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vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#3rd_declension"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.4.2 3rd declension </div> </a> <ul id="toc-3rd_declension-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-4th_and_5th_declension" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#4th_and_5th_declension"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.4.3 4th and 5th declension </div> </a> <ul id="toc-4th_and_5th_declension-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_nouns" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_nouns"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.4.4 Other nouns </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_nouns-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Use_of_cases" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Use_of_cases"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.5 Use of cases </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Use_of_cases-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Nominative" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nominative"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.5.1 Nominative </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nominative-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vocative" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vocative"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.5.2 Vocative </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vocative-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Accusative" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Accusative"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.5.3 Accusative </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Accusative-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Genitive" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Genitive"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.5.4 Genitive </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Genitive-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dative" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dative"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.5.5 Dative </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dative-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ablative" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ablative"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.5.6 Ablative </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ablative-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Locative" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Locative"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.5.7 Locative </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Locative-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Adjectives" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Adjectives"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 Adjectives </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Adjectives-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Adjectives subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Adjectives-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Declension_of_adjectives" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Declension_of_adjectives"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Declension of adjectives </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Declension_of_adjectives-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Agreement_of_adjectives" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Agreement_of_adjectives"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Agreement of adjectives </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Agreement_of_adjectives-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Comparative_and_superlative_adjectives" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Comparative_and_superlative_adjectives"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 Comparative and superlative adjectives </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Comparative_and_superlative_adjectives-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pronouns" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pronouns"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Pronouns </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pronouns-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Adverbs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Adverbs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Adverbs </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Adverbs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Prepositions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prepositions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Prepositions </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Prepositions-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Prepositions subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Prepositions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Prepositions_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prepositions_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Prepositions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Prepositions_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Postpositions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Postpositions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Postpositions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Postpositions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Numerals_and_numbers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Numerals_and_numbers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Numerals and numbers </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Numerals_and_numbers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Verbs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Verbs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Verbs </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Verbs-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Verbs subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Verbs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Persons_of_the_verb" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Persons_of_the_verb"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 Persons of the verb </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Persons_of_the_verb-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gender_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gender_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2 Gender </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gender_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Voice" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Voice"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.3 Voice </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Voice-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mood" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mood"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.4 Mood </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mood-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Regular_and_irregular_verbs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Regular_and_irregular_verbs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.5 Regular and irregular verbs </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Regular_and_irregular_verbs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tenses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tenses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.6 Tenses </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tenses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-A_3rd_conjugation_example" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#A_3rd_conjugation_example"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.6.1 A 3rd conjugation example </div> </a> <ul id="toc-A_3rd_conjugation_example-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Variations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Variations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.6.2 Variations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Variations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Word_order" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Word_order"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Word order </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Word_order-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Bibliography </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Latin grammar</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 28 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-28" aria-hidden="true" > 28 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gram%C3%A1tica_del_llat%C3%ADn" title="Gramática del llatín – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Gramática del llatín" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gram%C3%A0tica_del_llat%C3%AD" title="Gramàtica del llatí – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Gramàtica del llatí" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gramadeg_Lladin" title="Gramadeg Lladin – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Gramadeg Lladin" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latinsk_grammatik" title="Latinsk grammatik – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Latinsk grammatik" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lateinische_Grammatik" title="Lateinische Grammatik – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Lateinische Grammatik" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gram%C3%A1tica_del_lat%C3%ADn" title="Gramática del latín – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Gramática del latín" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin#Grammaire" title="Latin – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Latin" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gramadach_na_Laidine" title="Gramadach na Laidine – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Gramadach na Laidine" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%9D%BC%ED%8B%B4%EC%96%B4_%EB%AC%B8%EB%B2%95" title="라틴어 문법 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="라틴어 문법" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gramatika_latinskog_jezika" title="Gramatika latinskog jezika – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Gramatika latinskog jezika" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latnesk_m%C3%A1lfr%C3%A6%C3%B0i" title="Latnesk málfræði – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Latnesk málfræði" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatica_latina" title="Grammatica latina – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Grammatica latina" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatica_Latina" title="Grammatica Latina – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Grammatica Latina" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lat%C3%A9ngesch_Grammaire" title="Laténgesch Grammaire – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Laténgesch Grammaire" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lëtzebuergesch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lotyn%C5%B3_kalbos_gramatika" title="Lotynų kalbos gramatika – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Lotynų kalbos gramatika" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latina_(gramatica)" title="Latina (gramatica) – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Latina (gramatica)" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingua Franca Nova</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Латинска граматика – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Латинска граматика" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latijnse_grammatica" title="Latijnse grammatica – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Latijnse grammatica" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%A9%E3%83%86%E3%83%B3%E8%AA%9E%E3%81%AE%E6%96%87%E6%B3%95" title="ラテン語の文法 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ラテン語の文法" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gramatyka_j%C4%99zyka_%C5%82aci%C5%84skiego" title="Gramatyka języka łacińskiego – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Gramatyka języka łacińskiego" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE_%D1%8F%D0%B7%D1%8B%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Грамматика латинского языка – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Грамматика латинского языка" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatica_latina" title="Grammatica latina – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Grammatica latina" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sicilianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latinska_slovnica" title="Latinska slovnica – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Latinska slovnica" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latinsk_grammatik" title="Latinsk grammatik – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Latinsk grammatik" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link 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.mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="width:auto"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Latin grammar</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Latin_declension" title="Latin declension">Declension</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ablative_(Latin)" title="Ablative (Latin)">Uses of the ablative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dative_case#Latin" title="Dative case">Uses of the dative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_conjugation" title="Latin conjugation">Conjugation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_numerals" title="Latin numerals">Numerals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_syntax" title="Latin syntax">Syntax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_word_order" title="Latin word order">Word order</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_tenses" title="Latin tenses">Tenses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_conditional_clauses" title="Latin conditional clauses">Conditional clauses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_indirect_speech" title="Latin indirect speech">Indirect speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subjunctive_by_attraction" title="Subjunctive by attraction">Subjunctive by attraction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temporal_clause_(Latin)" title="Temporal clause (Latin)">Temporal clauses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clausula_(rhetoric)" title="Clausula (rhetoric)">Clausula (rhetoric)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyperbaton" title="Hyperbaton">Hyperbaton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alliteration_(Latin)" title="Alliteration (Latin)">Alliteration</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Latin_grammar" title="Template:Latin grammar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Template_talk:Latin_grammar&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Template talk:Latin grammar (page does not exist)"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Latin_grammar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Latin grammar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> is a heavily <a href="/wiki/Inflected_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Inflected languages">inflected language</a> with largely <a href="/wiki/Free_word_order" class="mw-redirect" title="Free word order">free word order</a>. <a href="/wiki/Noun" title="Noun">Nouns</a> are inflected for <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_number" title="Grammatical number">number</a> and <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_case" title="Grammatical case">case</a>; <a href="/wiki/Pronoun" title="Pronoun">pronouns</a> and <a href="/wiki/Adjective" title="Adjective">adjectives</a> (including <a href="/wiki/Participle" title="Participle">participles</a>) are inflected for number, case, and <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_gender" title="Grammatical gender">gender</a>; and <a href="/wiki/Verb" title="Verb">verbs</a> are inflected for <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_person" title="Grammatical person">person</a>, number, <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_tense" title="Grammatical tense">tense</a>, <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_aspect" title="Grammatical aspect">aspect</a>, <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_voice" class="mw-redirect" title="Grammatical voice">voice</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_mood" title="Grammatical mood">mood</a>. The inflections are often changes in the ending of a word, but can be more complicated, especially with verbs. Thus verbs can take any of over 100 different endings to express different meanings, for example regō "I rule", regor "I am ruled", regere "to rule", regī "to be ruled". Most verbal forms consist of a single word, but some tenses are formed from part of the verb sum "I am" added to a participle; for example, ductus sum "I was led" or ductūrus est "he is going to lead". Classified things (represented by common nouns) belong to one of three <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_gender" title="Grammatical gender">grammatical genders</a> (masculine, feminine, and neuter). The gender of the classified thing is realized by the last syllables of the adjectives, numbers and pronouns that refer to it: e.g. male animals such as hic vir "this man" and hic gallus "this cock", female animals such as haec mulier "this woman" and haec gallīna "this chicken", and either sexually undifferentiated animals such as hoc ovum "this egg" or stuff in general such as hoc "this thing". Specific kinds of stuff and abstract things also have one of the three grammatical genders. There are also two <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_number" title="Grammatical number">numbers</a>: singular (mulier "woman") and plural (mulierēs "women"). As well as having gender and number, nouns, adjectives, and pronouns have different endings according to their function in the sentence, for example, rēx "the king" (subject), but rēgem "the king" (object). These different endings are called "cases". Most nouns have five cases: <a href="/wiki/Nominative_case" title="Nominative case">nominative</a> (subject), <a href="/wiki/Accusative_case" title="Accusative case">accusative</a> (object), <a href="/wiki/Genitive_case" title="Genitive case">genitive</a> ("of"), <a href="/wiki/Dative_case" title="Dative case">dative</a> ("to" or "for"), and <a href="/wiki/Ablative_case" title="Ablative case">ablative</a> ("with" or "in"). Nouns for people (potential addressees) have the <a href="/wiki/Vocative_case" title="Vocative case">vocative</a> (used for addressing someone). Nouns for places have a seventh case, the <a href="/wiki/Locative_case" title="Locative case">locative</a>; this is mostly found with the names of towns and cities, e.g. Rōmae "in Rome". There is no definite or indefinite <a href="/wiki/Article_(grammar)" title="Article (grammar)">article</a> in Latin, so that rēx can mean "king", "a king", or "the king" according to context. <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Priscianus_della_Robbia_OPA_Florence.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Priscianus_della_Robbia_OPA_Florence.jpg/300px-Priscianus_della_Robbia_OPA_Florence.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="358" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Priscianus_della_Robbia_OPA_Florence.jpg/450px-Priscianus_della_Robbia_OPA_Florence.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Priscianus_della_Robbia_OPA_Florence.jpg/600px-Priscianus_della_Robbia_OPA_Florence.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1140" data-file-height="1360" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Priscian" title="Priscian">Priscian</a>, or the Grammar, marble cameo panel dated 1437–1439 from the bell tower of <a href="/wiki/Florence" title="Florence">Florence</a>, Italy, by <a href="/wiki/Luca_della_Robbia" title="Luca della Robbia">Luca della Robbia</a>. The scene is an allegory of grammar and, by implication, all of education. Note the opening door in the background and the unshod feet of the first pupil.</figcaption></figure> Latin word order tends to be <a href="/wiki/Subject%E2%80%93object%E2%80%93verb" class="mw-redirect" title="Subject–object–verb">subject–object–verb</a>; however, other word orders are common. Different word orders are used to express different shades of emphasis. (See <a href="/wiki/Latin_word_order" title="Latin word order">Latin word order</a>.) An <a href="/wiki/Adjective" title="Adjective">adjective</a> can come either before or after a <a href="/wiki/Noun" title="Noun">noun</a>, e.g. vir bonus or bonus vir "a good man", although some kinds of adjectives, such as adjectives of nationality (vir Rōmānus "a Roman man") usually follow the noun. Latin is a <a href="/wiki/Pro-drop_language" title="Pro-drop language">pro-drop language</a>; that is, pronouns in the subject are usually omitted except for emphasis, so for example amās by itself means "you love" without the need to add the pronoun tū "you". Latin also exhibits <a href="/wiki/Verb_framing" title="Verb framing">verb framing</a> in which the path of motion is encoded into the verb rather than shown by a separate word or phrase. For example, the Latin verb exit (a compound of <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/ex#Latin" class="extiw" title="wikt:ex">ex</a> and <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/eo#Latin" class="extiw" title="wikt:eo">it</a>) means "he/she/it goes out". In this article a <a href="/wiki/Macron_(diacritic)" title="Macron (diacritic)">line over a vowel</a> (e.g. ē) indicates that it is <a href="/wiki/Vowel_length" title="Vowel length">long</a>. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Nouns">Nouns</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Latin_grammar&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Nouns">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Number">Number</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Latin_grammar&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Number">edit</a>]</div> Most Latin nouns have two numbers, singular and plural: rēx "king", rēgēs "kings". A few nouns, called plūrālia tantum ("plural only"), although plural in form, have a singular meaning, e.g. castra "a camp", litterae "a letter", nūptiae "a wedding". <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Gender">Gender</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Latin_grammar&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Gender">edit</a>]</div> Nouns are divided into three genders, known as masculine, feminine, and neuter. The difference is shown in the pronouns and adjectives that refer to them, for example: <ul><li>ipse rēx "the king himself" (masculine)</li> <li>ipsa rēgīna "the queen herself" (feminine)</li> <li>ipsum bellum "the war itself" (neuter)</li></ul> To a certain extent, the genders follow the meanings of the words (for example, winds are masculine, tree-names feminine): <ul><li>Masculine nouns include all those referring to males, such as dominus "master", puer "boy", deus "god", but also some inanimate objects such as hortus "garden", exercitus "army", mōs "custom". Words in the 2nd declension ending in -us or -er are usually masculine.</li> <li>Feminine nouns include all those referring to females, such as puella "girl", mulier "woman", dea "goddess", but also inanimate or abstract nouns such as arbor "tree", urbs "city", hūmānitās "kindness", nātiō "nation". Words in the 1st declension like puella ending in -a are usually feminine, with a few exceptions such as poēta "poet". Also feminine are 3rd declension nouns ending in -tās and -tiō.</li> <li>Neuter nouns (apart from scortum "a sex worker (of either gender)") all refer to things, such as nōmen "name", corpus "body", bellum "war", venēnum 'poison'.</li></ul> Neuter nouns differ from masculine and feminine in two ways: (1) the plural nominative and accusative forms end in -a, e.g. bella "wars", corpora "bodies"; (2) the subject (nominative) and object (accusative) cases are identical. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Case">Case</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Latin_grammar&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Case">edit</a>]</div> Nouns in Latin have a series of different forms, called cases of the noun, which have different functions or meanings. For example, the word for "king" is rēx when it is the subject of a verb, but rēgem when it is the object: <ul><li>rēx videt "the king sees" (nominative case)</li> <li>rēgem videt "(he) sees the king" (accusative case)</li></ul> Further cases mean "of" (genitive case), "to/for" (dative case), and "with" (ablative case). Nouns for people have a separate form used for addressing a person (vocative case). In most nouns for women and girls, the vocative is the same as the nominative. Some nouns, such as the names of cities and small islands, and the word domus "home", have a seventh case called the locative, for example Rōmae "in Rome" or domī "at home"; however, most nouns do not have this case. The genitive, dative and ablative cases are called the "oblique" cases. The order in which the cases are given in grammar books differs in different countries. In Britain and countries influenced by Britain, the order nominative, vocative, accusative is used as in the table below.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy196213-1">[1]</a> In the United States, in grammars such as Gildersleeve and Lodge's Latin Grammar (1895), the traditional order is used, with the genitive case in the second place and ablative last. In the popularly used <a href="/wiki/Wheelock%27s_Latin" title="Wheelock's Latin">Wheelock's Latin</a> (1956, 7th edition 2011) and Allen and Greenough's New Latin Grammar (1903), however, the vocative is placed at the end. The following table shows the endings of a typical noun of the 3rd declension.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy196222-2">[2]</a> If Gildersleeve and Lodge's order is preferred, click on the symbol "GL" in the seventh column in the table below; for Wheelock's order click on "Wh": <table class="wikitable sortable"> <tbody><tr> <th class="unsortable">Name of case </th> <th class="unsortable">Use </th> <th class="unsortable">sing. </th> <th class="unsortable">meaning </th> <th class="unsortable">plur. </th> <th class="unsortable">meaning </th> <th>Br </th> <th>GL </th> <th>Wh </th></tr> <tr> <td>Nominative </td> <td>Subject </td> <td>rēx </td> <td>a king, the king </td> <td>rēgēs </td> <td>kings, the kings </td> <td>1 </td> <td>1 </td> <td>1 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Vocative </td> <td>Addressing </td> <td>rēx </td> <td>o king! </td> <td>rēgēs </td> <td>o kings! </td> <td>2 </td> <td>5 </td> <td>6 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Accusative </td> <td>Object, goal </td> <td>rēgem </td> <td>a king, the king (object) </td> <td>rēgēs </td> <td>kings, the kings (object) </td> <td>3 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>4 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Genitive </td> <td>of </td> <td>rēgis </td> <td>of the king, of a king </td> <td>rēgum </td> <td>of kings, of the kings </td> <td>4 </td> <td>2 </td> <td>2 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Dative </td> <td>to, for </td> <td>rēgī </td> <td>to the king </td> <td>rēgibus </td> <td>to kings, to the kings </td> <td>5 </td> <td>3 </td> <td>3 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Ablative </td> <td>with, by, from, in </td> <td>rēge </td> <td>with the king </td> <td>rēgibus </td> <td>with the kings </td> <td>6 </td> <td>6 </td> <td>5 </td></tr></tbody></table> Sometimes the same endings, e.g. -ēs and -ibus, are used for more than one case. Since the function of a word in Latin is shown by ending rather than word order, in theory rēgēs dūcunt could mean either "the kings lead" or "they lead the kings". In practice, however, such ambiguities are rare. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Declensions">Declensions</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Latin_grammar&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Declensions">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Latin_declension" title="Latin declension">Latin declension</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="1st_and_2nd_declensions">1st and 2nd declensions</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Latin_grammar&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: 1st and 2nd declensions">edit</a>]</div> Latin nouns are divided into different groups according to the patterns of their case endings. These different groups are known as declensions. Nouns with -a in the nominative singular, like puella "girl" are known as 1st declension nouns, and so on. The following table shows the declension of puella "girl" (1st declension), dominus "lord, master" (2nd declension masculine), and bellum "war" (2nd declension neuter):<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy196217–19-3">[3]</a> <table class="wikitable sortable"> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2">Case </th> <th colspan="2">feminine </th> <th> </th> <th colspan="2">masculine </th> <th> </th> <th colspan="2">neuter </th> <th> </th> <th rowspan="2">Br </th> <th rowspan="2">GL </th> <th rowspan="2">Wh </th></tr> <tr> <th class="unsortable">1 sg. </th> <th class="unsortable">1 pl. </th> <th class="unsortable"> </th> <th class="unsortable">2 sg. </th> <th class="unsortable">2 pl. </th> <th class="unsortable"> </th> <th class="unsortable">2n sg. </th> <th class="unsortable">2n pl. </th> <th class="unsortable"> </th></tr> <tr> <td>Nominative </td> <td>puella</td> <td>puellae</td> <td></td> <td>dominus</td> <td>dominī</td> <td></td> <td>bellum</td> <td>bella</td> <td></td> <td>1</td> <td>1</td> <td>1 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Vocative </td> <td>puella</td> <td>puellae</td> <td></td> <td>domine</td> <td>dominī</td> <td></td> <td>bellum</td> <td>bella</td> <td></td> <td>2</td> <td>5</td> <td>6 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Accusative </td> <td>puellam</td> <td>puellās</td> <td></td> <td>dominum</td> <td>dominōs</td> <td></td> <td>bellum</td> <td>bella</td> <td></td> <td>3</td> <td>4</td> <td>4 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Genitive </td> <td>puellae</td> <td>puellārum</td> <td></td> <td>dominī</td> <td>dominōrum</td> <td></td> <td>bellī</td> <td>bellōrum</td> <td></td> <td>4</td> <td>2</td> <td>2 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Dative </td> <td>puellae</td> <td>puellīs</td> <td></td> <td>dominō</td> <td>dominīs</td> <td></td> <td>bellō</td> <td>bellīs</td> <td></td> <td>5</td> <td>3</td> <td>3 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Ablative </td> <td>puellā</td> <td>puellīs</td> <td></td> <td>dominō</td> <td>dominīs</td> <td></td> <td>bellō</td> <td>bellīs</td> <td></td> <td>6</td> <td>6</td> <td>5 </td></tr> </tbody></table> 1st declension nouns are usually feminine, except for a few referring to men, such as agricola "farmer" or poēta "poet". The nouns fīlia "daughter" and dea "goddess" have dative and ablative plural fīliābus, deābus. The locative case ends in -ae, pl. -īs, e.g. Rōmae "in Rome", Athēnīs "in Athens".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy196217-4">[4]</a> 2nd declension nouns in -us are usually masculine, but those referring to trees (e.g. pīnus "pine tree") and some place names (e.g. Aegyptus "Egypt") are feminine. A few 2nd declension nouns, such as vir "man" and puer "boy", lack endings in the nominative and vocative singular. In the 2nd declension, the genitive plural in some words is optionally -um, especially in poetry:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllenGreenoughKittredgeHoward1903§49-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy196219-6">[6]</a> deum or deōrum "of the gods", virum or virōrum "of men". Neuter nouns such as bellum "war" have -a in the nominative plural. In neuter nouns, the vocative and accusative are always the same as the nominative; the genitive, dative, and ablative are the same as the masculine. Most 2nd declension neuter nouns end in -um but vīrus "poison" and vulgus "crowd" end in -us. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="3rd_declension">3rd declension</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Latin_grammar&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: 3rd declension">edit</a>]</div> Third declension nouns have various patterns of declension. Some decline like the following: mīles "soldier", urbs "city", corpus "body":<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy196222-26-7">[7]</a> <table class="wikitable sortable"> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2">Case </th> <th colspan="2">masculine </th> <th> </th> <th colspan="2">feminine </th> <th> </th> <th colspan="2">neuter </th> <th> </th> <th rowspan="2">Br </th> <th rowspan="2">GL </th> <th rowspan="2">Wh </th></tr> <tr> <th class="unsortable">3 sg. </th> <th class="unsortable">3 pl. </th> <th class="unsortable"> </th> <th class="unsortable">3 sg. </th> <th class="unsortable">3 pl. </th> <th class="unsortable"> </th> <th class="unsortable">3n sg. </th> <th class="unsortable">3n pl. </th> <th class="unsortable"> </th></tr> <tr> <td>Nominative </td> <td>mīles</td> <td>mīlitēs</td> <td></td> <td>urbs</td> <td>urbēs</td> <td></td> <td>corpus</td> <td>corpora</td> <td></td> <td>1</td> <td>1</td> <td>1 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Vocative </td> <td>mīles</td> <td>mīlitēs</td> <td></td> <td>urbs</td> <td>urbēs</td> <td></td> <td>corpus</td> <td>corpora</td> <td></td> <td>2</td> <td>5</td> <td>6 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Accusative </td> <td>mīlitem</td> <td>mīlitēs</td> <td></td> <td>urbem</td> <td>urbēs/-īs</td> <td></td> <td>corpus</td> <td>corpora</td> <td></td> <td>3</td> <td>4</td> <td>4 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Genitive </td> <td>mīlitis</td> <td>mīlitum</td> <td></td> <td>urbis</td> <td>urbium</td> <td></td> <td>corporis</td> <td>corporum</td> <td></td> <td>4</td> <td>2</td> <td>2 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Dative </td> <td>mīlitī</td> <td>mīlitibus</td> <td></td> <td>urbī</td> <td>urbibus</td> <td></td> <td>corporī</td> <td>corporibus</td> <td></td> <td>5</td> <td>3</td> <td>3 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Ablative </td> <td>mīlite</td> <td>mīlitibus</td> <td></td> <td>urbe</td> <td>urbibus</td> <td></td> <td>corpore</td> <td>corporibus</td> <td></td> <td>6</td> <td>6</td> <td>5 </td></tr> </tbody></table> There are some variations, however. A few, such as vīs, vim, vī "force", have accusative singular -im and ablative singular -ī; some, like ignis "fire", optionally have -ī instead of -e in the ablative singular. The genitive plural in some nouns is -um, in others -ium. (For details, see <a href="/wiki/Latin_declension" title="Latin declension">Latin declension</a>.) 3rd declension nouns can be of any gender. It is not usually possible to guess the genitive of a noun from the nominative: dux "leader" has genitive ducis but rēx "king" has rēgis; pater "father" has genitive patris but iter "journey" has itineris. For this reason the genitive is always given in dictionaries, and can be used to discover the remaining cases. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="4th_and_5th_declension">4th and 5th declension</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Latin_grammar&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: 4th and 5th declension">edit</a>]</div> 4th and 5th declension nouns are less common. They decline like the following (manus "hand", genū "knee", diēs "day"):<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy196230-31-8">[8]</a> <table class="wikitable sortable"> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2">Case </th> <th colspan="2">feminine </th> <th> </th> <th colspan="2"> </th> <th> </th> <th colspan="2"> </th> <th> </th> <th rowspan="2">Br </th> <th rowspan="2">GL </th> <th rowspan="2">Wh </th></tr> <tr> <th class="unsortable">4 sg. </th> <th class="unsortable">4 pl. </th> <th class="unsortable"> </th> <th class="unsortable">4n sg. </th> <th class="unsortable">4n pl. </th> <th class="unsortable"> </th> <th class="unsortable">5 sg. </th> <th class="unsortable">5 pl. </th> <th class="unsortable"> </th></tr> <tr> <td>Nominative </td> <td>manus</td> <td>manūs</td> <td></td> <td>genū</td> <td>genua</td> <td></td> <td>diēs</td> <td>diēs</td> <td></td> <td>1</td> <td>1</td> <td>1 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Vocative </td> <td>manus</td> <td>manūs</td> <td></td> <td>genū</td> <td>genua</td> <td></td> <td>diēs</td> <td>diēs</td> <td></td> <td>2</td> <td>5</td> <td>6 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Accusative </td> <td>manum</td> <td>manūs</td> <td></td> <td>genū</td> <td>genua</td> <td></td> <td>diēm</td> <td>diēs</td> <td></td> <td>3</td> <td>4</td> <td>4 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Genitive </td> <td>manūs</td> <td>manuum</td> <td></td> <td>genūs</td> <td>genuum</td> <td></td> <td>diēī</td> <td>diērum</td> <td></td> <td>4</td> <td>2</td> <td>2 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Dative </td> <td>manuī</td> <td>manibus</td> <td></td> <td>genuī, genū</td> <td>genibus</td> <td></td> <td>diēī</td> <td>diēbus</td> <td></td> <td>5</td> <td>3</td> <td>3 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Ablative </td> <td>manū</td> <td>manibus</td> <td></td> <td>genū</td> <td>genibus</td> <td></td> <td>diē</td> <td>diēbus</td> <td></td> <td>6</td> <td>6</td> <td>5 </td></tr> </tbody></table> 4th declension nouns are usually masculine, but a few, such as manus "hand" and anus "old lady", are feminine. There are only four 4th declension neuter nouns. <a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllenGreenoughKittredgeHoward1903§91-9">[9]</a> 5th declension nouns (except for diēs (m) "day") are usually feminine. rēs "thing" is similar to diēs except for a short e in the genitive and dative singular reī. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Other_nouns">Other nouns</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Latin_grammar&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Other nouns">edit</a>]</div> In addition to the above there are some irregularly declined nouns, mostly borrowed from Greek, such as the name Aenēās "Aeneas" (1st declension masculine).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy196234-36-10">[10]</a> The vocative is nearly always the same as the nominative, except in 1st and 2nd declension masculine singular words, such as Aenēā! "Aeneas!" and domine! "master!/lord!". Some words, such as deus "god", have no separate vocative, however. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Use_of_cases">Use of cases</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Latin_grammar&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Use of cases">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Latin_syntax#Examples_of_case_use" title="Latin syntax">Latin syntax § Examples of case use</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Nominative">Nominative</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Latin_grammar&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Nominative">edit</a>]</div> The <a href="/wiki/Nominative" class="mw-redirect" title="Nominative">nominative</a> case is used for the <a href="/wiki/Subject_(grammar)" title="Subject (grammar)">subject</a> of an <a href="/wiki/Active_voice" title="Active voice">active</a> or a <a href="/wiki/Passive_voice" title="Passive voice">passive</a> verb: <dl><dd>rēx respondit = the king replied</dd> <dd>rēx occīsus est = the king was killed</dd></dl> It is also used for the <a href="/wiki/Complement_(linguistics)" title="Complement (linguistics)">complement</a> of a <a href="/wiki/Copula_(linguistics)" title="Copula (linguistics)">copula</a> verb such as est "he is" or factus est "he became":<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy1962119-11">[11]</a> <dl><dd>rēx erat Aenēās nōbīs = our king was Aeneas / Aeneas was our king</dd> <dd>rēx factus est = he was made king / he became king</dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Vocative">Vocative</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Latin_grammar&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Vocative">edit</a>]</div> The <a href="/wiki/Vocative" class="mw-redirect" title="Vocative">vocative</a> case is used when addressing someone: <dl><dd>jubēsne mē, Rōmule Rēx, foedus ferīre? = do you order me, King Romulus, to strike a treaty?</dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Accusative">Accusative</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Latin_grammar&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Accusative">edit</a>]</div> The <a href="/wiki/Accusative" class="mw-redirect" title="Accusative">accusative</a> case is used for the object of a sentence:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy1962119–122-12">[12]</a> <dl><dd>rēgem interfēcērunt = they killed the king</dd></dl> It is also used as the subject of an infinitival clause dependent on a verb of speaking or the like: <dl><dd>rēgem interfectum esse crēdēbant = they believed that the king had been killed</dd></dl> It can be the complement of another word which is itself accusative: <dl><dd>Tullum populus rēgem creāvit = the people made Tullus their king</dd></dl> It can also be used with a place name to refer to the destination: <dl><dd>Rōmam profectus est = he set out for Rome</dd></dl> The accusative is also used after various prepositions (especially those that imply motion towards): <dl><dd>senātus ad rēgem lēgātōs mīsit = the Senate sent ambassadors to the king</dd> <dd>cōnsul in urbem rediit = the consul returned to the city</dd></dl> Another use of the accusative is to give a length of time or distance: <dl><dd>rēgnāvit annōs quīnque = he reigned for five years</dd> <dd>quīnque pedēs longus = five foot tall</dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Genitive">Genitive</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Latin_grammar&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Genitive">edit</a>]</div> A <a href="/wiki/Genitive" class="mw-redirect" title="Genitive">genitive</a> noun can represent a kin: <dl><dd>rēgis fīlia = the king's daughter, daughter of the king</dd></dl> A genitive noun can stand for the object of mental processes such as misereor "I pity" and oblīvīscor "I forget":<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGildersleeveLodge1903240–242-13">[13]</a> <dl><dd>numquam oblīvīscar noctis illīus = I will never forget that night<a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a></dd></dl> A genitive noun attached to a verbal noun can stand for the object of the implied verb (called an "objective genitive"): <dl><dd>maximī virī dēsiderium = my longing for the great man<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a></dd></dl> A genitive noun can stand for the subject of the implied verb (called a "subjective" genitive):<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGildersleeveLodge1903232–233-16">[16]</a> <dl><dd>Caesaris adventus = Caesar's arrival</dd></dl> A frequent type of genitive is the partitive genitive, expressing the quantity of something:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGildersleeveLodge1903235–237-17">[17]</a> <dl><dd>satis temporis = enough time</dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Dative">Dative</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Latin_grammar&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Dative">edit</a>]</div> The <a href="/wiki/Dative" class="mw-redirect" title="Dative">dative</a> case means "to" or "for". It is frequently used with verbs of saying or giving: <dl><dd>rēgī nūntiātum est = it was announced to the king</dd> <dd>pecūniam rēgī crēdidit = he entrusted the money to the king</dd></dl> It can also be used with certain adjectives: <dl><dd>cārissimus erat rēgī = he was very dear to the king<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a></dd></dl> It is also used with certain verbs such as pāreō "I obey" or persuādeō "I persuade":<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy1962123-127-19">[19]</a> <dl><dd>pāruit rēgī = he was obedient to (i.e. obeyed) the king</dd></dl> There are also various idiomatic uses, such as the dative of possession: <dl><dd>quid est tibī nōmen? = what's your name?<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Ablative">Ablative</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Latin_grammar&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Ablative">edit</a>]</div> The <a href="/wiki/Ablative" class="mw-redirect" title="Ablative">ablative</a> case can mean "with", especially when the noun it refers to is a thing rather than a person:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy1962128-132-21">[21]</a> <dl><dd>gladiō sē transfīgit = he stabbed himself with a sword</dd></dl> Often a phrase consisting of a noun plus participle in the ablative can express time or circumstance. This is known as an "ablative absolute":<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy1962130-22">[22]</a> <dl><dd>rēgibus exāctīs = with the kings driven out, i.e. after the kings were driven out</dd></dl> It is also frequently used with prepositions, especially those meaning "from", "with", "in", or "by": <dl><dd>ūnus ē rēgibus = one from (i.e. one of) the kings</dd> <dd>cum rēgibus = with the kings</dd> <dd>ā rēgibus = by the kings, from the kings</dd> <dd>prō rēge = for/on behalf of the king</dd></dl> Another use is in expressions of time and place (except those that give the length of time or distance): <dl><dd>eō tempore = at that time</dd> <dd>hōc locō = at this place</dd> <dd>paucīs diēbus = in a few days</dd></dl> The ablative can also mean "from", especially with place names:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy1962128-23">[23]</a> <dl><dd>Rōmā profectus est = he set out from Rome</dd> <dd>locō ille mōtus est = he was dislodged from his position</dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Locative">Locative</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Latin_grammar&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Locative">edit</a>]</div> The <a href="/wiki/Locative" class="mw-redirect" title="Locative">locative</a> is a rare case used only with names of cities, small islands, and one or two other words such as domus "home". It means "at" or "in":<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy1962132-24">[24]</a> <dl><dd>cōnsul alter Rōmae mānsit = one of the two <a href="/wiki/Consul" title="Consul">consuls</a> remained in Rome<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a></dd> <dd>multōs annōs nostrae domī vīxit = he lived at our house for many years<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Adjectives">Adjectives</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Latin_grammar&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Adjectives">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Declension_of_adjectives">Declension of adjectives</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Latin_grammar&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Declension of adjectives">edit</a>]</div> Adjectives, like nouns, have different endings for the different cases, singular and plural. They also differ as to gender, having different forms for masculine, feminine, and neuter. (But masculine and neuter are identical in the genitive, dative, and ablative cases.) Many adjectives belong to the 1st and 2nd declensions, declining in the same way as the nouns puella, dominus, bellum. An example is the adjective bonus "good" shown below: <table class="wikitable sortable"> <tbody><tr> <th class="unsortable">Case </th> <th class="unsortable">m. sg. </th> <th class="unsortable">f. sg. </th> <th class="unsortable">n. sg. </th> <th class="unsortable"> </th> <th class="unsortable">m. pl </th> <th class="unsortable">f. pl. </th> <th class="unsortable">n. pl. </th> <th class="unsortable"> </th> <th>Br </th> <th>GL </th> <th>Wh </th></tr> <tr> <td>Nominative </td> <td>bonus</td> <td>bona</td> <td>bonum</td> <td></td> <td>bonī</td> <td>bonae</td> <td>bona</td> <td></td> <td>1</td> <td>1</td> <td>1 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Vocative </td> <td>bone</td> <td>bona</td> <td>bonum</td> <td></td> <td>bonī</td> <td>bonae</td> <td>bona</td> <td></td> <td>2</td> <td>5</td> <td>6 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Accusative </td> <td>bonum</td> <td>bonam</td> <td>bonum</td> <td></td> <td>bonōs</td> <td>bonās</td> <td>bona</td> <td></td> <td>3</td> <td>4</td> <td>4 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Genitive </td> <td>bonī</td> <td>bonae</td> <td>bonī</td> <td></td> <td>bonōrum</td> <td>bonārum</td> <td>bonōrum</td> <td></td> <td>4</td> <td>2</td> <td>2 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Dative </td> <td>bonō</td> <td>bonae</td> <td>bonō</td> <td></td> <td>bonīs</td> <td>bonīs</td> <td>bonīs</td> <td></td> <td>5</td> <td>3</td> <td>3 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Ablative </td> <td>bonō</td> <td>bonā</td> <td>bonō</td> <td></td> <td>bonīs</td> <td>bonīs</td> <td>bonīs</td> <td></td> <td>6</td> <td>6</td> <td>5 </td></tr> </tbody></table> Other adjectives belong to the 3rd declension, in which case the masculine and feminine are usually identical. Most 3rd declension adjectives are i-stems, and have ablative singular -ī and genitive plural -ium. An example is ingēns "huge" shown below: <table class="wikitable sortable"> <tbody><tr> <th class="unsortable">Case </th> <th class="unsortable">m/f. sg. </th> <th class="unsortable">n. sg. </th> <th class="unsortable"> </th> <th class="unsortable">m/f. pl </th> <th class="unsortable">n. pl. </th> <th class="unsortable"> </th> <th>Br </th> <th>GL </th> <th>Wh </th></tr> <tr> <td>Nominative </td> <td>ingēns</td> <td>ingēns</td> <td></td> <td>ingentēs</td> <td>ingentia</td> <td></td> <td>1</td> <td>1</td> <td>1 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Vocative </td> <td>ingēns</td> <td>ingēns</td> <td></td> <td>ingentēs</td> <td>ingentia</td> <td></td> <td>2</td> <td>5</td> <td>6 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Accusative </td> <td>ingentem</td> <td>ingēns</td> <td></td> <td>ingentēs/-īs</td> <td>ingentia</td> <td></td> <td>3</td> <td>4</td> <td>4 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Genitive </td> <td>ingentis</td> <td>ingentis</td> <td></td> <td>ingentium</td> <td>ingentium</td> <td></td> <td>4</td> <td>2</td> <td>2 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Dative </td> <td>ingentī</td> <td>ingentī</td> <td></td> <td>ingentibus</td> <td>ingentibus</td> <td></td> <td>5</td> <td>3</td> <td>3 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Ablative </td> <td>ingentī</td> <td>ingentī</td> <td></td> <td>ingentibus</td> <td>ingentibus</td> <td></td> <td>6</td> <td>6</td> <td>5 </td></tr> </tbody></table> In a very few 3rd declension adjectives such as ācer, ācris, ācre "sharp, keen", the feminine is different from the masculine, but only in the nominative and vocative singular. A few adjectives (especially comparative adjectives) decline as consonant stems, and have ablative singular -e and genitive plural -um. An example is melior "better": <table class="wikitable sortable"> <tbody><tr> <th class="unsortable">Case </th> <th class="unsortable">m/f. sg. </th> <th class="unsortable">n. sg. </th> <th class="unsortable"> </th> <th class="unsortable">m/f. pl </th> <th class="unsortable">n. pl. </th> <th class="unsortable"> </th> <th>Br </th> <th>GL </th> <th>Wh </th></tr> <tr> <td>Nominative </td> <td>melior</td> <td>melius</td> <td></td> <td>meliōres</td> <td>meliōra</td> <td></td> <td>1</td> <td>1</td> <td>1 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Vocative </td> <td>melior</td> <td>melius</td> <td></td> <td>meliōrēs</td> <td>meliōra</td> <td></td> <td>2</td> <td>5</td> <td>6 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Accusative </td> <td>meliōrem</td> <td>melius</td> <td></td> <td>meliōrēs</td> <td>meliōra</td> <td></td> <td>3</td> <td>4</td> <td>4 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Genitive </td> <td>meliōris</td> <td>meliōris</td> <td></td> <td>meliōrum</td> <td>meliōrum</td> <td></td> <td>4</td> <td>2</td> <td>2 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Dative </td> <td>meliōrī</td> <td>meliōrī</td> <td></td> <td>meliōribus</td> <td>meliōribus</td> <td></td> <td>5</td> <td>3</td> <td>3 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Ablative </td> <td>meliōre</td> <td>meliōre</td> <td></td> <td>meliōribus</td> <td>meliōribus</td> <td></td> <td>6</td> <td>6</td> <td>5 </td></tr> </tbody></table> Participles such as dūcēns "leading" usually have -e in the ablative singular, but -ium in the genitive plural.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGildersleeveLodge190342-27">[27]</a> There are no adjectives in the 4th or 5th declensions. The adjectives sōlus "only" and tōtus "the whole of" decline like pronouns, with genitive singular -īus and dative singular -ī: <dl><dd>tōtīus Graeciae = of the whole of Greece (genitive case)</dd> <dd>tibī sōlī = to you alone (dative case)</dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Agreement_of_adjectives">Agreement of adjectives</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Latin_grammar&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Agreement of adjectives">edit</a>]</div> Any adjective that describes or refers to a noun must be in the same case as the noun, as well as the same number and gender. Thus in the phrase below, where rēx is in the vocative singular case, bonus must be in the vocative singular also: <dl><dd>ō bone rēx = o good king</dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Comparative_and_superlative_adjectives">Comparative and superlative adjectives</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Latin_grammar&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Comparative and superlative adjectives">edit</a>]</div> Adjectives have positive, comparative and superlative forms. Superlative adjectives are declined according to the first and second declension, but comparative adjectives are third declension. When used in sentences, a comparative adjective can be used in several ways: <ul><li>Absolutely (with the meaning "rather" or "more than usual")</li> <li>With <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/quam#Latin" class="extiw" title="wikt:quam">quam</a> (Latin for "than")</li> <li>With an ablative meaning "than"</li> <li>With the genitive</li></ul> Examples: <ul><li>Cornēlia est fortis puella: Cornelia is a brave girl.</li></ul> The comparative adjective can be used absolutely (i.e. without any overt comparison) or with the comparison made explicit: <ul><li>Cornēlia est fortior puella: Cornelia is a rather brave girl.</li> <li>Cornēlia est fortior puella quam Flāvia: Cornelia is a braver girl than Flavia. (Here quam is used, Flavia is in the nominative to match Cornelia)</li> <li>Cornēlia est fortior Flāviā: Cornelia is braver than Flavia. (Here Flavia is in the ablative.)</li> <li>Cornēlia est fortior puellārum: Cornelia is the braver of the girls</li></ul> Superlative adjectives are most frequently used absolutely, but they can also be used with the genitive omnium "of all": <ul><li>Cornēlia est puella fortissima: Cornelia is a very brave girl</li> <li>Cornēlia est puella omnium fortissima: Cornelia is the bravest girl of all.</li></ul> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Some comparative and superlative adjectives </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>POSITIVE </th> <th>COMPARATIVE </th> <th>SUPERLATIVE </th></tr> <tr> <td>longus, -a, -um long, tall </td> <td>longior, -ius longer, taller </td> <td>longissimus, -a, -um very long, longest </td></tr> <tr> <td>brevis, -e short </td> <td>brevior, -ius shorter </td> <td>brevissimus, -a, -um very short, shortest </td></tr> <tr> <td>pulcher, -chra, -chrum beautiful </td> <td>pulchrior, -ius more beautiful </td> <td>pulcherrimus, -a, -um very beautiful, most beautiful </td></tr> <tr> <td>bonus, -a, -um good </td> <td>melior, -ius better </td> <td>optimus, -a, -um very good, best </td></tr> <tr> <td>facilis, -is, -e easy </td> <td>facilior, -ius easier </td> <td>facillimus, -a, -um very easy, easiest </td></tr> <tr> <td>magnus, -a, -um great </td> <td>maior, -ius greater </td> <td>maximus, -a, -um very great, greatest </td></tr> <tr> <td>malus, -a, -um bad </td> <td>peior, -ius worse </td> <td>pessimus, -a, -um very bad, worst </td></tr> <tr> <td>multus, -a, -um much </td> <td>plūs (+ genitive) more </td> <td>plūrimus, -a, -um very much, most </td></tr> <tr> <td>multī, -ae, -a many </td> <td>plūres, plūra more </td> <td>plūrimī, -ae, -a very many, most </td></tr> <tr> <td>parvus, -a, -um small </td> <td>minor smaller </td> <td>minimus, -a, -um very small, smallest </td></tr> <tr> <td>superus, -a, -um situated above </td> <td>superior, -ius higher, previous </td> <td>suprēmus, -a, -um / summus, -a, -um highest, last </td></tr> <tr> <td>(prae) before </td> <td>prior, prius earlier </td> <td>prīmus, -a, -um first </td></tr></tbody></table> Detailed information and declension tables can be found at <a href="/wiki/Latin_declension" title="Latin declension">Latin declension</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Pronouns">Pronouns</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Latin_grammar&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Pronouns">edit</a>]</div> Pronouns are of two kinds, personal pronouns and 3rd person pronouns. Personal pronouns decline as follows. <table class="wikitable sortable" style="width: 55em;"> <tbody><tr> <th class="unsortable">Case </th> <th class="unsortable">I </th> <th class="unsortable">you sg. </th> <th class="unsortable">himself/ herself </th> <th class="unsortable"> </th> <th class="unsortable">we </th> <th class="unsortable">you pl. </th> <th class="unsortable">themselves </th> <th>Br </th> <th>Am </th></tr> <tr> <td>Nominative </td> <td>ego</td> <td>tū</td> <td>–</td> <td></td> <td>nōs</td> <td>vōs</td> <td>–</td> <td>1</td> <td>1 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Accusative </td> <td>mē</td> <td>tē</td> <td>sē / sēsē</td> <td></td> <td>nōs</td> <td>vōs</td> <td>sē / sēsē</td> <td>3</td> <td>4 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Genitive </td> <td>meī</td> <td>tuī</td> <td>suī</td> <td></td> <td>nostrum/-trī</td> <td>vestrum/-trī</td> <td>suī</td> <td>4</td> <td>2 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Dative </td> <td>mihī</td> <td>tibī</td> <td>sibī</td> <td></td> <td>nōbīs</td> <td>vōbīs</td> <td>sibī</td> <td>5</td> <td>3 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Ablative </td> <td>mē</td> <td>tē</td> <td>sē / sēsē</td> <td></td> <td>nōbīs</td> <td>vōbīs</td> <td>sē / sēsē</td> <td>6</td> <td>6 </td></tr> </tbody></table> mē, tē, nōs, vōs can also be used reflexively ("I see myself" etc.).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllenGreenoughKittredgeHoward190364-28">[28]</a> Nōs is frequently used in classical Latin for "I", but vōs is never used in a singular sense.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllenGreenoughKittredgeHoward190363-29">[29]</a> The genitive nostrum is used partitively (ūnusquisque nostrum "each one of us"), nostrī objectively (memor nostrī "remembering us, mindful of us").<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy196248-30">[30]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllenGreenoughKittredgeHoward190364-28">[28]</a> 3rd person pronouns are those such as hic "this" and ipse "(he) himself". The 3rd person pronouns can also be used adjectivally (except that quid "what?" when adjectival becomes quod). The declension of these pronouns tends to be irregular. They generally have -īus in the genitive singular, and -ī in the dative singular. In a few pronouns (illud "that", istud "that (of yours)", id "it, that", quod "which", quid "anything; what?", aliud "another", aliquid "something") the neuter singular ends in -d. The declension of ille "that" is as follows:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy196249-31">[31]</a> <table class="wikitable sortable" style="width: 55em;"> <tbody><tr> <th class="unsortable">Case </th> <th class="unsortable">m. sg. </th> <th class="unsortable">f. sg. </th> <th class="unsortable">n. sg. </th> <th class="unsortable"> </th> <th class="unsortable">m. pl </th> <th class="unsortable">f. pl. </th> <th class="unsortable">n. pl. </th> <th>Br </th> <th>Am </th></tr> <tr> <td>Nominative </td> <td>ille</td> <td>illa</td> <td>illud</td> <td></td> <td>illī</td> <td>illae</td> <td>illa</td> <td>1</td> <td>1 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Accusative </td> <td>illum</td> <td>illam</td> <td>illud</td> <td></td> <td>illōs</td> <td>illās</td> <td>illa</td> <td>3</td> <td>4 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Genitive </td> <td>illīus (illius)</td> <td>illīus</td> <td>illīus</td> <td></td> <td>illōrum</td> <td>illārum</td> <td>illōrum</td> <td>4</td> <td>2 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Dative </td> <td>illī</td> <td>illī</td> <td>illī</td> <td></td> <td>illīs</td> <td>illīs</td> <td>illīs</td> <td>5</td> <td>3 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Ablative </td> <td>illō</td> <td>illā</td> <td>illō</td> <td></td> <td>illīs</td> <td>illīs</td> <td>illīs</td> <td>6</td> <td>6 </td></tr> </tbody></table> Ipse "he himself" is very similar, except that the neuter singular ipsum ends in -m instead of -d. Other very common 3rd person pronouns are hic, haec, hoc "this" and is, ea, id "he, she, it; that". Like other 3rd person pronouns, these can be used either independently (is "he") or adjectivally (is homō "that man"): <table class="wikitable sortable" style="width: 55em;"> <tbody><tr> <th class="unsortable">Case </th> <th class="unsortable">m. sg. </th> <th class="unsortable">f. sg. </th> <th class="unsortable">n. sg. </th> <th class="unsortable"> </th> <th class="unsortable">m. pl </th> <th class="unsortable">f. pl. </th> <th class="unsortable">n. pl. </th> <th>Br </th> <th>Am </th></tr> <tr> <td>Nominative </td> <td>hic</td> <td>haec</td> <td>hoc</td> <td></td> <td>hī</td> <td>hae</td> <td>haec</td> <td>1</td> <td>1 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Accusative </td> <td>hunc</td> <td>hanc</td> <td>hoc</td> <td></td> <td>hōs</td> <td>hās</td> <td>haec</td> <td>3</td> <td>4 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Genitive </td> <td>huius</td> <td>huius</td> <td>huius</td> <td></td> <td>hōrum</td> <td>hārum</td> <td>hōrum</td> <td>4</td> <td>2 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Dative </td> <td>huic</td> <td>huic</td> <td>huic</td> <td></td> <td>hīs</td> <td>hīs</td> <td>hīs</td> <td>5</td> <td>3 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Ablative </td> <td>hōc</td> <td>hāc</td> <td>hōc</td> <td></td> <td>hīs</td> <td>hīs</td> <td>hīs</td> <td>6</td> <td>6 </td></tr> </tbody></table> Before a vowel, hic and hoc are pronounced as if spelled hicc and hocc. Huius is pronounced as if spelled huiius with a long first syllable.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy196248,_42-32">[32]</a> <table class="wikitable sortable" style="width: 55em;"> <tbody><tr> <th class="unsortable">Case </th> <th class="unsortable">m. sg. </th> <th class="unsortable">f. sg. </th> <th class="unsortable">n. sg. </th> <th class="unsortable"> </th> <th class="unsortable">m. pl </th> <th class="unsortable">f. pl. </th> <th class="unsortable">n. pl. </th> <th>Br </th> <th>Am </th></tr> <tr> <td>Nominative </td> <td>is</td> <td>ea</td> <td>id</td> <td></td> <td>iī</td> <td>eae</td> <td>ea</td> <td>1</td> <td>1 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Accusative </td> <td>eum</td> <td>eam</td> <td>id</td> <td></td> <td>eōs</td> <td>eās</td> <td>ea</td> <td>3</td> <td>4 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Genitive </td> <td>eius</td> <td>eius</td> <td>eius</td> <td></td> <td>eōrum</td> <td>eārum</td> <td>eōrum</td> <td>4</td> <td>2 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Dative </td> <td>eī</td> <td>eī</td> <td>eī</td> <td></td> <td>eīs/iīs</td> <td>eīs/iīs</td> <td>eīs/iīs</td> <td>5</td> <td>3 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Ablative </td> <td>eō</td> <td>eā</td> <td>eō</td> <td></td> <td>eīs/iīs</td> <td>eīs/iīs</td> <td>eīs/iīs</td> <td>6</td> <td>6 </td></tr> </tbody></table> Also very common is the relative pronoun quī, quae, quod "who, which". The interrogative quis? quid? "who? what?" and indefinite quis, qua, quid "anyone, anything" are similar apart from the nominative singular:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy196251-33">[33]</a> <table class="wikitable sortable" style="width: 55em;"> <tbody><tr> <th class="unsortable">Case </th> <th class="unsortable">m. sg. </th> <th class="unsortable">f. sg. </th> <th class="unsortable">n. sg. </th> <th class="unsortable"> </th> <th class="unsortable">m. pl </th> <th class="unsortable">f. pl. </th> <th class="unsortable">n. pl. </th> <th>Br </th> <th>Am </th></tr> <tr> <td>Nominative </td> <td>quī</td> <td>quae</td> <td>quod</td> <td></td> <td>quī</td> <td>quae</td> <td>quae</td> <td>1</td> <td>1 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Accusative </td> <td>quem</td> <td>quam</td> <td>quod</td> <td></td> <td>quōs</td> <td>quās</td> <td>quae</td> <td>3</td> <td>4 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Genitive </td> <td>cuius</td> <td>cuius</td> <td>cuius</td> <td></td> <td>quōrum</td> <td>quārum</td> <td>quōrum</td> <td>4</td> <td>2 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Dative </td> <td>cui</td> <td>cui</td> <td>cui</td> <td></td> <td>quibus</td> <td>quibus</td> <td>quibus</td> <td>5</td> <td>3 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Ablative </td> <td>quō</td> <td>quā</td> <td>quō</td> <td></td> <td>quibus</td> <td>quibus</td> <td>quibus</td> <td>6</td> <td>6 </td></tr> </tbody></table> Like adjectives, pronouns must agree in gender, case, and number with the nouns they refer to, as in the following, where hic is masculine agreeing with amor, but haec is feminine, agreeing with patria: <dl><dd>hic amor, haec patria est = this is my love, this my country<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a></dd></dl> There is no <a href="/wiki/Indefinite_article" class="mw-redirect" title="Indefinite article">indefinite article</a> or <a href="/wiki/Definite_article" class="mw-redirect" title="Definite article">definite article</a> (the, a, an). Sometimes the weak <a href="/wiki/Determiner" title="Determiner">determiner</a> is, ea, id (English "that, this") can serve for the definite article: <dl><dd>Persuāsīt populō ut eā pecūniā classis aedificārētur<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a></dd> <dd>"He persuaded the people that a fleet should be built with the money (with that money)"</dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Adverbs">Adverbs</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Latin_grammar&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Adverbs">edit</a>]</div> Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives and other adverbs by indicating time, place or manner. Latin adverbs are indeclinable and invariable. Like adjectives, adverbs have positive, comparative and superlative forms. The positive form of an adverb can often be formed from an adjective by appending the suffix -ē (2nd declension adjectives) or -(t)er (3rd declension adjectives). Thus the adjective clārus, -a, -um, which means "bright", can be contrasted to the adverb clārē, which means "brightly". The adverbial ending -(i)ter is used to form adverbs from 3rd declension adjectives, for example celer "quick", celeriter "quickly". Other endings such as -ō, -e, -tim are also found. The comparative form of an adverb is the same as the neuter nominative singular form of a comparative adjective and usually ends in -ius. Instead of the adjective clārior, which means "brighter", the adverb is clārius, which means "more brightly". The superlative adverb has the same base as the superlative adjective and always ends in a long -ē. Instead of the adjective clārissimus, which mean "very bright" or "brightest", the adverb is clārissimē, which means "very brightly" or "most brightly". <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Some comparative and superlative adverbs<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy196244-36">[36]</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>POSITIVE </th> <th>COMPARATIVE </th> <th>SUPERLATIVE </th></tr> <tr> <td>dignē worthily </td> <td>dignius more worthily </td> <td>dignissimē very worthily, most worthily </td></tr> <tr> <td>fortiter bravely </td> <td>fortius more bravely </td> <td>fortissimē very bravely, most bravely </td></tr> <tr> <td>facile easily </td> <td>facilius more easily </td> <td>facillimē very easily, most easily </td></tr> <tr> <td>bene well </td> <td>melius better </td> <td>optimē very well, best </td></tr> <tr> <td>male badly </td> <td>peius worse </td> <td>pessimē very badly, worst </td></tr> <tr> <td>magnopere greatly </td> <td>magis more </td> <td>maximē very greatly, most, especially </td></tr> <tr> <td>paulum a little </td> <td>minus less </td> <td>minimē very little, least </td></tr> <tr> <td>multum much </td> <td>plūs more </td> <td>plūrimum very much, most </td></tr> <tr> <td>diū for a long time </td> <td>diūtius for a longer time, any longer </td> <td>diūtissimē for a very long time </td></tr> <tr> <td>saepe often </td> <td>saepius more often </td> <td>saepissimē very often, most often </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Prepositions">Prepositions</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Latin_grammar&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Prepositions">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Prepositions_2">Prepositions</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Latin_grammar&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Prepositions">edit</a>]</div> A prepositional phrase in Latin is made up of a <a href="/wiki/Preposition" class="mw-redirect" title="Preposition">preposition</a> followed by a noun phrase in the accusative or ablative case. The preposition determines the case that is used, with some prepositions allowing different cases depending on the meaning. For example, Latin in takes the accusative case when it indicates motion (English "into") and the ablative case when it indicates position (English "on" or "inside"): <dl><dd>in urbem = "into the city" (accusative)</dd> <dd>in urbe = "in the city" (ablative)</dd></dl> Most prepositions take one case only. For example, all those that mean "from", "by", or "with" take the ablative: <dl><dd>ex urbe = "out of the city"</dd> <dd>ab urbe = "(away) from the city"</dd> <dd>cum Caesare = "with Caesar"</dd></dl> Other prepositions take only the accusative: <dl><dd>extrā urbem = "outside the city"</dd> <dd>ad urbem = "to/near the city"</dd> <dd>per urbem = "through(out) the city"</dd> <dd>circum urbem = "around the city"</dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Postpositions">Postpositions</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Latin_grammar&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Postpositions">edit</a>]</div> In addition, there are a few postpositions. tenus "as far as" usually follows an ablative, sometimes a genitive plural case:<i_lang="la">tenus[[Category:Articles_containing_Latin-language_text]]_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELewisShort2020s.v._<span_title="Latin-language_text"><i_lang="la">tenus[[Category:Articles_containing_Latin-language_text]]-37">[37]</a> <dl><dd>Taurō tenus "as far as Taurus"</dd> <dd>Cūmārum tenus "as far as Cumae"</dd></dl> versus "towards" is usually combined with ad or in: <dl><dd>ad Alpēs versus "towards the Alps"</dd></dl> causā "for the sake of" follows a genitive: <dl><dd>honōris causā "for the sake of (doing) honour"</dd></dl> The word cum "with" is usually a preposition, but with the personal pronouns mē, tē, sē, nōbīs, vōbīs "me, you sg., him/herself/themselves, us, you pl." it follows the pronoun and is joined to it in writing: <dl><dd>cum eō "with him"</dd> <dd>mēcum "with me"</dd></dl> Both quōcum and cum quō "with whom" are found. <table class="wikitable sortable"> <caption>Prepositions and postpositions in Latin (extensive list) </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Preposition </th> <th>Grammar case </th> <th>Comments </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/a#Latin" class="extiw" title="wikt:a">ā</a>, <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/ab#Latin" class="extiw" title="wikt:ab">ab</a>, <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/abs#Latin" class="extiw" title="wikt:abs">abs</a> </td> <td>+ abl </td> <td>from; down from; at, in, on, (of time) after, since (source of action or event) by, of </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/absque#Latin" class="extiw" title="wikt:absque">absque</a> </td> <td>+ abl </td> <td>without (archaic, cf. sine and praeter) </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/ad#Latin" class="extiw" title="wikt:ad">ad</a> </td> <td>+ acc </td> <td>towards, to, at </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/adversus#Latin" class="extiw" title="wikt:adversus">adversus</a>, <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/adversum#Latin" class="extiw" title="wikt:adversum">adversum</a> </td> <td>+ acc </td> <td>towards, against (also an adverb) </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/ante#Latin" class="extiw" title="wikt:ante">ante</a> </td> <td>+ acc </td> <td>before (also an adverb) </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/apud#Latin" class="extiw" title="wikt:apud">apud</a> </td> <td>+acc </td> <td>at, by, near, among; <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/chez#English" class="extiw" title="wikt:chez">chez</a>; before, in the presence of, in the writings of, in view of </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/causa#Latin" class="extiw" title="wikt:causa">causā</a> </td> <td>+ gen </td> <td>for the sake of (normally after its noun; simply the abl. of causa) </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/circum#Latin" class="extiw" title="wikt:circum">circum</a> </td> <td>+ acc </td> <td>about, around, near; </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/circa#Latin" class="extiw" title="wikt:circa">circā</a> </td> <td>+ acc </td> <td>around, near, about; regarding, concerning </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/circiter#Latin" class="extiw" title="wikt:circiter">circiter</a> </td> <td>+ acc </td> <td>(of place and time) near, close, round about </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/cis#Latin" class="extiw" title="wikt:cis">cis</a> </td> <td>+ acc </td> <td>on, to this, the near side of, short of; before </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/citra#Latin" class="extiw" title="wikt:citra">citrā</a> </td> <td>+ acc </td> <td>on this side of (also an adverb) </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/clam#Latin" class="extiw" title="wikt:clam">clam</a> </td> <td>+ acc & + abl </td> <td>without the knowledge of, unknown to (also an adverb). Its use with the ablative is rare. Clanculum is a variant of this preposition. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/contra#Latin" class="extiw" title="wikt:contra">contrā</a> </td> <td>+ acc </td> <td>against, opposite to, contrary to, otherwise, in return to, back </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/coram#Latin" class="extiw" title="wikt:coram">cōram</a> </td> <td>+ abl </td> <td>in person, face to face; publicly, openly </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/cum#Latin" class="extiw" title="wikt:cum">cum</a> </td> <td>+ abl </td> <td>with </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/de#Latin" class="extiw" title="wikt:de">dē</a> </td> <td>+ abl </td> <td>from, concerning, about; down from, out of </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/erga#Latin" class="extiw" title="wikt:erga">ergā</a> </td> <td>+ acc </td> <td>against, opposite; towards, with regard to (sometimes placed after the noun or pronoun) </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/ex#Latin" class="extiw" title="wikt:ex">ex</a>, <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/e#Latin" class="extiw" title="wikt:e">ē</a> </td> <td>+ abl </td> <td>out of, from </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/extra#Latin" class="extiw" title="wikt:extra">extrā</a> </td> <td>+ acc </td> <td>outside of, beyond </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/fine#Latin" class="extiw" title="wikt:fine">fīne</a>, fīnī </td> <td>+ gen </td> <td>up to (ablative of fīnis). Can also be a postposition.<i_lang="la">finis[[Category:Articles_containing_Latin-language_text]]_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELewisShort2020s.v._<span_title="Latin-language_text"><i_lang="la">finis[[Category:Articles_containing_Latin-language_text]]-38">[38]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/gratia#Latin" class="extiw" title="wikt:gratia">grātiā</a> </td> <td>+ gen </td> <td>for the sake of. Usually placed after the noun.<i_lang="la">gratia[[Category:Articles_containing_Latin-language_text]]_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELewisShort2020s.v._<span_title="Latin-language_text"><i_lang="la">gratia[[Category:Articles_containing_Latin-language_text]]-39">[39]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/in#Latin" class="extiw" title="wikt:in">in</a> </td> <td>+ acc </td> <td>into, onto, to; about, respecting; according to; against </td></tr> <tr> <td>+ abl </td> <td>in, among, at, on (space); during, at (time) </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/infra#Latin" class="extiw" title="wikt:infra">īnfrā</a> </td> <td>+ acc </td> <td>below </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/inter#Latin" class="extiw" title="wikt:inter">inter</a> </td> <td>+ acc </td> <td>between, among; during, while </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/intra#Latin" class="extiw" title="wikt:intra">intrā</a> </td> <td>+ acc </td> <td>within, inside; during; in less than </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/iuxta#Latin" class="extiw" title="wikt:iuxta">iūxtā</a> </td> <td>+ acc </td> <td>nearly; near, close to, just as. Can also follow the noun.<i_lang="la">iuxta[[Category:Articles_containing_Latin-language_text]]_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELewisShort2020s.v._<span_title="Latin-language_text"><i_lang="la">iuxta[[Category:Articles_containing_Latin-language_text]]-40">[40]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/ob#Latin" class="extiw" title="wikt:ob">ob</a> </td> <td>+ acc </td> <td>in the direction of, to, towards; on account of, according to, because of, due to, for (the purpose of); against; facing </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/palam#Latin" class="extiw" title="wikt:palam">palam</a> </td> <td>+ abl </td> <td>without concealment, openly, publicly, undisguisedly, plainly, unambiguously </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/penes#Latin" class="extiw" title="wikt:penes">penes</a> </td> <td>+ acc </td> <td>Under one's government or command; In one's disposal or custody; At, with, about, concerning </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/per#Latin" class="extiw" title="wikt:per">per</a> </td> <td>+ acc </td> <td>through, by means of; during </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/pone#Latin" class="extiw" title="wikt:pone">pōne</a> </td> <td>+ acc </td> <td>behind; in the rear of </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/post#Latin" class="extiw" title="wikt:post">post</a> </td> <td>+ acc </td> <td>behind (of space); afterwards, after (of time) </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/prae#Latin" class="extiw" title="wikt:prae">prae</a> </td> <td>+ abl </td> <td>before, in front of, because of </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/praeter#Latin" class="extiw" title="wikt:praeter">praeter</a> </td> <td>+ acc </td> <td>besides, except; beyond; more than </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/pro#Latin" class="extiw" title="wikt:pro">prō</a> </td> <td>+ abl </td> <td>for, on behalf of; before; in front, instead of; about; according to; as, like; as befitting </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/procul#Latin" class="extiw" title="wikt:procul">procul</a> </td> <td>+ abl </td> <td>far, at a distance </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/prope#Latin" class="extiw" title="wikt:prope">prope</a> </td> <td>+ acc </td> <td>near, nearby, (figuratively) towards, about (in time) </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/propter#Latin" class="extiw" title="wikt:propter">propter</a> </td> <td>+ acc </td> <td>near, close to, hard by; because of, on account of, for; (rare) through, by means of </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/secundum#Latin" class="extiw" title="wikt:secundum">secundum</a> </td> <td>+ acc </td> <td>next, along, according to </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/simul#Latin" class="extiw" title="wikt:simul">simul</a> </td> <td>+ abl </td> <td>with </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/sine#Latin" class="extiw" title="wikt:sine">sine</a> </td> <td>+ abl </td> <td>without </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/sub#Latin" class="extiw" title="wikt:sub">sub</a> </td> <td>+ acc </td> <td>under, up to, up under, close to (of a motion); until, before, up to, about </td></tr> <tr> <td>+ abl </td> <td>(to) under, (to) beneath; near to, up to, towards; about, around (time) </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/subter#Latin" class="extiw" title="wikt:subter">subter</a> </td> <td>+ acc </td> <td>under, underneath; following (in order or rank); in the reign of </td></tr> <tr> <td>+ abl </td> <td>underneath, (figuratively) below inferior </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/super#Latin" class="extiw" title="wikt:super">super</a> </td> <td>+ acc </td> <td>above, over, beyond; during </td></tr> <tr> <td>+ abl </td> <td>concerning, regarding, about </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/supra#Latin" class="extiw" title="wikt:supra">suprā</a> </td> <td>+ acc </td> <td>above, over, more than, before </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/tenus#Latin" class="extiw" title="wikt:tenus">tenus</a> </td> <td>+ gen & + abl </td> <td>(with genitive and ablative) right up to, as far as, just as far as; (with ablative, of a process) up to (a given stage of); (with genitive and ablative, of limitation) to the maximum extent of, within. Used as a postposition.<i_lang="la">tenus[[Category:Articles_containing_Latin-language_text]]_37-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELewisShort2020s.v._<span_title="Latin-language_text"><i_lang="la">tenus[[Category:Articles_containing_Latin-language_text]]-37">[37]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/trans#Latin" class="extiw" title="wikt:trans">trāns</a> </td> <td>+ acc </td> <td>across, beyond </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/versus#Latin" class="extiw" title="wikt:versus">versus</a>, <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/versum#Latin" class="extiw" title="wikt:versum">versum</a> </td> <td>+ acc </td> <td>towards (postposition, usually combined with ad or in)<i_lang="la">verto[[Category:Articles_containing_Latin-language_text]]_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELewisShort2020s.v._<span_title="Latin-language_text"><i_lang="la">verto[[Category:Articles_containing_Latin-language_text]]-41">[41]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/ultra#Latin" class="extiw" title="wikt:ultra">ultrā</a> </td> <td>+ acc </td> <td>beyond </td></tr> </tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Numerals_and_numbers">Numerals and numbers</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Latin_grammar&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Numerals and numbers">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Latin_numerals" title="Latin numerals">Latin numerals</a></div> The first three numbers have masculine, feminine and neuter forms fully declined as follows:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy196245-42">[42]</a> <table class="wikitable sortable"> <tbody><tr> <th class="unsortable">Declension </th> <th class="unsortable">1 m </th> <th class="unsortable">f </th> <th class="unsortable">n </th> <th class="unsortable"> </th> <th class="unsortable">2 m </th> <th class="unsortable">f </th> <th class="unsortable">n </th> <th class="unsortable"> </th> <th class="unsortable">3 mf </th> <th class="unsortable">n </th> <th class="unsortable"> </th> <th>Br </th> <th>GL </th> <th>Wh </th></tr> <tr> <td>Nominative </td> <td>ūnus</td> <td>ūna</td> <td>ūnum</td> <td></td> <td>duo</td> <td>duae</td> <td>duo</td> <td></td> <td>trēs</td> <td>tria</td> <td></td> <td>1</td> <td>1</td> <td>1 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Vocative </td> <td>ūne</td> <td>ūna</td> <td>ūnum</td> <td></td> <td>duo</td> <td>duae</td> <td>duo</td> <td></td> <td>trēs</td> <td>tria</td> <td></td> <td>2</td> <td>5</td> <td>6 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Accusative </td> <td>ūnum</td> <td>ūnam</td> <td>ūnum</td> <td></td> <td>duōs/duo</td> <td>duās</td> <td>duo</td> <td></td> <td>trēs/trīs</td> <td>tria</td> <td></td> <td>3</td> <td>4</td> <td>4 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Genitive </td> <td>ūnīus/-ius</td> <td>ūnīus</td> <td>ūnīus</td> <td></td> <td>duōrum</td> <td>duārum</td> <td>duōrum</td> <td></td> <td>trium</td> <td>trium</td> <td></td> <td>4</td> <td>2</td> <td>2 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Dative </td> <td>ūnī</td> <td>ūnī</td> <td>ūnī</td> <td></td> <td>duōbus</td> <td>duābus</td> <td>duōbus</td> <td></td> <td>tribus</td> <td>tribus</td> <td></td> <td>5</td> <td>3</td> <td>3 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Ablative </td> <td>ūnō</td> <td>ūnā</td> <td>ūnō</td> <td></td> <td>duōbus</td> <td>duābus</td> <td>duōbus</td> <td></td> <td>tribus</td> <td>tribus</td> <td></td> <td>6</td> <td>6</td> <td>5 </td></tr> </tbody></table> ūnus (one) can also be used in the plural, with plural-only nouns, e.g. ūna castra "one camp", ūnae litterae "one letter". For larger numbers plural-only nouns use special numerals: bīna castra "two camps", trīna castra "three camps". (See <a href="/wiki/Latin_numerals" title="Latin numerals">Latin numerals</a>.) The numbers quattuor (four) through decem (ten) are not declined: <dl><dd>quattuor (4)</dd> <dd>quīnque (5)</dd> <dd>sex (6)</dd> <dd>septem (7)</dd> <dd>octō (8)</dd> <dd>novem (9)</dd> <dd>decem (10)</dd></dl> The "tens" numbers are also not declined: <dl><dd>vīgintī (20)</dd> <dd>trīgintā (30)</dd> <dd>quadrāgintā (40)</dd> <dd>quīnquāgintā (50)</dd> <dd>sexāgintā (60)</dd> <dd>septuāgintā (70)</dd> <dd>octōgintā (80)</dd> <dd>nōnāgintā (90)</dd></dl> The numbers 11 to 17 are formed by affixation of the corresponding digit to the base -decim, hence ūndecim, duodecim, tredecim, quattuordecim, quīndecim, sēdecim, septendecim. The numbers 18 and 19 are formed by subtracting 2 and 1, respectively, from 20: duodēvīgintī and ūndēvīgintī. For the numbers 21 to 27, the digits either follow or are added to 20 by the conjunction et: vīgintī ūnus or ūnus et vīgintī, vīgintī duo or duo et vīgintī etc. The numbers 28 and 29 are again formed by subtraction: duodētrīgintā and ūndētrīgintā. Each group of ten numerals through 100 follows the patterns of the 20s but 98 is nōnāgintā octō and 99 is nōnāgintā novem rather than *duodēcentum and *ūndēcentum respectively. Compounds ending in 1 2 and 3 are the only ones to decline: <dl><dd>I saw 20 blackbirds = vīgintī merulās vīdī</dd> <dd>I saw 22 blackbirds = vīgintī duās merulās vīdī (where duās changes to agree with merulās)</dd></dl> The "hundreds" numbers are the following: <dl><dd>centum (indeclinable)</dd> <dd>ducentī, -ae, -a (200)</dd> <dd>trecentī, -ae, -a (300)</dd> <dd>quadringentī, -ae, -a (400)</dd> <dd>quīngentī, -ae, -a (500)</dd> <dd>sēscentī, -ae, -a (600)</dd> <dd>septingentī, -ae, -a (700)</dd> <dd>octingentī, -ae, -a (800)</dd> <dd>nōngentī, -ae, -a (900)</dd></dl> However, 1000 is mille, an indeclinable adjective, but multiples such as duo mīlia (2000) have mīlia as a neuter plural substantive followed by a partitive genitive: <dl><dd>I saw a thousand lions = mīlle leōnēs vīdī</dd> <dd>I saw three thousand lions = tria mīlia leōnum vīdī</dd></dl> Ordinal numbers are all adjectives with regular first- and second-declension endings. Most are built off of the stems of cardinal numbers (for example, trīcēsimus, -a, -um (30th) from trīgintā (30), sēscentēsimus, -a, -um nōnus, -a, -um (609th) for sēscentī novem (609). However, "first" is prīmus, -a, -um, and "second" is secundus, -a, -um (literally "following" the first; sequi means "to follow"). <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Verbs">Verbs</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Latin_grammar&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Verbs">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Persons_of_the_verb">Persons of the verb</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Latin_grammar&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Persons of the verb">edit</a>]</div> Each tense has endings corresponding to three persons in the singular, known as 1st person singular ("I"), 2nd person singular ("you sg."), 3rd person singular ("he, she, it"), and three in the plural, known as 1st person plural ("we"), 2nd person plural ("you pl."), and 3rd person plural ("they"). Unlike Ancient Greek, there is no <a href="/wiki/Dual_(grammatical_number)" title="Dual (grammatical number)">dual</a> number in the Latin verb. <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>1st sg. 2nd sg. 3rd sg. </th> <td>I you sg. he, she, it </td> <td>amō amās amat </td> <td>I love you sg. love he, she, it loves </td></tr> <tr> <th>1st pl. 2nd pl. 3rd pl. </th> <td>we you pl. they </td> <td>amāmus amātis amant </td> <td>we love you pl. love they love </td></tr> </tbody></table> Unlike in Spanish, French, and other Romance languages, there are no respectful 2nd person forms in Latin grammar: the 2nd person singular is used even when addressing a person of high status. However, the 1st person plural is often used to mean "I".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllenGreenoughKittredgeHoward190363-29">[29]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Gender_2">Gender</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Latin_grammar&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Gender">edit</a>]</div> Most verbs do not show grammatical gender: the same ending is used whether the subject is "he", "she", or "it". However, when a verb is made periphrastically out of a participle and part of the verb sum "I am", the participle shows gender, for example: <ul><li>missus est "he was sent"</li> <li>missa est "she was sent"</li></ul> Impersonal verbs, such as nūntiātum est "it was reported", are neuter singular. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Voice">Voice</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Latin_grammar&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Voice">edit</a>]</div> Latin verbs have two voices, <a href="/wiki/Active_voice" title="Active voice">active</a> (e.g. dūcō "I lead") and <a href="/wiki/Passive_voice" title="Passive voice">passive</a> (e.g. dūcor "I am led"). <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Active </th> <td>(doing) </td> <td>dūcō </td> <td>I lead, I am leading </td></tr> <tr> <th>Passive </th> <td>(being done) </td> <td>dūcor </td> <td>I am led, I am being led </td></tr> </tbody></table> In addition there are a few verbs (e.g. sequor "I follow") which have the endings of passive verbs but with an active meaning, a relic of the older <a href="/wiki/Mediopassive" class="mw-redirect" title="Mediopassive">mediopassive</a> voice. These verbs are known as <a href="/wiki/Deponent_verb" title="Deponent verb">deponent</a> verbs.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy196259-43">[43]</a> <a href="/wiki/Intransitive_verb" title="Intransitive verb">Intransitive</a> verbs such as sum "I am" usually have no passive voice. However, some intransitive verbs can be used in the passive voice, but only when impersonal, e.g. pugnātum est "(a battle) was fought", ventum est "they came" (literally, "it was come"). <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mood">Mood</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Latin_grammar&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Mood">edit</a>]</div> Latin verbs have three <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_mood" title="Grammatical mood">moods</a>: indicative, subjunctive, and imperative:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy196258-44">[44]</a> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Indicative </th> <td>(actual) </td> <td>dūcit </td> <td>he leads, he is leading </td></tr> <tr> <th>Subjunctive </th> <td>(potential) </td> <td>dūcat </td> <td>he may/would/should lead </td></tr> <tr> <th>Imperative </th> <td>(command) </td> <td>dūc! </td> <td>lead! </td></tr> </tbody></table> Ordinary statements such as dūcō "I lead" or vēnit "he came" are said to be in the <a href="/wiki/Realis_mood" title="Realis mood">indicative</a> mood. The <a href="/wiki/Subjunctive_mood" title="Subjunctive mood">subjunctive</a> mood (e.g. dūcat "he may lead, he would lead" or dūxisset "he would have led") is used for potential or hypothetical statements, wishes, and also in <a href="/wiki/Latin_indirect_speech" title="Latin indirect speech">reported speech</a> and certain types of subordinate clause. The <a href="/wiki/Imperative_mood" title="Imperative mood">imperative</a> mood (e.g. dūc "lead!") is a command. In addition Latin verbs have a number of non-finite forms, such as the <a href="/wiki/Infinitive" title="Infinitive">infinitive</a> and various participles. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Regular_and_irregular_verbs">Regular and irregular verbs</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Latin_grammar&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Regular and irregular verbs">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Detailed information and conjugation tables can be found at <a href="/wiki/Latin_conjugation" title="Latin conjugation">Latin conjugation</a>.</div> Most Latin verbs are regular and follow one of the five patterns below.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy196264–84-45">[45]</a> These are referred to as the 1st, 2nd, 3rd, and 4th conjugation, according to whether the infinitive ends in -āre, -ēre, -ere or -īre.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy196260-46">[46]</a> (Verbs like capiō are regarded as variations of the 3rd conjugation, with some forms like those of the 4th conjugation.) Other verbs like sum "I am" are irregular and have their own pattern.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy196262,_85–88-47">[47]</a> <table class="wikitable" style="width: 55em;"> <tbody><tr> <th>REGULAR </th> <td></td> <td>I love</td> <td>I see</td> <td>I lead</td> <td>I capture</td> <td>I hear </td></tr> <tr> <th>Present tense active </th> <td>I you sg. he, she, it we you pl. they </td> <td>amō amās amat amāmus amātis amant </td> <td>videō vidēs videt vidēmus vidētis vident </td> <td>dūcō dūcis dūcit dūcimus dūcitis ducunt </td> <td>capiō capis capit capimus capitis capiunt </td> <td>audiō audīs audit audīmus audītis audiunt </td></tr> <tr> <th>Infinitive </th> <td>to </td> <td>amāre (1) </td> <td>vidēre (2) </td> <td>dūcere (3) </td> <td>capere (3) </td> <td>audīre (4) </td></tr> <tr> <th> </th></tr> <tr> <th> </th> <td></td> <td>I am loved</td> <td>I am seen</td> <td>I am led</td> <td>I am captured</td> <td>I am heard </td></tr> <tr> <th>Present tense passive </th> <td>I you sg. he, she, it we you pl. they </td> <td>amor amāris amātur amāmur amāminī amantur </td> <td>videor vidēris vidētur vidēmur vidēminī videntur </td> <td>dūcor dūceris dūcitur dūcimur dūciminī ducuntur </td> <td>capior caperis capitur capimur capiminī capiuntur </td> <td>audior audīris audītur audīmur audīminī audiuntur </td></tr> <tr> <th>Infinitive </th> <td>to </td> <td>amārī (1) </td> <td>vidērī (2) </td> <td>dūcī (3) </td> <td>capī (3) </td> <td>audīrī (4) </td></tr> <tr> <th> </th></tr> <tr> <th>IRREGULAR </th> <td></td> <td>I am</td> <td>I am able</td> <td>I bring</td> <td>I want</td> <td>I go </td></tr> <tr> <th>Present tense </th> <td>I you sg. he, she, it we you pl. they </td> <td>sum es est sumus estis sunt </td> <td>possum potes potest possumus potestis possunt </td> <td>ferō fers fert ferimus fertis ferunt </td> <td>volō vīs vult volumus vultis volunt </td> <td>eō īs it īmus ītis eunt </td></tr> <tr> <th>Infinitive </th> <td>to </td> <td>esse </td> <td>posse </td> <td>ferre </td> <td>velle </td> <td>īre </td></tr> </tbody></table> Compound verbs such as adsum "I am present", nōlō "I don't want", redeō "I go back", etc., usually have the same endings as the simple verbs from which they are made. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tenses">Tenses</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Latin_grammar&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Tenses">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Latin_tenses" title="Latin tenses">Latin tenses</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="A_3rd_conjugation_example">A 3rd conjugation example</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Latin_grammar&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: A 3rd conjugation example">edit</a>]</div> Latin verbs have six basic <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_tense" title="Grammatical tense">tenses</a> in the indicative mood. Three of these are based on the present stem (e.g. dūc-) and three on the perfect stem (e.g. dūx-). In addition, there are four tenses in the subjunctive mood, and two in the imperative. Further tenses can be made periphrastically by combining participles with the verbs sum "I am" or habeō "I have", for example ductūrus eram "I was going to lead" or ductum habeō "I have led". The following table gives the various forms of a 3rd conjugation verb dūcō. As with other verbs, three different stems are needed to make the various tenses: dūc- in the three non-perfect tenses, dūx- in the three perfect tenses, and duct- in the perfect participle and supine. The perfect and supine stems for any particular verb cannot always be predicted and usually have to be looked up in a dictionary. <table class="wikitable" style="width: 55em;"> <tbody><tr> <th>INDICATIVE </th> <th>Active </th> <th> </th> <th>Passive </th> <th> </th></tr> <tr> <th>Present </th> <td>dūcō dūcis dūcit dūcimus dūcitis dūcunt </td> <td>I lead, I am leading you lead he/she/it leads we lead you pl. lead they lead </td> <td>dūcor dūceris dūcitur dūcimur dūciminī dūcuntur </td> <td>I am led, I am being led you are led he/she/it is led we are led you pl. are led they are led </td></tr> <tr> <th>Future </th> <td>dūcam dūcēs dūcet dūcēmus dūcētis dūcent </td> <td>I will lead, I will be leading you will lead he/she/it will lead we will lead you pl. will lead they will lead </td> <td>dūcar dūcēris/-e dūcētur dūcēmur dūcēminī dūcentur </td> <td>I will be led, I will be being led you will be led he/she/it will be led we will be led you pl. will be led they will be led </td></tr> <tr> <th>Imperfect </th> <td>dūcēbam dūcēbās dūcēbat dūcēbāmus dūcēbātis dūcēbant </td> <td>I was leading, used to lead you were leading he/she/it was leading we were leading you pl. were leading they were leading </td> <td>dūcēbar dūcēbāris/-re dūcēbātur dūcēbāmur dūcēbāminī dūcēbantur </td> <td>I was being led, I used to be led you were being led he/she/it was being led we were being led you pl. were being led they were being led </td></tr> <tr> <th>Perfect </th> <td>dūxī dūxistī dūxit dūximus dūxistis dūxērunt/-ēre </td> <td>I led, I have led you led he/she/it led we led you pl. led they led </td> <td>ductus sum ductus es ductus est ductī sumus ductī estis ductī sunt </td> <td>I was led, I have been led you were led he was led we were led you pl. were led they were led </td></tr> <tr> <th>Future Perfect </th> <td>dūxerō dūxerīs/-is dūxerit dūxerīmus dūxerītis dūxerint </td> <td>I will have led you will have led he/she/it will have led we will have led you pl. will have led they will have led </td> <td>ductus erō ductus eris ductus erit ductī erimus ductī eritis ductī erunt </td> <td>I will have been led you will have been led he will have been led we will have been led you pl. will have been led they will have been led </td></tr> <tr> <th>Pluperfect </th> <td>dūxeram dūxerās dūxerat dūxerāmus dūxerātis dūxerant </td> <td>I had led you had led he/she/it had led we had led you pl. had led they had led </td> <td>ductus eram ductus erās ductus erat ductī erāmus ductī erātis ductī erant </td> <td>I had been led you had been led he had been led we had been led you pl. had been led they had been led </td></tr> <tr> <th>SUBJUNCTIVE </th></tr> <tr> <th>Present </th> <td>dūcam dūcās dūcat dūcāmus dūcātis dūcant </td> <td>I may lead, I would lead you would lead he/she/it would lead we would lead you pl. would lead they would lead </td> <td>dūcar dūcāris dūcātur dūcāmur dūcāminī dūcantur </td> <td>I may be led, I would be led you would be led he/she/it would be led we would be led you pl. would be led they would be led </td></tr> <tr> <th>Imperfect </th> <td>dūcerem dūcerēs dūceret dūcerēmus dūcerētis dūcerent </td> <td>I might lead, should lead you might lead he/she/it might lead we might lead you pl. might lead they might lead </td> <td>dūcerer dūcerēris dūcerētur dūcerēmur dūcerēminī dūcerentur </td> <td>I might be led you might be led he/she/it might be led we might be led you pl. might be led they might be led </td></tr> <tr> <th>Perfect </th> <td>dūxerim dūxerīs dūxerit dūxerīmus dūxerītis dūxerint </td> <td>I would have led, I led you would have led he/she/it would have led we would have led you pl. would lead they would have led </td> <td>ductus sim ductus sīs ductus sit ductī sīmus ductī sītis ductī sint </td> <td>I would have been led, I was led you were led he was led we were led you pl. were led they were led </td></tr> <tr> <th>Pluperfect </th> <td>dūxissem dūxissēs dūxisset dūxissēmus dūxissētis dūxissent </td> <td>I would have led, I had led you would have led he/she/it would have led we would have led you pl. would have led they would have led </td> <td>ductus essem ductus essēs ductus esset ductī essēmus ductī essētis ductī essent </td> <td>I would have been led you would have been led he would have been led we would have been led you pl. would have been led they would have been led </td></tr> <tr> <th>IMPERATIVE </th></tr> <tr> <th>Present </th> <td>dūc! dūcite! </td> <td>lead! (sg.) lead! (pl.) </td> <td>(dūcere!) (dūciminī!) </td> <td>be led! be led! (pl.) </td></tr> <tr> <th>Future </th> <td>dūcitō! dūcitōte! </td> <td>lead! (sg.) lead! (pl.) </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th>3rd person </th> <td>dūcitō dūcuntō </td> <td>he must lead they must lead </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th>INFINITIVES </th></tr> <tr> <th>Present </th> <td>dūcere </td> <td>to lead </td> <td>dūcī </td> <td>to be led </td></tr> <tr> <th>Future </th> <td>ductūrus esse </td> <td>to be going to lead </td> <td>ductum īrī </td> <td>to be going to be led </td></tr> <tr> <th>Perfect </th> <td>dūxisse </td> <td>to have led </td> <td>ductus esse </td> <td>to have been led </td></tr> <tr> <th>Periphrastic perfect </th> <td>ductūrus fuisse </td> <td>to have been going to lead </td></tr> <tr> <th>PARTICIPLES </th></tr> <tr> <th>Present </th> <td>dūcēns dūcentēs </td> <td>(while) leading (sg.) (while) leading (pl.) </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th>Future </th> <td>ductūrus/a/um </td> <td>going to lead </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th>Perfect </th> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>ductus/a/um </td> <td>having been led </td></tr> <tr> <th>GERUNDIVE </th> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>dūcendus/a/um </td> <td>(needing) to be led </td></tr> <tr> <th>GERUND </th> <td>ad dūcendum dūcendī dūcendō </td> <td>with a view to leading of leading by leading </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th>SUPINE </th> <td>ductum (it) (facile) ductū </td> <td>(he goes) in order to lead (easy) to lead </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> </tbody></table> A distinction between perfective <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_aspect" title="Grammatical aspect">aspect</a> (I did) and imperfective aspect (I was doing) is found only in the past in Latin. In the present or future, the same tenses have both aspectual meanings. Unlike in Ancient Greek or modern English, there is no distinction between perfect (I have done) and simple past (I did). The same tense, known in Latin grammar as the perfect tense, has both meanings. The passive imperative is almost never used except in deponent verbs, e.g. sequere mē! "follow me!" <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Variations">Variations</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Latin_grammar&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Variations">edit</a>]</div> The different conjugations differ in some tenses. For example, in the future tense: <ul><li>1st and 2nd conjugation verbs and eō have the endings -bō, -bis, -bit, -bimus, -bitis, -bunt (e.g. amābō "I will love", vidēbō "I will see", ībō "I will go").</li> <li>3rd and 4th conjugation verbs and volō and ferō have the endings -am, -ēs, -et, -ēmus, -ētis, -ent (dūcam "I will lead", audiam "I will hear").</li> <li>Sum and possum have the endings erō, eris, erit, erimus, eritis, erunt (erō "I will be", poterō "I will be able")</li></ul> In the imperfect indicative: <ul><li>Most verbs have the endings -bam, -bās, -bat, -bāmus, -bātis, -bant (e.g. amābam, vidēbam, dūcēbam, capiēbam, ferēbam, volēbam)</li> <li>Sum and possum have eram, erās, erat, erāmus, erātis, erant (e.g. poteram "I was able")</li></ul> They also differ in the present subjunctive: <ul><li>1st conjugation verbs have the endings -em, -ēs, -et, -ēmus, -ētis, -ent (e.g. amem "I may love")</li> <li>2nd, 3rd, 4th conjugations have -am, -ās, -at, -āmus, -ātis, -ant (videam "I may see", dūcam "I may lead", audiam "I may hear", eam "I may go")</li> <li>Sum, possum, volō have -im, -īs, -it, -īmus, -ītis, -int (sim "I may be", possim "I may be able", velim "I may wish")</li></ul> The imperfect subjunctive of every verb looks like the infinitive + an ending: <ul><li>Regular: amārem, vidērem, dūcerem, caperem, audīrem</li> <li>Irregular: essem, possem, ferrem, vellem, īrem</li></ul> In the various perfect tenses, all verbs have regular endings. However, the stem to which the perfect endings are added cannot always be guessed, and so is given in dictionaries. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Word_order">Word order</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Latin_grammar&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Word order">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Latin_word_order" title="Latin word order">Latin word order</a></div> Latin allows a very flexible word order because of its inflectional syntax. Ordinary prose tended to follow the pattern of subject, direct object, indirect object, adverbial words or phrases, verb (with the proviso that when noun and verb make a compound, as impetum facio "I attack / make an attack" the noun is generally placed close to the verb).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDevineStephens200679-48">[48]</a> Any extra but subordinate verb, such as an infinitive, is placed before the main verb. Adjectives and participles usually directly follow nouns unless they are adjectives of beauty, size, quantity, goodness, or truth, in which case they usually precede the noun being modified. However, departures from these rules are frequent. Relative clauses are commonly placed after the antecedent that the relative pronoun describes. Since grammatical function in a sentence is based not on word order but on inflection, the usual word order in Latin was often abandoned with no detriment to understanding but with various changes in emphasis. While these patterns of word order were the most frequent in Classical Latin prose, they were frequently varied. The strongest surviving evidence suggests that the word order of colloquial Latin was mostly <a href="/wiki/Subject-Object-Verb" class="mw-redirect" title="Subject-Object-Verb">Subject-Object-Verb</a>. That can be found in some very <a href="/wiki/Conservative_(language)" class="mw-redirect" title="Conservative (language)">conservative</a> Romance languages, such as <a href="/wiki/Sardinian_language" title="Sardinian language">Sardinian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sicilian_language" title="Sicilian language">Sicilian</a> in which the verb is still often placed at the end of the sentence (see <a href="/wiki/Vulgar_Latin" title="Vulgar Latin">Vulgar Latin</a>). On the other hand, <a href="/wiki/Subject-verb-object" class="mw-redirect" title="Subject-verb-object">subject-verb-object</a> word order was probably also common in ancient Latin conversation, as it is prominent in the <a href="/wiki/Romance_languages" title="Romance languages">Romance languages</a>, which evolved from Latin.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDevineStephens20063–5-49">[49]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Poetry" title="Poetry">poetry</a>, however, word order was often changed for the sake of the meter for which vowel quantity (short vowels vs. long vowels and diphthongs) and consonant clusters, not rhyme and word stress, governed the patterns. One must bear in mind that poets in the Roman world wrote primarily for the ear, not the eye; many premiered their work in recitation for an audience. Hence, variations in word order served a rhetorical as well as a metrical purpose; they certainly did not prevent understanding. In <a href="/wiki/Virgil" title="Virgil">Virgil</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Eclogues" title="Eclogues">Eclogues</a>, for example, he writes, Omnia vincit amor, et nōs cēdāmus amōrī!: "Love conquers all, let us too yield to love!". The words omnia (all), amor (love) and amōrī (to love) are thrown into relief by their unusual position in their respective phrases. The ending of the common Roman name Mārcus is different in each of the following pairs of examples because of its grammatical usage in each pair. The ordering in the second sentence of each pair would be correct in Latin and clearly understood, whereas in English it is awkward, at best, and meaningless, at worst: <dl><dd>Mārcus ferit Cornēliam: Marcus hits Cornelia. (subject–verb–object)</dd> <dd>Mārcus Cornēliam ferit: Marcus Cornelia hits. (subject–object–verb)</dd> <dd>Cornēlia dedit Mārcō dōnum: Cornelia gave Marcus a gift. (subject–verb–indirect object–direct object)</dd> <dd>Cornēlia Mārcō dōnum dedit: Cornelia (to) Marcus a gift gave. (subject–indirect object–direct object–verb)</dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Latin_grammar&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Declension_of_Greek_nouns_in_Latin" title="Declension of Greek nouns in Latin">Declension of Greek nouns in Latin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_syntax" title="Latin syntax">Latin syntax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_mnemonics" title="Latin mnemonics">Latin mnemonics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_word_order" title="Latin word order">Latin word order</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_numerals" title="Latin numerals">Latin numerals</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Latin_grammar&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Bibliography">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFAllenGreenoughKittredgeHoward1903" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Henry_Allen" title="Joseph Henry Allen">Allen, Joseph Henry</a>; <a href="/wiki/James_Bradstreet_Greenough" class="mw-redirect" title="James Bradstreet Greenough">Greenough, James Bradstreet</a>; <a href="/wiki/George_Lyman_Kittredge" title="George Lyman Kittredge">Kittredge, George Lyman</a>; Howard, Albert Andrew; D'Ooge, Benjamin Leonard (1903). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/allengreenoughsn00alleiala">Allen and Greenough's New Latin Grammar for Schools and Colleges</a>. Boston and London: Ginn & Company.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Allen+and+Greenough%27s+New+Latin+Grammar+for+Schools+and+Colleges&rft.place=Boston+and+London&rft.pub=Ginn+%26+Company&rft.date=1903&rft.aulast=Allen&rft.aufirst=Joseph+Henry&rft.au=Greenough%2C+James+Bradstreet&rft.au=Kittredge%2C+George+Lyman&rft.au=Howard%2C+Albert+Andrew&rft.au=D%27Ooge%2C+Benjamin+Leonard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fallengreenoughsn00alleiala&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALatin+grammar" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFÁlvares1860" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Manuel_%C3%81lvares" title="Manuel Álvares">Álvares, Manuel</a> (1860). Oliverius, Leonardus (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://classicalliberalarts.com/resources/ALVAREZ_ROMAN_METHOD.pdf">Institutio Grammatica (Roman Method)</a> (PDF). Rome. Retrieved August 21, 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Institutio+Grammatica+%28Roman+Method%29&rft.place=Rome&rft.date=1860&rft.aulast=%C3%81lvares&rft.aufirst=Manuel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fclassicalliberalarts.com%2Fresources%2FALVAREZ_ROMAN_METHOD.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALatin+grammar" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</li></ul> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBennett1895" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Charles_E._Bennett_(scholar)" title="Charles E. Bennett (scholar)">Bennett, Charles Edwin</a> (1895). Latin Grammar. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Latin+Grammar&rft.place=Boston&rft.pub=Allyn+and+Bacon&rft.date=1895&rft.aulast=Bennett&rft.aufirst=Charles+Edwin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALatin+grammar" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDevineStephens2006" class="citation book cs1">Devine, Andrew M.; Stephens, Laurence D. (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/latinwordorderst00devi">Latin Word Order: Structured Meaning and Information</a>. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780195181685" title="Special:BookSources/9780195181685"><bdi>9780195181685</bdi></a>. Retrieved August 21, 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Latin+Word+Order%3A+Structured+Meaning+and+Information&rft.place=Oxford%2C+New+York&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=9780195181685&rft.aulast=Devine&rft.aufirst=Andrew+M.&rft.au=Stephens%2C+Laurence+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Flatinwordorderst00devi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALatin+grammar" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGildersleeveLodge1903" class="citation book cs1">Gildersleeve, Basil Lanneau; Lodge, Gonzalez (1903) [1895]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/gildersleeveslat00gilduoft#page/n5/mode/2up">Gildersleeve's Latin Grammar</a> (3d ed., rev. and enl. ed.). London: Macmillan & Co. Retrieved August 21, 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Gildersleeve%27s+Latin+Grammar&rft.place=London&rft.edition=3d+ed.%2C+rev.+and+enl.&rft.pub=Macmillan+%26+Co.&rft.date=1903&rft.aulast=Gildersleeve&rft.aufirst=Basil+Lanneau&rft.au=Lodge%2C+Gonzalez&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2Fgildersleeveslat00gilduoft%23page%2Fn5%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALatin+grammar" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKennedy1962" class="citation book cs1">Kennedy, Benjamin Hall (1962) [1871]. Kennedy's Revised Latin Primer. London: Addison-Wesley Longman Ltd. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780582362406" title="Special:BookSources/9780582362406"><bdi>9780582362406</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Kennedy%27s+Revised+Latin+Primer&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Addison-Wesley+Longman+Ltd&rft.date=1962&rft.isbn=9780582362406&rft.aulast=Kennedy&rft.aufirst=Benjamin+Hall&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALatin+grammar" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKühnerStegmann1912" class="citation book cs1">Kühner, Raphael; Stegmann, Carl (1912) [1879]. Ausführliche Grammatik der lateinischen Sprache. Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-534-27384-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-534-27384-3"><bdi>978-3-534-27384-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ausf%C3%BChrliche+Grammatik+der+lateinischen+Sprache&rft.place=Darmstadt&rft.pub=Wissenschaftliche+Buchgesellschaft&rft.date=1912&rft.isbn=978-3-534-27384-3&rft.aulast=K%C3%BChner&rft.aufirst=Raphael&rft.au=Stegmann%2C+Carl&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALatin+grammar" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeumannHofmannSzantyr1977" class="citation book cs1">Leumann, Manu; Hofmann, J.B.; Szantyr, Anton (1977) [1926]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://caio.ueberalles.net/lateinische-grammatik-von-leumann-hofmann-szantyr.pdf">Lateinische Grammatik</a> (PDF). München: C.H. Beck. Retrieved August 21, 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lateinische+Grammatik&rft.place=M%C3%BCnchen&rft.pub=C.H.+Beck&rft.date=1977&rft.aulast=Leumann&rft.aufirst=Manu&rft.au=Hofmann%2C+J.B.&rft.au=Szantyr%2C+Anton&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcaio.ueberalles.net%2Flateinische-grammatik-von-leumann-hofmann-szantyr.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALatin+grammar" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLewisShort2020" class="citation book cs1">Lewis, Charlton T; Short, Charles (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0059">A Latin Dictionary</a>. Nigel Gourlay. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781999855789" title="Special:BookSources/9781999855789"><bdi>9781999855789</bdi></a>. Retrieved August 21, 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Latin+Dictionary&rft.pub=Nigel+Gourlay&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=9781999855789&rft.aulast=Lewis&rft.aufirst=Charlton+T&rft.au=Short%2C+Charles&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.perseus.tufts.edu%2Fhopper%2Ftext%3Fdoc%3DPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0059&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALatin+grammar" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Latin_grammar&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy196213-1"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy196213_1-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKennedy1962">Kennedy 1962</a>, p. 13. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy196222-2"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy196222_2-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKennedy1962">Kennedy 1962</a>, p. 22. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy196217–19-3"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy196217–19_3-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKennedy1962">Kennedy 1962</a>, pp. 17–19. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy196217-4"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy196217_4-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKennedy1962">Kennedy 1962</a>, p. 17. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllenGreenoughKittredgeHoward1903§49-5"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAllenGreenoughKittredgeHoward1903§49_5-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAllenGreenoughKittredgeHoward1903">Allen et al. 1903</a>, §49. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy196219-6"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy196219_6-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKennedy1962">Kennedy 1962</a>, p. 19. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy196222-26-7"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy196222-26_7-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKennedy1962">Kennedy 1962</a>, p. 22-26. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy196230-31-8"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy196230-31_8-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKennedy1962">Kennedy 1962</a>, p. 30-31. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllenGreenoughKittredgeHoward1903§91-9"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAllenGreenoughKittredgeHoward1903§91_9-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAllenGreenoughKittredgeHoward1903">Allen et al. 1903</a>, §91. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy196234-36-10"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy196234-36_10-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKennedy1962">Kennedy 1962</a>, p. 34-36. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy1962119-11"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy1962119_11-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKennedy1962">Kennedy 1962</a>, p. 119. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy1962119–122-12"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy1962119–122_12-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKennedy1962">Kennedy 1962</a>, pp. 119–122. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGildersleeveLodge1903240–242-13"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGildersleeveLodge1903240–242_13-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGildersleeveLodge1903">Gildersleeve & Lodge 1903</a>, pp. 240–242. </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a> Cicero, Planc. 101. </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a> Pliny the Younger, Ep. 6.11.1. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGildersleeveLodge1903232–233-16"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGildersleeveLodge1903232–233_16-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGildersleeveLodge1903">Gildersleeve & Lodge 1903</a>, pp. 232–233. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGildersleeveLodge1903235–237-17"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGildersleeveLodge1903235–237_17-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGildersleeveLodge1903">Gildersleeve & Lodge 1903</a>, pp. 235–237. </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a> Curtius, 3.12.16. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy1962123-127-19"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy1962123-127_19-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKennedy1962">Kennedy 1962</a>, p. 123-127. </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a> Plautus, Pseudolus 634. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy1962128-132-21"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy1962128-132_21-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKennedy1962">Kennedy 1962</a>, p. 128-132. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy1962130-22"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy1962130_22-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKennedy1962">Kennedy 1962</a>, p. 130. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy1962128-23"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy1962128_23-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKennedy1962">Kennedy 1962</a>, p. 128. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy1962132-24"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy1962132_24-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKennedy1962">Kennedy 1962</a>, p. 132. </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a> Livy, 2.33.4. </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a> Cicero, Tusc. Disp. 5.113. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGildersleeveLodge190342-27"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGildersleeveLodge190342_27-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGildersleeveLodge1903">Gildersleeve & Lodge 1903</a>, p. 42. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllenGreenoughKittredgeHoward190364-28">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAllenGreenoughKittredgeHoward190364_28-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAllenGreenoughKittredgeHoward190364_28-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFAllenGreenoughKittredgeHoward1903">Allen et al. 1903</a>, p. 64. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllenGreenoughKittredgeHoward190363-29">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAllenGreenoughKittredgeHoward190363_29-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAllenGreenoughKittredgeHoward190363_29-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFAllenGreenoughKittredgeHoward1903">Allen et al. 1903</a>, p. 63. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy196248-30"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy196248_30-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKennedy1962">Kennedy 1962</a>, p. 48. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy196249-31"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy196249_31-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKennedy1962">Kennedy 1962</a>, p. 49. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy196248,_42-32"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy196248,_42_32-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKennedy1962">Kennedy 1962</a>, pp. 48, 42. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy196251-33"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy196251_33-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKennedy1962">Kennedy 1962</a>, p. 51. </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a> Virgil, Aeneid, 4.345. </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a> Nepos, Themistocles 2.2. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy196244-36"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy196244_36-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKennedy1962">Kennedy 1962</a>, p. 44. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELewisShort2020s.v._<span_title="Latin-language_text"><i_lang="la">tenus[[Category:Articles_containing_Latin-language_text]]-37">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELewisShort2020s.v._<span_title="Latin-language_text"><i_lang="la">tenus[[Category:Articles_containing_Latin-language_text]]_37-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELewisShort2020s.v._<span_title="Latin-language_text"><i_lang="la">tenus[[Category:Articles_containing_Latin-language_text]]_37-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewisShort2020">Lewis & Short 2020</a>, s.v. tenus. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELewisShort2020s.v._<span_title="Latin-language_text"><i_lang="la">finis[[Category:Articles_containing_Latin-language_text]]-38"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELewisShort2020s.v._<span_title="Latin-language_text"><i_lang="la">finis[[Category:Articles_containing_Latin-language_text]]_38-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewisShort2020">Lewis & Short 2020</a>, s.v. finis. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELewisShort2020s.v._<span_title="Latin-language_text"><i_lang="la">gratia[[Category:Articles_containing_Latin-language_text]]-39"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELewisShort2020s.v._<span_title="Latin-language_text"><i_lang="la">gratia[[Category:Articles_containing_Latin-language_text]]_39-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewisShort2020">Lewis & Short 2020</a>, s.v. gratia. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELewisShort2020s.v._<span_title="Latin-language_text"><i_lang="la">iuxta[[Category:Articles_containing_Latin-language_text]]-40"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELewisShort2020s.v._<span_title="Latin-language_text"><i_lang="la">iuxta[[Category:Articles_containing_Latin-language_text]]_40-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewisShort2020">Lewis & Short 2020</a>, s.v. iuxta. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELewisShort2020s.v._<span_title="Latin-language_text"><i_lang="la">verto[[Category:Articles_containing_Latin-language_text]]-41"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELewisShort2020s.v._<span_title="Latin-language_text"><i_lang="la">verto[[Category:Articles_containing_Latin-language_text]]_41-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewisShort2020">Lewis & Short 2020</a>, s.v. verto. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy196245-42"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy196245_42-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKennedy1962">Kennedy 1962</a>, p. 45. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy196259-43"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy196259_43-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKennedy1962">Kennedy 1962</a>, p. 59. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy196258-44"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy196258_44-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKennedy1962">Kennedy 1962</a>, p. 58. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy196264–84-45"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy196264–84_45-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKennedy1962">Kennedy 1962</a>, pp. 64–84. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy196260-46"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy196260_46-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKennedy1962">Kennedy 1962</a>, p. 60. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy196262,_85–88-47"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy196262,_85–88_47-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKennedy1962">Kennedy 1962</a>, pp. 62, 85–88. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDevineStephens200679-48"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDevineStephens200679_48-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDevineStephens2006">Devine & Stephens 2006</a>, p. 79. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDevineStephens20063–5-49"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDevineStephens20063–5_49-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDevineStephens2006">Devine & Stephens 2006</a>, pp. 3–5  "Word order is what gets the reader of Latin from disjoint sentences to coherent and incrementally interpretable text." </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Latin_grammar&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/15665/15665-h/15665-h.htm">New Latin Grammar</a> by Charles E. Bennett (free ebook) (1895, 3rd edition 1918)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cdn.textkit.net/AG_New_Latin_Grammar_AR5.pdf">Allen and Greenough's New Latin Grammar for Schools and Colleges</a> (1903) (public domain book)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.textkit.com/">"Textkit.com"</a> Website containing links to useful resources for learners of Latin.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hhhh.org/perseant/libellus/aides/allgre/allgre.419.html">Ablative Absolute</a> from Allen and Greenough's New Latin Grammar</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060507071750/http://orbilat.com/Languages/Latin/Alternative_Grammars/Harris_Grammar/Latin-Harris_17.html">Ablative Absolute</a> by William Harris</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GJgAAAAAYAAJ">A Practical Grammar of the Latin Language; with Perpetual Exercises in Speaking and Writing: For the Use of Schools, Colleges, and Private Learners</a>, by George J. Adler</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20121204163129/http://kaali.linguist.jussieu.fr/CGL/index.jsp">Corpus Grammaticorum Latinorum: complete texts and full bibliography</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output 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style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Germanic_languages" title="Germanic languages">Germanic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afrikaans_grammar" title="Afrikaans grammar">Afrikaans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danish_grammar" title="Danish grammar">Danish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_grammar" title="Dutch grammar">Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_grammar" title="English grammar">English</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_English_grammar" title="Old English grammar">Old</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faroese_grammar" title="Faroese grammar">Faroese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_grammar" title="German grammar">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Icelandic_grammar" title="Icelandic grammar">Icelandic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norwegian_language#Grammar" title="Norwegian language">Norwegian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Norse_morphology" title="Old Norse morphology">Old Norse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colognian_grammar" title="Colognian grammar">Ripuarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_grammar" title="Swedish grammar">Swedish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Frisian_grammar" title="West Frisian grammar">West Frisian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yiddish_grammar" title="Yiddish grammar">Yiddish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Celtic_languages" title="Celtic languages">Celtic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Breton_grammar" title="Breton grammar">Breton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornish_grammar" title="Cornish grammar">Cornish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_grammar" title="Irish grammar">Irish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Irish_grammar" title="Old Irish grammar">Old</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manx_grammar" title="Manx grammar">Manx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_Gaelic_grammar" title="Scottish Gaelic grammar">Scottish Gaelic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_grammar" title="Welsh grammar">Welsh</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Colloquial_Welsh_morphology" title="Colloquial Welsh morphology">colloquial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literary_Welsh_morphology" title="Literary Welsh morphology">literary</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Italic_languages" title="Italic languages">Italic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catalan_grammar" title="Catalan grammar">Catalan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dalmatian_grammar" title="Dalmatian grammar">Dalmatian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_grammar" title="French grammar">French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Istro-Romanian_grammar" title="Istro-Romanian grammar">Istro-Romanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_grammar" title="Italian grammar">Italian</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Latin</a></li> <li>Lombard <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Lombard_grammar" title="Eastern Lombard grammar">Eastern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Lombard_grammar" title="Western Lombard grammar">Western</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_grammar" title="Portuguese grammar">Portuguese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanian_grammar" title="Romanian grammar">Romanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_grammar" title="Spanish grammar">Spanish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venetian_grammar" title="Venetian grammar">Venetian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Baltic_languages" title="Baltic languages">Baltic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Latvian_grammar" title="Latvian grammar">Latvian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_grammar" title="Lithuanian grammar">Lithuanian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Slavic_languages" title="Slavic languages">Slavic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Belarusian_grammar" title="Belarusian grammar">Belarusian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulgarian_grammar" title="Bulgarian grammar">Bulgarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Czech_language#Grammar" title="Czech language">Czech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macedonian_grammar" title="Macedonian grammar">Macedonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Church_Slavonic_grammar" title="Old Church Slavonic grammar">Old Church Slavonic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_grammar" title="Polish grammar">Polish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_grammar" title="Russian grammar">Russian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silesian_grammar" title="Silesian grammar">Silesian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serbo-Croatian_grammar" title="Serbo-Croatian grammar">Serbo-Croatian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slovak_language#Morphology" title="Slovak language">Slovak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slovene_grammar" title="Slovene grammar">Slovene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slovincian_grammar" title="Slovincian grammar">Slovincian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_grammar" title="Ukrainian grammar">Ukrainian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Iranian_languages" title="Iranian languages">Iranian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kurdish_grammar" title="Kurdish grammar">Kurdish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pashto_grammar" title="Pashto grammar">Pashto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_grammar" title="Persian grammar">Persian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tajik_grammar" title="Tajik grammar">Tajik</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Indo-Aryan_languages" title="Indo-Aryan languages">Indo-Aryan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bengali_grammar" title="Bengali grammar">Bengali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhojpuri_grammar" title="Bhojpuri grammar">Bhojpuri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gujarati_grammar" title="Gujarati grammar">Gujarati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindustani_grammar" title="Hindustani grammar">Hindustani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maithili_grammar" title="Maithili grammar">Maithili</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marathi_grammar" title="Marathi grammar">Marathi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nepali_grammar" title="Nepali grammar">Nepali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Odia_grammar" title="Odia grammar">Odia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Punjabi_grammar" title="Punjabi grammar">Punjabi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanskrit_grammar" title="Sanskrit grammar">Sanskrit</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vedic_Sanskrit_grammar" title="Vedic Sanskrit grammar">Vedic</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Albanian_language#Grammar" title="Albanian language">Albanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Greek_grammar" title="Modern Greek grammar">Greek</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_grammar" title="Ancient Greek grammar">Ancient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koine_Greek_grammar" title="Koine Greek grammar">Koine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hittite_grammar" title="Hittite grammar">Hittite</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Uralic_languages" title="Uralic languages">Uralic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Estonian_grammar" title="Estonian grammar">Estonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finnish_grammar" title="Finnish grammar">Finnish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungarian_grammar" title="Hungarian grammar">Hungarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ingrian_grammar" title="Ingrian grammar">Ingrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Komi_grammar" title="Komi grammar">Komi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Livonian_grammar" title="Livonian grammar">Livonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Udmurt_grammar" title="Udmurt grammar">Udmurt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Me%C3%A4nkieli_grammar" title="Meänkieli grammar">Meänkieli</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Turkic_languages" title="Turkic languages">Turkic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kazakh_language#Morphology_and_syntax" title="Kazakh language">Kazakh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyrgyz_language#Morphology_and_syntax" title="Kyrgyz language">Kyrgyz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tatar_language#Grammar" title="Tatar language">Tatar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_grammar" title="Turkish grammar">Turkish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkmen_grammar" title="Turkmen grammar">Turkmen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uyghur_grammar" title="Uyghur grammar">Uyghur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uzbek_language#Grammar" title="Uzbek language">Uzbek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yakut_language#Grammar" title="Yakut language">Yakut</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other <a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Europe" title="Languages of Europe">European</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abkhaz_language#Grammar" title="Abkhaz language">Abkhaz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adyghe_grammar" title="Adyghe grammar">Adyghe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basque_grammar" title="Basque grammar">Basque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgian_grammar" title="Georgian grammar">Georgian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kabardian_grammar" title="Kabardian grammar">Kabardian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laz_grammar" title="Laz grammar">Laz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mingrelian_grammar" title="Mingrelian grammar">Mingrelian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ubykh_grammar" title="Ubykh grammar">Ubykh</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Afroasiatic_languages" title="Afroasiatic languages">Afroasiatic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_grammar" title="Arabic grammar">Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Atlas_Tamazight_grammar" title="Central Atlas Tamazight grammar">Central Atlas Tamazight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Hebrew_grammar" title="Modern Hebrew grammar">Hebrew</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Hebrew_grammar" title="History of Hebrew grammar">Historical</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kabyle_grammar" title="Kabyle grammar">Kabyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Levantine_Arabic_grammar" title="Levantine Arabic grammar">Levantine Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somali_grammar" title="Somali grammar">Somali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tigrinya_grammar" title="Tigrinya grammar">Tigrinya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ugaritic_grammar" title="Ugaritic grammar">Ugaritic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Niger%E2%80%93Congo_languages" title="Niger–Congo languages">Niger–Congo</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fula_language#Morphology" title="Fula language">Fula</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pular_grammar" title="Pular grammar">Pular</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otjiherero_grammar" title="Otjiherero grammar">Herero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sesotho_grammar" title="Sesotho grammar">Sotho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swahili_grammar" title="Swahili grammar">Swahili</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zulu_grammar" title="Zulu grammar">Zulu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Dravidian_languages" title="Dravidian languages">Dravidian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kannada_grammar" title="Kannada grammar">Kannada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malayalam_grammar" title="Malayalam grammar">Malayalam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamil_grammar" title="Tamil grammar">Tamil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telugu_grammar" title="Telugu grammar">Telugu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Japonic_languages" title="Japonic languages">Japonic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_grammar" title="Japanese grammar">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Japanese_grammar" class="mw-redirect" title="Classical Japanese grammar">Classical Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Okinawan_language#Grammar" title="Okinawan language">Okinawan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hachij%C5%8D_grammar" title="Hachijō grammar">Hachijō</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sino-Tibetan_languages" title="Sino-Tibetan languages">Sino-Tibetan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Burmese_grammar" title="Burmese grammar">Burmese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cantonese_grammar" title="Cantonese grammar">Cantonese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Chinese_grammar" title="Classical Chinese grammar">Classical Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dzongkha_grammar" title="Dzongkha grammar">Dzongkha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kokborok_grammar" title="Kokborok grammar">Kokborok</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_grammar" title="Chinese grammar">Mandarin Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mizo_grammar" title="Mizo grammar">Mizo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Standard_Tibetan_grammar" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern Standard Tibetan grammar">Tibetan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Austroasiatic_languages" title="Austroasiatic languages">Austroasiatic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Khmer_grammar" title="Khmer grammar">Khmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_grammar" title="Vietnamese grammar">Vietnamese</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Kra%E2%80%93Dai_languages" title="Kra–Dai languages">Kra–Dai</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Has_Hlai_grammar" title="Has Hlai grammar">Has Hlai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lao_grammar" title="Lao grammar">Lao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thai_language#Grammar" title="Thai language">Thai</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other <a href="/wiki/East_Asia" title="East Asia">East Asian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evenki_grammar" title="Evenki grammar">Evenki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_grammar" title="Korean grammar">Korean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongolian_language#Grammar" title="Mongolian language">Mongolian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Austronesian_languages" title="Austronesian languages">Austronesian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cebuano_grammar" title="Cebuano grammar">Cebuano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hawaiian_grammar" title="Hawaiian grammar">Hawaiian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ilocano_grammar" title="Ilocano grammar">Ilocano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malay_grammar" title="Malay grammar">Malay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tagalog_grammar" title="Tagalog grammar">Tagalog</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Algic_languages" title="Algic languages">Algic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Massachusett_grammar" title="Massachusett grammar">Massachusett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Munsee_grammar" title="Munsee grammar">Munsee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ojibwe_grammar" title="Ojibwe grammar">Ojibwe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Uto-Aztecan_languages" title="Uto-Aztecan languages">Uto-Aztecan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nahuatl#Morphology_and_syntax" title="Nahuatl">Nahuatl</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Nahuatl_grammar" title="Classical Nahuatl grammar">Classical</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nawat_grammar" title="Nawat grammar">Nawat</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_languages_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous languages of the Americas">Native American</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_language#Grammar" title="Cherokee language">Cherokee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inuit_grammar" title="Inuit grammar">Inuit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miskito_grammar" title="Miskito grammar">Miskito</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navajo_grammar" title="Navajo grammar">Navajo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otomi_grammar" title="Otomi grammar">Otomi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sign_language" title="Sign language">sign</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Sign_Language_grammar" title="American Sign Language grammar">American</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Artistic_language" title="Artistic language">artistic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Klingon_grammar" title="Klingon grammar">Klingon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Na%CA%BCvi_grammar" title="Naʼvi grammar">Naʼvi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quenya_grammar" class="mw-redirect" title="Quenya grammar">Quenya</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/International_auxiliary_language" title="International auxiliary language">auxiliary</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Esperanto_grammar" title="Esperanto grammar">Esperanto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interlingua_grammar" title="Interlingua grammar">Interlingua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interlingue_grammar" title="Interlingue grammar">Interlingue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lingua_Franca_Nova_grammar" title="Lingua Franca Nova grammar">Lingua Franca Nova</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other <a href="/wiki/Constructed_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Constructed languages">constructed</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a 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