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subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Philological_constructs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Late_and_post-classical_Latin" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Late_and_post-classical_Latin"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Late and post-classical Latin</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Late_and_post-classical_Latin-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Imperial_Latin" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Imperial_Latin"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Imperial Latin</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Imperial_Latin-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Christian,_patristic,_Vulgate_and_ancient_Latin" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Christian,_patristic,_Vulgate_and_ancient_Latin"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Christian, patristic, Vulgate and ancient Latin</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Christian,_patristic,_Vulgate_and_ancient_Latin-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Low_Latin" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Low_Latin"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Low Latin</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Low_Latin-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Through_the_death_of_Boethius" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Through_the_death_of_Boethius"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5</span> <span>Through the death of Boethius</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Through_the_death_of_Boethius-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" 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interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Llat%C3%AD_tard%C3%A0" title="Llatí tardà – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Llatí tardà" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sp%C3%A4tlatein" title="Spätlatein – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Spätlatein" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hilisladina_keel" title="Hilisladina keel – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Hilisladina keel" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lat%C3%ADn_tard%C3%ADo" title="Latín tardío – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Latín tardío" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AA%DB%8C%D9%86_%D9%BE%D8%B3%DB%8C%D9%86" title="لاتین پسین – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="لاتین پسین" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bas_latin" title="Bas latin – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Bas latin" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lat%C3%ADn_tard%C3%ADo" title="Latín tardío – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Latín tardío" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Senlatin" title="Senlatin – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Senlatin" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latim_tardio" title="Latim tardio – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Latim tardio" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latina_t%C3%A2rzie" title="Latina târzie – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Latina târzie" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%B4%D0%BD%D1%8F%D1%8F_%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%8B%D0%BD%D1%8C" title="Поздняя латынь – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Поздняя латынь" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Latin" title="Late Latin – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Late Latin" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" 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<div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Written Latin of late antiquity</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vevent infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above above" style="font-size:125%; color: black; background-color: #c9ffd9;">Late Latin</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Simone_Martini_003.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Simone_Martini_003.jpg/200px-Simone_Martini_003.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="353" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Simone_Martini_003.jpg/300px-Simone_Martini_003.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Simone_Martini_003.jpg/400px-Simone_Martini_003.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1576" data-file-height="2779" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption" style="padding:0.35em 0.35em 0.25em;line-height:1.25em;"><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine of Hippo</a> (354–430), Late Latin author</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Native to</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;">(<a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western</a>) <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ostrogothic_Kingdom" title="Ostrogothic Kingdom">Ostrogothic Kingdom</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gallic_Empire" title="Gallic Empire">Gallic Empire</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Region</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><i><a href="/wiki/Mare_Nostrum" title="Mare Nostrum">Mare Nostrum</a></i> region</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Era</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;">3rd–6th centuries; developed into <a href="/wiki/Medieval_Latin" title="Medieval Latin">Medieval Latin</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><span class="wrap"><a href="/wiki/Language_family" title="Language family">Language family</a></span></div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><div style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European</a> <ul style="line-height:100%; margin-left:1.35em;padding-left:0"><li> <a href="/wiki/Italic_languages" title="Italic languages">Italic</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><a href="/wiki/Latino-Faliscan_languages" title="Latino-Faliscan languages">Latino-Faliscan</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><b>Late Latin</b></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Early forms</div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><div style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Old_Latin" title="Old Latin">Old Latin</a> <ul style="line-height:100%; margin-left:1.35em; padding-left:0"><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Latin" title="Classical Latin">Classical Latin</a> </li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><span class="wrap"><a href="/wiki/Writing_system" title="Writing system">Writing system</a></span></div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Latin_script" title="Latin script">Latin</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: black; background-color: #c9ffd9;">Official status</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Official language in</div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;">Both <a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Roman</a> <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Roman Empire">Empires</a> (Later replaced with <a href="/wiki/Koine_Greek" title="Koine Greek">Koine Greek</a> in the East)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_language_regulators" title="List of language regulators">Regulated by</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;">Schools of grammar and rhetoric</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: black; background-color: #c9ffd9;">Language codes</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/ISO_639-3" title="ISO 639-3">ISO 639-3</a></span></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;">–</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><i><a href="/wiki/Glottolog" title="Glottolog">Glottolog</a></i></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/late1252">late1252</a></code></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_of_Ancient_Rome_271_AD.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Map_of_Ancient_Rome_271_AD.svg/250px-Map_of_Ancient_Rome_271_AD.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="148" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Map_of_Ancient_Rome_271_AD.svg/375px-Map_of_Ancient_Rome_271_AD.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Map_of_Ancient_Rome_271_AD.svg/500px-Map_of_Ancient_Rome_271_AD.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2050" data-file-height="1213" /></a></span><div style="text-align:left;">The Late-Latin speaking world, 271 CE</div></td></tr></tbody></table><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236303919">@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds img{background:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds img{background:white}}</style> <p><b>Late Latin</b> is the scholarly name for the form of Literary<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="Citation does not corroborate the restriction of the term Late Latin to the literary form of the language. (March 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Latin of <a href="/wiki/Late_antiquity" title="Late antiquity">late antiquity</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Roberts537_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Roberts537-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> English <a href="/wiki/Dictionary" title="Dictionary">dictionary</a> definitions of Late Latin date this period from the <a href="/wiki/3rd_century" title="3rd century">3rd</a> to <a href="/wiki/6th_century" title="6th century">6th</a> centuries <a href="/wiki/Anno_Domini" title="Anno Domini">AD</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and continuing into the 7th century in the <a href="/wiki/Iberian_Peninsula" title="Iberian Peninsula">Iberian Peninsula</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Roberts537_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Roberts537-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This somewhat ambiguously defined version of Latin was used between the <a href="/wiki/Era" title="Era">eras</a> of <a href="/wiki/Classical_Latin" title="Classical Latin">Classical Latin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Medieval_Latin" title="Medieval Latin">Medieval Latin</a>. Scholars do not agree exactly when Classical Latin should end or Medieval Latin should begin.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Being a written language, Late Latin is not the same as <a href="/wiki/Vulgar_Latin" title="Vulgar Latin">Vulgar Latin</a>, or more specifically, the spoken Latin of the post Imperial period. The latter served as ancestor of the <a href="/wiki/Romance_languages" title="Romance languages">Romance languages</a>. Although Late Latin reflects an upsurge of the use of Vulgar Latin vocabulary and constructs, it remains largely classical in its overall features, depending on the author who uses it. Some Late Latin writings are more literary and classical, but others are more inclined to the <a href="/wiki/Vernacular" title="Vernacular">vernacular</a>. As such it is an important source of information about changes in the spoken language, while not being a simple replication of the state of the oral language at the time.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Also, Late Latin is not identical to Christian <a href="/wiki/Patristics" title="Patristics">patristic</a> Latin, used in the <a href="/wiki/Theology" title="Theology">theological</a> writings of the early Christian fathers. While Christian writings used a subset of Late Latin, <a href="/wiki/Paganism" title="Paganism">pagans</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Ammianus_Marcellinus" title="Ammianus Marcellinus">Ammianus Marcellinus</a> or <a href="/wiki/Macrobius" title="Macrobius">Macrobius</a>, also wrote extensively in Late Latin, especially in the early part of the period. </p><p>Late Latin formed when large numbers of non-Latin-speaking peoples on the borders of the empire were being subsumed and assimilated, and the rise of Christianity was introducing a heightened divisiveness in Roman society, creating a greater need for a standard language for communicating between different socioeconomic <a href="/wiki/Register_(sociolinguistics)" title="Register (sociolinguistics)">registers</a> and widely separated regions of the sprawling empire. A new and more universal speech evolved from the main elements: Classical Latin, Christian Latin, which featured <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">sermo humilis</i></span> (ordinary speech) in which the people were to be addressed,<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and all the various dialects of <a href="/wiki/Vulgar_Latin" title="Vulgar Latin">Vulgar Latin</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p> The linguist <a href="/wiki/Antoine_Meillet" title="Antoine Meillet">Antoine Meillet</a> wrote: </p><blockquote><p>"Without the exterior appearance of the language being much modified, Latin became in the course of the imperial epoch a new language... Serving as some sort of <a href="/wiki/Lingua_franca" title="Lingua franca">lingua franca</a> to a large empire, Latin tended to become simpler, to keep above all what it had of the ordinary."<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Philological_constructs">Philological constructs</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Late_Latin&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Philological constructs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Late_and_post-classical_Latin">Late and post-classical Latin</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Late_Latin&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Late and post-classical Latin"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The origin of the term 'Late Latin' remains obscure. A notice in <i>Harper's New Monthly Magazine</i> of the publication of Andrews' <i>Freund's Lexicon of the Latin Language</i> in 1850 mentions that the dictionary divides Latin into ante-classic, quite classic, Ciceronian, Augustan, post-Augustan and post-classic or late Latin,<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-AndrewsFreund1851_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AndrewsFreund1851-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which indicates the term already was in professional use by English classicists in the early 19th century. Instances of English vernacular use of the term may also be found from the 18th century. The term Late Antiquity meaning post-classical and pre-medieval had currency in English well before then. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Imperial_Latin">Imperial Latin</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Late_Latin&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Imperial Latin"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Siegmund_Teuffel" title="Wilhelm Siegmund Teuffel">Wilhelm Siegmund Teuffel</a>'s first edition (1870) of <i>History of Roman Literature</i> defined an early period, the Golden Age, the Silver Age and then goes on to define other ages first by dynasty and then by century (see under <a href="/wiki/Classical_Latin" title="Classical Latin">Classical Latin</a>). In subsequent editions he subsumed all periods under three headings: the First Period (<a href="/wiki/Old_Latin" title="Old Latin">Old Latin</a>), the Second Period (the Golden Age) and the Third Period, "the Imperial Age", subdivided into the Silver Age, the 2nd century, and the 3rd–6th centuries together, which was a recognition of Late Latin, as he sometimes refers to the writings of those times as "late". Imperial Latin went on into English literature; Fowler's <i>History of Roman Literature</i> mentions it in 1903.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The beginning and end of Imperial Latin is not well defined. Politically, the excluded Augustan Period is the paradigm of imperiality, but the style cannot be grouped with either the Silver Age or with Late Latin. In 6th-century Italy, the Western Roman Empire no longer existed and the rule of Gothic kings prevailed. Subsequently, the term Imperial Latin was dropped by historians of Latin literature, although it may be seen in marginal works. The Silver Age was extended a century, and the four centuries following made use of Late Latin. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Christian,_patristic,_Vulgate_and_ancient_Latin"><span id="Christian.2C_patristic.2C_Vulgate_and_ancient_Latin"></span>Christian, patristic, Vulgate and ancient Latin</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Late_Latin&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Christian, patristic, Vulgate and ancient Latin"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Ecclesiastical_Latin" title="Ecclesiastical Latin">Ecclesiastical Latin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vulgate" title="Vulgate">Vulgate</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vetus_Latina" title="Vetus Latina">Vetus Latina</a>, <a href="/wiki/Patrologia_Latina" title="Patrologia Latina">Patrologia Latina</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Patristics" title="Patristics">Patristics</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Low_Latin">Low Latin</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Late_Latin&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Low Latin"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Statue_St-Gildas_0708_NB1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Statue_St-Gildas_0708_NB1.jpg/220px-Statue_St-Gildas_0708_NB1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Statue_St-Gildas_0708_NB1.jpg/330px-Statue_St-Gildas_0708_NB1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Statue_St-Gildas_0708_NB1.jpg/440px-Statue_St-Gildas_0708_NB1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3137" data-file-height="2100" /></a><figcaption>St. <a href="/wiki/Gildas" title="Gildas">Gildas</a>, one of a number of Late Latin writers to promulgate an <i>excidium</i> or <i>ruina Britanniae</i> because of moral turpitude</figcaption></figure> <p>Low Latin is a vague and often pejorative term that might refer to any post-classical Latin from Late Latin through Renaissance Latin, depending on the author.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (July 2010)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Its origins are obscure, but the Latin expression <i>media et infima Latinitas</i> sprang into public notice in 1678 in the title of a <i>Glossary</i> (by today's standards a dictionary) by <a href="/wiki/Charles_du_Fresne,_sieur_du_Cange" title="Charles du Fresne, sieur du Cange">Charles du Fresne, sieur du Cange</a>. The multivolume set had many editions and expansions by other authors subsequently. The title varies somewhat; most commonly used was <i>Glossarium Mediae et Infimae Latinitatis</i>. It has been translated by expressions of widely different meanings. The uncertainty is understanding what <i>media</i>, "middle", and <i>infima</i>, "low", mean in this context. </p><p>The term <i>media</i> is securely connected to <a href="/wiki/Medieval_Latin" title="Medieval Latin">Medieval Latin</a> by du Cange's own terminology expounded in the <i>Praefatio</i>,<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> such as <i>scriptores mediae aetatis</i>, "writers of the middle age". Du Cange's <i>Glossary</i> takes words from authors ranging from the Christian period (Late Latin) to the <a href="/wiki/Renaissance_Latin" title="Renaissance Latin">Renaissance</a>, dipping into the <a href="/wiki/Classical_Latin" title="Classical Latin">classical period</a> if a word originated there. Either <i>media et infima Latinitas</i> refers to one age, which must be the middle age covering the entire post-classical range, or it refers to two consecutive periods, <i>infima Latinitas</i> and <i>media Latinitas</i>. Both interpretations have their adherents. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Edward_Gibbon_by_Henry_Walton.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Edward_Gibbon_by_Henry_Walton.jpg/220px-Edward_Gibbon_by_Henry_Walton.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="277" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Edward_Gibbon_by_Henry_Walton.jpg/330px-Edward_Gibbon_by_Henry_Walton.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Edward_Gibbon_by_Henry_Walton.jpg/440px-Edward_Gibbon_by_Henry_Walton.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2400" data-file-height="3026" /></a><figcaption>Edward Gibbon, English historian who espoused the concept of a decline of the Roman Empire resulting in its fall</figcaption></figure> <p>In the former case, the <i>infimae</i> appears extraneous; it recognizes the <i>corruptio</i> of the <i>corrupta Latinitas</i> which du Cange said his <i>Glossary</i> covered.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The two-period case postulates a second unity of style, <i>infima Latinitas</i>, translated into English as "Low Latin" (which in the one-period case would be identical to <i>media Latinitas</i>). Du Cange in the glossarial part of his <i>Glossary</i> identifies some words as being used by <i>purioris Latinitatis scriptores</i>, such as <a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a> (of the Golden Age). He has already said in the Preface that he rejects the ages scheme used by some: Golden Age, Silver Age, Brass Age, Iron Age. A second category are the <i>inferioris Latinitatis scriptores</i>, such as <a href="/wiki/Apuleius" title="Apuleius">Apuleius</a> (Silver Age). The third and main category are the <i>infimae Latinitatis scriptores</i>, who must be post-classical; that is, Late Latin, unless they are also medieval. His failure to state which authors are low leaves the issue unresolved. </p><p>He does, however, give some idea of the source of his <i>infima</i>, which is a classical word, "lowest", of which the comparative degree is <i>inferior</i>, "lower". In the preface, he opposes the style of the <i>scriptores aevi inferioris</i> (Silver Age) to the <i>elegantes sermones</i>, "elegant speech", the high and low styles of <i>Latinitas</i> defined by the classical authors. Apparently, du Cange was basing his low style on <i>sermo humilis</i>,<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the simplified speech devised by Late Latin Christian writers to address the ordinary people. <i>Humilis</i> (humble, humility) means "low", "of the ground". The Christian writers were not interested in the elegant speech of the best or classical Latin, which belonged to their aristocratic pagan opponents. Instead, they preferred a humbler style lower in correctness, so that they might better deliver the gospel to the <i>vulgus</i> or "common people". </p><p>Low Latin in this view is the Latin of the two periods in which it has the least degree of purity, or is most corrupt. By corrupt, du Cange only meant that the language had resorted to nonclassical vocabulary and constructs from various sources, but his choice of words was unfortunate. It allowed the "corruption" to extend to other aspects of society, providing fuel for the fires of religious (Catholic vs. Protestant) and class (conservative vs. revolutionary) conflict. Low Latin passed from the heirs of the Italian renaissance to the new philologists of the northern and Germanic climes, where it became a different concept. </p><p>In Britain, <a href="/wiki/Gildas" title="Gildas">Gildas</a>' view that Britain fell to the Anglo-Saxons because it was morally slack was already well known to the scholarly world. The northern Protestants now worked a role reversal; if the language was "corrupt", it must be symptomatic of a corrupt society, which indubitably led to a "decline and fall", as <a href="/wiki/Edward_Gibbon" title="Edward Gibbon">Edward Gibbon</a> put it, of imperial society. Writers taking this line relied heavily on the scandalous behavior of the <a href="/wiki/Julio-Claudian_dynasty" title="Julio-Claudian dynasty">Julio-Claudian dynasty</a> and the bad emperors reported by <a href="/wiki/Tacitus" title="Tacitus">Tacitus</a> and other writers and later by the secret history of <a href="/wiki/Procopius" title="Procopius">Procopius</a>, who hated his royal employers to such a degree that he could not contain himself about their real methods and way of life any longer. They, however, spoke elegant Latin. The Protestants changed the scenario to fit their ideology that the church needed to be purified of corruption. For example, <a href="/wiki/Jakob_Friedrich_von_Bielfeld" title="Jakob Friedrich von Bielfeld">Baron Bielfeld</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Prussia" title="Prussia">Prussian</a> officer and comparative Latinist, characterised the low in Low Latin, which he saw as medieval Latin, as follows: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The fourth age of the Latin tongue is that of the remainder of the middle age, and the 1st centuries of modern times, during which the language fell by degrees into so great a decadency, that it became nothing better than a barbarous jargon. It is the style of these times that is given the name of <i>Low Latin</i>.... What indeed could be expected from this language, at a time when the barbarians had taken possession of Europe, but especially of Italy; when the empire of the east was governed by idiots; when there was a total corruption of morals; when the priests and monks were the only men of letters, and were at the same time the most ignorant and futile mortals in the world. Under these times of darkness, we must, therefore, rank that Latin, which is called <i>lingua ecclesiastica</i>, and which we cannot read without disgust.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>As 'Low Latin' tends to be muddled with <a href="/wiki/Vulgar_Latin" title="Vulgar Latin">Vulgar Latin</a>, Late Latin, and <a href="/wiki/Medieval_Latin" title="Medieval Latin">Medieval Latin</a>, and has unfortunate extensions of meaning into the sphere of socio-economics, it has gone out of use by the mainstream philologists of Latin literature. A few writers on the periphery still mention it, influenced by the dictionaries and classic writings of former times. </p><p>As Teuffel's scheme of the Golden Age and the Silver Age is the generally accepted one, the canonical list of authors should begin just after the end of the Silver Age, regardless of what 3rd century event is cited as the beginning; otherwise there are gaps. Teuffel gave the end of the Silver Age as the death of <a href="/wiki/Hadrian" title="Hadrian">Hadrian</a> at 138 CE. His classification of styles left a century between that event and his final period, the 3rd–6th centuries CE, which was in other systems being considered Late Antiquity. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Stcyprian.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/ce/Stcyprian.jpg" decoding="async" width="174" height="229" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="174" data-file-height="229" /></a><figcaption>Cyprian</figcaption></figure> <p>Starting with Charles Thomas Crutwell's <i>A History of Roman Literature from the Earliest Period to the Death of Marcus Aurelius</i>, which first came out in 1877, English literary historians have included the spare century in Silver Latin. Accordingly, the latter ends with the death of the last of the <a href="/wiki/Five_good_emperors" class="mw-redirect" title="Five good emperors">five good emperors</a> in 180 CE. Other authors use other events, such as the end of the <a href="/wiki/Nervan%E2%80%93Antonine_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Nervan–Antonine dynasty">Nervan–Antonine dynasty</a> in 192 CE or later events. A good round date of 200 <span title="Common Era">CE</span> gives a canonical list of nearly no overlap. </p><p>The transition between Late Latin and Medieval Latin is by no means as easy to assess. Taking that <i>media et infima Latinitas</i> was one style, Mantello in a recent handbook asserts of "the Latin used in the middle ages" that it is "here interpreted broadly to include late antiquity and therefore to extend from c. AD 200 to 1500."<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although recognizing "late antiquity" he does not recognize Late Latin. It did not exist and Medieval Latin began directly from 200 CE. In this view all differences from <a href="/wiki/Classical_Latin" title="Classical Latin">Classical Latin</a> are bundled as though they evolved through a single continuous style. </p><p>Of the two-style interpretations the Late Latin period of <a href="/wiki/Erich_Auerbach" title="Erich Auerbach">Erich Auerbach</a> and others is one of the shortest: "In the first half of the 6th century, which witnessed the beginning and end of <a href="/wiki/Ostrogoth" class="mw-redirect" title="Ostrogoth">Ostrogoth</a> rule in <a href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italy</a>, Latin literature becomes medieval. Boethius was the last 'ancient' author and the role of Rome as the center of the ancient world, as <i>communis patria</i>, was at an end."<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In essence, the lingua franca of classical vestiges was doomed when Italy was overrun by the Goths, but its momentum carried it one lifetime further, ending with the death of <a href="/wiki/Boethius" title="Boethius">Boethius</a> in 524 CE. </p><p>Not everyone agrees that the <a href="/wiki/Lingua_franca" title="Lingua franca">lingua franca</a> came to an end with the fall of Rome, but argue that it continued and became the language of the reinstituted <a href="/wiki/Carolingian_Empire" title="Carolingian Empire">Carolingian Empire</a> (predecessor of the <a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a>) under <a href="/wiki/Charlemagne" title="Charlemagne">Charlemagne</a>. Toward the end of his reign his administration conducted some language reforms. The first recognition that Late Latin could not be understood by the masses and therefore was not a lingua franca was the decrees of 813 CE by <a href="/wiki/Synod" title="Synod">synods</a> at <a href="/wiki/Mainz" title="Mainz">Mainz</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rheims" class="mw-redirect" title="Rheims">Rheims</a> <a href="/wiki/Tours" title="Tours">Tours</a> that from then on preaching was to be done in a language more understandable to the people, which was stated by Tours Canon 17 as <i>rustica Romana lingua</i>, identified as <a href="/wiki/Romance_languages" title="Romance languages">Romance</a>, the descendant of <a href="/wiki/Vulgar_Latin" title="Vulgar Latin">Vulgar Latin</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Late Latin as defined by Meillet was at an end; however, Pucci's Harrington's <i>Mediaeval Latin</i> sets the end of Late Latin when <a href="/wiki/Gallo-Romance_languages" title="Gallo-Romance languages">Romance</a> began to be written, "Latin retired to the cloister" and "<i>Romanitas</i> lived on only in the fiction of the <a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a>."<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The final date given by those authors is 900 CE. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Through_the_death_of_Boethius">Through the death of Boethius</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Late_Latin&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Through the death of Boethius"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Statua_di_Costantino_ai_musei_capitolini.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Statua_di_Costantino_ai_musei_capitolini.jpg/220px-Statua_di_Costantino_ai_musei_capitolini.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="315" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Statua_di_Costantino_ai_musei_capitolini.jpg/330px-Statua_di_Costantino_ai_musei_capitolini.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Statua_di_Costantino_ai_musei_capitolini.jpg/440px-Statua_di_Costantino_ai_musei_capitolini.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3786" data-file-height="5422" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Constantine_the_Great" title="Constantine the Great">Constantine the Great</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Decimus_Magnus_Ausonius.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Decimus_Magnus_Ausonius.jpg/220px-Decimus_Magnus_Ausonius.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="242" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6a/Decimus_Magnus_Ausonius.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="294" data-file-height="323" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Ausonius" title="Ausonius">Ausonius</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:9764_-_Milano_-_Sant%27Ambrogio_-_Medaglione_con_S._Ambrogio_-_Foto_Giovanni_Dall%27Orto_-_25-Apr-2007.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/9764_-_Milano_-_Sant%27Ambrogio_-_Medaglione_con_S._Ambrogio_-_Foto_Giovanni_Dall%27Orto_-_25-Apr-2007.jpg/250px-9764_-_Milano_-_Sant%27Ambrogio_-_Medaglione_con_S._Ambrogio_-_Foto_Giovanni_Dall%27Orto_-_25-Apr-2007.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="189" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/9764_-_Milano_-_Sant%27Ambrogio_-_Medaglione_con_S._Ambrogio_-_Foto_Giovanni_Dall%27Orto_-_25-Apr-2007.jpg/330px-9764_-_Milano_-_Sant%27Ambrogio_-_Medaglione_con_S._Ambrogio_-_Foto_Giovanni_Dall%27Orto_-_25-Apr-2007.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/9764_-_Milano_-_Sant%27Ambrogio_-_Medaglione_con_S._Ambrogio_-_Foto_Giovanni_Dall%27Orto_-_25-Apr-2007.jpg/500px-9764_-_Milano_-_Sant%27Ambrogio_-_Medaglione_con_S._Ambrogio_-_Foto_Giovanni_Dall%27Orto_-_25-Apr-2007.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1268" data-file-height="1087" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Ambrose" title="Ambrose">Ambrose</a></figcaption></figure> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Domitius_Ulpianus" class="mw-redirect" title="Domitius Ulpianus">Domitius Ulpianus</a> (170–228), jurist, imperial officer</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Paulus" title="Julius Paulus">Julius Paulus</a> (2nd & 3rd centuries), jurist, imperial officer</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aelius_Marcianus" title="Aelius Marcianus">Aelius Marcianus</a> (2nd & 3rd centuries), jurist</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herennius_Modestinus" title="Herennius Modestinus">Herennius Modestinus</a> (3rd century), jurist</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Censorinus" title="Censorinus">Censorinus</a> (3rd century), historian, essayist</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Gargilius_Martialis" title="Quintus Gargilius Martialis">Quintus Gargilius Martialis</a> (3rd century), horticulturalist, pharmacologist</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaius_Asinius_Quadratus" title="Gaius Asinius Quadratus">Gaius Asinius Quadratus</a> (3rd century), historian</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tertullian" title="Tertullian">Quintus Septimius Florens Tertullianus</a> (160–220), "the father of Latin Christianity", <a href="/wiki/Polemicist" class="mw-redirect" title="Polemicist">polemicist</a> against <a href="/wiki/Heresy" title="Heresy">heresy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyprian" title="Cyprian">Thascius Caecilius Cyprianus</a> (200–258), converted rhetorician, bishop of Carthage, <a href="/wiki/Martyr" title="Martyr">martyr</a>, <a href="/wiki/Saint" title="Saint">saint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Novatianus" class="mw-redirect" title="Novatianus">Novatianus</a> (200–258), theologian, rival pope, excommunicant</li> <li>Quintus <a href="/wiki/Serenus_Sammonicus" title="Serenus Sammonicus">Serenus Sammonicus</a> (2nd century, early 3rd century), scholar, educator</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commodianus" class="mw-redirect" title="Commodianus">Commodianus</a> (3rd century), poet, Christian educator</li> <li>Lucius Caelius Firmianus <a href="/wiki/Lactantius" title="Lactantius">Lactantius</a> (240–320), converted rhetorician, scholar, Christian apologist and educator</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ammianus_Marcellinus" title="Ammianus Marcellinus">Ammianus Marcellinus</a> (4th century), soldier, imperial officer, historian</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claudius_Claudianus" class="mw-redirect" title="Claudius Claudianus">Claudius Claudianus</a> (4th century), court poet</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaius_Julius_Solinus" title="Gaius Julius Solinus">Gaius Julius Solinus</a> (3rd or 4th century), topical writer</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonius_Marcellus" title="Nonius Marcellus">Nonius Marcellus</a> (3rd or 4th century), topical writer</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Aurelius_Olympius_Nemesianus" class="mw-redirect" title="Marcus Aurelius Olympius Nemesianus">Marcus Aurelius Olympius Nemesianus</a> (<a href="/wiki/Floruit" title="Floruit">fl.</a> 283), poet</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquila_Romanus" title="Aquila Romanus">Aquila Romanus</a> (3rd century), rhetorician</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eumenius" title="Eumenius">Eumenius</a> of Autun (3rd century), educator</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aelius_Festus_Aphthonius" title="Aelius Festus Aphthonius">Aelius Festus Aphthonius</a> (3rd or 4th century), grammarian</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calcidius" title="Calcidius">Calcidius</a> (4th century), translator</li> <li>Gaius <a href="/wiki/Marius_Victorinus" class="mw-redirect" title="Marius Victorinus">Marius Victorinus</a> (4th century), converted philosopher</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arnobius_of_Sicca" class="mw-redirect" title="Arnobius of Sicca">Arnobius of Sicca</a> (4th century), Christian apologist</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constantine_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Constantine I">Constantine I</a> (272–337), first Christian emperor</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazarius_(rhetorician)" title="Nazarius (rhetorician)">Nazarius</a> (4th century), rhetorician, educator</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaius_Julius_Victor" title="Gaius Julius Victor">Gaius Julius Victor</a> (4th century), rhetorician</li> <li>Gaius Vettius Aquilinus <a href="/wiki/Juvencus" title="Juvencus">Juvencus</a> (4th century), Christian poet</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonius_Marcellus" title="Nonius Marcellus">Nonius Marcellus</a> (3rd and 4th centuries), grammarian, lexicographer</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Firmicus_Maternus" title="Julius Firmicus Maternus">Julius Firmicus Maternus</a> (4th century), converted advocate, pagan and Christian writer</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aelius_Donatus" title="Aelius Donatus">Aelius Donatus</a> (4th century), grammarian, rhetorician, educator</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palladius_(bishop_of_Ireland)" title="Palladius (bishop of Ireland)">Palladius</a> (408/431 – 457/461), saint, first bishop of Ireland</li> <li>Sextus <a href="/wiki/Aurelius_Victor" title="Aurelius Victor">Aurelius Victor</a> (320–390), imperial officer, historian</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eutropius_(historian)" title="Eutropius (historian)">Eutropius</a> (4th century), imperial officer, historian</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aemilius_Magnus_Arborius" title="Aemilius Magnus Arborius">Aemilius Magnus Arborius</a> (4th century), poet, educator, friend of the imperial family</li> <li>Decimius Magnus <a href="/wiki/Ausonius" title="Ausonius">Ausonius</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 310</span> – 395), poet, rhetorician, educator, friend of the imperial family</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claudius_Mamertinus" title="Claudius Mamertinus">Claudius Mamertinus</a> (4th century), imperial officer, panegyricist, embezzler</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hilary_of_Poitiers" title="Hilary of Poitiers">Hilarius</a> (4th century), converted neo-Platonist, theologian, bishop of Poitiers, saint</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ambrose" title="Ambrose">Ambrosius</a> (337/340–397), theologian, Bishop of Milan, saint</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucifer_of_Cagliari" title="Lucifer of Cagliari">Lucifer</a> (d. 370/371), theologian, Bishop of Sardinia</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priscillianus" class="mw-redirect" title="Priscillianus">Priscillianus</a> (d. 385), theologian, first person executed as a heretic</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flavius_Sosipater_Charisius" class="mw-redirect" title="Flavius Sosipater Charisius">Flavius Sosipater Charisius</a> (4th century), grammarian</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diomedes_Grammaticus" title="Diomedes Grammaticus">Diomedes Grammaticus</a> (4th century), grammarian</li> <li>Postumius Rufus Festus <a href="/wiki/Avienius" title="Avienius">Avienius</a> (4th century), imperial officer, poet, translator</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priscianus_Caesariensis" class="mw-redirect" title="Priscianus Caesariensis">Priscianus Caesariensis</a> (<abbr title="floruit ('flourished' – known to have been active at a particular time or during a particular period)">fl.</abbr> 500), grammarian</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Late_Latin&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Decline_of_the_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Decline of the Roman Empire">Decline of the Roman Empire</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Panegyrici_Latini" title="Panegyrici Latini">Panegyrici Latini</a></i>, a collection of 3rd to 4th century panegyrics; their language is however predominantly classical (Golden Age) Latin base, derived from an education heavy on Cicero, mixed with a large number of Silver Age usages and a small number of Late and Vulgar terms.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Late_Latin&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Roberts537-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Roberts537_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Roberts537_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Roberts (1996), p. 537.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">"Late Latin". <i>Webster's Third New International Dictionary</i>. Vol. II, H to R. Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. 1961.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Late+Latin&rft.btitle=Webster%27s+Third+New+International+Dictionary&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pub=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica%2C+Inc&rft.date=1961&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALate+Latin" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">"Late Latin". <i>The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language</i> (3rd ed.). Boston, New York, London: Houghton Mifflin Company.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Late+Latin&rft.btitle=The+American+Heritage+Dictionary+of+the+English+Language&rft.place=Boston%2C+New+York%2C+London&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Houghton+Mifflin+Company&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALate+Latin" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHerman2000">Herman 2000</a>, pp. 25–26</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Auerbach (1958), Chapter 1, <i>Sermo Humilis</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHarringtonPucci1997" class="citation book cs1">Harrington, Karl Pomeroy; Pucci, Joseph Michael (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ReCp978iiA8C&pg=PA67"><i>Mediaeval Latin</i></a> (2nd ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 67. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-226-31713-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-226-31713-7"><bdi>0-226-31713-7</bdi></a>. <q>The combination of features specific to <a href="/wiki/Vulgar_Latin" title="Vulgar Latin">Vulgar Latin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ecclesiastical_Latin" title="Ecclesiastical Latin">Ecclesiastical Latin</a> had the effect, then, of transforming the language by the fourth century into something of extraordinary vigor.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mediaeval+Latin&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pages=67&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=0-226-31713-7&rft.aulast=Harrington&rft.aufirst=Karl+Pomeroy&rft.au=Pucci%2C+Joseph+Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DReCp978iiA8C%26pg%3DPA67&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALate+Latin" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Meillet (1928), p. 270: "Sans que l'aspect extérieur de la langue se soit beaucoup modifié, le Latin est devenu au cours de l'epoque impériale une langue nouvelle."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Meillet (1928), p. 273: "Servant en quelque sorte de lingua franca à un grand empire, le Latin a tendu à se simplifier, à garder surtout ce qu'il avait de banal."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation magazine cs1">"Monthly Record of Current Events". <i>Harper's New Monthly Magazine</i>. Vol. I. 1850. p. 705.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Harper%27s+New+Monthly+Magazine&rft.atitle=Monthly+Record+of+Current+Events&rft.volume=I&rft.pages=705&rft.date=1850&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALate+Latin" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-AndrewsFreund1851-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-AndrewsFreund1851_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFEthan_Allen_AndrewsWilliam_Freund1851" class="citation book cs1">Ethan Allen Andrews; William Freund (1851). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/acopiousandcrit00unkngoog"><i>A Copious and Critical Latin-English Lexicon: Founded on the Larger Latin-German Lexicon of Dr. William Freund; with Additions and Corrections from the Lexicons of Gesner, Facciolati, Scheller, Georges, Etc</i></a>. Harper & Brothers.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Copious+and+Critical+Latin-English+Lexicon%3A+Founded+on+the+Larger+Latin-German+Lexicon+of+Dr.+William+Freund%3B+with+Additions+and+Corrections+from+the+Lexicons+of+Gesner%2C+Facciolati%2C+Scheller%2C+Georges%2C+Etc&rft.pub=Harper+%26+Brothers&rft.date=1851&rft.au=Ethan+Allen+Andrews&rft.au=William+Freund&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Facopiousandcrit00unkngoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALate+Latin" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFFowler1903" class="citation book cs1">Fowler, Harold North (1903). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ahistoryromanli00fowlgoog"><i>A History of Roman Literature</i></a>. New York: D. Appleton and Co. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ahistoryromanli00fowlgoog/page/n19">3</a>. <q>The third or Imperial Period lasts from 14 A.D. to the beginning of the Middle Ages.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Roman+Literature&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=3&rft.pub=D.+Appleton+and+Co.&rft.date=1903&rft.aulast=Fowler&rft.aufirst=Harold+North&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fahistoryromanli00fowlgoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALate+Latin" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFDu_Cange1840" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Charles_du_Fresne,_sieur_du_Cange" title="Charles du Fresne, sieur du Cange">Du Cange, Charles du Fresne</a>; et al. (1840). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zKY9AAAAcAAJ&pg=PA41">"<i>Præfatio</i> LXII"</a>. <i>Glossarium mediæ et infimæ Latinitatis</i>. Vol. 1. Paris: Firmin Didot Fratres. p. 41<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 June</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Pr%C3%A6fatio+LXII&rft.btitle=Glossarium+medi%C3%A6+et+infim%C3%A6+Latinitatis&rft.place=Paris&rft.pages=41&rft.pub=Firmin+Didot+Fratres&rft.date=1840&rft.aulast=Du+Cange&rft.aufirst=Charles+du+Fresne&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DzKY9AAAAcAAJ%26pg%3DPA41&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALate+Latin" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFDu_Cange1840" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Charles_du_Fresne,_sieur_du_Cange" title="Charles du Fresne, sieur du Cange">Du Cange, Charles du Fresne</a>; et al. (1840). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zKY9AAAAcAAJ&pg=PA41">"<i>Præfatio</i> LXIII"</a>. <i>Glossarium mediæ et infimæ Latinitatis</i>. Vol. 1. Paris: Firmin Didot Fratres. pp. <span class="nowrap">41–</span>42<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 June</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Pr%C3%A6fatio+LXIII&rft.btitle=Glossarium+medi%C3%A6+et+infim%C3%A6+Latinitatis&rft.place=Paris&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E41-%3C%2Fspan%3E42&rft.pub=Firmin+Didot+Fratres&rft.date=1840&rft.aulast=Du+Cange&rft.aufirst=Charles+du+Fresne&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DzKY9AAAAcAAJ%26pg%3DPA41&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALate+Latin" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://sermohumilis.com/">"Home"</a>. <i>sermohumilis.com</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=sermohumilis.com&rft.atitle=Home&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsermohumilis.com%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALate+Latin" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFvon_Bielfeld1770" class="citation book cs1">von Bielfeld, Jakob Friedrich (1770). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/elementsofuniver03bieluoft#page/344/mode/2up/search/jargon"><i>The Elements of Universal Erudition, containing an Analytical Abrigement of the Sciences, Polite Arts and Belles Lettres</i></a>. Vol. III. Translated by Hooper, W. London: G. Scott. p. 345.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Elements+of+Universal+Erudition%2C+containing+an+Analytical+Abrigement+of+the+Sciences%2C+Polite+Arts+and+Belles+Lettres&rft.place=London&rft.pages=345&rft.pub=G.+Scott&rft.date=1770&rft.aulast=von+Bielfeld&rft.aufirst=Jakob+Friedrich&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2Felementsofuniver03bieluoft%23page%2F344%2Fmode%2F2up%2Fsearch%2Fjargon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALate+Latin" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMantello1999" class="citation book cs1">Mantello, FAC (1999) [1996]. Mantello, Frank Anthony Carl; <a href="/wiki/A._G._Rigg" title="A. G. Rigg">Rigg, A. G</a> (eds.). <i>Medieval Latin: an introduction and bibliographical guide</i>. Washington, DC.contribution=Part I: The Catholic University of America Press. p. 3.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Medieval+Latin%3A+an+introduction+and+bibliographical+guide&rft.place=Washington%2C+DC.contribution%3DPart+I&rft.pages=3&rft.pub=The+Catholic+University+of+America+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.aulast=Mantello&rft.aufirst=FAC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALate+Latin" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Auerbach (1965), p. 85.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFUytfanghe1996" class="citation book cs1">Uytfanghe, Marc Van (1996). "The consciousness of a linguistic dichotomy (Latin-Romance) in Carolingian Gaul: the contradictions of the sources and of their interpretation". In Wright, Roger (ed.). <i>Latin and the Romance languages in the early Middle Ages</i>. University Park, Penn.: Pennsylvania State University Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">114–</span>120. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-271-01569-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-271-01569-1"><bdi>0-271-01569-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+consciousness+of+a+linguistic+dichotomy+%28Latin-Romance%29+in+Carolingian+Gaul%3A+the+contradictions+of+the+sources+and+of+their+interpretation&rft.btitle=Latin+and+the+Romance+languages+in+the+early+Middle+Ages&rft.place=University+Park%2C+Penn.&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E114-%3C%2Fspan%3E120&rft.pub=Pennsylvania+State+University+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=0-271-01569-1&rft.aulast=Uytfanghe&rft.aufirst=Marc+Van&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALate+Latin" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHarringtonPucci1997" class="citation book cs1">Harrington, Karl Pomeroy; Pucci, Joseph Michael (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ReCp978iiA8C&pg=PA196"><i>Mediaeval Latin</i></a> (2nd ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 196. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-226-31713-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-226-31713-7"><bdi>0-226-31713-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mediaeval+Latin&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pages=196&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=0-226-31713-7&rft.aulast=Harrington&rft.aufirst=Karl+Pomeroy&rft.au=Pucci%2C+Joseph+Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DReCp978iiA8C%26pg%3DPA196&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALate+Latin" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Late_Latin&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFAuerbach1965" class="citation book cs1">Auerbach, Erich (1965) [1958]. <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/literarylanguage0000auer_o1q3"><i>Literary Language and its Public in Late Latin Antiquity and in the Middle Ages</i></a></span>. Bollingen Series LXXIV. Trans. Ralph Mannheim. Pantheon Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Literary+Language+and+its+Public+in+Late+Latin+Antiquity+and+in+the+Middle+Ages&rft.series=Bollingen+Series+LXXIV&rft.pub=Pantheon+Books&rft.date=1965&rft.aulast=Auerbach&rft.aufirst=Erich&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fliterarylanguage0000auer_o1q3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALate+Latin" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMeillet1928" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Meillet, Antoine (1928). <i>Esquisse d'une Histoire de la Langue Latine</i> (in French). Paris: Hachette.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Esquisse+d%27une+Histoire+de+la+Langue+Latine&rft.place=Paris&rft.pub=Hachette&rft.date=1928&rft.aulast=Meillet&rft.aufirst=Antoine&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALate+Latin" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRoberts1996" class="citation book cs1">Roberts, Michael (1996). "The Latin Literature of Late Antiquity". In Anthony, Frank; Mantello, Carl; Rigg, A.G (eds.). <i>Medieval Latin: an introduction and bibliographical guide</i>. Catholic University of America Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">537–</span>546.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Latin+Literature+of+Late+Antiquity&rft.btitle=Medieval+Latin%3A+an+introduction+and+bibliographical+guide&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E537-%3C%2Fspan%3E546&rft.pub=Catholic+University+of+America+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.aulast=Roberts&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALate+Latin" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFTeuffelSchwabe1892" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Teuffel, Wilhelm Sigismund; Schwabe, Ludwig (1892). <i>Teuffel's History of Roman Literature Revised and Enlarged</i>. Vol. II, The Imperial Period. Trans. George C.W. Warr (from the 5th German ed.). London: George Bell & Sons.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Teuffel%27s+History+of+Roman+Literature+Revised+and+Enlarged&rft.place=London&rft.edition=from+the+5th+German&rft.pub=George+Bell+%26+Sons&rft.date=1892&rft.aulast=Teuffel&rft.aufirst=Wilhelm+Sigismund&rft.au=Schwabe%2C+Ludwig&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALate+Latin" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Late_Latin&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Adams, J. N., Nigel Vincent, and Valerie Knight. 2016. <i>Early and Late Latin: Continuity Or Change?</i> Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781107132252" title="Special:BookSources/9781107132252">9781107132252</a></li> <li>Courcelle, Pierre. 1969. <i>Late Latin Writers and Their Greek Sources.</i> Translated by Harry Wedeck. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.</li> <li>Elsner, Jaś, and Jesús Hernández Lobato. 2017. <i>The Poetics of Late Latin Literature.</i> New York: Oxford University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0199355631" title="Special:BookSources/978-0199355631">978-0199355631</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHerman2000" class="citation book cs1">Herman, József (2000). <i>Vulgar Latin</i>. Translated by Wright, Roger. University Park: <a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania_State_University_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="Pennsylvania State University Press">Pennsylvania State University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-271-02001-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-271-02001-6"><bdi>0-271-02001-6</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OL_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OL (identifier)">OL</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openlibrary.org/books/OL42565M">42565M</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Vulgar+Latin&rft.place=University+Park&rft.pub=Pennsylvania+State+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopenlibrary.org%2Fbooks%2FOL42565M%23id-name%3DOL&rft.isbn=0-271-02001-6&rft.aulast=Herman&rft.aufirst=J%C3%B3zsef&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALate+Latin" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Langslow, D. R. 2006. <i>The Latin Alexander Trallianus: The Text and Transmission of a Late Latin Medical Book.</i> London: Society for the Promotion of Roman Studies. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780907764328" title="Special:BookSources/9780907764328">9780907764328</a></li> <li>Löfstedt, Einar. 1959. <i>Late Latin.</i> Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press.</li> <li>Scarpanti, Edoardo. 2012. <i>Saggi linguistici sul latino volgare.</i> Mantova: Universitas Studiorum. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9788833690087" title="Special:BookSources/9788833690087">9788833690087</a></li> <li>Wright, Roger. 1982. <i>Late Latin and Early Romance in Spain and Carolingian France.</i> Liverpool, UK: Francis Cairns. ISBN 0-905205-12-X</li> <li>——. 2003. <i>A sociophilological study of Late Latin.</i> Turnhout, Belgium: Brepols. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-503-51338-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-503-51338-6">978-2-503-51338-6</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Late_Latin&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:The_Wikipedia_Library" title="Wikipedia:The Wikipedia Library">Library resources</a> about <br /> <b>Late Latin</b> <hr /></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Late+Latin&library=OLBP">Online books</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Late+Latin">Resources in your library</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Late+Latin&library=0CHOOSE0">Resources in other libraries</a></li> </ul></div></div> </div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/christian.html">"Christian Latin"</a> (in Latin). The Latin Library<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 October</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Christian+Latin&rft.pub=The+Latin+Library&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.thelatinlibrary.com%2Fchristian.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALate+Latin" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFDu_Cange2009" class="citation book cs1">Du Cange, Charles du Fresne (2009) [1710]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.uni-mannheim.de/mateo/camenaref/ducange.html"><i>Glossarium ad scriptores mediae et infimae Latinitatis</i></a>. Francofurti ad Moenum: apud Johannem Adamum Jungium, CAMENA - Corpus Automatum Multiplex Electorum Neolatinitatis Auctorum, University of Heidelberg.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Glossarium+ad+scriptores+mediae+et+infimae+Latinitatis&rft.place=Francofurti+ad+Moenum&rft.pub=apud+Johannem+Adamum+Jungium%2C+CAMENA+-+Corpus+Automatum+Multiplex+Electorum+Neolatinitatis+Auctorum%2C+University+of+Heidelberg&rft.date=2009&rft.aulast=Du+Cange&rft.aufirst=Charles+du+Fresne&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.uni-mannheim.de%2Fmateo%2Fcamenaref%2Fducange.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALate+Latin" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ducange.enc.sorbonne.fr/">"du Cange, le Glossarium: en ligne"</a>. École nationale des Chartres. 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 October</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=du+Cange%2C+le+Glossarium%3A+en+ligne&rft.pub=%C3%89cole+nationale+des+Chartres&rft.date=2008&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fducange.enc.sorbonne.fr%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALate+Latin" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.documentacatholicaomnia.eu/25_90_1610-1688-_Du_Cange_C.html">"Glossarium Mediae et Infimae Latinitatis"</a>. Documenta Catholica Omnia. 2006<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 October</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Glossarium+Mediae+et+Infimae+Latinitatis&rft.pub=Documenta+Catholica+Omnia&rft.date=2006&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.documentacatholicaomnia.eu%2F25_90_1610-1688-_Du_Cange_C.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALate+Latin" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol 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</div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;text-align:center;width:10em;"><div> <p><i>200–700</i><br /><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Late Latin</a> </p> </div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;text-align:center;width:10em;"><div> <p><i>700–1500</i><br /><a href="/wiki/Medieval_Latin" title="Medieval Latin">Medieval Latin</a> </p> </div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;text-align:center;width:10em;"><div> <p><i>1300–1500</i><br /><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_Latin" title="Renaissance Latin">Renaissance Latin</a> </p> </div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;text-align:center;width:10em;"><div> <p><i>1300–<span style="font-size: 85%;">present</span></i><br /><a href="/wiki/Neo-Latin" title="Neo-Latin">Neo-Latin</a> </p> </div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;text-align:center;width:10em;"><div> <p><i>1900–<span style="font-size: 85%;">present</span></i><br /><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_Latin" title="Contemporary Latin">Contemporary Latin</a> </p> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2" style="background:#eee;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Latin" title="History of Latin">History of Latin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_literature" title="Latin literature">Latin literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vulgar_Latin" title="Vulgar Latin">Vulgar Latin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecclesiastical_Latin" title="Ecclesiastical Latin">Ecclesiastical Latin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Latin_studies" title="Neo-Latin studies">Neo-Latin studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romance_languages" title="Romance languages">Romance languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latino_sine_flexione" title="Latino sine flexione">Latino sine flexione</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Corpus_Inscriptionum_Latinarum" title="Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum">Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hiberno-Latin" title="Hiberno-Latin">Hiberno-Latin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Latin" title="Judeo-Latin">Judeo-Latin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Ancient_Rome_topics565" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Ancient_Rome_topics" title="Template:Ancient Rome topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Ancient_Rome_topics" title="Template talk:Ancient Rome topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient_Rome_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient Rome topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ancient_Rome_topics565" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Ancient Rome</a> topics</div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_ancient_Rome" title="Outline of ancient Rome">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Roman_history" title="Timeline of Roman history">Timeline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Rome" title="History of Rome">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Founding_of_Rome" title="Founding of Rome">Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Kingdom" title="Roman Kingdom">Kingdom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Overthrow_of_the_Roman_monarchy" title="Overthrow of the Roman monarchy">overthrow</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Republic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Empire</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="History of the Roman Empire">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pax_Romana" title="Pax Romana">Pax Romana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principate" title="Principate">Principate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominate" title="Dominate">Dominate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Fall of the Western Roman Empire">fall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Historiography of the fall of the Western Roman Empire">historiography of the fall</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Decline_of_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="Decline of the Byzantine Empire">decline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">fall</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Later_Roman_Empire" title="Later Roman Empire">Later Roman Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Later_Roman_Empire" title="History of the Later Roman Empire">History</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Roman_Constitution" title="Roman Constitution">Constitution</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Roman_Constitution" title="History of the Roman Constitution">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Roman_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Constitution of the Roman Kingdom">Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Roman_Republic" title="Constitution of the Roman Republic">Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Constitution of the Roman Empire">Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Late_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Constitution of the Late Roman Empire">Late Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Senate" title="Roman Senate">Senate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_assemblies" title="Roman assemblies">Legislative assemblies</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Curiate_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="Curiate Assembly">Curiate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centuriate_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="Centuriate Assembly">Centuriate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribal_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="Tribal Assembly">Tribal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plebeian_Council" class="mw-redirect" title="Plebeian Council">Plebeian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_magistrate" title="Roman magistrate">Executive magistrates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SPQR" title="SPQR">SPQR</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Roman_law" title="Roman law">Law</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Twelve_Tables" title="Twelve Tables">Twelve Tables</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mos_maiorum" title="Mos maiorum">Mos maiorum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_citizenship" title="Roman citizenship">Citizenship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auctoritas" title="Auctoritas">Auctoritas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperium" title="Imperium">Imperium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Status_in_Roman_legal_system" title="Status in Roman legal system">Status</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_litigation" title="Roman litigation">Litigation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Political_institutions_of_ancient_Rome" title="Political institutions of ancient Rome">Government</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Curia" title="Curia">Curia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forum_(Roman)" title="Forum (Roman)">Forum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cursus_honorum" title="Cursus honorum">Cursus honorum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collegiality#In_the_Roman_Republic" title="Collegiality">Collegiality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_emperor" title="Roman emperor">Emperor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legatus" class="mw-redirect" title="Legatus">Legatus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dux" title="Dux">Dux</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Officium_(ancient_Rome)" title="Officium (ancient Rome)">Officium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Praefectus" title="Praefectus">Praefectus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vicarius" title="Vicarius">Vicarius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vigintisexviri" title="Vigintisexviri">Vigintisexviri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lictor" title="Lictor">Lictor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magister_militum" title="Magister militum">Magister militum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperator" title="Imperator">Imperator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Princeps_senatus" title="Princeps senatus">Princeps senatus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pontifex_maximus" title="Pontifex maximus">Pontifex maximus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustus_(title)" title="Augustus (title)">Augustus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caesar_(title)" title="Caesar (title)">Caesar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tetrarchy" title="Tetrarchy">Tetrarch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optimates_and_populares" title="Optimates and populares">Optimates and populares</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_province" title="Roman province">Province</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Roman_magistrate" title="Roman magistrate">Magistrates</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Ordinary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_consul" title="Roman consul">Consul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_censor" title="Roman censor">Censor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Praetor" title="Praetor">Praetor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribune" title="Tribune">Tribune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribune_of_the_plebs" title="Tribune of the plebs">Tribune of the plebs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_tribune" title="Military tribune">Military tribune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quaestor" title="Quaestor">Quaestor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aedile" title="Aedile">Aedile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Promagistrate" title="Promagistrate">Promagistrate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_governor" title="Roman governor">Governor</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Extraordinary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/King_of_Rome" title="King of Rome">Rex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interrex" title="Interrex">Interrex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_dictator" title="Roman dictator">Dictator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magister_equitum" title="Magister equitum">Magister equitum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decemviri" title="Decemviri">Decemviri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribuni_militum_consulari_potestate" class="mw-redirect" title="Tribuni militum consulari potestate">Consular tribune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triumvirate_(ancient_Rome)" title="Triumvirate (ancient Rome)">Triumvir</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Military_of_ancient_Rome" title="Military of ancient Rome">Military</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_ancient_Rome" title="Military history of ancient Rome">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Borders_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Borders of the Roman Empire">Borders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_establishment_of_the_Roman_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Military establishment of the Roman Republic">Establishment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_history_of_the_Roman_military" title="Structural history of the Roman military">Structure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Campaign_history_of_the_Roman_military" title="Campaign history of the Roman military">Campaigns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_history_of_the_Roman_military" title="Political history of the Roman military">Political control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strategy_of_the_Roman_military" title="Strategy of the Roman military">Strategy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_military_engineering" title="Roman military engineering">Engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_military_frontiers_and_fortifications" title="Roman military frontiers and fortifications">Frontiers and fortifications</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Castra" title="Castra">castra</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_history_of_the_Roman_military" title="Technological history of the Roman military">Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_army" title="Roman army">Army</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_legion" title="Roman legion">Legion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_infantry_tactics" title="Roman infantry tactics">Infantry tactics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_military_personal_equipment" title="Roman military personal equipment">Personal equipment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_siege_engines" title="Roman siege engines">Siege engines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_(Roman_history)" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege (Roman history)">Siege in Ancient Rome</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_navy" title="Roman navy">Navy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auxilia" title="Auxilia">Auxiliaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_military_decorations_and_punishments" title="Roman military decorations and punishments">Decorations and punishments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippika_gymnasia" title="Hippika gymnasia">Hippika gymnasia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Roman_economy" title="Roman economy">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_ancient_Rome" title="Agriculture in ancient Rome">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_during_the_Roman_period" title="Deforestation during the Roman period">Deforestation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_commerce" title="Roman commerce">Commerce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_finance" title="Roman finance">Finance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_currency" title="Roman currency">Currency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Republican_currency" title="Roman Republican currency">Republican currency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Imperial_currency" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Imperial currency">Imperial currency</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_ancient_Rome" title="Culture of ancient Rome">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_architecture" title="Ancient Roman architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_art" title="Roman art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_bathing" title="Ancient Roman bathing">Bathing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_calendar" title="Roman calendar">Calendar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clothing_in_ancient_Rome" title="Clothing in ancient Rome">Clothing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmetics_in_ancient_Rome" title="Cosmetics in ancient Rome">Cosmetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_cuisine" title="Ancient Roman cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_ancient_Rome" title="Education in ancient Rome">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_folklore" title="Roman folklore">Folklore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_hairstyles" title="Roman hairstyles">Hairstyles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_literature" title="Latin literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_ancient_Rome" title="Music of ancient Rome">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_mythology" title="Roman mythology">Mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_ancient_Rome" title="Religion in ancient Rome">Religion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_deities" title="List of Roman deities">Deities</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanization_(cultural)" title="Romanization (cultural)">Romanization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_people" title="Roman people">Romans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexuality_in_ancient_Rome" title="Sexuality in ancient Rome">Sexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spectacles_in_ancient_Rome" title="Spectacles in ancient Rome">Spectacles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theatre_of_ancient_Rome" title="Theatre of ancient Rome">Theatre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toys_and_games_in_ancient_Rome" title="Toys and games in ancient Rome">Toys and games</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome_and_wine" title="Ancient Rome and wine">Wine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_ancient_Rome" title="Social class in ancient Rome">Society</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Patrician_(ancient_Rome)" title="Patrician (ancient Rome)">Patricians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plebeians" title="Plebeians">Plebs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_of_the_Orders" title="Conflict of the Orders">Conflict of the Orders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secessio_plebis" title="Secessio plebis">Secessio plebis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equites" title="Equites">Equites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gens" title="Gens">Gens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_tribe" title="Roman tribe">Tribes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tribal_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="Tribal Assembly">Assembly</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patronage_in_ancient_Rome" title="Patronage in ancient Rome">Patronage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_naming_conventions" title="Roman naming conventions">Naming conventions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demography_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Demography of the Roman Empire">Demography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_ancient_Rome" title="Women in ancient Rome">Women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marriage_in_ancient_Rome" title="Marriage in ancient Rome">Marriage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adoption_in_ancient_Rome" title="Adoption in ancient Rome">Adoption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_ancient_Rome" title="Slavery in ancient Rome">Slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bagaudae" title="Bagaudae">Bagaudae</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_technology" title="Ancient Roman technology">Technology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_amphitheatre" title="Roman amphitheatre">Amphitheatres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_aqueduct" title="Roman aqueduct">Aqueducts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_bridge" title="Roman bridge">Bridges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_circus" title="Roman circus">Circuses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_engineering" title="Ancient Roman engineering">Civil engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_concrete" title="Roman concrete">Concrete</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Roman_and_Byzantine_domes" title="History of Roman and Byzantine domes">Domes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_metallurgy" title="Roman metallurgy">Metallurgy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_numerals" title="Roman numerals">Numerals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_roads" title="Roman roads">Roads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanitation_in_ancient_Rome" title="Sanitation in ancient Rome">Sanitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ships_of_ancient_Rome" title="Ships of ancient Rome">Ships</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_temple" title="Roman temple">Temples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_theatre_(structure)" title="Roman theatre (structure)">Theatres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermae" title="Thermae">Thermae</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Latin" title="History of Latin">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_alphabet" title="Latin alphabet">Alphabet</a></li> <li>Versions <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Latin" title="Old Latin">Old</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Latin" title="Classical Latin">Classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vulgar_Latin" title="Vulgar Latin">Vulgar</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Late</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_Latin" title="Medieval Latin">Medieval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_Latin" title="Renaissance Latin">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Latin" title="Neo-Latin">Neo-Latin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_Latin" title="Contemporary Latin">Contemporary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecclesiastical_Latin" title="Ecclesiastical Latin">Ecclesiastical</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romance_languages" title="Romance languages">Romance languages</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Writers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Latin_literature" title="Latin literature">Latin</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aelius_Donatus" title="Aelius Donatus">Aelius Donatus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ammianus_Marcellinus" title="Ammianus Marcellinus">Ammianus Marcellinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apuleius" title="Apuleius">Appuleius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Asconius_Pedianus" title="Quintus Asconius Pedianus">Asconius Pedianus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aurelius_Victor" title="Aurelius Victor">Aurelius Victor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ausonius" title="Ausonius">Ausonius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boethius" title="Boethius">Boëthius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Caesar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catullus" title="Catullus">Catullus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cassiodorus" title="Cassiodorus">Cassiodorus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Censorinus" title="Censorinus">Censorinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claudian" title="Claudian">Claudian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Columella" title="Columella">Columella</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornelius_Nepos" title="Cornelius Nepos">Cornelius Nepos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ennius" title="Ennius">Ennius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eutropius_(historian)" title="Eutropius (historian)">Eutropius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Fabius_Pictor" title="Quintus Fabius Pictor">Fabius Pictor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sextus_Pompeius_Festus" title="Sextus Pompeius Festus">Sextus Pompeius Festus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Festus_(historian)" title="Festus (historian)">Rufus Festus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Works_attributed_to_Florus" class="mw-redirect" title="Works attributed to Florus">Florus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frontinus" title="Frontinus">Frontinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Cornelius_Fronto" title="Marcus Cornelius Fronto">Fronto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fabius_Planciades_Fulgentius" title="Fabius Planciades Fulgentius">Fulgentius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aulus_Gellius" title="Aulus Gellius">Gellius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horace" title="Horace">Horace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydatius" title="Hydatius">Hydatius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaius_Julius_Hyginus" title="Gaius Julius Hyginus">Hyginus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jerome" title="Jerome">Jerome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jordanes" title="Jordanes">Jordanes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Paulus" title="Julius Paulus">Julius Paulus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justin_(historian)" title="Justin (historian)">Justin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juvenal" title="Juvenal">Juvenal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lactantius" title="Lactantius">Lactantius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Livy" title="Livy">Livy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucan" title="Lucan">Lucan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucretius" title="Lucretius">Lucretius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macrobius" title="Macrobius">Macrobius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcellus_Empiricus" title="Marcellus Empiricus">Marcellus Empiricus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Aurelius" title="Marcus Aurelius">Marcus Aurelius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Manilius" title="Marcus Manilius">Manilius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martial" title="Martial">Martial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicolaus_of_Damascus" title="Nicolaus of Damascus">Nicolaus Damascenus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonius_Marcellus" title="Nonius Marcellus">Nonius Marcellus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Obsequens" title="Julius Obsequens">Obsequens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orosius" title="Orosius">Orosius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ovid" title="Ovid">Ovid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petronius" title="Petronius">Petronius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phaedrus_(fabulist)" title="Phaedrus (fabulist)">Phaedrus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plautus" title="Plautus">Plautus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder" title="Pliny the Elder">Pliny the Elder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Younger" title="Pliny the Younger">Pliny the Younger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pomponius_Mela" title="Pomponius Mela">Pomponius Mela</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priscian" title="Priscian">Priscian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propertius" title="Propertius">Propertius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Claudius_Quadrigarius" title="Quintus Claudius Quadrigarius">Quadrigarius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintilian" title="Quintilian">Quintilian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Curtius_Rufus" title="Quintus Curtius Rufus">Quintus Curtius Rufus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sallust" title="Sallust">Sallust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seneca_the_Elder" title="Seneca the Elder">Seneca the Elder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seneca_the_Younger" title="Seneca the Younger">Seneca the Younger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurus_Servius_Honoratus" class="mw-redirect" title="Maurus Servius Honoratus">Servius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sidonius_Apollinaris" title="Sidonius Apollinaris">Sidonius Apollinaris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silius_Italicus" title="Silius Italicus">Silius Italicus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statius" title="Statius">Statius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suetonius" title="Suetonius">Suetonius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Aurelius_Symmachus" title="Quintus Aurelius Symmachus">Symmachus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tacitus" title="Tacitus">Tacitus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terence" title="Terence">Terence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tertullian" title="Tertullian">Tertullian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibullus" title="Tibullus">Tibullus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valerius_Antias" title="Valerius Antias">Valerius Antias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valerius_Maximus" title="Valerius Maximus">Valerius Maximus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Terentius_Varro" title="Marcus Terentius Varro">Varro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Velleius_Paterculus" title="Velleius Paterculus">Velleius Paterculus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verrius_Flaccus" title="Verrius Flaccus">Verrius Flaccus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virgil" title="Virgil">Vergil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitruvius" title="Vitruvius">Vitruvius</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_literature" title="Ancient Greek literature">Greek</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Claudius_Aelianus" title="Claudius Aelianus">Aelian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A%C3%ABtius_of_Amida" title="Aëtius of Amida">Aëtius of Amida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appian" title="Appian">Appian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arrian" title="Arrian">Arrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cassius_Dio" title="Cassius Dio">Cassius Dio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diodorus_Siculus" title="Diodorus Siculus">Diodorus Siculus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diogenes_La%C3%ABrtius" class="mw-redirect" title="Diogenes Laërtius">Diogenes Laërtius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dionysius_of_Halicarnassus" title="Dionysius of Halicarnassus">Dionysius of Halicarnassus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedanius_Dioscorides" class="mw-redirect" title="Pedanius Dioscorides">Dioscorides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eusebius" title="Eusebius">Eusebius of Caesaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galen" title="Galen">Galen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herodian" title="Herodian">Herodian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Josephus" title="Josephus">Josephus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julian_(emperor)" title="Julian (emperor)">Julian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libanius" title="Libanius">Libanius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucian" title="Lucian">Lucian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pausanias_(geographer)" title="Pausanias (geographer)">Pausanias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philostratus" title="Philostratus">Philostratus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phlegon_of_Tralles" title="Phlegon of Tralles">Phlegon of Tralles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photios_I_of_Constantinople" title="Photios I of Constantinople">Photius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutarch" title="Plutarch">Plutarch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polyaenus" title="Polyaenus">Polyaenus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polybius" title="Polybius">Polybius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Porphyry_(philosopher)" class="mw-redirect" title="Porphyry (philosopher)">Porphyrius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priscus" title="Priscus">Priscus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Procopius" title="Procopius">Procopius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simplicius_of_Cilicia" title="Simplicius of Cilicia">Simplicius of Cilicia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sozomen" title="Sozomen">Sozomen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephanus_of_Byzantium" title="Stephanus of Byzantium">Stephanus Byzantinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strabo" title="Strabo">Strabo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Themistius" title="Themistius">Themistius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodoret" title="Theodoret">Theodoret</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joannes_Zonaras" title="Joannes Zonaras">Zonaras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zosimus_(historian)" title="Zosimus (historian)">Zosimus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Major cities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alexandria" title="Alexandria">Alexandria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antioch" title="Antioch">Antioch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquileia" title="Aquileia">Aquileia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berytus" title="Berytus">Berytus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bologna" title="Bologna">Bononia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carthage" title="Carthage">Carthage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinopolis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eboracum" title="Eboracum">Eboracum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leptis_Magna" title="Leptis Magna">Leptis Magna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Londinium" title="Londinium">Londinium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lugdunum" title="Lugdunum">Lugdunum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lutetia" title="Lutetia">Lutetia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mediolanum" title="Mediolanum">Mediolanum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pompeii" title="Pompeii">Pompeii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ravenna" title="Ravenna">Ravenna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rome" title="Rome">Roma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smyrna" title="Smyrna">Smyrna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vindobona" title="Vindobona">Vindobona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volubilis" title="Volubilis">Volubilis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists <span class="nobold">and other<br />topics</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_founded_by_the_Romans" title="List of cities founded by the Romans">Cities and towns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_of_ancient_Rome" title="Climate of ancient Rome">Climate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_consuls" title="List of Roman consuls">Consuls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_dictators" title="List of Roman dictators">Dictators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_women" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Roman women">Distinguished women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_dynasties" title="List of Roman dynasties">Dynasties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_emperors" title="List of Roman emperors">Emperors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_and_Byzantine_empresses" title="List of Roman and Byzantine empresses">Empresses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fiction_set_in_ancient_Rome" class="mw-redirect" title="Fiction set in ancient Rome">Fiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_films_set_in_ancient_Rome" title="List of films set in ancient Rome">Film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_generals" title="List of Roman generals">Generals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_gentes" title="List of Roman gentes">Gentes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Graeco-Roman_geographers" title="List of Graeco-Roman geographers">Geographers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_institutions_of_ancient_Rome" title="Political institutions of ancient Rome">Institutions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_laws" title="List of Roman laws">Laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legacy_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Legacy of the Roman Empire">Legacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_legions" title="List of Roman legions">Legions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_dictators" title="List of Roman dictators">Magistri equitum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_nomina" title="List of Roman nomina">Nomina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_pontifices_maximi" title="List of pontifices maximi">Pontifices maximi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_praetors" title="List of Roman praetors">Praetors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_quaestors" title="List of Roman quaestors">Quaestors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_tribunes" title="List of Roman tribunes">Tribunes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Iranian_relations" title="Roman–Iranian relations">Roman–Iranian relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_external_wars_and_battles" title="List of Roman external wars and battles">External wars and battles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_civil_wars_and_revolts" title="List of Roman civil wars and revolts">Civil wars and revolts</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1130092004">.mw-parser-output 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