> ("fat bellies"), misinterpreting a physical sign for waterfall; and the English called them the Fall Indians, related to waterfalls in the mountains. The Blackfoot referred to them as the <i>Piik-siik-sii-naa</i> ("snakes") or <i>Atsina</i> ("like a Cree"), because of years of enmity. Early scholars thought the A'aninin were related to the <a href="/wiki/Arapaho" title="Arapaho">Arapaho</a> Nation, who inhabited the Missouri Plains and moved west to Colorado and Wyoming.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They were allied with the Confederacy from circa 1793 to 1861, but came to disagreement and were enemies of it thereafter. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Modern_communities">Modern communities</h3></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Economy_and_services">Economy and services</h4></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chief_Old_Person_at_USDA_150th_Anniversary_celebration.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Chief_Old_Person_at_USDA_150th_Anniversary_celebration.jpg/220px-Chief_Old_Person_at_USDA_150th_Anniversary_celebration.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Chief_Old_Person_at_USDA_150th_Anniversary_celebration.jpg/330px-Chief_Old_Person_at_USDA_150th_Anniversary_celebration.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Chief_Old_Person_at_USDA_150th_Anniversary_celebration.jpg/440px-Chief_Old_Person_at_USDA_150th_Anniversary_celebration.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4079" data-file-height="3264" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Earl_Old_Person" title="Earl Old Person">Earl Old Person</a>, honorary chief of the Blackfoot.</figcaption></figure> <p>Today, many<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers"><span title="This term requires quantification. (August 2012)">quantify</span></a></i>]</sup> of the Blackfoot live on reserves in Canada. About 8,500 live<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers"><span title="The time period mentioned near this tag is ambiguous. (August 2012)">when?</span></a></i>]</sup> on the Montana reservation of 1,500,000 acres (6,100 km<sup>2</sup>). In 1896, the Blackfoot sold a large portion of their land to the United States government, which hoped to find gold or copper deposits. No such mineral deposits were found. In 1910, the land was set aside as <a href="/wiki/Glacier_National_Park_(U.S.)" title="Glacier National Park (U.S.)">Glacier National Park</a>. Some Blackfoot work there and occasional Native American ceremonies are held there.<sup id="cite_ref-Gibson,_35-42_49-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gibson,_35-42-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Unemployment is a challenging problem on the Blackfeet Reservation and on Canadian Blackfoot reserves, because of their isolation from major urban areas. Many people work as farmers, but there are not enough other jobs nearby. To find work, many Blackfoot have relocated from the reservation to towns and cities. Some companies pay the Blackfoot governments to lease use of lands for extracting oil, natural gas, and other resources. The nations have operated such businesses such as the <a href="/wiki/Blackfoot_Writing_Company" class="mw-redirect" title="Blackfoot Writing Company">Blackfoot Writing Company</a>, a pen and pencil factory, which opened in 1972, but it closed in the late 1990s. In Canada, the Northern Piegan make traditional craft clothing and moccasins, and the Kainai operate a shopping center and factory.<sup id="cite_ref-Gibson,_35-42_49-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gibson,_35-42-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1974, the Blackfoot Community College, a <a href="/wiki/Tribal_college" class="mw-redirect" title="Tribal college">tribal college</a>, opened in <a href="/wiki/Browning,_Montana" title="Browning, Montana">Browning, Montana</a>. The school is also the location of the tribal headquarters. As of 1979, the Montana state government requires all public school teachers on or near the reservation to have a background in <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous peoples of the Americas">American Indian</a> studies. </p><p>In 1986, the <a href="/wiki/Kainai_Nation" title="Kainai Nation">Kainai Nation</a> opened the <a href="/wiki/Red_Crow_Community_College" title="Red Crow Community College">Red Crow Community College</a> in <a href="/wiki/Stand_Off,_Alberta" title="Stand Off, Alberta">Stand Off, Alberta</a>. In 1989, the Siksika tribe in Canada completed the construction of a high school to go along with its elementary school.<sup id="cite_ref-Gibson,_35-42_49-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gibson,_35-42-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Traditional_culture">Traditional culture</h4></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Blackfoot_gathering_in_1973.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Blackfoot_gathering_in_1973.JPG/220px-Blackfoot_gathering_in_1973.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="159" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Blackfoot_gathering_in_1973.JPG/330px-Blackfoot_gathering_in_1973.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Blackfoot_gathering_in_1973.JPG/440px-Blackfoot_gathering_in_1973.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1892" data-file-height="1364" /></a><figcaption>Blackfoot gathering, <a href="/wiki/Alberta" title="Alberta">Alberta</a>. 1973</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chief_Mountain_snow.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Chief_Mountain_snow.jpg/220px-Chief_Mountain_snow.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Chief_Mountain_snow.jpg/330px-Chief_Mountain_snow.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Chief_Mountain_snow.jpg/440px-Chief_Mountain_snow.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="675" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Chief_Mountain" title="Chief Mountain">Chief Mountain</a> is sacred to the Blackfoot. The mountain marks the boundary between the Blackfoot reservation in Montana and Glacier National Park.</figcaption></figure> <p>The Blackfoot continue many cultural traditions of the past and hope to extend their ancestors' traditions to their children. They want to teach their children the Pikuni language as well as other traditional knowledge. In the early 20th century, a white woman named <a href="/wiki/Frances_Densmore" title="Frances Densmore">Frances Densmore</a> helped the Blackfoot record their language. During the 1950s and 1960s, few Blackfoot spoke the Pikuni language. In order to save their language, the Blackfoot Council asked elders who still knew the language to teach it. The elders had agreed and succeeded in reviving the language, so today the children can learn Pikuni at school or at home. In 1994, the Blackfoot Council accepted Pikuni as the official language.<sup id="cite_ref-Gibson,_35-42_49-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gibson,_35-42-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The people have revived the Black Lodge Society, responsible for protecting songs and dances of the Blackfoot.<sup id="cite_ref-Gibson,_35-42_49-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gibson,_35-42-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They continue to announce the coming of spring by opening five medicine bundles, one at every sound of thunder during the spring.<sup id="cite_ref-Gibson,_35-42_49-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gibson,_35-42-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One of the biggest celebrations is called the North American Indian Days. Lasting four days, it is held during the second week of July in Browning. Lastly, the Sun Dance, which was illegal from the 1890s–1934, has been practiced again for years. While it was illegal, the Blackfoot held it in secret. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2009)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Since 1934, they have practised it every summer. The event lasts eight days – time filled with prayers, dancing, singing, and offerings to honor the Creator. It provides an opportunity for the Blackfoot to get together and share views and ideas with each other, while celebrating their culture's most sacred ceremonies.<sup id="cite_ref-Gibson,_35-42_49-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gibson,_35-42-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Blackfeet Nation in Montana have a blue tribal flag. The flag shows a ceremonial lance or coup stick with 29 feathers. The center of the flag contains a ring of 32 white and black <a href="/wiki/Eagle" title="Eagle">eagle</a> feathers. Within the ring is an outline map of the Blackfoot Reservation. Within the map is depicted a warrior's headdress and the words "Blackfeet Nation" and "Pikuni" (the name of the tribe in the <a href="/wiki/Algonquian_languages" title="Algonquian languages">Algonquian</a> native tongue of the Blackfoot).<sup id="cite_ref-Gibson,_35-42_49-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gibson,_35-42-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notable_Blackfoot_people">Notable Blackfoot people</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chief_Crowfoot.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Chief_Crowfoot.jpg/220px-Chief_Crowfoot.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="279" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Chief_Crowfoot.jpg/330px-Chief_Crowfoot.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/71/Chief_Crowfoot.jpg 2x" data-file-width="432" data-file-height="547" /></a><figcaption>Chief <a href="/wiki/Crowfoot" title="Crowfoot">Crowfoot</a>.</figcaption></figure> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eugene_Brave_Rock" title="Eugene Brave Rock">Eugene Brave Rock</a>, actor, stuntman, and activist</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elouise_Cobell" class="mw-redirect" title="Elouise Cobell">Elouise Cobell</a>, banker and activist who led the 20th-century lawsuit that forced the US Government to reform individual Indian trusts</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byron_Chief-Moon" title="Byron Chief-Moon">Byron Chief-Moon</a>, performer and choreographer</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crowfoot" title="Crowfoot">Crowfoot</a> (<i>ISAPO-MUXIKA</i> – "Crow Indian's Big Foot", also known in French as <i>Pied de Corbeau</i>), Chief of the Big Pipes band (later renamed <i>Moccasin band</i>, a splinter band of the Biters band), Head Chief of the South Siksika, by 1870 one of three Head Chiefs of the Siksika or the Blackfoot proper</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aatsista-Mahkan" title="Aatsista-Mahkan">Aatsista-Mahkan</a> ("Running Rabbit", * about 1833 – d. January 1911), since 1871 Chief of the Biters band (<i>Ai-sik'-stuk-iks</i>) of the Siksika, signed Treaty No.7 in 1877, along with Crowfoot, Old Sun, Red Crow, and other leaders</li> <li><a href="/wiki/A-ca-oo-mah-ca-ye" title="A-ca-oo-mah-ca-ye">A-ca-oo-mah-ca-ye</a> (<i>Ac ko mok ki</i>, <i>Ak ko mock ki</i>, <i>A'kow-muk-ai</i> – "Feathers", since he took the name <i>Old Swan</i>), since about 1820 Chief of the Old Feathers' band, his personal following was known as the Bad Guns band, consisted of about 400 persons, along with Old Sun and <a href="/wiki/Three_Suns" class="mw-redirect" title="Three Suns">Three Suns</a> (<i>No-okskatos</i>) one of three Head Chiefs of the Siksika</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buffalo_Bull%27s_Back_Fat" title="Buffalo Bull's Back Fat">Stu-mick-o-súcks</a> ("Buffalo Bull's Back Fat"), Head Chief of the Kainai, had his portrait painted at Fort Union in 1832</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faye_HeavyShield" title="Faye HeavyShield">Faye HeavyShield</a>, Kainai sculptor and installation artist</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joe_Hipp" title="Joe Hipp">Joe Hipp</a>, Heavyweight boxer, the first Native American to compete for the WBA World Heavyweight Title.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability"><span title="The material near this tag failed verification of its source citation(s). (July 2012)">failed verification</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beverly_Hungry_Wolf" title="Beverly Hungry Wolf">Beverly Hungry Wolf</a>, author</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Graham_Jones" title="Stephen Graham Jones">Stephen Graham Jones</a>, author</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earl_Old_Person" title="Earl Old Person">Earl Old Person</a> (Cold Wind or Changing Home), Blackfoot tribal chairman from 1964 to 2008 and honorary lifetime chief of the Blackfoot</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jerry_Potts" title="Jerry Potts">Jerry Potts</a> (1840–1896), (also known as <i>Ky-yo-kosi</i> – "Bear Child"), was a Canadian-American plainsman, buffalo hunter, horse trader, interpreter, and scout of Kainai-Scottish descent. He identified as Piegan and became a minor Kainai chief.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steve_Reevis" title="Steve Reevis">Steve Reevis</a>, actor who appeared in <i><a href="/wiki/Fargo_(1996_film)" title="Fargo (1996 film)">Fargo</a>,</i> <i><a href="/wiki/Dances_with_Wolves" class="mw-redirect" title="Dances with Wolves">Dances with Wolves</a>,</i> <i><a href="/wiki/Last_of_the_Dogmen" title="Last of the Dogmen">Last of the Dogmen</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Comanche_Moon" title="Comanche Moon">Comanche Moon</a></i> and many other films and TV.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Misty_Upham" title="Misty Upham">Misty Upham</a> (1982–2014), actress<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Welch_(writer)" title="James Welch (writer)">James Welch</a> (1940–2003), Blackfoot-Gros Ventre author</li> <li>The Honourable <a href="/wiki/Eugene_Creighton" title="Eugene Creighton">Eugene Creighton</a>, judge of the Provincial Court of Alberta.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gyasi_Ross" title="Gyasi Ross">Gyasi Ross</a>, author, attorney, musician and political activist.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lily_Gladstone" title="Lily Gladstone">Lily Gladstone</a>, actress, who is part Blackfoot and <a href="/wiki/Nez_Perce" title="Nez Perce">Nez Perce</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Representation_in_other_media">Representation in other media</h2></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Herg%C3%A9" title="Hergé">Hergé</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Tintin_in_America" title="Tintin in America">Tintin in America</a></i> (1932) featured Blackfoot people.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Jimmy_P:_Psychotherapy_of_a_Plains_Indian" title="Jimmy P: Psychotherapy of a Plains Indian">Jimmy P</a></i> (2013) is a Franco-American film exploring the psychoanalysis of a Blackfoot, Jimmy Picard, in the post-World War II period at a veterans' hospital by a Hungarian-French ethnologist and psychoanalyst, <a href="/wiki/George_Devereux" title="George Devereux">George Devereux</a>. The screenplay was adapted from his book about this process, published in 1951.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blackfeet_music" title="Blackfeet music">Blackfeet music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blackfoot_language" title="Blackfoot language">Blackfoot language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Native_American_peoples_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Native American peoples in the United States">List of Native American peoples in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palliser_Region" title="Palliser Region">Palliser Region</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Compare to <a href="/wiki/Ojibwe_language" title="Ojibwe language">Ojibwe</a>: <i><a href="/wiki/Anishinaabe" title="Anishinaabe">Anishinaabeg</a></i> and <a href="/wiki/Quinnipiac" title="Quinnipiac">Quinnipiac</a>: <i>Eansketambawg</i></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Dempsey-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Dempsey_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFDempsey" class="citation web cs1">Dempsey, Hugh A. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/blackfoot-nation/">"Blackfoot Confederacy"</a>. <i>The Canadian Encyclopedia</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 July</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Canadian+Encyclopedia&rft.atitle=Blackfoot+Confederacy&rft.aulast=Dempsey&rft.aufirst=Hugh+A.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca%2Fen%2Farticle%2Fblackfoot-nation%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlackfoot+Confederacy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10things-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10things_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcNeel2017" class="citation web cs1">McNeel, Jack (6 April 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180205125952/https://indiancountrymedianetwork.com/history/people/10-things-you-should-know-about-the-blackfeet-nation/">"10 Things You Should Know about the Blackfeet Nation"</a>. <i>Indian Country Media Network</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://indiancountrymedianetwork.com/history/people/10-things-you-should-know-about-the-blackfeet-nation/">the original</a> on 5 February 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 December</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Head+Smashed+In+Buffalo+Jump&rft.atitle=Blackfoot+History&rft.date=2012-05-22&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhistory.alberta.ca%2Fheadsmashedin%2Fhistory%2Fblackfoothistory%2Fblackfoothistory.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlackfoot+Confederacy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Annis_May_Timpson" title="Annis May Timpson">Annis May Timpson</a>: <i>First Nations, First Thoughts: The Impact of Indigenous Thought in Canada</i>, University of British Columbia, 2010, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7748-1552-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7748-1552-9">978-0-7748-1552-9</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130807091616/http://blackfootcrossing.ca/ourland.html">"Nitawahsin-nanni- Our Land"</a>. Blackfootcrossing.ca. 29 January 2008. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.blackfootcrossing.ca/ourland.html">the original</a> on 7 August 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 December</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Nitawahsin-nanni-+Our+Land&rft.pub=Blackfootcrossing.ca&rft.date=2008-01-29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.blackfootcrossing.ca%2Fourland.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlackfoot+Confederacy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrinnel1892" class="citation journal cs1">Grinnel, George Bird (1892). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/i227087">"Early Blackfoot History"</a>. <i>American Anthropologist</i>. <b>5</b> (2). American Anthropological Association, Wiley: <span class="nowrap">153–</span>164. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/658663">658663</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 July</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Anthropologist&rft.atitle=Early+Blackfoot+History&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E153-%3C%2Fspan%3E164&rft.date=1892&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F658663%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Grinnel&rft.aufirst=George+Bird&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2Fi227087&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlackfoot+Confederacy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gibson, <i>The Blackfeet People of the Dark Moccasins</i>, 1</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-taylor9-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-taylor9_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Taylor, 9.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohnston1970" class="citation journal cs1">Johnston, Alex (July–September 1970). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fbf02860666">"Blackfoot Indian Utilization of the Flora of the Northwestern Great Plains"</a>. <i>Economic Botany</i>. <b>24</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">301–</span>324. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fbf02860666">10.1007/bf02860666</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4253161">4253161</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:19795696">19795696</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Economic+Botany&rft.atitle=Blackfoot+Indian+Utilization+of+the+Flora+of+the+Northwestern+Great+Plains&rft.volume=24&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E301-%3C%2Fspan%3E324&rft.date=1970-07%2F1970-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A19795696%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F4253161%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fbf02860666&rft.aulast=Johnston&rft.aufirst=Alex&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1007%252Fbf02860666&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlackfoot+Confederacy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-David_Murdoch_1937-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-David_Murdoch_1937_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-David_Murdoch_1937_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">David Murdoch, "North American Indian", eds. Marion Dent and others, Vol. <i>Eyewitness Books</i>(Dorling Kindersley Limited, London: Alfred A.Knopf, Inc., 1937), 28–29.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gibson, 14</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Taylor, 2</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWest1960" class="citation journal cs1">West, Helen B. (Autumn 1960). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/i405881">"Blackfoot Country"</a>. <i>Montana: The Magazine of Western History</i>. <b>10</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">34–</span>44. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4516437">4516437</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 July</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Montana%3A+The+Magazine+of+Western+History&rft.atitle=Blackfoot+Country&rft.ssn=fall&rft.volume=10&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E34-%3C%2Fspan%3E44&rft.date=1960&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F4516437%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=West&rft.aufirst=Helen+B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2Fi405881&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlackfoot+Confederacy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gibson, 15</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ReferenceA-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Grinnell, <i>Early Blackfoot History,</i> pp. 153–164</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaldwin1994" class="citation journal cs1">Baldwin, Stuart J. (January 1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/i254177">"Blackfoot Neologisms"</a>. <i>International Journal of American Linguistics</i>. <b>60</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">69–</span>72. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F466218">10.1086/466218</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1265481">1265481</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:224808614">224808614</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 July</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+American+Linguistics&rft.atitle=Blackfoot+Neologisms&rft.volume=60&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E69-%3C%2Fspan%3E72&rft.date=1994-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A224808614%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1265481%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F466218&rft.aulast=Baldwin&rft.aufirst=Stuart+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2Fi254177&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlackfoot+Confederacy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Murdoch,_North_American_Indian,_28-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Murdoch,_North_American_Indian,_28_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Murdoch, <i>North American Indian,</i> p. 28</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Taylor, 4</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Royal B. Hassrick, <i>The Colorful Story of North American Indians,</i> Vol. Octopus Books, Limited (Hong Kong: Mandarin Publishers Limited, 1974), 77.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bruce Vandervort: <i>Indian Wars of Canada, Mexico, and the United States 1812–1900.</i>Taylor & Francis, 2005, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-22472-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-22472-7">978-0-415-22472-7</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHungrywolf2006" class="citation book cs1">Hungrywolf, Adolf (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=sGtsbTEtcRIC&pg=PA233"><i>The Blackfoot Papers</i></a>. Skookumchuck, British Columbia: The Good Medicine Cultural Foundation. p. 233. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-920698-80-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-920698-80-8"><bdi>0-920698-80-8</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 March</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Blackfoot+Papers&rft.place=Skookumchuck%2C+British+Columbia&rft.pages=233&rft.pub=The+Good+Medicine+Cultural+Foundation&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=0-920698-80-8&rft.aulast=Hungrywolf&rft.aufirst=Adolf&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DsGtsbTEtcRIC%26pg%3DPA233&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlackfoot+Confederacy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.angelfire.com/ar/waakomimm/lang13.html">"Names for Peoples/Tribes"</a>. Angelfire.com<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 December</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Names+for+Peoples%2FTribes&rft.pub=Angelfire.com&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.angelfire.com%2Far%2Fwaakomimm%2Flang13.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlackfoot+Confederacy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">the Cree called them <i>Amiskiwiyiniw</i> or <i>Amisk Wiyiniwak</i> and the <a href="/wiki/Dakelh" title="Dakelh">Dakelh</a> <i>Tsat'en</i>, <i>Tsattine</i> or <i>Tza Tinne</i> – both mean 'Beaver People', so they were formerly often referred in English as <i>Beaver</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Joachim Fromhold: <i>The Western Cree (Pakisimotan Wi Iniwak)</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFA._Hodge" class="citation web cs1">A. Hodge. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131101124041/http://segonku.unl.edu/~ahodge/aftermath.html">"Beyond Borderlands: Discussion: Aftermath"</a>. University of Nebraska Lincoln. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://segonku.unl.edu/~ahodge/aftermath.html">the original</a> on 1 November 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 December</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Beyond+Borderlands%3A+Discussion%3A+Aftermath&rft.pub=University+of+Nebraska+Lincoln&rft.au=A.+Hodge&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsegonku.unl.edu%2F~ahodge%2Faftermath.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlackfoot+Confederacy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ambrose-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Ambrose_27-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ambrose_27-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAmbrose,_Stephen" class="citation book cs1">Ambrose, Stephen. <i>Undaunted Courage</i>. p. 389.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Undaunted+Courage&rft.pages=389&rft.au=Ambrose%2C+Stephen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlackfoot+Confederacy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gibson, 23</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gibson,_23-29-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Gibson,_23-29_29-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gibson,_23-29_29-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Gibson, 23–29</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mman.us/coltersescape.htm">"Both versions of Colter's Run"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Both+versions+of+Colter%27s+Run&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.mman.us%2Fcoltersescape.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlackfoot+Confederacy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120925015401/http://www.lewis-clark.org/content/content-article.asp?ArticleID=2616">"Colter the Mountain Man"</a>. Lewis-Clark.org. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.lewis-clark.org/content/content-article.asp?ArticleID=2616">the original</a> on 25 September 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 May</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Blackfoot+Crossing+Historical+Park&rft.atitle=Ceremonies&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.blackfootcrossing.ca%2Fceremonies.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlackfoot+Confederacy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://acsh.org/news/2016/11/01/sweetgrass-deet-traditional-native-american-herbal-remedy-acts-mosquito-repellent">"Sweetgrass: Like DEET, Traditional Native American Herbal Remedy Acts As Mosquito Repellent," American Council onf Science and Health</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHellson197475-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHellson197475_56-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHellson1974">Hellson 1974</a>, p. 75.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHellson197480-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHellson197480_57-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHellson1974">Hellson 1974</a>, p. 80.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHellson197471-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHellson197471_58-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHellson1974">Hellson 1974</a>, p. 71.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHellson1974101-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHellson1974101_59-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHellson1974">Hellson 1974</a>, p. 101.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHellson197479-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHellson197479_60-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHellson1974">Hellson 1974</a>, p. 79.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHellson197474-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHellson197474_61-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHellson1974">Hellson 1974</a>, p. 74.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHellson1974123-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHellson1974123_62-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHellson1974">Hellson 1974</a>, p. 123.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Johnston, Alex, 1987, Plants and the Blackfoot, Lethbridge, Alberta. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 July</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+American+Folklore&rft.atitle=Blackfoot+Mythology&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=22&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E165-%3C%2Fspan%3E172&rft.date=1893&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F533004&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F533004%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Maclean&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2Fi223360&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlackfoot+Confederacy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLinda_Matt_Juneau2002" class="citation web cs1">Linda Matt Juneau (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141219234240/http://etd.lib.umt.edu/theses/available/etd-05082007-144843/unrestricted/02MAThesis.pdf">"The Humans of Blackfeet: Ethnogenesis by Social and Religious Transformation"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://etd.lib.umt.edu/theses/available/etd-05082007-144843/unrestricted/02MAThesis.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 19 December 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 December</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Humans+of+Blackfeet%3A+Ethnogenesis+by+Social+and+Religious+Transformation&rft.date=2002&rft.au=Linda+Matt+Juneau&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fetd.lib.umt.edu%2Ftheses%2Favailable%2Fetd-05082007-144843%2Funrestricted%2F02MAThesis.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlackfoot+Confederacy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.blackfeetnationstore.com/coins/coinlinks.html">Informational Sites on the Blackfoot Confederacy and Lewis & Clark</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110103210622/https://www.blackfeetnationstore.com/coins/coinlinks.html">Archived</a> 3 January 2011 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Blackfeet Nation Store</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"The Blackfoot Tribes", <i>Science</i> 6, no. 146 (20 November 1885), 456–458, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1760272">1760272</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.native-languages.org/blackfoot_culture.htm">"Blackfoot Culture and History"</a>. <i>Native Languages</i>. Retrieved 26 August 2011.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130911044238/http://nativenetworks.si.edu/eng/rose/reevis_s.htm">"Film & Media – National Museum of the American Indian"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nativenetworks.si.edu/eng/rose/reevis_s.htm">the original</a> on 11 September 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 May</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Film+%26+Media+%E2%80%93+National+Museum+of+the+American+Indian&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nativenetworks.si.edu%2Feng%2Frose%2Freevis_s.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlackfoot+Confederacy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/section/movies">"Movies"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Movies&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2Fsection%2Fmovies&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlackfoot+Confederacy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Schmidt, Rob. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://indiancountrytodaymedianetwork.com/2013/09/30/misty-upham-reflects-filming-jimmy-p-benicio-del-toro-151514">"Blackfeet Actress Misty Upham On Filming 'Jimmy P.' with Benicio Del Toro"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141015191815/http://indiancountrytodaymedianetwork.com/2013/09/30/misty-upham-reflects-filming-jimmy-p-benicio-del-toro-151514">Archived</a> 15 October 2014 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Indian_Country_Today_Media_Network" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian Country Today Media Network">Indian Country Today Media Network</a></i>. 30 September 2013. Accessed 1 February 2014.</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources">Sources</h3></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrown" class="citation cs2">Brown, Alison K., <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://web.prm.ox.ac.uk/blackfootshirts/attachments/015_Relations%20between%20the%20Blackfoot-speaking%20peoples%20and%20fur%20trade%20companies.pdf"><i>Relations between the Blackfoot-speaking peoples and fur trade companies (c. 1830–1840)</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span><span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 July</span> 2011</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Relations+between+the+Blackfoot-speaking+peoples+and+fur+trade+companies+%28c.+1830%E2%80%931840%29&rft.aulast=Brown&rft.aufirst=Alison+K.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fweb.prm.ox.ac.uk%2Fblackfootshirts%2Fattachments%2F015_Relations%2520between%2520the%2520Blackfoot-speaking%2520peoples%2520and%2520fur%2520trade%2520companies.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlackfoot+Confederacy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDempsey2007" class="citation cs2">Dempsey, Lloyd James (2007), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=W0GhRZQuSbkC&q=The%20Blackfeet%3A%20People%20%22blackfoot%22&pg=PP1"><i>Blackfoot war art: pictographs of the reservation period, 1880–2000</i></a>, University of Oklahoma Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8061-3804-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8061-3804-6"><bdi>978-0-8061-3804-6</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Blackfoot+war+art%3A+pictographs+of+the+reservation+period%2C+1880%E2%80%932000&rft.pub=University+of+Oklahoma+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-8061-3804-6&rft.aulast=Dempsey&rft.aufirst=Lloyd+James&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DW0GhRZQuSbkC%26q%3DThe%2520Blackfeet%253A%2520People%2520%2522blackfoot%2522%26pg%3DPP1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlackfoot+Confederacy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGibson2000" class="citation book cs1">Gibson, Karen Bush (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=HsEJ1nFpwPEC&q=The%20Blackfeet%3A%20People%20of%20the%20Dark%20Moccasins.&pg=PP1"><i>The Blackfeet: People of the Dark Moccasins</i></a>. Mankato, Minnesota: Capstone Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7368-4824-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7368-4824-4"><bdi>978-0-7368-4824-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Blackfeet%3A+People+of+the+Dark+Moccasins&rft.place=Mankato%2C+Minnesota&rft.pub=Capstone+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-7368-4824-4&rft.aulast=Gibson&rft.aufirst=Karen+Bush&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DHsEJ1nFpwPEC%26q%3DThe%2520Blackfeet%253A%2520People%2520of%2520the%2520Dark%2520Moccasins.%26pg%3DPP1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlackfoot+Confederacy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrinnell1913" class="citation cs2">Grinnell, George Bird (1913), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=TtU3S2pkHdAC&q=blackfoot%20indians&pg=PP1"><i>Blackfeet Indian Stories</i></a>, Kessinger Publishing, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781557092014" title="Special:BookSources/9781557092014"><bdi>9781557092014</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Blackfeet+Indian+Stories&rft.pub=Kessinger+Publishing&rft.date=1913&rft.isbn=9781557092014&rft.aulast=Grinnell&rft.aufirst=George+Bird&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DTtU3S2pkHdAC%26q%3Dblackfoot%2520indians%26pg%3DPP1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlackfoot+Confederacy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHellson1974" class="citation cs2">Hellson, John C. (1974), <i>Ethnobotany of the Blackfoot Indians, Ottawa.</i>, National Museums of Canada. Mercury Series.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ethnobotany+of+the+Blackfoot+Indians%2C+Ottawa.&rft.pub=National+Museums+of+Canada.+Mercury+Series.&rft.date=1974&rft.aulast=Hellson&rft.aufirst=John+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlackfoot+Confederacy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHungry-Wolf2006" class="citation cs2">Hungry-Wolf, Adolf (2006), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=sGtsbTEtcRIC&q=The%20Blackfeet%3A%20People%20%22blackfoot%22&pg=PP1"><i>The Blackfoot papers</i></a>, The Blackfeet Heritage Center & Art Gallery, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-920698-80-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-920698-80-8"><bdi>0-920698-80-8</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Blackfoot+papers&rft.pub=The+Blackfeet+Heritage+Center+%26+Art+Gallery&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=0-920698-80-8&rft.aulast=Hungry-Wolf&rft.aufirst=Adolf&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DsGtsbTEtcRIC%26q%3DThe%2520Blackfeet%253A%2520People%2520%2522blackfoot%2522%26pg%3DPP1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlackfoot+Confederacy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKehoeD._C._DuvallDarrell_Kipp2007" class="citation cs2">Kehoe, Alice Beck; D. C. Duvall; Darrell Kipp (2007), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=iY80jXnwXrUC&q=blackfoot%20indians&pg=PP1"><i>Mythology of the Blackfoot Indians</i></a>, University of Nebraska Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780803260238" title="Special:BookSources/9780803260238"><bdi>9780803260238</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mythology+of+the+Blackfoot+Indians&rft.pub=University+of+Nebraska+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=9780803260238&rft.aulast=Kehoe&rft.aufirst=Alice+Beck&rft.au=D.+C.+Duvall&rft.au=Darrell+Kipp&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DiY80jXnwXrUC%26q%3Dblackfoot%2520indians%26pg%3DPP1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlackfoot+Confederacy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPeat2005" class="citation cs2">Peat, F. David (2005), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rmxB4bau74QC&q=Blackfoot%20Confederacy&pg=PP1"><i>Blackfoot Physics</i></a>, Weiser Books, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57863-371-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-57863-371-5"><bdi>978-1-57863-371-5</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Blackfoot+Physics&rft.pub=Weiser+Books&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-1-57863-371-5&rft.aulast=Peat&rft.aufirst=F.+David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DrmxB4bau74QC%26q%3DBlackfoot%2520Confederacy%26pg%3DPP1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlackfoot+Confederacy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTaylor1993" class="citation book cs1">Taylor, Colin (1993). Jayne Booth (ed.). <i>What do we Know about the Plains Indians?</i>. New York: Peter Bedrick Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=What+do+we+Know+about+the+Plains+Indians%3F&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Peter+Bedrick+Books&rft.date=1993&rft.aulast=Taylor&rft.aufirst=Colin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlackfoot+Confederacy" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Blackfeet" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Blackfeet">Blackfeet</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/19980110200730/http://blackfoot.org/">Blackfoot homepage</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070418180642/http://www.mnsu.edu/emuseum/cultural/northamerica/blackfoot.html">Blackfoot Confederacy</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.native-languages.org/blackfoot.htm">Blackfoot Language and the Blackfoot Indian Tribe</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://indianistyka.x10host.com/_LAKOTA_SIOUX_1.htm#_i_mapa_ziem_Czarnych_Stop">Map of Blackfeet tribal lands</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210422185359/http://indianistyka.x10host.com/_LAKOTA_SIOUX_1.htm#_i_mapa_ziem_Czarnych_Stop">Archived</a> 22 April 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111018005629/http://beinecke.library.yale.edu/digitallibrary/mcclintock.html">Walter McClintock Glass Lantern Slides</a> Photographs of the Blackfoot, their homelands, material culture, and ceremonies from the collection of the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.library.yale.edu/beinecke/">Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library at Yale University</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110621010914/http://www.blackfootdigitallibrary.org/">Blackfoot Digital Library</a>, project of Red Crow Community College and the University of Lethbridge</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archives-manuscripts.dartmouth.edu/repositories/2/resources/1013">Blackfoot Anthropological Notes</a> at Dartmouth College Library</li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wikisource-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/15px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/23px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/30px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></a></span> Texts on Wikisource: <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">"<a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Encyclopedia_Americana_(1920)/Blackfeet_Indians" class="extiw" title="s:The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Blackfeet Indians">Blackfeet Indians</a>". <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_Americana" title="Encyclopedia Americana">Encyclopedia Americana</a></i>. 1920.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Blackfeet+Indians&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+Americana&rft.date=1920&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlackfoot+Confederacy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMooney1913" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/James_Mooney" title="James Mooney">Mooney, James</a> (1913). "<a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Catholic_Encyclopedia_(1913)/Blackfoot_Indians" class="extiw" title="s:Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Blackfoot Indians">Blackfoot Indians</a>". <i><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Encyclopedia" title="Catholic Encyclopedia">Catholic Encyclopedia</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Blackfoot+Indians&rft.btitle=Catholic+Encyclopedia&rft.date=1913&rft.aulast=Mooney&rft.aufirst=James&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlackfoot+Confederacy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">"<a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Blackfoot" class="extiw" title="s:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Blackfoot">Blackfoot</a>". <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i> (11th ed.). 1911.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Blackfoot&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.edition=11th&rft.date=1911&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlackfoot+Confederacy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHale1886" class="citation magazine cs1"><a href="/wiki/Horatio_Hale" title="Horatio Hale">Hale, Horatio</a> (June 1886). "<a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Popular_Science_Monthly/Volume_29/June_1886/Ethnology_of_the_Blackfoot_Tribes" class="extiw" title="s:Popular Science Monthly/Volume 29/June 1886/Ethnology of the Blackfoot Tribes">Ethnology of the Blackfoot Tribes</a>". <i><a href="/wiki/Popular_Science_Monthly" class="mw-redirect" title="Popular Science Monthly">Popular Science Monthly</a></i>. Vol. 29.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Popular+Science+Monthly&rft.atitle=Ethnology+of+the+Blackfoot+Tribes&rft.volume=29&rft.date=1886-06&rft.aulast=Hale&rft.aufirst=Horatio&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlackfoot+Confederacy" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol 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.navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Blackfoot_Confederacy328" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Blackfoot_Confederacy" title="Template:Blackfoot Confederacy"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Blackfoot_Confederacy" title="Template talk:Blackfoot Confederacy"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Blackfoot_Confederacy" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Blackfoot Confederacy"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Blackfoot_Confederacy328" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Blackfoot Confederacy</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Tribes or Nations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><i><a href="/wiki/Blackfoot_language" title="Blackfoot language">Blackfoot-speaking</a></i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kainai_Nation" title="Kainai Nation">Kanai or Blood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piikani_Nation" title="Piikani Nation">Piikani, Northern Peigan or Blackfoot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siksika_Nation" title="Siksika Nation">Siksika or Blackfoot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piegan_Blackfeet" title="Piegan Blackfeet">Amskapi Pikuni, South Piegan or Blackfeet</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><i>Later members</i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gros_Ventre" title="Gros Ventre">Gros Ventre or Atsina</a> (circa 1793–1861)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tsuut%CA%BCina_Nation" title="Tsuutʼina Nation">Tsuutʼina or Sarcee</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="4" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Blackfoot01.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Traditional territory in green, reserves and reservations in orange."><img alt="Traditional territory in green, reserves and reservations in orange." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Blackfoot01.png/120px-Blackfoot01.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="123" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Blackfoot01.png/180px-Blackfoot01.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Blackfoot01.png/240px-Blackfoot01.png 2x" data-file-width="1748" data-file-height="1787" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Communities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><i><a href="/wiki/Indian_reservation" title="Indian reservation">Reservations</a></i> (US)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blackfeet_Indian_Reservation" class="mw-redirect" title="Blackfeet Indian Reservation">Blackfeet Indian Reservation</a> (South Piegans)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fort_Belknap_Indian_Reservation" title="Fort Belknap Indian Reservation">Fort Belknap Indian Reservation</a> (Gros Ventres)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><i><a href="/wiki/Indian_reserve" title="Indian reserve">Reserves</a></i> (Canada)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blood_148" title="Blood 148">Blood 148</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piikani_147" title="Piikani 147">Piikani 147</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siksika_146" title="Siksika 146">Siksika 146</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tsuu_T%27ina_145" title="Tsuu T'ina 145">Tsuu T'ina 145</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Culture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blackfoot_language" title="Blackfoot language">Blackfoot language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gros_Ventre_language" title="Gros Ventre language">Gros Ventre language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tsuut%CA%BCina_language" title="Tsuutʼina language">Tsuutʼina language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blackfeet_music" title="Blackfeet music">Blackfeet music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blackfoot_religion" title="Blackfoot religion">Blackfoot religion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">History</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>War with <a href="/wiki/Shoshone" title="Shoshone">Shoshone</a> (circa 1730s-1800s)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1775%E2%80%931782_North_American_smallpox_epidemic" title="1775–1782 North American smallpox epidemic">1775–1782 North American smallpox epidemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1837_Great_Plains_smallpox_epidemic" title="1837 Great Plains smallpox epidemic">1837–1838 smallpox epidemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Fort_Laramie_(1851)" title="Treaty of Fort Laramie (1851)">Treaty of Fort Laramie (1851)</a> (with USA)</li> <li>War against the Crow and Gros Ventre (circa 1861–1867)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Fort_Laramie_(1868)" title="Treaty of Fort Laramie (1868)">Treaty of Fort Laramie (1868)</a> (with USA)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Belly_River" title="Battle of the Belly River">Battle of the Belly River</a> (against the Cree, 1870)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marias_Massacre" title="Marias Massacre">Marias Massacre</a> (by US Army, 1870)</li> <li>Peace with the Cree, circa 1871, (symbolized by <a href="/wiki/Crowfoot" title="Crowfoot">Crowfoot</a>'s adoption of <a href="/wiki/Poundmaker" title="Poundmaker">Poundmaker</a> in 1873)</li> <li>US land annexation, migration to Canada (1874)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_7" title="Treaty 7">Treaty 7</a> (with Canada, 1877)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Starvation_winter_(1883%E2%80%931884)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Starvation winter (1883–1884) (page does not exist)">Starvation winter (1883–1884)</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sweetgrass_Hills_Treaty&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sweetgrass Hills Treaty (page does not exist)">Sweetgrass Hills Treaty</a> (with USA, 1887)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Blackfoot_Confederacy" title="Category:Blackfoot Confederacy">Category</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Blackfeet" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Blackfeet">Commons</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="25px&#124;Flag_of_Alberta_First_Nations_in_Alberta478" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background: #f8d6b6;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:First_Nations_in_Alberta" title="Template:First Nations in Alberta"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:First_Nations_in_Alberta" title="Template talk:First Nations in Alberta"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:First_Nations_in_Alberta" title="Special:EditPage/Template:First Nations in Alberta"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="25px&#124;Flag_of_Alberta_First_Nations_in_Alberta478" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_Alberta.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Flag of Alberta"><img alt="Flag of Alberta" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Flag_of_Alberta.svg/25px-Flag_of_Alberta.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Flag_of_Alberta.svg/38px-Flag_of_Alberta.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Flag_of_Alberta.svg/50px-Flag_of_Alberta.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="500" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/First_Nations_in_Alberta" title="First Nations in Alberta">First Nations in Alberta</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><a href="/wiki/Classification_of_indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" class="mw-redirect" title="Classification of indigenous peoples of the Americas">Cultural areas</a>: <a href="/wiki/Plains_Indians" title="Plains Indians">Plains</a>, <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Subarctic" title="Indigenous peoples of the Subarctic">Subarctic</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_languages_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous languages of the Americas">Ethnolinguistic groups</a> (by language family)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Algic_languages" title="Algic languages">Algic</a> / <a href="/wiki/Algonquian_peoples" title="Algonquian peoples">Algonquian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blackfoot" class="mw-redirect" title="Blackfoot">Blackfoot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cree" title="Cree">Cree</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plains_Cree_language" title="Plains Cree language"><i>Plains</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woodland_Cree" title="Woodland Cree"><i>Woodland</i></a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saulteaux" title="Saulteaux">Saulteaux</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Athapascan" class="mw-redirect" title="Athapascan">Athapascan</a> / <a href="/wiki/Dene" title="Dene">Dene</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Dane-zaa" title="Dane-zaa">Daneẕaa</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Chipewyan" title="Chipewyan">Dënesųłı̨ne</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Slavey_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavey people">Dene Tha'</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tsuut%27ina_Nation" class="mw-redirect" title="Tsuut'ina Nation">Tsuut'ina</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siouan_languages" title="Siouan languages">Siouan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nakoda_(Stoney)" class="mw-redirect" title="Nakoda (Stoney)">Nakoda</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historical <a href="/wiki/Polities" class="mw-redirect" title="Polities">polities</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Blackfoot Confederacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iron_Confederacy" title="Iron Confederacy">Iron Confederacy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Numbered_Treaties" title="Numbered Treaties">Numbered Treaties</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_6" title="Treaty 6">Treaty 6</a> <small>(1876)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_7" title="Treaty 7">Treaty 7</a> <small>(1877)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_8" title="Treaty 8">Treaty 8</a> <small>(1899)</small></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Tribal councils and<br /><a href="/wiki/Band_government" title="Band government">band governments</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Athabasca_Tribal_Council" title="Athabasca Tribal Council">Athabasca Tribal Council</a> <small>(<a href="/wiki/Fort_McMurray" title="Fort McMurray">Fort McMurray</a>)</small></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Athabasca_Chipewyan_First_Nation" title="Athabasca Chipewyan First Nation">Athabasca Chipewyan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chipewyan_Prairie_First_Nation" title="Chipewyan Prairie First Nation">Chipewyan Prairie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fort_McKay_First_Nation" title="Fort McKay First Nation">Fort McKay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fort_McMurray_First_Nation" title="Fort McMurray First Nation">Fort McMurray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mikisew_Cree_First_Nation" title="Mikisew Cree First Nation">Mikisew Cree</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Blackfoot Confederacy</a> <small>(<a href="/wiki/Standoff,_Alberta" class="mw-redirect" title="Standoff, Alberta">Standoff</a>)</small></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kainai_Nation" title="Kainai Nation">Kainai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piikani_Nation" title="Piikani Nation">Piikani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siksika_Nation" title="Siksika Nation">Siksika</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Confederacy_of_Treaty_6_First_Nations" class="mw-redirect" title="Confederacy of Treaty 6 First Nations">Confederacy of Treaty 6 First Nations</a> <small>(<a href="/wiki/Enoch,_Alberta" class="mw-redirect" title="Enoch, Alberta">Enoch</a>)</small></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_First_Nation" title="Alexander First Nation">Alexander</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexis_Nakota_Sioux_First_Nation" title="Alexis Nakota Sioux First Nation">Alexis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beaver_Lake_Cree_Nation" title="Beaver Lake Cree Nation">Beaver Lake Cree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_Lake_First_Nations" title="Cold Lake First Nations">Cold Lake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enoch_Cree_Nation" title="Enoch Cree Nation">Enoch Cree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ermineskin_Cree_Nation" title="Ermineskin Cree Nation">Ermineskin Cree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frog_Lake_First_Nation" title="Frog Lake First Nation">Frog Lake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saddle_Lake_Cree_Nation" title="Saddle Lake Cree Nation">Whitefish Lake (Goodfish)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heart_Lake_First_Nation" title="Heart Lake First Nation">Heart Lake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kehewin_Cree_Nation" title="Kehewin Cree Nation">Kehewin Cree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Bull_Tribe" title="Louis Bull Tribe">Louis Bull</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montana_First_Nation" title="Montana First Nation">Montana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/O%27Chiese_First_Nation" title="O'Chiese First Nation">O'Chiese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Band" title="Paul Band">Paul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saddle_Lake_Cree_Nation" title="Saddle Lake Cree Nation">Saddle Lake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samson_Cree_Nation" title="Samson Cree Nation">Samson Cree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunchild_First_Nation" title="Sunchild First Nation">Sunchild</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Kee_Tas_Kee_Now_Tribal_Council" title="Kee Tas Kee Now Tribal Council">Kee Tas Kee Now Tribal Council</a> <small>(<a href="/wiki/Atikameg,_Alberta" title="Atikameg, Alberta">Atikameg</a>)</small></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Red_Earth_Creek" title="Red Earth Creek">Loon River Cree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lubicon_Lake_Band" title="Lubicon Lake Band">Lubicon Lake Band</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peerless_Trout_First_Nation" title="Peerless Trout First Nation">Peerless Trout</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atikameg,_Alberta" title="Atikameg, Alberta">Whitefish Lake (Atikameg)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woodland_Cree_First_Nation" title="Woodland Cree First Nation">Woodland Cree</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Lesser_Slave_Lake_Indian_Regional_Council" title="Lesser Slave Lake Indian Regional Council">Lesser Slave Lake Indian Regional Council</a> <small>(<a href="/wiki/Slave_Lake,_Alberta" class="mw-redirect" title="Slave Lake, Alberta">Slave Lake</a>)</small></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Driftpile_First_Nation" title="Driftpile First Nation">Driftpile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kapawe%27no_First_Nation" title="Kapawe'no First Nation">Kapawe'no</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sawridge_First_Nation" title="Sawridge First Nation">Sawridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sucker_Creek_Cree_First_Nation" class="mw-redirect" title="Sucker Creek Cree First Nation">Sucker Creek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swan_River_First_Nation" title="Swan River First Nation">Swan River</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/North_Peace_Tribal_Council" title="North Peace Tribal Council">North Peace Tribal Council</a> <small>(<a href="/wiki/High_Level,_Alberta" class="mw-redirect" title="High Level, Alberta">High Level</a>)</small></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beaver_First_Nation" title="Beaver First Nation">Beaver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dene_Tha%27_First_Nation" title="Dene Tha' First Nation">Dene Tha'</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Little_Red_River_Cree_Nation" title="Little Red River Cree Nation">Little Red River Cree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tallcree_Tribal_Government" title="Tallcree Tribal Government">Tallcree</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stoney_Nakoda_-_Tsuut%27ina_Tribal_Council&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Stoney Nakoda - Tsuut'ina Tribal Council (page does not exist)">Stoney Nakoda - Tsuut'ina Tribal Council</a> <small>(<a href="/wiki/Tsuut%27ina_Nation" class="mw-redirect" title="Tsuut'ina Nation">Tsuut'ina</a>)</small></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stoney_Nakoda_First_Nation" title="Stoney Nakoda First Nation">Stoney Nakoda</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bearspaw_First_Nation" class="mw-redirect" title="Bearspaw First Nation">Bearspaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chiniki_First_Nation" class="mw-redirect" title="Chiniki First Nation">Chiniki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wesley_First_Nation" class="mw-redirect" title="Wesley First Nation">Wesley</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tsuut%27ina_Nation" class="mw-redirect" title="Tsuut'ina Nation">Tsuut'ina</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tribal_Chiefs_Ventures&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tribal Chiefs Ventures (page does not exist)">Tribal Chiefs Ventures</a> <small>(<a href="/wiki/Beaver_Lake_Cree_Nation" title="Beaver Lake Cree Nation">Beaver Lake Cree</a>)</small></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beaver_Lake_Cree_Nation" title="Beaver Lake Cree Nation">Beaver Lake Cree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_Lake_First_Nations" title="Cold Lake First Nations">Cold Lake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frog_Lake_First_Nation" title="Frog Lake First Nation">Frog Lake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heart_Lake_First_Nation" title="Heart Lake First Nation">Heart Lake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kehewin_Cree_Nation" title="Kehewin Cree Nation">Kehewin Cree</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Western_Cree_Tribal_Council" title="Western Cree Tribal Council">Western Cree Tribal Council</a> <small>(<a href="/wiki/Valleyview,_Alberta" title="Valleyview, Alberta">Valleyview</a>)</small></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Duncan%27s_First_Nation" title="Duncan's First Nation">Duncan's</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horse_Lake_First_Nation" title="Horse Lake First Nation">Horse Lake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sturgeon_Lake_Cree_Nation" title="Sturgeon Lake Cree Nation">Sturgeon Lake</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Yellowhead_Tribal_Council" title="Yellowhead Tribal Council">Yellowhead Tribal Council</a> <small>(<a href="/wiki/Morinville,_Alberta" class="mw-redirect" title="Morinville, Alberta">Morinville</a>)</small></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_First_Nation" title="Alexander First Nation">Alexander</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexis_Nakota_Sioux_First_Nation" title="Alexis Nakota Sioux First Nation">Alexis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/O%27Chiese_First_Nation" title="O'Chiese First Nation">O'Chiese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunchild_First_Nation" title="Sunchild First Nation">Sunchild</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Unaffiliated</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bigstone_Cree_Nation" title="Bigstone Cree Nation">Bigstone</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Not federally recognized</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aseniwuche_Winewak_Nation&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Aseniwuche Winewak Nation (page does not exist)">Aseniwuche Winewak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lubicon_Lake_Indian_Nation" title="Lubicon Lake Indian Nation">Lubicon Lake Indian Nation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Not headquartered in Alberta</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acho_Dene_Koe_First_Nation" title="Acho Dene Koe First Nation">Acho Dene Koe</a> <small>(<a href="/wiki/Northwest_Territories" title="Northwest Territories">NT</a>)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kelly_Lake,_British_Columbia" title="Kelly Lake, British Columbia">Kelly Lake</a> <small>(<a href="/wiki/British_Columbia" title="British Columbia">BC</a>)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Onion_Lake_Cree_Nation" title="Onion Lake Cree Nation">Onion Lake</a> <small>(<a href="/wiki/Saskatchewan" title="Saskatchewan">SK</a>)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smith%27s_Landing_First_Nation" title="Smith's Landing First Nation">Smith's Landing</a> <small>(<a href="/wiki/Northwest_Territories" title="Northwest Territories">NT</a>)</small></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Terminated</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Papaschase" title="Papaschase">Papaschase</a> <small>(1891)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sharphead_band" title="Sharphead band">Sharphead</a> <small>(1897)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michel_Band" title="Michel Band">Michel</a> <small>(1958)</small></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Indian_reserves_in_Alberta" title="List of Indian reserves in Alberta">List of Indian reserves in Alberta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%C3%A9tis_in_Alberta" title="Métis in Alberta">Métis in Alberta</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Ethnic_origins_of_people_in_Canada161" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Canadian_people" title="Template:Canadian people"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Canadian_people" title="Template talk:Canadian people"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Canadian_people" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Canadian people"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ethnic_origins_of_people_in_Canada161" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_origins_of_people_in_Canada" title="Ethnic origins of people in Canada">Ethnic origins of people in Canada</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Canada</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_in_Canada" title="Indigenous peoples in Canada">Indigenous</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Nations_in_Canada" title="First Nations in Canada">First Nations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_First_Nations_band_governments" title="List of First Nations band governments">by band</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inuit" title="Inuit">Inuit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%C3%A9tis_in_Canada" class="mw-redirect" title="Métis in Canada">Métis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_ethnicity" title="Canadian ethnicity">Canadian ethnicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Canadians" title="French Canadians">French Canadians</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acadians" title="Acadians">Acadians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qu%C3%A9b%C3%A9cois_people" title="Québécois people">Québécois</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Canadians" title="British Canadians">British</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/English_Canadians" title="English Canadians">English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_Canadians" title="Scottish Canadians">Scottish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_Canadians" title="Welsh Canadians">Welsh</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newfoundlander" class="mw-redirect" title="Newfoundlander">Newfoundlander</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_Canadians" title="Irish Canadians">Irish Canadians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Loyalist#Nova_Scotia" title="Black Loyalist">Black Loyalist</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Black_Canadians" title="Black Canadians">Africa</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Horn of Africa</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eritrean_Canadians" title="Eritrean Canadians">Eritrean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Canadians" title="Ethiopian Canadians">Ethiopian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somali_Canadians" title="Somali Canadians">Somali</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">North Africa</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Berber_Canadians" title="Berber Canadians">Berber</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Algerian_Canadians" title="Algerian Canadians">Algerian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libyan_Canadians" title="Libyan Canadians">Libyan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moroccan_Canadians" title="Moroccan Canadians">Moroccan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tunisian_Canadians" title="Tunisian Canadians">Tunisian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coptic_Canadians" title="Coptic Canadians">Coptic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_Canadians" title="Egyptian Canadians">Egyptian</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">East Africa</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/South_Sudanese_Canadians" title="South Sudanese Canadians">South Sudanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sudanese_Canadians" title="Sudanese Canadians">Sudanese</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Southern Africa</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/South_African_Canadians" title="South African Canadians">South African</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zimbabwean_Canadians" title="Zimbabwean Canadians">Zimbabwean</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">West Africa</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ghanaian_Canadians" title="Ghanaian Canadians">Ghanaian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nigerian_Canadians" title="Nigerian Canadians">Nigerian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Igbo_Canadians" title="Igbo Canadians">Igbo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yoruba_Canadians" title="Yoruba Canadians">Yoruba</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Americas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">North America</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Canadians" title="American Canadians">American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mexican_Canadians" title="Mexican Canadians">Mexican</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Caribbean</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Barbadian_Canadians" title="Barbadian Canadians">Barbadian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuban_Canadians" class="mw-redirect" title="Cuban Canadians">Cuban</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominican_Canadians" class="mw-redirect" title="Dominican Canadians">Dominican</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guyanese_Canadians" class="mw-redirect" title="Guyanese Canadians">Guyanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haitian_Canadians" title="Haitian Canadians">Haitian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jamaican_Canadians" title="Jamaican Canadians">Jamaican</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Puerto_Rican_Canadians" class="mw-redirect" title="Puerto Rican Canadians">Puerto Rican</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trinidadian_and_Tobagonian_Canadians" title="Trinidadian and Tobagonian Canadians">Trinidadian and Tobagonian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Central and South America</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Argentine_Canadians" class="mw-redirect" title="Argentine Canadians">Argentine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brazilian_Canadians" class="mw-redirect" title="Brazilian Canadians">Brazilian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chilean_Canadians" class="mw-redirect" title="Chilean Canadians">Chilean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colombian_Canadians" class="mw-redirect" title="Colombian Canadians">Colombian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guatemalan_Canadians" class="mw-redirect" title="Guatemalan Canadians">Guatemalan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peruvian_Canadians" class="mw-redirect" title="Peruvian Canadians">Peruvian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salvadoran_Canadians" class="mw-redirect" title="Salvadoran Canadians">Salvadoran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uruguayan_Canadians" class="mw-redirect" title="Uruguayan Canadians">Uruguayan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venezuelan_Canadians" class="mw-redirect" title="Venezuelan Canadians">Venezuelan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Asian_Canadians" title="Asian Canadians">Asia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/West_Asian_Canadians" title="West Asian Canadians">Central Asia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afghan_Canadians" title="Afghan Canadians">Afghan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kazakh_Canadians" title="Kazakh Canadians">Kazakh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tajik_Canadians" title="Tajik Canadians">Tajik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tatar_Canadians" title="Tatar Canadians">Tatar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uzbek_Canadians" title="Uzbek Canadians">Uzbek</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/East_Asian_Canadians" title="East Asian Canadians">East Asia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Canadians" title="Chinese Canadians">Chinese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hong_Kong_Canadians" title="Hong Kong Canadians">Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_Canadians" title="Taiwanese Canadians">Taiwan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_Canadians" title="Japanese Canadians">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Canadians" title="Korean Canadians">Korean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongolian_Canadians" title="Mongolian Canadians">Mongolian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Canadians" title="Tibetan Canadians">Tibetan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/South_Asian_Canadians" title="South Asian Canadians">South Asia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bangladeshi_Canadians" title="Bangladeshi Canadians">Bangladeshi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Canadians" class="mw-redirect" title="Indo-Canadians">Indian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Indian_Canadians" title="Anglo-Indian Canadians">Anglo-Indian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamil_Canadians" title="Tamil Canadians">Tamil</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nepalese_Canadians" title="Nepalese Canadians">Nepali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pakistani_Canadians" title="Pakistani Canadians">Pakistani</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Punjabi_Canadians" title="Punjabi Canadians">Punjabi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romani_people_in_Canada" title="Romani people in Canada">Romani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sri_Lankan_Canadians" title="Sri Lankan Canadians">Sri Lankan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Southeast_Asian_Canadians" title="Southeast Asian Canadians">Southeast Asia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cambodian_Canadians" title="Cambodian Canadians">Cambodian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Filipino_Canadians" title="Filipino Canadians">Filipino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indonesian_Canadians" title="Indonesian Canadians">Indonesian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laotian_Canadians" title="Laotian Canadians">Laotian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malaysian_Canadians" title="Malaysian Canadians">Malaysian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Singaporean_Canadians" title="Singaporean Canadians">Singaporean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thai_Canadians" title="Thai Canadians">Thai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_Canadians" title="Vietnamese Canadians">Vietnamese</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/West_Asian_Canadians" title="West Asian Canadians">West Asia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Canadians" title="Arab Canadians">Arab</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Canadians" title="Iraqi Canadians">Iraqi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jordanian_Canadians" title="Jordanian Canadians">Jordanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lebanese_Canadians" title="Lebanese Canadians">Lebanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palestinian_Canadians" title="Palestinian Canadians">Palestinian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saudi_Canadians" title="Saudi Canadians">Saudi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_Canadians" title="Syrian Canadians">Syrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yemeni_Canadians" title="Yemeni Canadians">Yemeni</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_Canadians" title="Armenian Canadians">Armenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyrian_Canadians" title="Assyrian Canadians">Assyrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Azerbaijani_Canadians" title="Azerbaijani Canadians">Azerbaijani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_Canadians" title="Iranian Canadians">Iranian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Canada" title="History of the Jews in Canada">Jewish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Israeli_Canadians" title="Israeli Canadians">Israeli</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurdish_Canadians" title="Kurdish Canadians">Kurdish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_Canadians" title="Turkish Canadians">Turkish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/European_Canadians" title="European Canadians">Europe</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Central Europe</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Austrian_Canadians" title="Austrian Canadians">Austrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Czech_Canadians" title="Czech Canadians">Czech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_Canadians" title="German Canadians">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungarian_Canadians" title="Hungarian Canadians">Hungarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_Canadians" title="Polish Canadians">Polish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slovak_Canadians" title="Slovak Canadians">Slovak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slovene_Canadians" title="Slovene Canadians">Slovenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swiss_Canadians" title="Swiss Canadians">Swiss</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Eastern Europe</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Belarusian_Canadians" title="Belarusian Canadians">Belarusian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Canadians" title="Russian Canadians">Russian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_Canadians" title="Ukrainian Canadians">Ukrainian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Northern Europe</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nordic_and_Scandinavian_Canadians" title="Nordic and Scandinavian Canadians">Nordic and Scandinavian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Danish_Canadians" title="Danish Canadians">Danish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finnish_Canadians" title="Finnish Canadians">Finnish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Icelandic_Canadians" title="Icelandic Canadians">Icelandic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norwegian_Canadians" title="Norwegian Canadians">Norwegian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_Canadians" title="Swedish Canadians">Swedish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Estonian_Canadians" title="Estonian Canadians">Estonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latvian_Canadians" title="Latvian Canadians">Latvian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_Canadians" title="Lithuanian Canadians">Lithuanian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Southeast Europe</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Albanian_Canadians" class="mw-redirect" title="Albanian Canadians">Albanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bosnian_Canadians" title="Bosnian Canadians">Bosnian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulgarian_Canadians" title="Bulgarian Canadians">Bulgarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Croatian_Canadians" title="Croatian Canadians">Croatian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_Canadians" title="Greek Canadians">Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macedonian_Canadians" title="Macedonian Canadians">Macedonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montenegrin_Canadians" title="Montenegrin Canadians">Montenegrin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanian_Canadians" title="Romanian Canadians">Romanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serbian_Canadians" title="Serbian Canadians">Serbian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yugoslav_Canadians" title="Yugoslav Canadians">Yugoslav</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Southern Europe</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Canadians" title="Italian Canadians">Italian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maltese_Canadians" title="Maltese Canadians">Maltese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Canadians" title="Portuguese Canadians">Portuguese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Canadians" title="Spanish Canadians">Spanish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Basque_Canadians" title="Basque Canadians">Basque</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Western Europe</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Belgian_Canadians" title="Belgian Canadians">Belgian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Flemish_Canadians" class="mw-redirect" title="Flemish Canadians">Flemish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Canadians" title="British Canadians">British</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cornish_Canadians" title="Cornish Canadians">Cornish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_Canadians" title="English Canadians">English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scotch-Irish_Canadians" title="Scotch-Irish Canadians">Scotch-Irish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_Canadians" title="Scottish Canadians">Scottish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_Canadians" title="Welsh Canadians">Welsh</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Canadians" title="Dutch Canadians">Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Canadians" title="French Canadians">French</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acadians" title="Acadians">Acadians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breton_Canadians" title="Breton Canadians">Breton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qu%C3%A9b%C3%A9cois_people" title="Québécois people">Québécois</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_Canadian" class="mw-redirect" title="Irish Canadian">Irish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luxembourgish_Canadians" title="Luxembourgish Canadians">Luxembourger</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Oceanian_Canadians" title="Oceanian Canadians">Oceania</a></th><td 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