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vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Timeline"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Timeline</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Timeline-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Phonology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Phonology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Phonology</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Phonology-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Phonology subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Phonology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-The_sound_system" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_sound_system"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>The sound system</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_sound_system-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pronunciation_examples" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pronunciation_examples"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Pronunciation examples</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pronunciation_examples-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sound_classes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sound_classes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Sound classes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sound_classes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Vowels_&_Semivowels" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vowels_&_Semivowels"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.1</span> <span>Vowels & Semivowels</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vowels_&_Semivowels-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Visarga_and_anusvāra" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Visarga_and_anusvāra"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.2</span> <span>Visarga and anusvāra</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Visarga_and_anusvāra-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sibilants" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sibilants"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.3</span> <span>Sibilants</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sibilants-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Retroflex_consonants" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Retroflex_consonants"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.4</span> <span>Retroflex consonants</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Retroflex_consonants-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nasals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nasals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.5</span> <span>Nasals</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nasals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sandhi" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sandhi"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Sandhi</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sandhi-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Phonological_processes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Phonological_processes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Phonological processes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Phonological_processes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Morphophonology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Morphophonology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Morphophonology</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Morphophonology-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Morphophonology subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Morphophonology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Vowel_gradation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vowel_gradation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Vowel gradation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vowel_gradation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Accent" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Accent"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Accent</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Accent-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Verbs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Verbs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Verbs</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Verbs-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Verbs subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Verbs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Background" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Background"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Background</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Background-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Conjugation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Conjugation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Conjugation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Conjugation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Formation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Formation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Formation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Formation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Scope" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Scope"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Scope</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Scope-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nominals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nominals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Nominals</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Nominals-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Nominals subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Nominals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Declension" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Declension"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Declension</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Declension-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Stem_classification" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Stem_classification"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Stem classification</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Stem_classification-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Numerals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Numerals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Numerals</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Numerals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Personal_pronouns_and_determiners" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Personal_pronouns_and_determiners"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4</span> <span>Personal pronouns and determiners</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Personal_pronouns_and_determiners-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Derivation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Derivation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Derivation</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Derivation-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Derivation subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Derivation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Compounds" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Compounds"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Compounds</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Compounds-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Indeclinables" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Indeclinables"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Indeclinables</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Indeclinables-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Indeclinables subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Indeclinables-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Prepositions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prepositions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Prepositions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Prepositions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Adverbs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Adverbs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Adverbs</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Adverbs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Particles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Particles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3</span> <span>Particles</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Particles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Conjunctions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Conjunctions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.4</span> <span>Conjunctions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Conjunctions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Interjections" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Interjections"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.5</span> <span>Interjections</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Interjections-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Miscellaneous" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Miscellaneous"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.6</span> <span>Miscellaneous</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Miscellaneous-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Syntax" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Syntax"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Syntax</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Syntax-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Peculiar_characteristics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Peculiar_characteristics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Peculiar characteristics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Peculiar_characteristics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Glossary" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Glossary"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Glossary</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Glossary-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Traditional_glossary_and_notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Traditional_glossary_and_notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>Traditional glossary and notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Traditional_glossary_and_notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">16</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">17</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Sanskrit grammar</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 12 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-12" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">12 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%83%E0%A6%A4_%E0%A6%AC%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%A3" title="সংস্কৃত ব্যাকরণ – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="সংস্কৃত ব্যাকরণ" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%A4_%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A3" title="संस्कृत व्याकरण – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="संस्कृत व्याकरण" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>भोजपुरी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gram%C3%A1tica_del_s%C3%A1nscrito" title="Gramática del sánscrito – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Gramática del sánscrito" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammaire_du_sanskrit" title="Grammaire du sanskrit – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Grammaire du sanskrit" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gu mw-list-item"><a href="https://gu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AA%B8%E0%AA%82%E0%AA%B8%E0%AB%8D%E0%AA%95%E0%AB%83%E0%AA%A4_%E0%AA%B5%E0%AB%8D%E0%AA%AF%E0%AA%BE%E0%AA%95%E0%AA%B0%E0%AA%A3" title="સંસ્કૃત વ્યાકરણ – Gujarati" lang="gu" hreflang="gu" data-title="સંસ્કૃત વ્યાકરણ" data-language-autonym="ગુજરાતી" data-language-local-name="Gujarati" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ગુજરાતી</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%A4_%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A3" title="संस्कृत व्याकरण – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="संस्कृत व्याकरण" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatica_sanscrita" title="Grammatica sanscrita – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Grammatica sanscrita" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%B8%E0%B2%82%E0%B2%B8%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%95%E0%B3%83%E0%B2%A4_%E0%B2%B5%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%AF%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%95%E0%B2%B0%E0%B2%A3" title="ಸಂಸ್ಕೃತ ವ್ಯಾಕರಣ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಸಂಸ್ಕೃತ ವ್ಯಾಕರಣ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a 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<div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Grammar of the Classical Sanskrit language</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the grammar of Classical Sanskrit. For the earlier language, see <a href="/wiki/Vedic_Sanskrit_grammar" title="Vedic Sanskrit grammar">Vedic Sanskrit grammar</a>.</div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Grammar" title="Grammar">grammar</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Sanskrit language">Sanskrit language</a> has a complex verbal system, rich nominal <a href="/wiki/Declension" title="Declension">declension</a>, and extensive use of <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit_compound" title="Sanskrit compound">compound nouns</a>. It was studied and codified by <a href="/wiki/Vy%C4%81kara%E1%B9%87a" title="Vyākaraṇa">Sanskrit grammarians</a> from the later <a href="/wiki/Vedic_period" title="Vedic period">Vedic period</a> (roughly 8th century BCE), culminating in the <a href="/wiki/P%C4%81%E1%B9%87ini" title="Pāṇini">Pāṇinian</a> grammar of the 4th century BCE. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Grammatical_tradition">Grammatical tradition</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sanskrit_grammar&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Grammatical tradition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Vy%C4%81kara%E1%B9%87a" title="Vyākaraṇa">Vyākaraṇa</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Origins">Origins</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sanskrit_grammar&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Origins"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Sanskrit grammatical tradition (<i><a href="/wiki/Vy%C4%81kara%E1%B9%87a" title="Vyākaraṇa">vyākaraṇa</a></i>, one of the six <a href="/wiki/Vedanga" title="Vedanga">Vedanga</a> disciplines) began in late <a href="/wiki/Vedic_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Vedic India">Vedic India</a> and culminated in the <i>Aṣṭādhyāyī</i> of <a href="/wiki/P%C4%81%E1%B9%87ini" title="Pāṇini">Pāṇini</a>. </p><p>The oldest attested form of the <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-Aryan_language" title="Proto-Indo-Aryan language">Proto-Indo-Aryan language</a> as it had evolved in the <a href="/wiki/Indian_subcontinent" title="Indian subcontinent">Indian subcontinent</a> after its introduction with the arrival of the <a href="/wiki/Indo-Aryans" class="mw-redirect" title="Indo-Aryans">Indo-Aryans</a> is called <a href="/wiki/Vedic_Sanskrit_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Vedic Sanskrit language">Vedic</a>. By 1000 BCE, the end of the early <a href="/wiki/Vedic_period" title="Vedic period">Vedic period</a>, a large body of Vedic hymns had been consolidated into the <a href="/wiki/RigVeda" class="mw-redirect" title="RigVeda">Ṛg·Veda</a>, which formed the canonical basis of the Vedic religion, and was transmitted from generation to generation entirely orally.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>In the course of the following centuries, as the popular speech evolved, there was rising concern among the guardians of the Vedic religion that the hymns be passed on without "corruption", which for them was vital to ensure the religious efficacy of the hymns.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This led to the rise of a vigorous, sophisticated grammatical tradition involving the study of linguistic analysis, in particular phonetics alongside grammar, the high point of which was Pāṇini's stated work, which eclipsed all others before him.<sup id="cite_ref-Burrow21_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Burrow21-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pāṇini"><span id="P.C4.81.E1.B9.87ini"></span>Pāṇini</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sanskrit_grammar&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Pāṇini"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/P%C4%81%E1%B9%87ini" title="Pāṇini">Pāṇini</a>'s <a href="/wiki/A%E1%B9%A3%E1%B9%AD%C4%81dhy%C4%81y%C4%AB" title="Aṣṭādhyāyī">Aṣṭādhyāyī</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>b<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> a prescriptive and generative grammar with algebraic rules governing every single aspect of the language, in an era when oral composition and transmission was the norm, is staunchly embedded in that oral tradition. In order to ensure wide dissemination, Pāṇini is said to have preferred brevity over clarity<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> – it can be recited end-to-end in two hours. This has led to the emergence of a great number of commentaries of his work over the centuries, which for the most part adhere to the foundations laid by Pāṇini's work.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Burrow21_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Burrow21-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="After_Pāṇini"><span id="After_P.C4.81.E1.B9.87ini"></span>After Pāṇini</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sanskrit_grammar&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: After Pāṇini"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>About a century after Pāṇini, <a href="/wiki/K%C4%81ty%C4%81yana" title="Kātyāyana">Kātyāyana</a> composed vārtikas (explanations) on the Pāṇinian sũtras. <a href="/wiki/Pata%C3%B1jali" class="mw-redirect" title="Patañjali">Patañjali</a>, who lived three centuries after Pāṇini, wrote the <i><a href="/wiki/Mah%C4%81bh%C4%81%E1%B9%A3ya" class="mw-redirect" title="Mahābhāṣya">Mahābhāṣya</a></i>, the "Great Commentary" on the Aṣṭādhyāyī and Vārtikas. Because of these three ancient <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit_grammarians" class="mw-redirect" title="Sanskrit grammarians">Sanskrit grammarians</a> this grammar is called <i>Trimuni Vyākarana</i>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Jayaditya" class="mw-redirect" title="Jayaditya">Jayaditya</a> and Vāmana wrote a commentary named <a href="/wiki/K%C4%81%C5%9Bik%C4%81" class="mw-redirect" title="Kāśikā">Kāśikā</a> in 600 CE. <span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">Kaiyaṭa</i></span>'s (12th century AD) commentary on Patañjali's <span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Mah%C4%81bh%C4%81%E1%B9%A3ya" class="mw-redirect" title="Mahābhāṣya">Mahābhāṣya</a></i></span> also exerted much influence on the development of grammar, but more influential was the <i>Rupāvatāra</i> of Buddhist scholar <a href="/wiki/Dharmak%C4%ABrti" class="mw-redirect" title="Dharmakīrti">Dharmakīrti</a> which popularised simplified versions of Sanskrit grammar. </p><p>The most influential work of the Early Modern period was <i><a href="/wiki/Siddh%C4%81nta_Kaumud%C4%AB" class="mw-redirect" title="Siddhānta Kaumudī">Siddhānta Kaumudī</a></i> by <span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Bha%E1%B9%AD%E1%B9%ADoji_D%C4%ABk%E1%B9%A3ita" title="Bhaṭṭoji Dīkṣita">Bhaṭṭoji Dīkṣita</a></i></span> (17th century). Bhaṭṭoji's disciple <a href="/wiki/Varadar%C4%81ja" title="Varadarāja">Varadarāja</a> wrote three abridged versions of the original text, named <a href="/w/index.php?title=Madhya_Siddh%C4%81nta_Kaumud%C4%AB&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Madhya Siddhānta Kaumudī (page does not exist)">Madhya Siddhānta Kaumudī</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=S%C4%81ra_Siddh%C4%81nta_Kaumud%C4%AB&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sāra Siddhānta Kaumudī (page does not exist)">Sāra Siddhānta Kaumudī</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Laghu_Siddh%C4%81nta_Kaumud%C4%AB&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Laghu Siddhānta Kaumudī (page does not exist)">Laghu Siddhānta Kaumudī</a>, of which the latter is the most popular. Vāsudeva Dīkṣita wrote a commentary named <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=B%C4%81lamanoram%C4%81&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bālamanoramā (page does not exist)">Bālamanoramā</a></i> on <i><a href="/wiki/Siddh%C4%81nta-Kaumud%C4%AB" class="mw-redirect" title="Siddhānta-Kaumudī">Siddhānta-Kaumudī</a></i>. </p><p>European grammatical scholarship began in the 18th century with <a href="/wiki/Jean_Fran%C3%A7ois_Pons" title="Jean François Pons">Jean François Pons</a> and others, and culminated in the exhaustive expositions by 19th century scholars such as <a href="/wiki/Otto_von_B%C3%B6htlingk" title="Otto von Böhtlingk">Otto von Böhtlingk</a>, <a href="/wiki/William_Dwight_Whitney" title="William Dwight Whitney">William Dwight Whitney</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jacob_Wackernagel" title="Jacob Wackernagel">Jacob Wackernagel</a> and others. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Timeline">Timeline</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sanskrit_grammar&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Timeline"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The following is a timeline of notable post-Pāṇinian grammatical figures and approximate dates:<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/K%C4%81ty%C4%81yana" title="Kātyāyana">Kātyāyana</a> – 300 BCE</li> <li>Patañjali – 150 BCE</li> <li>Bhartṛhari – V CE</li> <li>Kāśikā – VII</li> <li>Śākaṭāyana – IX</li> <li>Kaiyaṭa – XI</li> <li>Hemacandra – XII</li> <li>Śaraṇadeva – XII</li> <li>Vopadeva – XIII</li> <li>Bhattoji-dīkṣita – XVII</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Phonology">Phonology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sanskrit_grammar&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Phonology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/%C5%9Aik%E1%B9%A3%C4%81" class="mw-redirect" title="Śikṣā">Śikṣā</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_sound_system">The sound system</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sanskrit_grammar&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: The sound system"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Sanskrit sound system can be represented in a table of place and manner of articulation:<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Sanskrit sounds </caption> <tbody><tr> <th> </th> <th colspan="3"><i><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless consonant">voiceless</a><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>α<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></i></th> <th colspan="8"><i><a href="/wiki/Voiced_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced consonant">voiced</a><sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>β<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></i> </th></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <th><i>open</i> </th> <td><big>ḥ</big></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td><big>h</big></td> <td><big>ṃ</big></td> <td></td> <td><big>a</big></td> <td><big>ā</big></td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <th><i><a href="/wiki/Velar_consonant" title="Velar consonant">velar</a><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>γ<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></i> </th> <td></td> <td><big>k</big></td> <td><big>kh</big></td> <td><big>g</big></td> <td><big>gh</big></td> <td><big>ṅ</big></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <th><i><a href="/wiki/Palatal_consonant" title="Palatal consonant">palatal</a><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>δ<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></i> </th> <td><big>ś</big></td> <td><big>c</big></td> <td><big>ch</big></td> <td><big>j</big></td> <td><big>jh</big></td> <td><big>ñ</big></td> <td><big>y</big></td> <td><big>i</big></td> <td><big>ī</big></td> <td><big>ē</big></td> <td><big>ai</big> </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <th><i><a href="/wiki/Retroflex_consonant" title="Retroflex consonant">retroflex</a><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>ε<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></i> </th> <td><big>ṣ</big></td> <td><big>ṭ</big></td> <td><big>ṭh</big></td> <td><big>ḍ</big></td> <td><big>ḍh</big></td> <td><big>ṇ</big></td> <td><big>r</big></td> <td><big>ṛ</big></td> <td><big>ṝ</big></td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <th><i><a href="/wiki/Dental_consonant" title="Dental consonant">dental</a><sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>ζ<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></i> </th> <td><big>s</big></td> <td><big>t</big></td> <td><big>th</big></td> <td><big>d</big></td> <td><big>dh</big></td> <td><big>n</big></td> <td><big>l</big></td> <td><big>ḷ</big></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <th><i><a href="/wiki/Labial_consonant" title="Labial consonant">labial</a><sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>η<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></i> </th> <td></td> <td><big>p</big></td> <td><big>ph</big></td> <td><big>b</big></td> <td><big>bh</big></td> <td><big>m</big></td> <td><big>v</big></td> <td><big>u</big></td> <td><big>ū</big></td> <td><big>ō</big></td> <td><big>au</big> </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <th> </th> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Fricative" title="Fricative"><small>fric</small></a></i> </td> <td><small><i><a href="/wiki/Unaspirated" class="mw-redirect" title="Unaspirated">unasp</a></i><sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>θ<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></small> </td> <td><small><i><a href="/wiki/Aspirated_consonant" title="Aspirated consonant">asp</a></i><sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>ι<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></small> </td> <td><i><small>unasp</small></i> </td> <td><i><small>asp</small></i> </td> <td><small><i><a href="/wiki/Nasal_consonant" title="Nasal consonant">nasal</a></i><sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>κ<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></small> </td> <td><small><i><a href="/wiki/Semivowel" title="Semivowel">semiv</a></i><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>λ<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></small> </td> <td><i><small>short</small></i><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>μ<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td colspan="3"><small><i>long</i><sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>ν<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>c<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></small> </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <th> </th> <td> </td> <td colspan="4"><i><a href="/wiki/Plosive" title="Plosive"><small>stops</small></a></i><sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>ξ<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td colspan="2"><i><a href="/wiki/Monophthong" title="Monophthong"><small>simple</small></a></i> </td> <td colspan="2"><i><a href="/wiki/Diphthong" title="Diphthong"><small>diphth</small></a></i> </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <th> </th> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td colspan="5"><i><small>vocalics</small></i> </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <th> </th> <td colspan="7"><i><a href="/wiki/Consonant" title="Consonant"><small>consonants</small></a></i><sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>ο<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td colspan="4"><i><a href="/wiki/Vowel" title="Vowel"><small>vowels</small></a></i><sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>π<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pronunciation_examples">Pronunciation examples</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sanskrit_grammar&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Pronunciation examples"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The table below shows the traditional listing of the Sanskrit consonants with the nearest equivalents in English (as pronounced in <a href="/wiki/General_American" class="mw-redirect" title="General American">General American</a> and <a href="/wiki/Received_Pronunciation" title="Received Pronunciation">Received Pronunciation</a> or wherever relevant in Indian English), French, Spanish, Russian or Polish, along with approximate <a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">IPA</a> values.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>(Further information: <a href="/wiki/File:The_International_Phonetic_Alphabet_(revised_to_2015).pdf" title="File:The International Phonetic Alphabet (revised to 2015).pdf">IPA chart (vowels and consonants) – 2015.</a> and <a href="/wiki/IPA_pulmonic_consonant_chart_with_audio" class="mw-redirect" title="IPA pulmonic consonant chart with audio">IPA pulmonic consonant chart with audio</a> <span typeof="mw:File"><span title="Audio content icon"><img alt="Audio content icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Sound-icon.svg/16px-Sound-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Sound-icon.svg/24px-Sound-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Sound-icon.svg/32px-Sound-icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="96" /></span></span>) </p> <table class="wikitable mw-collapsible"> <caption>Sanskrit sound examples </caption> <tbody><tr> <th> </th> <th colspan="3"><i><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless consonant">voiceless</a></i></th> <th colspan="8"><i><a href="/wiki/Voiced_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced consonant">voiced</a></i> </th></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <th><i>open</i> </th> <td><big>ḥ</big></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td><big>h</big><br /><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɦ/</span>;<br /> Eng: a<b>h</b>ead</td> <td><big>ṃ</big></td> <td></td> <td><big>a</big><sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>d<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td><big>ā</big></td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <th><i><a href="/wiki/Velar_consonant" title="Velar consonant">velar</a></i> </th> <td></td> <td><big>k</big><br /><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/k/</span>;<br /> Eng: s<b>k</b>ip</td> <td><big>kh</big><br /><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/kʰ/</span>;<br /> Eng: <b>c</b>ow</td> <td><big>g</big><br /><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɡ/</span>;<br /> Eng: <b>g</b>ame</td> <td><big>gh</big><br /><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɡʱ/</span>;<br /> Eng: do<b>gh</b>ouse</td> <td><big>ṅ</big><br /><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ŋ/</span>;<br /> Eng: ri<b>ng</b></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <th><i><a href="/wiki/Palatal_consonant" title="Palatal consonant">palatal</a></i> </th> <td><big>ś</big><br /><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɕ/</span>;<br /> similar to Eng: <b>sh</b>ip</td> <td><big>c</big><br /><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/tɕ/</span>;<br /> Eng: rea<b>ch</b></td> <td><big>ch</big><br /><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/tɕʰ/</span>;<br /> Eng: <b>ch</b>eer</td> <td><big>j</big><br /><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/dʑ/</span>;<br /> Eng: <b>j</b>eer</td> <td><big>jh</big><br /><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/dʑʱ/</span>;<br /> Eng: sle<b>dgeh</b>ammer</td> <td><big>ñ</big><br /><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɲ/</span>;<br /> Fre: a<b>gn</b>eau, Spa: <b>ñ</b>, Rus: осе<b>нь</b>, Pol: jesie<b>ń</b></td> <td><big>y</big><br /><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/j/</span>;<br /> Eng: <b>y</b>ou</td> <td><big>i</big></td> <td><big>ī</big></td> <td><big>ē</big></td> <td><big>ai</big> </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <th><i><a href="/wiki/Retroflex_consonant" title="Retroflex consonant">retroflex</a></i> </th> <td><big>ṣ</big><br /><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ʂ/</span>;<br /> Retroflex form of <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ʃ/</span></td> <td><big>ṭ</big><br /><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ʈ/</span>;<br /> Ind Eng: s<b>t</b>op</td> <td><big>ṭh</big><br /><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ʈʰ/</span>;<br /> Ind Eng: ca<b>t</b>house</td> <td><big>ḍ</big><br /><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɖ/</span>; <br />Ind Eng: <b>d</b>oor</td> <td><big>ḍh</big><br /><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɖʱ/</span>;<br /> Ind Eng: a<b>dh</b>ere</td> <td><big>ṇ</big><br /><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɳ/</span>;<br /> (NA/Irish/Scot) Eng: mor<b>n</b>ing</td> <td><big>r</big><br /><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɽ/</span>;<br />(NA/Irish/Scot) Eng: mo<b>r</b>ning</td> <td><big>ṛ</big><br /><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/r̩/</span>;<br />(NA/Irish/Scot) Eng: int<b>'r'</b>sting<br />diff<b>'r'</b>nce</td> <td><big>ṝ</big></td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <th><i><a href="/wiki/Dental_consonant" title="Dental consonant">dental</a></i> </th> <td><big>s</big><br /><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/s/</span>;<br />Eng: <b>s</b>ame</td> <td><big>t</big><br /><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/t/</span>;<br /> Fre, Spa: <b>t</b>oma<b>t</b>e</td> <td><big>th</big><br /><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/tʰ/</span>;<br /> Eng: <b>t</b>ip</td> <td><big>d</big><br /><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/d/</span>;<br /> Fre: <b>d</b>ans, Spa: <b>d</b>onde</td> <td><big>dh</big><br /><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/dʱ/</span>;<br /> Aspirated <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/d/</span></td> <td><big>n</big><br /><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/n/</span>;<br /> Eng: <b>n</b>ame</td> <td><big>l</big><br /><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/l/</span>;<br /> Fre, Spa: <b>l</b>a</td> <td><big>ḷ</big></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <th><i><a href="/wiki/Labial_consonant" title="Labial consonant">labial</a></i> </th> <td></td> <td><big>p</big><br /><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/p/</span>;<br /> Eng: s<b>p</b>in</td> <td><big>ph</big><br /><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/pʰ/</span>;<br /> Eng: <b>p</b>ork</td> <td><big>b</big><br /><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/b/</span>;<br /> Eng: ca<b>b</b></td> <td><big>bh</big><br /><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/bʱ/</span>;<br /> Eng: a<b>bh</b>or</td> <td><big>m</big><br /><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/m/</span>;<br /> Eng: <b>m</b>ine</td> <td><big>v</big><br /><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ʋ/</span>;<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>e<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td><big>u</big></td> <td><big>ū</big></td> <td><big>ō</big></td> <td><big>au</big> </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <th> </th> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Fricative" title="Fricative"><small>fric</small></a></i> </td> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Unaspirated" class="mw-redirect" title="Unaspirated"><small>unasp</small></a></i> </td> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Aspirated_consonant" title="Aspirated consonant"><small>asp</small></a></i> </td> <td><i><small>unasp</small></i> </td> <td><i><small>asp</small></i> </td> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Nasal_consonant" title="Nasal consonant"><small>nasal</small></a></i> </td> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Semivowel" title="Semivowel"><small>semiv</small></a></i> </td> <td><i><small>short</small></i> </td> <td colspan="3"><i><small>long</small></i> </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <th> </th> <td> </td> <td colspan="4"><i><a href="/wiki/Plosive" title="Plosive"><small>stops</small></a></i> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td colspan="2"><i><a href="/wiki/Monophthong" title="Monophthong"><small>simple</small></a></i> </td> <td colspan="2"><i><a href="/wiki/Diphthong" title="Diphthong"><small>diphth</small></a></i> </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <th> </th> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td colspan="5"><i><small>vocalics</small></i> </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <th> </th> <td colspan="7"><i><a href="/wiki/Consonant" title="Consonant"><small>consonants</small></a></i> </td> <td colspan="4"><i><a href="/wiki/Vowel" title="Vowel"><small>vowels</small></a></i> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>It should be understood that, while the script commonly associated with Sanskrit is <a href="/wiki/Devanagari" title="Devanagari">Devanagari</a>, this has no particular importance. It just happens currently to be the most popular script for Sanskrit. The form of the symbols used to write Sanskrit has varied widely geographically and over time, and notably includes modern Indian scripts. What is important is that the adherence to the phonological classification of the symbols elucidated here has remained constant in Sanskrit since classical times. It should be further noted that the phonology of modern Indian languages has evolved, and the values given to Devanagari symbols in modern <a href="/wiki/Indo-Aryan_languages" title="Indo-Aryan languages">Indo-Aryan languages</a>, e.g., <a href="/wiki/Hindi" title="Hindi">Hindi</a>, differ somewhat from those of Sanskrit. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sound_classes">Sound classes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sanskrit_grammar&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Sound classes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Vowels_&_Semivowels"><span id="Vowels_.26_Semivowels"></span>Vowels & Semivowels</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sanskrit_grammar&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Vowels & Semivowels"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The long syllabic l (ḹ) is not attested, and is only discussed by grammarians for systematic reasons. Its short counterpart ḷ occurs in a single root only, kḷp .<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>A<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Long syllabic r (ṝ) is also quite marginal, occurring (optionally) in the genitive plural of ṛ-stems (e.g. <i>mātṛ</i>, <i>pitṛ</i> ⇒ <i>mātṝṇām</i>, <i>pitṝṇām</i>). </p><p>i, u, ṛ, ḷ are vocalic allophones of consonantal y, v, r, l. There are thus only 5 invariably vocalic <a href="/wiki/Phoneme" title="Phoneme">phonemes</a>: a, ā, ī, ū, ṝ.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1224211176">.mw-parser-output .quotebox{background-color:#F9F9F9;border:1px solid #aaa;box-sizing:border-box;padding:10px;font-size:88%;max-width:100%}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft{margin:.5em 1.4em .8em 0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright{margin:.5em 0 .8em 1.4em}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.centered{overflow:hidden;position:relative;margin:.5em auto .8em auto}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft span,.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright span{font-style:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox>blockquote{margin:0;padding:0;border-left:0;font-family:inherit;font-size:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-title{text-align:center;font-size:110%;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote>:first-child{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote:last-child>:last-child{margin-bottom:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:before{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" “ ";vertical-align:-45%;line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:after{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" ” ";line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .left-aligned{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .right-aligned{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .center-aligned{text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quote-title,.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quotebox-quote{display:block}.mw-parser-output .quotebox cite{display:block;font-style:normal}@media screen and (max-width:640px){.mw-parser-output .quotebox{width:100%!important;margin:0 0 .8em!important;float:none!important}}</style><div class="quotebox pullquote floatright" style="border-width: 2px; color: #202122;background-color: Cornsilk;"> <div class="quotebox-title" style="color: #202122;background-color: Cornsilk;">The Māhēśvara Sūtrāṇi</div> <blockquote class="quotebox-quote center-aligned" style=""> <div class="poem"> <p><big><br /> a i u·ṇ<br /> ṛ ḷ·k<br /> e o·ṅ<br /> ai au·c<br /> ha ya va ra·ṭ<br /> la·ṇ<br /> ña ma ṅa ṇa na·m<br /> jʰa bʰa·ñ<br /> gʰa ḍʰa dʰa·ṣ<br /> ja ba ga ḍa da·ś<br /> kʰa pʰa cʰa ṭʰa tʰa ca ṭa ta·v<br /> ka pa·y<br /> śa ṣa sa·r<br /> ha·l<br /> </big> </p> </div> </blockquote> <div style="padding-bottom: 0; padding-top: 0.5em"><cite class="right-aligned" style=""><a href="/wiki/P%C4%81%E1%B9%87ini" title="Pāṇini">Pāṇini</a>, <small>The Aṣṭādhyāyī</small><sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></div> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Visarga_and_anusvāra"><span id="Visarga_and_anusv.C4.81ra"></span>Visarga and anusvāra</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sanskrit_grammar&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Visarga and anusvāra"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Visarga" title="Visarga">Visarga</a> ḥ <span title="Sanskrit-language text"><span lang="sa">ः</span></span> is an <a href="/wiki/Allophone" title="Allophone">allophone</a> of r and s, and <a href="/wiki/Anusvara" title="Anusvara">anusvara</a> ṃ, <a href="/wiki/Devanagari" title="Devanagari">Devanagari</a> <span title="Sanskrit-language text"><span lang="sa">ं</span></span> of any nasal, both in <a href="/wiki/Pausa" title="Pausa">pausa</a> (i.e., the <a href="/wiki/Nasalized_vowel" class="mw-redirect" title="Nasalized vowel">nasalised vowel</a>). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Sibilants">Sibilants</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sanskrit_grammar&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Sibilants"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The exact pronunciation of the three sibilants may vary, but they are distinct phonemes. Voiced sibilants, such as z <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/z/</span>, ẓ <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ʐ/</span>, and ź <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ʑ/</span> as well as its aspirated counterpart źh <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ʑʱ/</span>, were inherited by <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-Aryan_language" title="Proto-Indo-Aryan language">Proto-Indo-Aryan</a> from Proto-Indo-Iranian but lost around or after the time of the <a href="/wiki/Rigveda" title="Rigveda">Rigveda</a>, as evidenced due to ḷh (an aspirated retroflex lateral consonant) being metrically a cluster (that was most likely of the form ẓḍh; aspirated fricatives are exceedingly rare in any language).<sup id="cite_ref-SktCons_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SktCons-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Retroflex_consonants">Retroflex consonants</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sanskrit_grammar&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Retroflex consonants"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Retroflex_consonant" title="Retroflex consonant">retroflex consonants</a> are somewhat marginal phonemes, often being conditioned by their phonetic environment; they do not continue a <a href="/wiki/PIE" class="mw-redirect" title="PIE">PIE</a> series and are often ascribed by some linguists to the <a href="/wiki/Substrata_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Substrata (linguistics)">substratal</a> influence of <a href="/wiki/Dravidian_languages" title="Dravidian languages">Dravidian</a>, or spontaneous internal development from IE <sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or other substrate languages.<sup id="cite_ref-SktCons_38-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SktCons-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Nasals">Nasals</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sanskrit_grammar&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Nasals"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The nasal <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɲ]</span> is a conditioned allophone of <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/n/</span>, while <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/n/</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɳ/</span> are distinct phonemes (aṇu 'minute', 'atomic' [nom. sg. neutr. of an adjective] is distinctive from anu 'after', 'along'). Phonologically independent /ŋ/ occurs only marginally, e.g. in prāṅ 'directed forwards/towards' [nom. sg. masc. of an adjective].<sup id="cite_ref-SktCons_38-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SktCons-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sandhi">Sandhi</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sanskrit_grammar&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Sandhi"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Sanskrit deploys extensive phonological alternations on different linguistic levels through <i>sandhi</i> rules (literally, the rules of "putting together, union, connection, alliance"), similar to the English alteration of "going to" as <i>gonna</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJamison200810–11_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJamison200810–11-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Sanskrit language accepts such alterations within it, but offers formal rules for the <i>sandhi</i> of any two words next to each other in the same sentence or linking two sentences. The external <i>sandhi</i> rules state that similar short vowels coalesce into a single long vowel, while dissimilar vowels form glides or undergo diphthongization.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJamison200810–11_40-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJamison200810–11-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Among the consonants, most external <i>sandhi</i> rules recommend regressive assimilation for clarity when they are voiced. These rules ordinarily apply at compound seams and morpheme boundaries.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJamison200810–11_40-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJamison200810–11-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Vedic Sanskrit, the external <i>sandhi</i> rules are more variable than in Classical Sanskrit.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJamison200811_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJamison200811-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The internal <i>sandhi</i> rules are more intricate and account for the root and the canonical structure of the Sanskrit word. These rules anticipate what are now known as the <a href="/wiki/Bartholomae%27s_law" title="Bartholomae's law">Bartholomae's law</a> and <a href="/wiki/Grassmann%27s_law" title="Grassmann's law">Grassmann's law</a>. For example, states Jamison, the "voiceless, voiced, and voiced aspirated obstruents of a positional series regularly alternate with each other (<i>p</i> ≈ <i>b</i> ≈ <i>bh</i>; <i>t</i> ≈ <i>d</i> ≈ <i>dh</i>, etc.; note, however, <i>c</i> ≈ <i>j</i> ≈ <i><b>h</b></i>), such that, for example, a morpheme with an underlying voiced aspirate final may show alternants with all three stops under differing internal sandhi conditions".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJamison200811–12_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJamison200811–12-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The velar series (k, g, gʰ) alternate with the palatal series (c, j, h), while the structural position of the palatal series is modified into a retroflex cluster when followed by dental. This rule creates two morphophonemically distinct series from a single palatal series.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJamison200811–12_42-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJamison200811–12-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Phonological_processes">Phonological processes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sanskrit_grammar&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Phonological processes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A number of phonological processes have been described in detail. One of them is <b><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238216509">.mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#b1d2ff}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#0f4dc9}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#0f4dc9}}</style><span class="vanchor"><span id="abhinidhāna"></span><span id="Abhinidhana"></span><span class="vanchor-text">abhinidhāna</span></span></b> (lit. 'adjacent imposition'), (also known as <i><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">āsthāpita</i></span></i>, 'stoppage', <i><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">bhakṣya</i></span></i> or <i><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">bhukta</i></span></i>). It is the <a href="/wiki/No_audible_release" title="No audible release">incomplete articulation</a>, or ""repressing or obscuring", of a <a href="/wiki/Plosive" title="Plosive">plosive</a> or, according to some texts, a <a href="/wiki/Semi-vowel" class="mw-redirect" title="Semi-vowel">semi-vowel</a> (except r), which occurs before another plosive or a pause.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVarma1961137_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVarma1961137-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was described in the various <a href="/wiki/Pr%C4%81ti%C5%9B%C4%81khya" class="mw-redirect" title="Prātiśākhya">Prātiśākhyas</a> as well as the <i><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">Cārāyaṇīya Śikṣa</i></span></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVarma1961137_43-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVarma1961137-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These texts are not unanimous on the <a href="/wiki/Phonetic_environment" title="Phonetic environment">environments</a> that trigger abhinidhana, nor on the precise classes of consonants affected. </p><p>One ancient grammarian, <i><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">Vyāḍi</i></span></i> (in <span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">Ṛgveda Prātiśākhya</i></span> 6.12), states that <span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">abhinidhāna</i></span> only occurred when a consonant was <a href="/wiki/Consonant_gemination" class="mw-redirect" title="Consonant gemination">doubled</a>, whereas according to the text of the <i><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">Śākalas</i></span></i> it was obligatory in this context but optional for plosives before another plosive of a different <a href="/wiki/Place_of_articulation" title="Place of articulation">place of articulation</a>. The <i><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">Śākalas</i></span></i> and the <i><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">Atharva Veda Prātiśākhya</i></span></i> agree on the observation that abhinidhana occurs only if there is a slight pause between the two consonants and not if they are pronounced jointly.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVarma1961138_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVarma1961138-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Word-finally, plosives undergo abhinidhāna according to the <span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">Atharva Veda Prātiśākhya</i></span> and the <i><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">Ṛgveda Prātiśākhya</i></span></i>. The latter text adds that final semivowels (excluding r) are also incompletely articulated.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVarma1961140_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVarma1961140-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <i><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">Atharva Veda Prātiśākhya</i></span></i> 2.38 lists an exception: a plosive at the end of the word will not undergo <span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">abhinidhāna</i></span> and will be fully released if it is followed by a consonant whose place of articulation is further back in the mouth.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVarma1961141–2_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVarma1961141–2-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <i><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">Cārāyaṇīya Śikṣa</i></span></i> states that the consonants affected by abhinidhāna are the voiceless unaspirated plosives, the nasal consonants and the semivowels <i><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">l</i></span></i> and <i><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">v</i></span></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVarma1961142_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVarma1961142-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>f<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Morphophonology">Morphophonology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sanskrit_grammar&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Morphophonology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vowel_gradation">Vowel gradation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sanskrit_grammar&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Vowel gradation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Sanskrit inherits from Proto-Indo-European the feature of regular in-word, vowel variations known in the context of the parent language as <a href="/wiki/Indo-European_ablaut" title="Indo-European ablaut">ablaut</a> or more generally <a href="/wiki/Apophony" title="Apophony">apophony</a>. </p><p>This feature, which can be seen in the English forms <i>sing</i>, <i>sang</i>, <i>sung</i>, and <i>song</i>, themselves a direct continuation of the PIE ablaut, is fundamental<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>g<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in Sanskrit both for <a href="/wiki/Inflexion" class="mw-redirect" title="Inflexion">inflexion</a> and <a href="/wiki/Morphological_derivation" title="Morphological derivation">derivation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Vowels within stems may change to other related vowels on the basis of the morphological operation being performed on it. There are three such grades, named the <i>zero grade</i>, <i>first grade</i>, and <i>second grade</i>. The first and second grades are also termed <i>guṇa</i><sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>ρ<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <i>vṛddhi</i><sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>σ<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> respectively. The full pattern of gradation, followed by example usage:<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Vowel gradation </caption> <tbody><tr style="text-align:center;"> <th></th> <th>Zero grade</th> <th>1st grade</th> <th>2nd grade </th></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <th>Open </th> <td>∅</td> <td><big>a</big></td> <td><big>ā</big> </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <th>Palatal </th> <td><big>i/ī <br /> y <br /> i/ī</big></td> <td><big>e<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>h<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <br /> ay <br /> ya</big></td> <td><big>ai<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>i<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <br /> āy <br /> yā</big> </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <th>Labial </th> <td><big>u/ū <br /> v <br /> u/ū</big></td> <td><big>o<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>j<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <br /> av <br /> va</big></td> <td><big>au<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>k<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <br /> āv <br /> vā</big> </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <th>Retroflex </th> <td><big>ṛ <br /> r <br /> ṛ</big></td> <td><big>ar <br /> ar <br /> ra</big></td> <td><big>ār <br /> ār <br /> rā</big> </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <th>Dental </th> <td><big>ḷ</big></td> <td><big>al</big></td> <td><big>āl</big> </td></tr></tbody></table> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Vowel gradation examples </caption> <tbody><tr style="text-align:center;"> <th></th> <th>Zero grade</th> <th>1st grade</th> <th>2nd grade </th></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <th>Open </th> <td>rā́<b>jñ</b>·as</td> <td>rā́<b>jan</b></td> <td>rā́<b>jān</b>·am </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <th>Palatal </th> <td><b>ji</b>·tá-<br /> ni<b>ny</b>·ús <br /> <b>iṣ</b>·ṭá-</td> <td><b>jé</b>·tum <br /> <b>náy</b>·ana- <br /> <b>yáj</b>·ana-</td> <td>á·<b>jai</b>·ṣ·am <br /> <b>nā́y</b>·aya·ti <br /> <b>yā́j</b>·aya·ti </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <th>Labial </th> <td><b>śru</b>·tá- <br /> <b>śṛṇv·</b>é <br /> <b>ud</b>·i·tá-</td> <td><b>śró</b>·tum <br /> <b>śráv</b>·aṇa- <br /> <b>vád</b>·ana-</td> <td>á·<b>śrau</b>·ṣ·am <br /> śu<b>śrā́v</b>·a <br /> <b>vā́d</b>·aya·ti </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <th>Retroflex </th> <td><b>kṛ</b>·tá- <br /> ca<b>kr</b>·ús <br /> <b>gṛh</b>ī·tá</td> <td><b>kár</b>·tum <br /> <b>kár</b>·aṇa- <br /> <b>gráh</b>·aṇa-</td> <td>ca·<b>kā́r</b>·a <br /> <b>kā́r</b>·aya·ti <br /> <b>grā́h</b>·aya·ti </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <th>Dental </th> <td><b>kḷp</b>·tá-</td> <td><b>kálp</b>·ana-</td> <td><b>kā́lp</b>a- </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>As per the internal and historical structure of the system, the guṇa grade can be seen as the normal grade, whence proceeds either a <i>strengthening</i><sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>l<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to form the second grade, or a <i>weakening</i> to form the zero-grade. The ancient grammarians however took the zero-grade as the natural form on which to apply guṇa or vṛddhi. </p><p>Whilst with the 1-grade-based system it is possible to derive the 0-grades thus: </p> <ul><li>ghóṣ·a·ti ⇒ ghuṣ·ṭá-</li> <li>sráv·a·ti ⇒ sru·tá-</li> <li>sváp·a·ti<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>m<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> ⇒ sup·tá-</li></ul> <p>the approach used by the ancient grammarians does not always work: </p> <ul><li>sup·tá- ≠ *sóp·a·ti</li></ul> <p>To overcome this, the ancient grammarians, while formulating most roots in zero-grade form, make an exception for some, and prescribe a treatment called <i>samprasāraṇa</i> on these: </p> <ul><li>ghóṣ·a·ti, ghuṣ·ṭá- ⇒ ghuṣ-</li> <li>sráv·a·ti, sru·tá- ⇒ sru-</li> <li>sváp·a·ti, sup·tá- ⇒ svap-</li></ul> <p>Thus, unlike most others, the root 'svap-' does not hold a 0-grade vowel, and is subject to <i>samprasāraṇa</i> before the past participle 'sup·tá-' can be formed.<sup id="cite_ref-Coulsonp22_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Coulsonp22-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Besides *r̥, *l̥, Proto-Indo-European also had *m̥, *n̥,<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>n<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> all of which, in capacity of zero-grade vowels, participated in the gradation system. Whilst the latter two did not survive in Sanskrit (they ended up as <i>a</i> instead), their effects can be seen in verb-formation steps such as just seen above.<sup id="cite_ref-Coulsonp22_63-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Coulsonp22-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Therefore, it is possible to analogically expand the above vowel-gradation table thus: </p> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Vowel gradation </caption> <tbody><tr style="text-align:center;"> <th></th> <th>Zero grade</th> <th>1st grade</th> <th>2nd grade </th></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <th>Labial nasal </th> <td><big>a</big><br />ga·tá-</td> <td><big>am</big><br />gám·ana</td> <td><big>ām</big><br />jagā́ma </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <th>Dental nasal </th> <td><big>a</big><br />ha·tá-</td> <td><big>an</big><br />hán·ti</td> <td><big>ān</big><br />jaghā́na </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The proto-forms of ga·tá- and ha·tá- would thus have *m̥ and *n̥ respectively: *gʷm̥·tó-<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>o<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and *gʷʰn̥·tó-<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>p<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Accent">Accent</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sanskrit_grammar&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Accent"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Sanskrit inherited a <a href="/wiki/Pitch_accent" class="mw-redirect" title="Pitch accent">pitch accent</a> (see: <a href="/wiki/Vedic_accent" title="Vedic accent">Vedic accent</a>) from Proto-Indo-European, as well as vowel gradation, both of which, in Sanskrit, just as in the parent language, go hand in hand. </p><p>As a general rule, a root bearing the accent takes the first (guṇa) or second (vṛddhi) grade, and when unaccented, reduces to zero grade.<sup id="cite_ref-Coulson98_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Coulson98-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>i- ⇒ éti (0 ⇒ 1st grade)</li> <li>i·tá ⇒ áy·anam (0 ⇒ 2nd grade)</li></ul> <p>The gradation examples given in the previous sections demonstrate several more instances of this phenomenon with verbs. </p><p>With nouns, the pattern does not always hold, as even from the earliest stage of the language, there has been a tendency to fix a single form, thus while <i>kṣam</i> has <i>kṣā́mas</i> (2-g) and <i>kṣmás</i> (0-g), <i>vāc</i> has 2nd-grade forms throughout.<sup id="cite_ref-Coulson98_69-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Coulson98-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Nouns whose stem vary between strong, middle and weak forms may correspondingly reflect 2nd, 1st and zero-grade vowels respectively. This may not always be matched by the accent:<sup id="cite_ref-Coulson98_69-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Coulson98-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>rā́jan, rā́jānam, rā́jnā (1, 2, 0 grades)</li></ul> <p>The above system of accent disappeared completely at some point during the classical stage. It was still alive in Pāṇini's time and even after Patañjali.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>q<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The author of the Kāśikā commentary (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 700 CE</span>) declares its use optional, and it might have disappeared from popular speech in the early centuries of the Common Era.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Verbs">Verbs</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sanskrit_grammar&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Verbs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit_verbs" title="Sanskrit verbs">Sanskrit verbs</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Background">Background</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sanskrit_grammar&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Background"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Sanskrit has inherited from its parent the Proto-Indo-European language an elaborate system of verbal morphology, more of which has been preserved in Sanskrit as a whole than in other kindred languages such as <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Ancient Greek</a> or <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a>. </p><p>Some of the features of the verbal system, however, have been lost in the classical language, compared to the older <a href="/wiki/Vedic_Sanskrit" title="Vedic Sanskrit">Vedic Sanskrit</a>, and in other cases, distinctions that have existed between different tenses have been blurred in the later language. Classical Sanskrit thus does not have the <a href="/wiki/Subjunctive" class="mw-redirect" title="Subjunctive">subjunctive</a> or the <a href="/wiki/Injunctive_mood" title="Injunctive mood">injunctive mood</a>, has dropped a variety of <a href="/wiki/Infinitive" title="Infinitive">infinitive</a> forms, and the distinctions in meaning between the <a href="/wiki/Imperfect" title="Imperfect">imperfect</a>, <a href="/wiki/Perfect_(grammar)" title="Perfect (grammar)">perfect</a> and <a href="/wiki/Aorist" title="Aorist">aorist</a> forms are barely maintained and ultimately lost.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Conjugation">Conjugation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sanskrit_grammar&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Conjugation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Grammatical_conjugation" title="Grammatical conjugation">Verb conjugation</a> in Sanskrit involves the interplay of five 'dimensions', number<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>τ<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>, person<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>υ<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>, voice<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>φ<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>, mood<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>χ<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and tense<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>ψ<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>, with the following variables:<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <caption> </caption> <tbody><tr> <td>1</td> <td>3 numbers</td> <td>singular<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>ω<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>, dual<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>αα<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>, plural<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>αβ<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td>2</td> <td>3 persons</td> <td>first<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>αγ<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>, second<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>αδ<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>, third<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>αε<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td>3</td> <td>3 voices</td> <td>active<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>αζ<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>, middle<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>αη<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>, passive<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>αθ<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td>4</td> <td>4 moods</td> <td>indicative, optative, imperative, conditional </td></tr> <tr> <td>5</td> <td>6 tenses</td> <td>present, imperfect, perfect, aorist, <p>periphrastic future, simple future </p> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Further, <a href="/wiki/Participles" class="mw-redirect" title="Participles">participles</a> are considered part of the verbal systems although they are not verbs themselves.<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Classical Sanskrit has only one infinitive, of accusative case-form.<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Formation">Formation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sanskrit_grammar&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Formation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The starting point for the <a href="/wiki/Morphology_(linguistics)" title="Morphology (linguistics)">morphological</a> analysis of the Sanskrit verb is the <a href="/wiki/Root_(linguistics)" title="Root (linguistics)">root</a>. Before the final endings to denote number, person etc can be applied, additional elements may be added to the root. Whether such elements are affixed or not, the resulting component here is the stem, to which these final endings can then be added.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Based on the treatment they undergo to form the stem, the roots of the Sanskrit language are arranged by the ancient grammarians in ten classes <sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>αι<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>, based on how they form the present stem, and named after a verb typical to each class. </p><p>No discoverable grammatical principle has been found for the ordering of these classes. This can be rearranged for greater clarity into non-thematic and thematic groups as summarized below:<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Thematic verb classes </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Root </th> <th></th> <th>Treatment</th> <th>Stem</th> <th>gaṇa</th> <th>Conjugation samples<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>r<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></th> <th>Remarks </th></tr> <tr> <td>√bhū- </td> <td><sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>B<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>Root accent, gunated <sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>s<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>bháv-</td> <td>First</td> <td>bháv·a·ti</td> <td>The commonest of all classes, with nearly half of the roots in the language.<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td>√tud- </td> <td><sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>C<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>None (ending accent)</td> <td>tud-</td> <td>Sixth</td> <td>tud·á·ti</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>√dív- </td> <td><sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>D<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>-ya- suffix</td> <td>dī́v·ya-</td> <td>Fourth</td> <td>dī́v·ya·ti</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>√cur- </td> <td><sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>E<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>-aya- with root gradation, or -áya- without</td> <td>cór·aya-</td> <td>Tenth</td> <td>cór·aya·ti</td> <td>Usually to form causatives, not strictly a class per se<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr></tbody></table> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Athematic verb classes </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Root </th> <th></th> <th>Treatment</th> <th>Stem</th> <th>gaṇa</th> <th>Conjugation samples<sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>t<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></th> <th>Remarks </th></tr> <tr> <td>√ad- </td> <td><sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>F<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>None</td> <td>ad-</td> <td>Second</td> <td>at·ti <br /> at·tas <br /> ad·anti</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>√hu- </td> <td><sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>G<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>Reduplication, accent varies</td> <td>juhó- <br /> juhu- <br /> júhv-<sup id="cite_ref-u2v_108-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-u2v-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>u<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>Third</td> <td>juhó·ti <br /> juhu·tás <br /> júhv·ati</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>√su- </td> <td><sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>H<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>-no- suffix</td> <td>su·nó- <br /> su·nu- <br /> su·nv-<sup id="cite_ref-u2v_108-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-u2v-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>u<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>Fifth</td> <td>su·nó·ti <br /> su·nu·tás <br /> su·nv·ánti</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>√tan- </td> <td><sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>I<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>-o- suffix</td> <td>tan·ó- <br /> tan·u- <br /> tan·v-<sup id="cite_ref-u2v_108-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-u2v-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>u<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>Eighth<sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>v<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>tan·ó·ti <br /> tan·u·tás <br /> tan·v·ánti</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>√krī- </td> <td><sup id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>J<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>-nā- suffix</td> <td>krī·ṇā́- <br /> krī·ṇī- <br /> krī·ṇ-</td> <td>Ninth</td> <td>krī·ṇā́·ti <br /> krī·ṇī·tás <br /> krī·ṇ-ánti</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>√rudh- </td> <td><sup id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>K<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>Nasal infix</td> <td>ru·ṇá·dh- <br /> ru·n·dh-</td> <td>Seventh</td> <td>ru·ṇá·d·dhi <br /> ru·n·d·dhás <br /> ru·n·dh·ánti</td> <td> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Scope">Scope</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sanskrit_grammar&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Scope"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As in kindred Indo-European languages, conjugation is effected across the tenses, moods, voices, persons and numbers stated, yielding, in Sanskrit, a huge number of combinations.<sup id="cite_ref-114" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-115" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Conjugation – standard finite verbs </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>System</th> <th>Tense</th> <th>Mood</th> <th>Endings</th> <th>Conventional term </th></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="4">Present</td> <td rowspan="3">Present</td> <td>Indicative</td> <td>Primary</td> <td>'Present' </td></tr> <tr> <td>Optative</td> <td>Secondary</td> <td>'Optative' </td></tr> <tr> <td>Imperative</td> <td>Imperative</td> <td>'Imperative' </td></tr> <tr> <td>Perfect</td> <td>Indicative</td> <td>Secondary</td> <td>'Imperfect' </td></tr> <tr> <td>Perfect</td> <td>Past</td> <td>Indicative</td> <td>Perfect</td> <td>'Perfect' </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">Aorist</td> <td rowspan="2">Past</td> <td>Indicative</td> <td>Secondary</td> <td>'Aorist' </td></tr> <tr> <td>Optative<sup id="cite_ref-117" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>w<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>Secondary</td> <td>'Injunctive' </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">Future</td> <td>Future <sup id="cite_ref-118" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>x<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>Indicative</td> <td>Primary</td> <td>'Future' </td></tr> <tr> <td>Perfect</td> <td>Conditional</td> <td>Secondary</td> <td>'Conditional' </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Furthermore, Sanskrit has so-called <i>Secondary</i> conjugations:<sup id="cite_ref-119" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>Passive</li> <li>Intensive</li> <li>Desiderative</li> <li>Causative</li> <li>Denominative</li></ul> <p>The non-finite forms are: </p> <ul><li>Participles <sup id="cite_ref-120" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>y<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Infinitive</li> <li>Gerund</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Nominals">Nominals</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sanskrit_grammar&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Nominals"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit_nominals" title="Sanskrit nominals">Sanskrit nominals</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Declension">Declension</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sanskrit_grammar&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Declension"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Declension" title="Declension">Declension</a> of a <a href="/wiki/Noun" title="Noun">noun</a> in Sanskrit involves the interplay of two 'dimensions': 3 numbers and 8 cases.<sup id="cite_ref-Bucknell,_p._11_121-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bucknell,_p._11-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Further, nouns themselves in Sanskrit, like its parent Proto-Indo-European, can be in one of three genders. </p><p>In addition, <a href="/wiki/Adjectives" class="mw-redirect" title="Adjectives">adjectives</a> behave much the same way morphologically as nouns do, and can conveniently be considered together. While the same noun cannot be seen to be of more than one gender, adjectives change gender on the <a href="/wiki/Agreement_(linguistics)" title="Agreement (linguistics)">basis</a> of the noun they are being applied to, along with case and number, thus giving the following variables:<sup id="cite_ref-122" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-123" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <caption> </caption> <tbody><tr> <td>1</td> <td>3 numbers</td> <td>singular, dual, plural </td></tr> <tr> <td>2</td> <td>3 genders</td> <td>masculine, feminine, neuter </td></tr> <tr> <td>3</td> <td>8 cases</td> <td>nominative, accusative, instrumental, <p>dative, ablative, genitive, locative, vocative </p> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The oldest system of declension was in Proto-Indo-European, inherited by Sanskrit, to affix the endings directly to the nominal root. In later stages, a new system developed wherein an intermediary called the <a href="/wiki/Thematic_vowel" title="Thematic vowel">thematic vowel</a> is inserted to the root before the final endings are appended: <i>*-o-</i> which in Sanskrit becomes <i>-a-</i>, producing the thematic stem.<sup id="cite_ref-124" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-125" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Stem_classification">Stem classification</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sanskrit_grammar&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Stem classification"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Substantives may be divided into different classes on the basis of the stem vowel before they are declined on the above basis. The general classification is: </p> <ul><li>a-stems</li> <li>i- and u-stems</li> <li>ā-, ī- and ū-stems</li> <li>ṛ-stems</li> <li>Consonant stems</li></ul> <p>When the nominal endings are being affixed to a noun of each class, they may undergo, in some cases, some changes, including being entirely replaced by other forms.<sup id="cite_ref-126" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-127" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-128" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Numerals">Numerals</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sanskrit_grammar&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Numerals"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit_nouns#Numerals" class="mw-redirect" title="Sanskrit nouns">Sanskrit nouns § Numerals</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Personal_pronouns_and_determiners">Personal pronouns and determiners</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sanskrit_grammar&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Personal pronouns and determiners"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit_pronouns_and_determiners" class="mw-redirect" title="Sanskrit pronouns and determiners">Sanskrit pronouns and determiners</a></div> <p>Sanskrit pronouns and determiners behave in their <a href="/wiki/Declension" title="Declension">declension</a> largely like other declinable classes such as <a href="/wiki/Nouns" class="mw-redirect" title="Nouns">nouns</a>, <a href="/wiki/Adjectives" class="mw-redirect" title="Adjectives">adjectives</a> and <a href="/wiki/Numeral_(linguistics)" title="Numeral (linguistics)">numerals</a>, so that they can all be classed together under <a href="/wiki/Nominal_(linguistics)" title="Nominal (linguistics)">nominals</a>. However, pronouns and determiners display certain peculiarities of their own compared to the other nominal classes.<sup id="cite_ref-129" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Bucknell,_p._11_121-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bucknell,_p._11-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Furthermore, personal pronouns have an additional dimension not present in the other nominals, but shared by verbs: <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_person" title="Grammatical person">person</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-130" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Pronouns<sup id="cite_ref-131" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>ακ<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> are declined for <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_case" title="Grammatical case">case</a><sup id="cite_ref-132" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-132"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>αλ<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>, <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_number" title="Grammatical number">number</a><sup id="cite_ref-133" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-133"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>αμ<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>, and gender<sup id="cite_ref-134" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-134"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>αν<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>. The pronominal declension applies to a few adjectives as well. Many pronouns have alternative enclitic forms. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Derivation">Derivation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sanskrit_grammar&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Derivation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit_nouns#Nominal_derivation" class="mw-redirect" title="Sanskrit nouns">Sanskrit nouns § Nominal derivation</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Morphological_derivation" title="Morphological derivation">Derivation</a> or word-formation in Sanskrit can be divided into the following types:<sup id="cite_ref-135" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-135"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-136" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-136"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ol><li>Primary derivation – suffixes directly appended to roots<sup id="cite_ref-137" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-137"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>αξ<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Secondary derivation – suffixes appended to derivative stems<sup id="cite_ref-138" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-138"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>αο<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Word-compounding – combining one more word stems</li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Compounds">Compounds</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sanskrit_grammar&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Compounds"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit_compounds" class="mw-redirect" title="Sanskrit compounds">Sanskrit compounds</a></div> <p>Sanskrit inherits from its parent Proto-Indo-European the capability of forming <a href="/wiki/Compound_(linguistics)" title="Compound (linguistics)">compound</a> nouns<sup id="cite_ref-139" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-139"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>απ<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>, also widely seen in <a href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">kindred</a> languages such as especially <a href="/wiki/German_compounds" class="mw-redirect" title="German compounds">German</a>, <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a> and also <a href="/wiki/English_compound" title="English compound">English</a>. </p><p>However, Sanskrit, especially in the later stages of the language, significantly expands on this both in terms of the number of elements making up a single compound and the volume of compound-usage in the literature, a development which has no parallels elsewhere.<sup id="cite_ref-Coulson,_p._xxi_140-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Coulson,_p._xxi-140"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Burrow209_141-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Burrow209-141"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Indeclinables">Indeclinables</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sanskrit_grammar&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Indeclinables"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Words that change no form across cases, numbers, genders are classified as <i>indeclinables</i><sup id="cite_ref-142" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-142"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>αρ<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>. Indeclinables may be divided into either <i>simple</i> and <i>compound</i>. The latter is treated under <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit_compound#Avyayībhāva_(adverbial)" title="Sanskrit compound">Sanskrit compounds</a> and the term indeclinable usually implies only the former type.<sup id="cite_ref-143" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-143"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Indeclinables can be classified as follows:<sup id="cite_ref-144" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-144"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ol><li>Prepositions</li> <li>Adverbs</li> <li>Particles</li> <li>Conjunctions</li> <li>Interjections</li> <li>Miscellaneous</li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Prepositions">Prepositions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sanskrit_grammar&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Prepositions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In Sanskrit, a preposition<sup id="cite_ref-145" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-145"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>ασ<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is an indeclinable with an independent meaning that is prefixed to verbs and their derivatives with the result of modifying, intensifying, or in some cases, totally altering the sense of the roots.<sup id="cite_ref-146" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-146"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Adverbs">Adverbs</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sanskrit_grammar&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Adverbs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In Sanskrit, <a href="/wiki/Adverbs" class="mw-redirect" title="Adverbs">adverbs</a> are either inherited as set forms from the parent language or may be derived from nouns, pronouns or numeral. </p><p>The typical way of forming an adverb is to simply use the accusative singular neutral form<sup id="cite_ref-147" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-147"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>z<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> of nouns and adjectives.<sup id="cite_ref-148" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-148"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Particles">Particles</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sanskrit_grammar&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Particles"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Particles are used either as expletives or intensives.<sup id="cite_ref-149" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-149"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The most common ones are:<sup id="cite_ref-150" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-150"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ol><li><i>a-, an-</i> – generally the same meaning as English 'un-' and 'a-', but with some extended senses</li> <li><i>sma</i> – when used with the present form of a verb, it conveys the past tense</li> <li><i>kā-</i>, <i>ku-</i> – prefixed to give a negative, inadequate or pejorative connotation.</li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Conjunctions">Conjunctions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sanskrit_grammar&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Conjunctions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The following is an enumeration of the main types of Sanskrit conjunctions:<sup id="cite_ref-151" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-151"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ol><li><i>atha</i> – marks the beginning of a work</li> <li>Copulative – <i>atha, atho, uta, ca,</i> etc</li> <li>Disjunctive – <i>vā, vā... vā,</i> etc</li> <li>Adversative – <i>athavā, tu, kintu,</i> etc</li> <li>Conditional – <i>cet, yadi, yadāpi, net,</i> etc</li> <li>Causal – <i>hi, tat, tena,</i> etc</li> <li>Interrogative – <i>āho, āha, uta, utāho, kim,</i> etc</li> <li>Affirmative and negative – <i>atha kim, ām, addhā,</i> etc</li> <li>Conjunctions of time – <i>yāvat-tāvat, yadā-tadā,</i> etc</li> <li><i>iti</i> – marks the end of a work</li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Interjections">Interjections</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sanskrit_grammar&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Interjections"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The main ones in Sanskrit expressing the various emotions are:<sup id="cite_ref-152" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-152"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ol><li>Wonder, grief, regret, etc: <i>ā, aho, ha,</i> etc</li> <li>Contempt: <i>kim, dhik,</i> etc</li> <li>Sorrow, dejection, grief: <i>hā, hāhā, hanta,</i> etc</li> <li>Joy: <i>hanta</i> etc</li> <li>Respectfully calling attention: <i>aho, bhoḥ, he, ho,</i> etc</li> <li>Disrespectfully calling attention: <i>are, rere,</i> etc</li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Miscellaneous">Miscellaneous</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sanskrit_grammar&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Miscellaneous"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A few nouns have only one inflection and thus behave like indeclinables. The most common ones are:<sup id="cite_ref-153" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-153"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 20em;"> <ul><li>anyat <sup id="cite_ref-154" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-154"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>L<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>asti <sup id="cite_ref-155" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-155"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>M<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>nāsti <sup id="cite_ref-156" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-156"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>N<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>saṃvat <sup id="cite_ref-157" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-157"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>O<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>bhūr <sup id="cite_ref-158" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-158"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>P<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>bhuvar <sup id="cite_ref-159" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-159"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>Q<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>svāhā <sup id="cite_ref-160" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-160"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>R<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>namas <sup id="cite_ref-161" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-161"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>S<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>svasti <sup id="cite_ref-162" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-162"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>T<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Om" title="Om">om</a></li></ul></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Syntax">Syntax</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sanskrit_grammar&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Syntax"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Because of Sanskrit's complex <a href="/wiki/Declension" title="Declension">declension</a> system, the <a href="/wiki/Word_order" title="Word order">word order</a> is free.<sup id="cite_ref-Staal1967_163-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Staal1967-163"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In usage, there is a strong tendency toward <a href="/wiki/Subject%E2%80%93object%E2%80%93verb" class="mw-redirect" title="Subject–object–verb">subject–object–verb</a> (SOV), which was the original system in place in Vedic prose. However, there are exceptions when word pairs cannot be transposed.<sup id="cite_ref-164" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-164"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Notably, Pāṇini did not fix syntax in the Aṣtādhyāyī, as to do so explicitly would be difficult in any language, given several ways of expressing the same idea and various other ways of expressing similar ideas. Thus within the bounds of phonological and morphological definition wrought by Pāṇini, the syntax of Sanskrit has continued to evolve in the course of its productive literary history.<sup id="cite_ref-Coulson,_p._xxi_140-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Coulson,_p._xxi-140"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Peculiar_characteristics">Peculiar characteristics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sanskrit_grammar&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Peculiar characteristics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the introduction to his celebrated translation of <a href="/wiki/Vidyakara" title="Vidyakara">Vidyakara</a>'s <span title="Sanskrit-language romanization"><i lang="sa-Latn">Subhāṣitaratnakośa</i></span>, <a href="/wiki/Daniel_H._H._Ingalls_Sr." title="Daniel H. H. Ingalls Sr.">Daniel H.H. Ingalls</a> describes some peculiar characteristics of the Sanskrit language. </p><p>He refers to the enormous vocabulary of Sanskrit, and also of the presence of a larger choice of synonyms in Sanskrit than any other language he knew of. Further, just as there exist a vast number of synonyms for almost any word in Sanskrit, there also exist synonymous constructions. In his elementary Sanskrit examinations he would ask his students to write in Sanskrit the sentence 'You must fetch the horse' in ten different ways. Actually, it is possible to write the sentence in Sanskrit in around fifteen different ways 'by using active or passive constructions, imperative or optative, an auxiliary verb, or any of the three gerundive forms, each of which, by the way, gives a different metrical pattern'. </p><p>Ingalls writes: 'Every Indian, one may suppose, grew up learning naturally the <a href="/wiki/Mother_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Mother language">language of his mother</a> and his playmates. Only after this, and if he belonged to the priesthood or the nobility or to such a professional caste as that of the clerks, the physicians, or the astrologers, would he learn Sanskrit. As a general rule, Sanskrit was not the language of the family. It furnished no subconscious symbols for the impressions which we receive in childhood nor for the emotions which form our character in early adolescence.'<sup id="cite_ref-Vidyākara_1965_p._165-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vidyākara_1965_p.-165"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sanskrit_grammar&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sanskrit_nominals" title="Sanskrit nominals">Sanskrit nominals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanskrit_verbs" title="Sanskrit verbs">Sanskrit verbs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanskrit_compound" title="Sanskrit compound">Sanskrit compound</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P%C4%81%E1%B9%87ini" title="Pāṇini">Pāṇini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A%E1%B9%A3%E1%B9%AD%C4%81dhy%C4%81y%C4%AB" title="Aṣṭādhyāyī">Aṣṭādhyāyī</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vedic_Sanskrit_grammar" title="Vedic Sanskrit grammar">Vedic Sanskrit grammar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre-Sylvain_Filliozat" title="Pierre-Sylvain Filliozat">Pierre-Sylvain Filliozat</a>, French sanskrit scholar</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-Aryan_language" title="Proto-Indo-Aryan language">Proto-Indo-Aryan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-Iranian_language" title="Proto-Indo-Iranian language">Proto-Indo-Iranian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_language" title="Proto-Indo-European language">Proto-Indo-European</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sanskrit_grammar&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-lower-alpha" style="column-width: 20em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">A special type of sacrifice, the Sarasvatī, was devised to expiate errors of speech.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Pāṇini's full treatise was also referred to as <i>śabdānuśāsana</i> – a means of instruction (<i>anuśāsana</i>) of proper speech forms (<i>śabda</i>) <sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">twice as long as the shorts</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">more central and less back than the closest English approximation</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">In the earlier language, v <span title="Sanskrit-language text"><span lang="sa">व</span></span> was pronounced as the <a href="/wiki/Labio-velar_approximant" class="mw-redirect" title="Labio-velar approximant">labio-velar approximant</a> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[w]</span>, but it later developed into a <a href="/wiki/Labio-dental" class="mw-redirect" title="Labio-dental">labio-dental</a> sound.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAllen195357_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllen195357-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To an English speaker's ear, this sound may be interpreted as the English "v" or the English "w", depending on context and precise articulation. Moreover, the Sanskrit v व has a considerable range of articulation depending on position.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAllen195328,58_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllen195328,58-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is nonetheless understood in the Sanskrit writing system, as well as perceived by speakers of modern Indian languages, as one and the same phoneme.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">These differences may indicate geographical variation.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVarma1961139_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVarma1961139-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is not clear whether abhinidhana was present in the early spoken Sanskrit or it developed at a later stage.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVarma1961137–8_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVarma1961137–8-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In <a href="/wiki/Prakrit" title="Prakrit">Prakrit</a> and <a href="/wiki/P%C4%81li" class="mw-redirect" title="Pāli">Pāli</a> abhinidhana was carried a step forward into complete <a href="/wiki/Assimilation_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Assimilation (linguistics)">assimilation</a>, as for example <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Sanskrit language">Sanskrit</a>: <i lang="sa">sapta</i> to <a href="/wiki/Jain_Prakrit_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Jain Prakrit language">Jain Prakrit</a>: <i lang="pka">satta</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The very first of the sūtras in Pāṇini's Aṣṭādhyāyī define vowel gradation!</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">originally 'ai'</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">originally 'āi'</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">originally 'au'</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">originally 'āu'</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">vṛddhi indeed means growth</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> or svapiti</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_phonology#Sonorants" title="Proto-Indo-European phonology">Proto-Indo-European phonology#Sonorants</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/gʷm̥tós">gʷm̥tó-</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/gʷʰen-">*gʷʰn̥-tó-</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Śāntanava discusses this in his Phiṭsūtra.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Present-tense third-person singular</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Occasionally vriddhied</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Present-tense third-person singular, dual and plural</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-u2v-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-u2v_108-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-u2v_108-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-u2v_108-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">variant of the u- form when followed by a vowel</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Very similar to the Fifth class</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-117"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Very rare in Classical Sanskrit<sup id="cite_ref-116" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">2 forms: Simple & Periphrastic</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-120"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">may take both active and middle voice</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-147"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-147">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">occasionally other singular cases are used</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Glossary">Glossary</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sanskrit_grammar&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: Glossary"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-upper-alpha" style="column-width: 20em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">to order, array</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">be</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">strike</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">cast, throw, especially of dice</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">steal</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">eat</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">call, invoke, sacrifice</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">press (of juice)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">extend, spread</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">buy</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-113"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">stop, arrest, check</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-154"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-154">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">another (reason)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-155"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-155">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">that exists</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-156"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-156">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">non-existence</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-157"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-157">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">year</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-158"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-158">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">earth</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-159"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-159">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">sky</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-160"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-160">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">food offered to the gods</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-161"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-161">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">a bow</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-162"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-162">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">well-being, happiness</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Traditional_glossary_and_notes">Traditional glossary and notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sanskrit_grammar&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: Traditional glossary and notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-lower-greek" style="column-width: 20em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>śvāsa</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>nāda</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>kaṇṭhya</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>tālavya</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>mūrdhanya</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>dantya</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>oṣṭhya</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>alpa·prāṇa</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>mahā·prāṇa</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>anunāsika</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>antastha</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>hrasva</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>dīrgha</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>sparśa</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>vyañjana</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>svara</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"ad·eṄ guṇaḥ" – Pāṇini I 2</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"vṛddhir·ād·aiC" – Pāṇini I 1</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>vacana</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>puruṣa</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>prayoga</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>artha</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>kāla</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>eka·vacana</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>dvi·vacana</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>bahu·vacana</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>prathama·puruṣa</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>dvitīya·puruṣa</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>tṛtīya·puruṣa</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>kartari·prayoga</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>karmaṇi·prayoga</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>bhāve·prayoga</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>gaṇa</i>s</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-131"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">sarva·nāman</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-132"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-132">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">vibhakti</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-133"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-133">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">vacana</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-134"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-134">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">liṅga</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-137"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-137">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>kṛt</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-138"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-138">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>taddhita</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-139"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-139">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>samāsa</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-142"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-142">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>avyaya</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-145"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-145">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/Upasarga" title="Upasarga">upasarga</a></i> or <i>gāti</i></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sanskrit_grammar&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 20em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Keith, p. 4</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Burrow21-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Burrow21_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Burrow21_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Burrow, §2.1.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Coulson, p. xv.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Whitney, p. xii.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cardona §1.6</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Whitney, p. xiii</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Coulson, p xvi.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Staal (1972) p. 0</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bucknell, p. 73.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Whitney, §19–79.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Stiehl 2011</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllen195357-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAllen195357_32-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAllen1953">Allen 1953</a>, p. 57.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllen195328,58-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAllen195328,58_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAllen1953">Allen 1953</a>, p. 28,58.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Whitney, §19–30.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bohtlingk, (1887), p.1.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-SktCons-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-SktCons_38-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-SktCons_38-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-SktCons_38-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Whitney, §31–75.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFHamp,_Eric_P.1996" class="citation web cs1">Hamp, Eric P. (October–December 1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/605442">"On the Indo-European origins of the retroflexes in Sanskrit"</a>. The Journal of the American Oriental Society<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 January</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=On+the+Indo-European+origins+of+the+retroflexes+in+Sanskrit&rft.pub=The+Journal+of+the+American+Oriental+Society&rft.date=1996-10%2F1996-12&rft.au=Hamp%2C+Eric+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F605442&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASanskrit+grammar" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJamison200810–11-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJamison200810–11_40-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJamison200810–11_40-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJamison200810–11_40-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJamison2008">Jamison 2008</a>, pp. 10–11.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJamison200811-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJamison200811_41-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJamison2008">Jamison 2008</a>, p. 11.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJamison200811–12-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJamison200811–12_42-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJamison200811–12_42-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJamison2008">Jamison 2008</a>, pp. 11–12.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVarma1961137-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVarma1961137_43-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVarma1961137_43-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFVarma1961">Varma 1961</a>, p. 137.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVarma1961138-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVarma1961138_44-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFVarma1961">Varma 1961</a>, p. 138.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVarma1961140-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVarma1961140_45-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFVarma1961">Varma 1961</a>, p. 140.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVarma1961141–2-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVarma1961141–2_46-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFVarma1961">Varma 1961</a>, pp. 141–2.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVarma1961142-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVarma1961142_47-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFVarma1961">Varma 1961</a>, p. 142.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVarma1961139-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVarma1961139_48-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFVarma1961">Varma 1961</a>, p. 139.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVarma1961137–8-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVarma1961137–8_49-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFVarma1961">Varma 1961</a>, pp. 137–8.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Fortson, §4.12.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Burrow, §3.22.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bucknell, tb. 5.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Coulsonp22-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Coulsonp22_63-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Coulsonp22_63-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Coulson, p. 22.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Burrow, p. 109.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Burrow, p. 110.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Coulson98-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Coulson98_69-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Coulson98_69-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Coulson98_69-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Coulson, §98.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Burrow, pp 115.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Macdonnell, Vedic p.118.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Fortson, §10.41.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bucknell, p. 34.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Burrow, p. 367</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Whitney, §538</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Burrow, §7.3.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Whitney, ch 8.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Burrow, §7.8</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Whitney, ch. 8.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Monier Williams – word meanings</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Burrow, p. 328</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Whitney, §775</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-114"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Whitney, §527–541.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-115"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bucknell, §2.B.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-116"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bucknell, p. 53.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-119"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Whitney, §540.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bucknell,_p._11-121"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Bucknell,_p._11_121-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bucknell,_p._11_121-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Bucknell, p. 11.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-122"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bucknell, p. 12-16.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-123"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Whitney, §261–266.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Fortson, §6.43.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-125"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Burrow, §4.3</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-126"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Whitney, §321–322.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-127"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Fortson, §10.46.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-128"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Burrow, §4.3–4.4.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-129"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Whitney, §490.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-130"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bucknell, p. 32.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-135"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-135">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Whitney, §1138.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-136"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-136">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kale, §179, 337.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Coulson,_p._xxi-140"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Coulson,_p._xxi_140-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Coulson,_p._xxi_140-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Coulson, p. xxi.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Burrow209-141"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Burrow209_141-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Burrow, p. 209.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-143"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-143">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kale, §362.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-144"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-144">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kale, §363.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-146"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-146">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kale, §365.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-148"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-148">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kale, §372.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-149"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-149">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kale, §374.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-150"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-150">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kale, §375.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-151"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-151">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kale, §376.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-152"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-152">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kale, §377.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-153"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-153">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kale, §364.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Staal1967-163"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Staal1967_163-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJ.F._Staal1967" class="citation book cs1">J.F. Staal (31 January 1967). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=VqihQhNkqu4C&pg=PA28"><i>Word Order in Sanskrit and Universal Grammar</i></a>. Springer Science & Business Media. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-277-0549-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-277-0549-5"><bdi>978-90-277-0549-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Word+Order+in+Sanskrit+and+Universal+Grammar&rft.pub=Springer+Science+%26+Business+Media&rft.date=1967-01-31&rft.isbn=978-90-277-0549-5&rft.au=J.F.+Staal&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DVqihQhNkqu4C%26pg%3DPA28&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASanskrit+grammar" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-164"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-164">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGillon1996" class="citation cs2">Gillon, B.S (25 March 1996), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cat.inist.fr/?aModele=afficheN&cpsidt=2875140">"Word order in Classical Sanskrit"</a>, <i>Indian Linguistics</i>, <b>57</b> (<span class="nowrap">1–</span>4): 1, <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0378-0759">0378-0759</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Indian+Linguistics&rft.atitle=Word+order+in+Classical+Sanskrit&rft.volume=57&rft.issue=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1%E2%80%93%3C%2Fspan%3E4&rft.pages=1&rft.date=1996-03-25&rft.issn=0378-0759&rft.aulast=Gillon&rft.aufirst=B.S&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcat.inist.fr%2F%3FaModele%3DafficheN%26cpsidt%3D2875140&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASanskrit+grammar" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Vidyākara_1965_p.-165"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Vidyākara_1965_p._165-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVidyākara1965" class="citation book cs1">Vidyākara (1965). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/anthologyofsansk0000unse/page/8/mode/2up"><i>An anthology of Sanskrit court poetry; Vidyākara's</i></a></span>. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/anthologyofsansk0044vidy/page/5">5–8</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-03950-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-03950-6"><bdi>978-0-674-03950-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+anthology+of+Sanskrit+court+poetry%3B+Vidy%C4%81kara%27s&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=5-8&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1965&rft.isbn=978-0-674-03950-6&rft.au=Vidy%C4%81kara&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fanthologyofsansk0000unse%2Fpage%2F8%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASanskrit+grammar" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sanskrit_grammar&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFortson2010" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_W._Fortson_IV" title="Benjamin W. Fortson IV">Fortson, Benjamin W</a> (2010). <i>Indo-European Language and Culture</i> (2010 ed.). Wiley-Blackwell. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-8895-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-8895-1"><bdi>978-1-4051-8895-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Indo-European+Language+and+Culture&rft.edition=2010&rft.pub=Wiley-Blackwell&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-4051-8895-1&rft.aulast=Fortson&rft.aufirst=Benjamin+W&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASanskrit+grammar" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBurrow2001" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Burrow" title="Thomas Burrow">Burrow, Thomas</a> (2001). <i>The Sanskrit Language</i> (2001 ed.). Motilal Banarsidass. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/81-208-1767-2" title="Special:BookSources/81-208-1767-2"><bdi>81-208-1767-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Sanskrit+Language&rft.edition=2001&rft.pub=Motilal+Banarsidass&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=81-208-1767-2&rft.aulast=Burrow&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASanskrit+grammar" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWhitney2008" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/William_Dwight_Whitney" title="William Dwight Whitney">Whitney, William Dwight</a> (January 2008). <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Sanskrit_Grammar_(Whitney)"><i>Sanskrit Grammar</i></a> (2000 ed.). Motilal Banarsidass. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-208-0620-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-208-0620-7"><bdi>978-81-208-0620-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sanskrit+Grammar&rft.edition=2000&rft.pub=Motilal+Banarsidass&rft.date=2008-01&rft.isbn=978-81-208-0620-7&rft.aulast=Whitney&rft.aufirst=William+Dwight&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikisource.org%2Fwiki%2FSanskrit_Grammar_%28Whitney%29&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASanskrit+grammar" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCoulson2003" class="citation book cs1">Coulson, Michael (2003). <i>Sanskrit</i> (2003 ed.). McGraw Hill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-340-85990-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-340-85990-3"><bdi>0-340-85990-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sanskrit&rft.edition=2003&rft.pub=McGraw+Hill&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=0-340-85990-3&rft.aulast=Coulson&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASanskrit+grammar" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBucknell2010" class="citation book cs1">Bucknell, Roderick S (January 2010). <i>Sanskrit Grammar</i> (2000 ed.). Motilal Banarsidass. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-208-1188-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-208-1188-1"><bdi>978-81-208-1188-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sanskrit+Grammar&rft.edition=2000&rft.pub=Motilal+Banarsidass&rft.date=2010-01&rft.isbn=978-81-208-1188-1&rft.aulast=Bucknell&rft.aufirst=Roderick+S&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASanskrit+grammar" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKale1969" class="citation book cs1">Kale, M R (1969). <i>A Higher Sanskrit Grammar</i> (2002 ed.). Motilal Banarsidass. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/81-208-0177-6" title="Special:BookSources/81-208-0177-6"><bdi>81-208-0177-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Higher+Sanskrit+Grammar&rft.edition=2002&rft.pub=Motilal+Banarsidass&rft.date=1969&rft.isbn=81-208-0177-6&rft.aulast=Kale&rft.aufirst=M+R&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASanskrit+grammar" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCardona1997" class="citation book cs1">Cardona, George (1997). <i>Pāṇini - His work and his traditions</i>. Motilal Banarsidass. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/81-208-0419-8" title="Special:BookSources/81-208-0419-8"><bdi>81-208-0419-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=P%C4%81%E1%B9%87ini+-+His+work+and+his+traditions&rft.pub=Motilal+Banarsidass&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=81-208-0419-8&rft.aulast=Cardona&rft.aufirst=George&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASanskrit+grammar" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKeith1956" class="citation book cs1">Keith, A. Berriedale (1956). <i>A History of Sanskrit Literature</i>. Great Britain: Oxford University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Sanskrit+Literature&rft.place=Great+Britain&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1956&rft.aulast=Keith&rft.aufirst=A.+Berriedale&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASanskrit+grammar" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Böhtlingk, Otto, <i>Pâṇini's Grammatik</i>, Leipzig (1887)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAllen1953" class="citation cs2">Allen, W.S. (1953), <i>Phonetics in ancient India</i>, OUP</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Phonetics+in+ancient+India&rft.pub=OUP&rft.date=1953&rft.aulast=Allen&rft.aufirst=W.S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASanskrit+grammar" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>B. Delbrück, <i>Altindische Tempuslehre</i> (1876) <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_-9K_xT8OBAC&q=Altindische">[1]</a> Topics in Sanskrit morphology and syntax</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frits_Staal" title="Frits Staal">Staal, Frits</a>, <i>Word order in Sanskrit and Universal Grammar</i>, Foundations of Language, supplementary series 5, Springer (1967), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-277-0549-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-277-0549-5">978-90-277-0549-5</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStaal1972" class="citation book cs1">Staal, Frits (1972). <i>A Reader on the Sanskrit Grammarians</i>. MIT Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-262-19078-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-262-19078-8"><bdi>0-262-19078-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Reader+on+the+Sanskrit+Grammarians&rft.pub=MIT+Press&rft.date=1972&rft.isbn=0-262-19078-8&rft.aulast=Staal&rft.aufirst=Frits&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASanskrit+grammar" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVarma1961" class="citation book cs1">Varma, Siddheshwar (1961) [1927]. <i>Critical studies in the phonetic observations of Indian grammarians</i>. James G. Forlong Fund. Delhi: Munshi Ram Manohar Lal.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Critical+studies+in+the+phonetic+observations+of+Indian+grammarians.&rft.place=Delhi&rft.series=James+G.+Forlong+Fund&rft.pub=Munshi+Ram+Manohar+Lal&rft.date=1961&rft.aulast=Varma&rft.aufirst=Siddheshwar&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASanskrit+grammar" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Wackernagel, Debrunner, <i><a href="/wiki/Altindische_Grammatik" title="Altindische Grammatik">Altindische Grammatik</a></i>, Göttingen. <ul><li>vol. I. phonology <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=mWaIUMIoUvkC&q=Altindische">[2]</a> <a href="/wiki/Jacob_Wackernagel" title="Jacob Wackernagel">Jacob Wackernagel</a> (1896)</li> <li>vol. II.1. introduction to morphology, nominal composition, Wackernagel (1905) <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qql6RRqTAuIC&q=Altindische">[3]</a></li> <li>vol. II.2. nominal suffixes, J. Wackernagel and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Albert_Debrunner&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Albert Debrunner (page does not exist)">Albert Debrunner</a> (1954)</li> <li>vol. III. nominal inflection, numerals, pronouns, Wackernagel and Debrunner (1930)</li></ul></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStiehl2011" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Stiehl, Ulrich (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sanskritweb.net/deutsch/ipa_sans.pdf"><i>Sanskrit-Kompendium : ein Lehr-, Übungs- und Nachschlagewerk; Devanagari-Ausgabe</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> (in German). Heidelberg: Forkel. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-7719-0086-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-7719-0086-1"><bdi>978-3-7719-0086-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sanskrit-Kompendium+%3A+ein+Lehr-%2C+%C3%9Cbungs-+und+Nachschlagewerk%3B+Devanagari-Ausgabe&rft.place=Heidelberg&rft.pub=Forkel&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-3-7719-0086-1&rft.aulast=Stiehl&rft.aufirst=Ulrich&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sanskritweb.net%2Fdeutsch%2Fipa_sans.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASanskrit+grammar" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJamison2008" class="citation book cs1">Jamison, Stephanie (2008). Roger D. Woodard (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=UQpAuNIP4oIC"><i>The Ancient Languages of Asia and the Americas</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-68494-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-68494-1"><bdi>978-0-521-68494-1</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240329131545/https://books.google.com/books?id=UQpAuNIP4oIC">Archived</a> from the original on 29 March 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 July</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Ancient+Languages+of+Asia+and+the+Americas&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-521-68494-1&rft.aulast=Jamison&rft.aufirst=Stephanie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DUQpAuNIP4oIC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASanskrit+grammar" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sanskrit_grammar&action=edit&section=47" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Pooth, Roland A. "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ia902607.us.archive.org/11/items/on-converse-lability-and-its-declin/On_converse_lability_and_its_declin.pdf">On converse lability and its decline from Vedic to Epic Sanskrit: The verb juṣ-‘to enjoy’and ‘to please’</a>." Yearbook of the Poznań Linguistic Meeting. Vol. 7. No. 1. Uniwersytet im. Adama Mickiewicza w Poznaniu, 2021.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sanskrit_grammar&action=edit&section=48" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111010034042/http://vedicsociety.org/sanskrit/sandhi/">Vedic Society Sandhi Calculator</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://littleredbook.vedicsociety.org.in/">Little Red Book</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/the-little-red-book/page/3/mode/2up">PDF</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130115171411/http://www.shastranethralaya.org/LectureOthers.html">Sanskrit grammar Laghu-Siddanta-Kaumudi (English & Tamil Lectures)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/shastralayam">Sanskrit grammar Video AdiLaghu (English & Tamil)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.danam.co.uk/Sanskrit/Sanskrit%20Introductory/Wikner%20Sanskrit%20Intro.pdf">Charles Wikner "A Practical Sanskrit Introductory"</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ling.ohio-state.edu/~papke/downloads/ICHLhandout.pdf">Julia Papke "Order and Meaning in Sanskrit Preverbs"</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070930184702/http://voiceofdharma.com/indology/baumrejoinder.html">V. Swaminathan "Panini’s Understanding of Vedic Grammar"</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sanskritdictionary.com/">"Online Sanskrit Dictionary"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Online+Sanskrit+Dictionary&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sanskritdictionary.com%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASanskrit+grammar" class="Z3988"></span> — sources results from Monier Williams etc.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://sanskrit.inria.fr/DICO/grammar.html">"The Sanskrit Grammarian"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Sanskrit+Grammarian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsanskrit.inria.fr%2FDICO%2Fgrammar.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASanskrit+grammar" class="Z3988"></span> — dynamic online declension and conjugation tool</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMonier-Williams1899" class="citation web cs1">Monier-Williams, Monier (1899). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ASanskritEnglishDictionary">"A Sanskrit English Dictionary"</a>. <i>Archive.org</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Archive.org&rft.atitle=A+Sanskrit+English+Dictionary&rft.date=1899&rft.aulast=Monier-Williams&rft.aufirst=Monier&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2FASanskritEnglishDictionary&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASanskrit+grammar" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWhitney1924" class="citation web cs1">Whitney, William (1924). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/dli.bengal.10689.18231">"Sanskrit Grammar"</a>. <i>Archive.org</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Archive.org&rft.atitle=Sanskrit+Grammar&rft.date=1924&rft.aulast=Whitney&rft.aufirst=William&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fdli.bengal.10689.18231&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASanskrit+grammar" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBurrow" class="citation web cs1">Burrow, T. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/BurrowTheSanskritLanguage">"The Sanskrit Language"</a>. <i>Archive.org</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Archive.org&rft.atitle=The+Sanskrit+Language&rft.aulast=Burrow&rft.aufirst=T&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2FBurrowTheSanskritLanguage&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASanskrit+grammar" 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class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Influence zone</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greater_India" title="Greater India">Greater India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indosphere" title="Indosphere">Indosphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandala_(political_model)" title="Mandala (political model)">Mandala model</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Mode of spread</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sanskritisation_(sociology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sanskritisation (sociology)">Sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanskritisation_(language)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sanskritisation (language)">Linguistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanskritism" title="Sanskritism">Sanskritism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Language</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vedic_Sanskrit" title="Vedic Sanskrit">Vedic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_Hybrid_Sanskrit" title="Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit">Buddhist Hybrid</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Grammar</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sanskrit_nouns" class="mw-redirect" title="Sanskrit nouns">Nouns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanskrit_pronouns_and_determiners" class="mw-redirect" title="Sanskrit pronouns and determiners">Pronouns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanskrit_compound" title="Sanskrit compound">Compounds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanskrit_verbs" title="Sanskrit verbs">Verbs</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vedic_Sanskrit_grammar" title="Vedic Sanskrit grammar">Vedic grammar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanskrit_prosody" title="Sanskrit prosody">Prosody</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Scripts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Origin <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brahmi_script" title="Brahmi script">Brahmi script</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li>Later development <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Devanagari" title="Devanagari">Devanagari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nandinagari" title="Nandinagari">Nandinagari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nagari_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Nagari script">Nagari script</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li>Spread of usage <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bangla_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Bangla alphabet">Bangla script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gujarati_script" title="Gujarati script">Gujarati script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kawi_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Kawi language">Kawi script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Odia_script" title="Odia script">Odia script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suyat" title="Suyat">Suyat family of scripts</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Writings</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sanskrit_literature" title="Sanskrit literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanskrit_Buddhist_literature" title="Sanskrit Buddhist literature">Buddhist literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_classical_drama" title="Indian classical drama">Drama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_epic_poetry" title="Indian epic poetry">Epics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_historic_Indian_texts" title="List of historic Indian texts">Historic texts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_legendary_creatures_in_Hindu_mythology" title="List of legendary creatures in Hindu mythology">Legendary creatures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Sanskrit_poets" title="List of Sanskrit poets">Poets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vy%C4%81kara%E1%B9%87a" title="Vyākaraṇa">Vyākaraṇa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Current usage</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_university_and_college_mottos#India" title="List of university and college mottos">Sanskrit mottos of universities in India</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li>Loanwords <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_English_words_of_Sanskrit_origin" title="List of English words of Sanskrit origin">English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Sanskrit_and_Persian_roots_in_Hindi" title="List of Sanskrit and Persian roots in Hindi">Hindi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Sanskrit_loanwords_in_Indonesian" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Sanskrit loanwords in Indonesian">Indonesian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_loanwords_in_Tagalog#Sanskrit" class="mw-redirect" title="List of loanwords in Tagalog">Tagalog</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanskrit_inscriptions_in_the_Malay_world" class="mw-redirect" title="Sanskrit inscriptions in the Malay world">Malay inscriptions</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Modern status</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sanskrit_revival" title="Sanskrit revival">Revival</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanskrit_studies" title="Sanskrit studies">Studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanskrit_revival#Revival_outside_India" title="Sanskrit revival">Academic institutes outside India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Sanskrit_universities_in_India" title="List of Sanskrit universities in India">Universities in India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanskrit_Wikipedia" title="Sanskrit Wikipedia">Wikipedia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Sanskrit_Day" title="World Sanskrit Day">World Sanskrit Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Sanskrit_Conference" title="World Sanskrit Conference">World Sanskrit Conference</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Grammars_of_specific_South_Asian_languages206" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Grammars_of_South_Asian_languages" title="Template:Grammars of South Asian languages"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Grammars_of_South_Asian_languages" title="Template talk:Grammars of South Asian languages"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Grammars_of_South_Asian_languages" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Grammars of South Asian languages"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Grammars_of_specific_South_Asian_languages206" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Grammars of specific <a href="/wiki/Languages_of_South_Asia" title="Languages of South Asia">South Asian languages</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Indo-Aryan_languages" title="Indo-Aryan languages">Indo-Aryan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bengali_grammar" title="Bengali grammar">Bengali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhojpuri_grammar" title="Bhojpuri grammar">Bhojpuri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gujarati_grammar" title="Gujarati grammar">Gujarati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindustani_grammar" title="Hindustani grammar">Hindustani (Hindi-Urdu)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maithili_grammar" title="Maithili grammar">Maithili</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marathi_grammar" title="Marathi grammar">Marathi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nepali_grammar" title="Nepali grammar">Nepali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Odia_grammar" title="Odia grammar">Odia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Punjabi_grammar" title="Punjabi grammar">Punjabi</a></li> <li><b>Sanskrit</b> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vedic_Sanskrit_grammar" title="Vedic Sanskrit grammar">Vedic</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Dravidian_languages" title="Dravidian languages">Dravidian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kannada_grammar" title="Kannada grammar">Kannada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malayalam_grammar" title="Malayalam grammar">Malayalam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamil_grammar" title="Tamil grammar">Tamil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telugu_grammar" title="Telugu grammar">Telugu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sino-Tibetan_languages" title="Sino-Tibetan languages">Sino-Tibetan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kokborok_grammar" title="Kokborok grammar">Kokborok</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mizo_grammar" title="Mizo grammar">Mizo</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Iranian_languages" title="Iranian languages">Iranian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pashto_grammar" title="Pashto grammar">Pashto</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Grammars_of_the_world&#039;s_languages1168" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Language_grammars" title="Template:Language grammars"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Language_grammars" title="Template talk:Language grammars"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Language_grammars" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Language grammars"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Grammars_of_the_world&#039;s_languages1168" class="wraplinks" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Grammar" title="Grammar">Grammars</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Lists_of_languages" title="Lists of languages">world's languages</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Language_phonologies" title="Template:Language phonologies">Phonologies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Language_orthographies" title="Template:Language orthographies">Orthographies</a></li> <li><b>Grammars</b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Language_adjectives" title="Template:Language adjectives">Adjectives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Language_determiners" title="Template:Language determiners">Determiners</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Language_nouns" title="Template:Language nouns">Nouns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Language_prepositions" class="mw-redirect" title="Template:Language prepositions">Prepositions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Language_pronouns" title="Template:Language pronouns">Pronouns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Language_verbs" title="Template:Language verbs">Verbs</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Germanic_languages" title="Germanic languages">Germanic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afrikaans_grammar" title="Afrikaans grammar">Afrikaans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danish_grammar" title="Danish grammar">Danish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_grammar" title="Dutch grammar">Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_grammar" title="English grammar">English</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_English_grammar" title="Old English grammar">Old</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faroese_grammar" title="Faroese grammar">Faroese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_grammar" title="German grammar">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Icelandic_grammar" title="Icelandic grammar">Icelandic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norwegian_language#Grammar" title="Norwegian language">Norwegian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Norse_morphology" title="Old Norse morphology">Old Norse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colognian_grammar" title="Colognian grammar">Ripuarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_grammar" title="Swedish grammar">Swedish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Frisian_grammar" title="West Frisian grammar">West Frisian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yiddish_grammar" title="Yiddish grammar">Yiddish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Celtic_languages" title="Celtic languages">Celtic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Breton_grammar" title="Breton grammar">Breton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornish_grammar" title="Cornish grammar">Cornish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_grammar" title="Irish grammar">Irish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Irish_grammar" title="Old Irish grammar">Old</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manx_grammar" title="Manx grammar">Manx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_Gaelic_grammar" title="Scottish Gaelic grammar">Scottish Gaelic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_grammar" title="Welsh grammar">Welsh</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Colloquial_Welsh_morphology" title="Colloquial Welsh morphology">colloquial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literary_Welsh_morphology" title="Literary Welsh morphology">literary</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Italic_languages" title="Italic languages">Italic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catalan_grammar" title="Catalan grammar">Catalan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dalmatian_grammar" title="Dalmatian grammar">Dalmatian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_grammar" title="French grammar">French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Istro-Romanian_grammar" title="Istro-Romanian grammar">Istro-Romanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_grammar" title="Italian grammar">Italian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_grammar" title="Latin grammar">Latin</a></li> <li>Lombard <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Lombard_grammar" title="Eastern Lombard grammar">Eastern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Lombard_grammar" title="Western Lombard grammar">Western</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_grammar" title="Portuguese grammar">Portuguese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanian_grammar" title="Romanian grammar">Romanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_grammar" title="Spanish grammar">Spanish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venetian_grammar" title="Venetian grammar">Venetian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Baltic_languages" title="Baltic languages">Baltic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Latvian_grammar" title="Latvian grammar">Latvian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_grammar" title="Lithuanian grammar">Lithuanian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Slavic_languages" title="Slavic languages">Slavic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Belarusian_grammar" title="Belarusian grammar">Belarusian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulgarian_grammar" title="Bulgarian grammar">Bulgarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Czech_language#Grammar" title="Czech language">Czech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macedonian_grammar" title="Macedonian grammar">Macedonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Church_Slavonic_grammar" title="Old Church Slavonic grammar">Old Church Slavonic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_grammar" title="Polish grammar">Polish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_grammar" title="Russian grammar">Russian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silesian_grammar" title="Silesian grammar">Silesian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serbo-Croatian_grammar" title="Serbo-Croatian grammar">Serbo-Croatian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slovak_language#Morphology" title="Slovak language">Slovak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slovene_grammar" title="Slovene grammar">Slovene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slovincian_grammar" title="Slovincian grammar">Slovincian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_grammar" title="Ukrainian grammar">Ukrainian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Iranian_languages" title="Iranian languages">Iranian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kurdish_grammar" title="Kurdish grammar">Kurdish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sorani_grammar" title="Sorani grammar">Sorani</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pashto_grammar" title="Pashto grammar">Pashto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_grammar" title="Persian grammar">Persian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tajik_grammar" title="Tajik grammar">Tajik</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Indo-Aryan_languages" title="Indo-Aryan languages">Indo-Aryan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bengali_grammar" title="Bengali grammar">Bengali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhojpuri_grammar" title="Bhojpuri grammar">Bhojpuri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gujarati_grammar" title="Gujarati grammar">Gujarati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindustani_grammar" title="Hindustani grammar">Hindustani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maithili_grammar" title="Maithili grammar">Maithili</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marathi_grammar" title="Marathi grammar">Marathi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nepali_grammar" title="Nepali grammar">Nepali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Odia_grammar" title="Odia grammar">Odia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Punjabi_grammar" title="Punjabi grammar">Punjabi</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Sanskrit</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vedic_Sanskrit_grammar" title="Vedic Sanskrit grammar">Vedic</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Albanian_language#Grammar" title="Albanian language">Albanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Greek_grammar" title="Modern Greek grammar">Greek</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_grammar" title="Ancient Greek grammar">Ancient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koine_Greek_grammar" title="Koine Greek grammar">Koine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hittite_grammar" title="Hittite grammar">Hittite</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Uralic_languages" title="Uralic languages">Uralic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Estonian_grammar" title="Estonian grammar">Estonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finnish_grammar" title="Finnish grammar">Finnish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungarian_grammar" title="Hungarian grammar">Hungarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ingrian_grammar" title="Ingrian grammar">Ingrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Komi_grammar" title="Komi grammar">Komi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Livonian_grammar" title="Livonian grammar">Livonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Me%C3%A4nkieli_grammar" title="Meänkieli grammar">Meänkieli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Udmurt_grammar" title="Udmurt grammar">Udmurt</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Turkic_languages" title="Turkic languages">Turkic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kazakh_language#Morphology_and_syntax" title="Kazakh language">Kazakh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyrgyz_language#Morphology_and_syntax" title="Kyrgyz language">Kyrgyz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tatar_language#Grammar" title="Tatar language">Tatar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_grammar" title="Turkish grammar">Turkish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkmen_grammar" title="Turkmen grammar">Turkmen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uyghur_grammar" title="Uyghur grammar">Uyghur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uzbek_language#Grammar" title="Uzbek language">Uzbek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yakut_language#Grammar" title="Yakut language">Yakut</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other <a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Europe" title="Languages of Europe">European</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abkhaz_language#Grammar" title="Abkhaz language">Abkhaz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adyghe_grammar" title="Adyghe grammar">Adyghe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basque_grammar" title="Basque grammar">Basque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgian_grammar" title="Georgian grammar">Georgian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kabardian_grammar" title="Kabardian grammar">Kabardian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laz_grammar" title="Laz grammar">Laz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mingrelian_grammar" title="Mingrelian grammar">Mingrelian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ubykh_grammar" title="Ubykh grammar">Ubykh</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Afroasiatic_languages" title="Afroasiatic languages">Afroasiatic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_grammar" title="Arabic grammar">Arabic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Levantine_Arabic_grammar" title="Levantine Arabic grammar">Levantine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Atlas_Tamazight_grammar" title="Central Atlas Tamazight grammar">Central Atlas Tamazight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Hebrew_grammar" title="Modern Hebrew grammar">Hebrew</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Hebrew_grammar" title="History of Hebrew grammar">Historical</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kabyle_grammar" title="Kabyle grammar">Kabyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somali_grammar" title="Somali grammar">Somali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tigrinya_grammar" title="Tigrinya grammar">Tigrinya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ugaritic_grammar" title="Ugaritic grammar">Ugaritic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Niger%E2%80%93Congo_languages" title="Niger–Congo languages">Niger–Congo</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fula_language#Morphology" title="Fula language">Fula</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pular_grammar" title="Pular grammar">Pular</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otjiherero_grammar" title="Otjiherero grammar">Herero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sesotho_grammar" title="Sesotho grammar">Sotho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swahili_grammar" title="Swahili grammar">Swahili</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zulu_grammar" title="Zulu grammar">Zulu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Dravidian_languages" title="Dravidian languages">Dravidian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kannada_grammar" title="Kannada grammar">Kannada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malayalam_grammar" title="Malayalam grammar">Malayalam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamil_grammar" title="Tamil grammar">Tamil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telugu_grammar" title="Telugu grammar">Telugu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Japonic_languages" title="Japonic languages">Japonic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_grammar" title="Japanese grammar">Japanese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Japanese_grammar" class="mw-redirect" title="Classical Japanese grammar">Classical</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Okinawan_language#Grammar" title="Okinawan language">Okinawan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hachij%C5%8D_grammar" title="Hachijō grammar">Hachijō</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sino-Tibetan_languages" title="Sino-Tibetan languages">Sino-Tibetan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Burmese_grammar" title="Burmese grammar">Burmese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cantonese_grammar" title="Cantonese grammar">Cantonese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Chinese_grammar" title="Classical Chinese grammar">Classical Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dzongkha_grammar" class="mw-redirect" title="Dzongkha grammar">Dzongkha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kokborok_grammar" title="Kokborok grammar">Kokborok</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_grammar" title="Chinese grammar">Mandarin Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mizo_grammar" title="Mizo grammar">Mizo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Standard_Tibetan_grammar" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern Standard Tibetan grammar">Tibetan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Austroasiatic_languages" title="Austroasiatic languages">Austroasiatic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Khmer_grammar" title="Khmer grammar">Khmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_grammar" title="Vietnamese grammar">Vietnamese</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Kra%E2%80%93Dai_languages" title="Kra–Dai languages">Kra–Dai</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Has_Hlai_grammar" title="Has Hlai grammar">Has Hlai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lao_grammar" title="Lao grammar">Lao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thai_language#Grammar" title="Thai language">Thai</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other <a href="/wiki/East_Asia" title="East Asia">East Asian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evenki_grammar" title="Evenki grammar">Evenki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_grammar" title="Korean grammar">Korean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongolian_language#Grammar" title="Mongolian language">Mongolian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Austronesian_languages" title="Austronesian languages">Austronesian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cebuano_grammar" title="Cebuano grammar">Cebuano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hawaiian_grammar" title="Hawaiian grammar">Hawaiian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ilocano_grammar" title="Ilocano grammar">Ilocano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malay_grammar" title="Malay grammar">Malay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tagalog_grammar" title="Tagalog grammar">Tagalog</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Algic_languages" title="Algic languages">Algic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Massachusett_grammar" title="Massachusett grammar">Massachusett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Munsee_grammar" title="Munsee grammar">Munsee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ojibwe_grammar" title="Ojibwe grammar">Ojibwe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Uto-Aztecan_languages" title="Uto-Aztecan languages">Uto-Aztecan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nahuatl#Morphology_and_syntax" title="Nahuatl">Nahuatl</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Nahuatl_grammar" title="Classical Nahuatl grammar">Classical</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nawat_grammar" title="Nawat grammar">Nawat</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_languages_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous languages of the Americas">Native American</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_language#Grammar" title="Cherokee language">Cherokee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inuit_grammar" title="Inuit grammar">Inuit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miskito_grammar" title="Miskito grammar">Miskito</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navajo_grammar" title="Navajo grammar">Navajo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otomi_grammar" title="Otomi grammar">Otomi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sign_language" title="Sign language">sign</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Sign_Language_grammar" title="American Sign Language grammar">American</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Artistic_language" title="Artistic language">artistic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Klingon_grammar" title="Klingon grammar">Klingon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Na%CA%BCvi_grammar" title="Naʼvi grammar">Naʼvi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quenya_grammar" class="mw-redirect" title="Quenya grammar">Quenya</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/International_auxiliary_language" title="International auxiliary language">auxiliary</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Esperanto_grammar" title="Esperanto grammar">Esperanto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interlingua_grammar" title="Interlingua grammar">Interlingua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interlingue_grammar" title="Interlingue grammar">Interlingue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lingua_Franca_Nova_grammar" title="Lingua Franca Nova grammar">Lingua Franca Nova</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" 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