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id="toc-Region_and_city_layout-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Layout" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Layout"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Layout </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Layout-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Demographic_history" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Demographic_history"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Demographic history </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Demographic_history-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Demographic history subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Demographic_history-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Bronze_and_Iron_Ages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bronze_and_Iron_Ages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Bronze and Iron Ages </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bronze_and_Iron_Ages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hellenistic_to_Byzantine_periods" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hellenistic_to_Byzantine_periods"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Hellenistic to Byzantine periods </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hellenistic_to_Byzantine_periods-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Early_Muslim_to_Late_Ottoman_periods" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_Muslim_to_Late_Ottoman_periods"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 Early Muslim to Late Ottoman periods </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_Muslim_to_Late_Ottoman_periods-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ethnicity_of_classical_Palmyra" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ethnicity_of_classical_Palmyra"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Ethnicity of classical Palmyra </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ethnicity_of_classical_Palmyra-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Language" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Language"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Language </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Language-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Social_organization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Social_organization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Social organization </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Social_organization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Culture </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Culture-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Culture subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Art_and_architecture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Art_and_architecture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 Art and architecture </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Art_and_architecture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Site" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Site"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Site </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Site-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Site subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Site-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Cemeteries" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cemeteries"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.1 Cemeteries </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cemeteries-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notable_structures" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notable_structures"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.2 Notable structures </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notable_structures-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Public_buildings" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Public_buildings"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.2.1 Public buildings </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Public_buildings-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Temples" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Temples"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.2.2 Temples </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Temples-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_buildings" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_buildings"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.2.3 Other buildings </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_buildings-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Destruction_by_IS" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Destruction_by_IS"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.3 Destruction by IS </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Destruction_by_IS-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Restoration" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Restoration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.3.1 Restoration </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Restoration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 History </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle History subsection </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Bronze_and_Iron_Ages_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bronze_and_Iron_Ages_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.1 Bronze and Iron Ages </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bronze_and_Iron_Ages_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hellenistic_and_Roman_periods" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hellenistic_and_Roman_periods"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.2 Hellenistic and Roman periods </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hellenistic_and_Roman_periods-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Autonomous_Palmyrene_region" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Autonomous_Palmyrene_region"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.2.1 Autonomous Palmyrene region </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Autonomous_Palmyrene_region-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Palmyrene_kingdom" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Palmyrene_kingdom"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.2.2 Palmyrene kingdom </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Palmyrene_kingdom-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Persian_wars" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Persian_wars"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.2.2.1 Persian wars </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Persian_wars-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Palmyrene_empire" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Palmyrene_empire"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.2.2.2 Palmyrene empire </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Palmyrene_empire-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Later_Roman_and_Byzantine_periods" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Later_Roman_and_Byzantine_periods"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.2.3 Later Roman and Byzantine periods </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Later_Roman_and_Byzantine_periods-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Arab_caliphates" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Arab_caliphates"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.3 Arab caliphates </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Arab_caliphates-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Umayyad_and_early_Abbasid_periods" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Umayyad_and_early_Abbasid_periods"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.3.1 Umayyad and early Abbasid periods </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Umayyad_and_early_Abbasid_periods-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Decentralization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Decentralization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.3.2 Decentralization </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Decentralization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mamluk_period" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mamluk_period"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.4 Mamluk period </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mamluk_period-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Al_Fadl_principality" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Al_Fadl_principality"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.4.1 Al Fadl principality </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Al_Fadl_principality-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ottoman_era" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ottoman_era"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.5 Ottoman era </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ottoman_era-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-20th_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#20th_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.6 20th century </div> </a> <ul id="toc-20th_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Syrian_civil_war" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Syrian_civil_war"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.7 Syrian civil war </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Syrian_civil_war-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Government" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Government"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Government </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Government-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Government subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Government-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Military" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Military"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.1 Military </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Military-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Relations_with_Rome" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Relations_with_Rome"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.1.1 Relations with Rome </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Relations_with_Rome-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Religion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Religion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 Religion </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Religion-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Religion subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Religion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Malakbel_and_the_Roman_Sol_Invictus" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Malakbel_and_the_Roman_Sol_Invictus"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.1 Malakbel and the Roman Sol Invictus </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Malakbel_and_the_Roman_Sol_Invictus-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Economy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 Economy </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Economy-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Economy subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Economy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Commerce" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Commerce"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12.1 Commerce </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Commerce-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Research_and_excavations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Research_and_excavations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 Research and excavations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Research_and_excavations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 15 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 16 References </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle References subsection </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 16.1 Citations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 16.2 Sources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 17 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Palmyra</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 93 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-93" aria-hidden="true" > 93 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palmyra" title="Palmyra – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Palmyra" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%AF%D9%85%D8%B1" title="تدمر – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="تدمر" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hyw mw-list-item"><a href="https://hyw.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%93%D5%A1%D5%AC%D5%B4%D5%AB%D6%80%D5%A1" title="Փալմիրա – Western Armenian" lang="hyw" hreflang="hyw" data-title="Փալմիրա" data-language-autonym="Արեւմտահայերէն" data-language-local-name="Western Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Արեւմտահայերէն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frp mw-list-item"><a href="https://frp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palmyra" title="Palmyra – Arpitan" lang="frp" hreflang="frp" data-title="Palmyra" data-language-autonym="Arpetan" data-language-local-name="Arpitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Arpetan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palmira" title="Palmira – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Palmira" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palmira" title="Palmira – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Palmira" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BE" title="পালমিরা – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="পালমিরা" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palmyra" title="Palmyra – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Palmyra" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%B0" title="Пальмира – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Пальмира" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target">Башҡортса</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BC%D1%96%D1%80%D0%B0" title="Пальміра – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Пальміра" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BC%D1%96%D1%80%D0%B0" title="Пальміра – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Пальміра" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%B0" title="Палмира – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Палмира" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palmira" title="Palmira – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Palmira" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%B0" title="Пальмира – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Пальмира" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target">Чӑвашла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tadmur_(kapital_sa_distrito_sa_Sirya)" title="Tadmur (kapital sa distrito sa Sirya) – Cebuano" lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb" data-title="Tadmur (kapital sa distrito sa Sirya)" data-language-autonym="Cebuano" data-language-local-name="Cebuano" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cebuano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palm%C3%BDra" title="Palmýra – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Palmýra" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palmyra" title="Palmyra – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Palmyra" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dag mw-list-item"><a href="https://dag.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palmyra" title="Palmyra – Dagbani" lang="dag" hreflang="dag" data-title="Palmyra" data-language-autonym="Dagbanli" data-language-local-name="Dagbani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dagbanli</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palmyra" title="Palmyra – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Palmyra" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palmyra" title="Palmyra – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Palmyra" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palmyra" title="Palmyra – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Palmyra" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A0%CE%B1%CE%BB%CE%BC%CF%8D%CF%81%CE%B1" title="Παλμύρα – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Παλμύρα" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palmira" title="Palmira – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Palmira" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palmira" title="Palmira – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Palmira" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palmira" title="Palmira – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Palmira" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gur mw-list-item"><a href="https://gur.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palmyra" title="Palmyra – Frafra" lang="gur" hreflang="gur" data-title="Palmyra" data-language-autonym="Farefare" data-language-local-name="Frafra" class="interlanguage-link-target">Farefare</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%DB%8C%D8%B1%D8%A7" title="پالمیرا – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="پالمیرا" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palmyre" title="Palmyre – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Palmyre" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palmyra" title="Palmyra – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Palmyra" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palmira" title="Palmira – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Palmira" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%8C%94%EB%AF%B8%EB%9D%BC" title="팔미라 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="팔미라" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8A%D5%A1%D5%AC%D5%B4%D5%AB%D6%80%D5%A1" title="Պալմիրա – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Պալմիրա" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE" title="पलमीरा – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="पलमीरा" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palmira" title="Palmira – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Palmira" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palmyra" title="Palmyra – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Palmyra" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tadmur" title="Tadmur – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Tadmur" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palm%C3%BDra" title="Palmýra – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Palmýra" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palmira" title="Palmira – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Palmira" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%AA%D7%93%D7%9E%D7%95%D7%A8" title="תדמור – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="תדמור" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9E%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90" title="პალმირა – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="პალმირა" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%B0" title="Пальмира – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Пальмира" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palm%C3%AEra" title="Palmîra – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Palmîra" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palmyra" title="Palmyra – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Palmyra" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palm%C4%ABra" title="Palmīra – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Palmīra" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palmyra" title="Palmyra – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Palmyra" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lëtzebuergesch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palmyra_(Sirija)" title="Palmyra (Sirija) – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Palmyra (Sirija)" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palm%C3%BCra" title="Palmüra – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Palmüra" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mai mw-list-item"><a href="https://mai.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B7%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0" title="पलमेराक क्षेत्र – Maithili" lang="mai" hreflang="mai" data-title="पलमेराक क्षेत्र" data-language-autonym="मैथिली" data-language-local-name="Maithili" class="interlanguage-link-target">मैथिली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palmyra" title="Palmyra – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Palmyra" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malagasy</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mt mw-list-item"><a href="https://mt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palmyra" title="Palmyra – Maltese" lang="mt" hreflang="mt" data-title="Palmyra" data-language-autonym="Malti" data-language-local-name="Maltese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9E%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90_(%E1%83%A1%E1%83%98%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%E1%83%90)" title="პალმირა (სირია) – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="პალმირა (სირია)" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">მარგალური</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%AF%D9%85%D8%B1" title="تدمر – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="تدمر" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%DB%8C%D8%B1%D8%A7" title="پالمیرا – Mazanderani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="پالمیرا" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="Mazanderani" class="interlanguage-link-target">مازِرونی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tadmur" title="Tadmur – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Tadmur" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fat mw-list-item"><a href="https://fat.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palmyra" title="Palmyra – Fanti" lang="fat" hreflang="fat" data-title="Palmyra" data-language-autonym="Mfantse" data-language-local-name="Fanti" class="interlanguage-link-target">Mfantse</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%95%E1%80%AB%E1%80%B8%E1%80%9C%E1%80%BA%E1%80%99%E1%80%AD%E1%80%AF%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%80%9A%E1%80%AC%E1%80%99%E1%80%BC%E1%80%AD%E1%80%AF%E1%80%B7" title="ပါးလ်မိုင်ယာမြို့ – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ပါးလ်မိုင်ယာမြို့" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target">မြန်မာဘာသာ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palmyra_(Syri%C3%AB)" title="Palmyra (Syrië) – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Palmyra (Syrië)" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE" title="पलमेरा – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="पलमेरा" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%91%E3%83%AB%E3%83%9F%E3%83%A9" title="パルミラ – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="パルミラ" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palmyra" title="Palmyra – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Palmyra" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palmyra" title="Palmyra – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Palmyra" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palmira" title="Palmira – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Palmira" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palmira" title="Palmira – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Palmira" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%AA%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%B2%E0%A8%AE%E0%A9%80%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%BE" title="ਪਾਲਮੀਰਾ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਪਾਲਮੀਰਾ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%DB%8C%D8%B1%D8%A7" title="پالمیرا – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="پالمیرا" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palmyra_(Syria)" title="Palmyra (Syria) – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Palmyra (Syria)" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palmira" title="Palmira – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Palmira" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palmira" title="Palmira – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Palmira" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%B0" title="Пальмира – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Пальмира" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palmira" title="Palmira – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Palmira" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target">Scots</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palmira" title="Palmira – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Palmira" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palmira" title="Palmira – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Palmira" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sicilianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palmyra" title="Palmyra – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Palmyra" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palm%C3%BDra" title="Palmýra – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Palmýra" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palmira" title="Palmira – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Palmira" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%DB%95%D8%AF%D9%85%D9%88%D8%B1" title="تەدمور – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="تەدمور" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%B0" title="Палмира – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Палмира" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palmira" title="Palmira – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Palmira" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palmyra" title="Palmyra – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Palmyra" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palmyra" title="Palmyra – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Palmyra" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%BE" title="பல்மைரா – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="பல்மைரா" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palmira" title="Palmira – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Palmira" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Татарча / tatarça</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B9%81%E0%B8%9E%E0%B8%A5%E0%B9%84%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B2" title="แพลไมรา – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="แพลไมรา" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palmira" title="Palmira – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Palmira" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tw mw-list-item"><a href="https://tw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palmyra" title="Palmyra – Twi" lang="tw" hreflang="tw" data-title="Palmyra" data-language-autonym="Twi" data-language-local-name="Twi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Twi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BC%D1%96%D1%80%D0%B0" title="Пальміра – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Пальміра" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%AF%D9%85%D8%B1" title="تدمر – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="تدمر" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palmyra" title="Palmyra – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Palmyra" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palmyra_(syudad)" title="Palmyra (syudad) – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Palmyra (syudad)" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target">Winaray</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%B7%B4%E5%B0%94%E7%B1%B3%E6%8B%89" title="巴尔米拉 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="巴尔米拉" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a 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href="https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Palmyra&params=34_33_05_N_38_16_05_E_type:landmark_region:SY-HO">34°33′05″N 38°16′05″E / 34.55139°N 38.26806°E / 34.55139; 38.26806</a></div></div> <div id="mw-indicator-featured-star" class="mw-indicator"><div class="mw-parser-output"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Featured_articles*" title="This is a featured article. Click here for more information."><img alt="Featured article" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e7/Cscr-featured.svg/20px-Cscr-featured.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e7/Cscr-featured.svg/30px-Cscr-featured.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e7/Cscr-featured.svg/40px-Cscr-featured.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="466" data-file-height="443" /></a></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Ancient city in central Syria</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the ancient city of Palmyra. For the modern city, also known as Tadmur, see <a href="/wiki/Palmyra_(modern)" title="Palmyra (modern)">Palmyra (modern)</a>. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Palmyra_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Palmyra (disambiguation)">Palmyra (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vcard"><caption class="infobox-title fn org">Palmyra</caption><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader"><div class="nickname"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/File:Tdmr2.png" class="mw-file-description" title="alt = "Image of city name written in Palmyrene script""><img alt="alt = "Image of city name written in Palmyrene script"" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Tdmr2.png/120px-Tdmr2.png" decoding="async" width="65" height="18" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Tdmr2.png/250px-Tdmr2.png 2x" data-file-width="288" data-file-height="80" /></a></li> <li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1009384507">.mw-parser-output .script-Palm{font-family:"Noto Sans Palmyrene"}</style>𐡶𐡣𐡬𐡥𐡴‎</li> <li>تَدْمُر</li></ul> </div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Palmyra_03.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Ruins of Palmyra" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Palmyra_03.jpg/250px-Palmyra_03.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="149" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Palmyra_03.jpg/330px-Palmyra_03.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Palmyra_03.jpg/500px-Palmyra_03.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3260" data-file-height="2201" /></a><div class="infobox-caption">The ruins of Palmyra in 2010</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><div class="switcher-container"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238443738">.mw-parser-output .locmap .od{position:absolute}.mw-parser-output .locmap .id{position:absolute;line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .locmap .l0{font-size:0;position:absolute}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pv{line-height:110%;position:absolute;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pl{line-height:110%;position:absolute;top:-0.75em;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pr{line-height:110%;position:absolute;top:-0.75em;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pv>div{display:inline;padding:1px}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pl>div{display:inline;padding:1px;float:right}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pr>div{display:inline;padding:1px;float:left}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .od,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .od .pv>div,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .od .pl>div,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .od .pr>div{background:#fff!important;color:#000!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .locmap{filter:grayscale(0.6)}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data .locmap div{background:transparent!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .locmap{filter:grayscale(0.6)}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .od,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .od .pv>div,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .od .pl>div,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .od .pr>div{background:white!important;color:#000!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data .locmap div{background:transparent!important}}</style><div class="center"><div class="locmap" style="width:250px;float:none;clear:both;margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto"><div style="width:250px;padding:0"><div style="position:relative;width:250px"><a href="/wiki/File:Syria_physical_location_map.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Palmyra is located in the center of Syria"><img alt="Palmyra is located in the center of Syria" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Syria_physical_location_map.svg/250px-Syria_physical_location_map.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="219" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Syria_physical_location_map.svg/375px-Syria_physical_location_map.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Syria_physical_location_map.svg/500px-Syria_physical_location_map.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="921" data-file-height="806" /></a><div class="od notheme" style="top:54.439%;left:43.18%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><img alt="Palmyra is located in the center of Syria" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Archaeological_site_icon_%28red%29.svg/8px-Archaeological_site_icon_%28red%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Archaeological_site_icon_%28red%29.svg/12px-Archaeological_site_icon_%28red%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Archaeological_site_icon_%28red%29.svg/16px-Archaeological_site_icon_%28red%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="16" data-file-height="16" /></div></div></div><div style="padding-top:0.2em">Shown within Syria</div>Show map of Syria</div></div></div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238443738" /><div class="center"><div class="locmap" style="width:250px;float:none;clear:both;margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto"><div style="width:250px;padding:0"><div style="position:relative;width:250px"><a href="/wiki/File:Mediterranean_Sea_East_location_map.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Palmyra is located in the center of Syria"><img alt="Palmyra is located in the center of Syria" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Mediterranean_Sea_East_location_map.svg/250px-Mediterranean_Sea_East_location_map.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Mediterranean_Sea_East_location_map.svg/500px-Mediterranean_Sea_East_location_map.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="957" data-file-height="765" /></a><div class="od notheme" style="top:38.318%;left:68.652%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><img alt="Palmyra is located in the center of Syria" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Archaeological_site_icon_%28red%29.svg/8px-Archaeological_site_icon_%28red%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Archaeological_site_icon_%28red%29.svg/12px-Archaeological_site_icon_%28red%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Archaeological_site_icon_%28red%29.svg/16px-Archaeological_site_icon_%28red%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="16" data-file-height="16" /></div></div></div><div style="padding-top:0.2em">Palmyra (Eastern Mediterranean)</div>Show map of Eastern Mediterranean</div></div></div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238443738" /><div class="center"><div class="locmap" style="width:250px;float:none;clear:both;margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto"><div style="width:250px;padding:0"><div style="position:relative;width:250px"><a href="/wiki/File:West_Asia_non_political_with_water_system.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Palmyra is located in the center of Syria"><img alt="Palmyra is located in the center of Syria" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/West_Asia_non_political_with_water_system.jpg/250px-West_Asia_non_political_with_water_system.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="161" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/West_Asia_non_political_with_water_system.jpg/375px-West_Asia_non_political_with_water_system.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/West_Asia_non_political_with_water_system.jpg/500px-West_Asia_non_political_with_water_system.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5948" data-file-height="3836" /></a><div class="od notheme" style="top:37.081%;left:33.234%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><img alt="Palmyra is located in the center of Syria" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Archaeological_site_icon_%28red%29.svg/8px-Archaeological_site_icon_%28red%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Archaeological_site_icon_%28red%29.svg/12px-Archaeological_site_icon_%28red%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Archaeological_site_icon_%28red%29.svg/16px-Archaeological_site_icon_%28red%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="16" data-file-height="16" /></div></div></div><div style="padding-top:0.2em">Palmyra (West and Central Asia)</div>Show map of West and Central Asia</div></div></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Alternative name</th><td class="infobox-data nickname">Tadmor</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Location</th><td class="infobox-data label"><a href="/wiki/Tadmur_District" title="Tadmur District">Tadmur</a>, <a href="/wiki/Homs_Governorate" title="Homs Governorate">Homs Governorate</a>, <a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Region</th><td class="infobox-data label"><a href="/wiki/Syrian_Desert" title="Syrian Desert">Syrian Desert</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Coordinates</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1156832818">.mw-parser-output .geo-default,.mw-parser-output .geo-dms,.mw-parser-output .geo-dec{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .geo-nondefault,.mw-parser-output .geo-multi-punct,.mw-parser-output .geo-inline-hidden{display:none}.mw-parser-output .longitude,.mw-parser-output .latitude{white-space:nowrap}</style><a class="external text" href="https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Palmyra&params=34_33_05_N_38_16_05_E_type:landmark_region:SY-HO">34°33′05″N 38°16′05″E / 34.55139°N 38.26806°E / 34.55139; 38.26806</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Type</th><td class="infobox-data category">Settlement</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Part of</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Palmyrene_Empire" title="Palmyrene Empire">Palmyrene Empire</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Area</th><td class="infobox-data">80 ha (200 acres)</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #eee;">History</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Founded</th><td class="infobox-data">3rd millennium BCE</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Abandoned</th><td class="infobox-data">1932 (1932)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Periods</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Middle_Bronze_Age" class="mw-redirect" title="Middle Bronze Age">Middle Bronze Age</a> to <a href="/wiki/Modern_history_of_Syria" title="Modern history of Syria">Modern</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Cultures</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Arameans" title="Arameans">Aramaic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arab_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab people">Arabic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Greco-Roman_world#Culture" title="Greco-Roman world">Greco-Roman</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #eee;">Site notes</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Condition</th><td class="infobox-data">Ruined</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Ownership</th><td class="infobox-data">Public</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Management</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Culture_(Syria)" title="Ministry of Culture (Syria)">Syrian Ministry of Culture</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Public access</th><td class="infobox-data">Yes</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #eee;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546" /></th></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546" /><div style="border:4px solid #0177D3; line-height: 1.5; text-align: center;"> <a href="/wiki/World_Heritage_Site" title="World Heritage Site">UNESCO World Heritage Site</a></div></th></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Official name</th><td class="infobox-data">Site of Palmyra</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Type</th><td class="infobox-data">Cultural</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Criteria</th><td class="infobox-data">i, ii, iv</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Designated</th><td class="infobox-data">1980 (4th <a href="/wiki/World_Heritage_Committee" title="World Heritage Committee">Session</a>)</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Reference no.</th><td class="infobox-data"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/23">23</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/?search=&search_by_country=&type=&media=&region=&order=region">Region</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/List_of_World_Heritage_Sites_in_the_Arab_states" title="List of World Heritage Sites in the Arab states">Arab states</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/List_of_World_Heritage_in_Danger" title="List of World Heritage in Danger">Endangered</a></th><td class="infobox-data">2013 (2013)–present</td></tr><tr style="display:none"><th colspan="2"> </th></tr><tr style="display:none"><th colspan="2"> </th></tr></tbody></table> Palmyra (<a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/pælˈmaɪrə/</a> <a href="/wiki/Help:Pronunciation_respelling_key" title="Help:Pronunciation respelling key">pal-MY-rə</a>; <a href="/wiki/Palmyrene_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Palmyrene dialect">Palmyrene</a>: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009384507" />𐡶𐡣𐡬𐡥𐡴‎ (<a href="/wiki/File:Tdmr.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt=""Image of city name written in Palmyrene script"" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Tdmr.png/65px-Tdmr.png" decoding="async" width="65" height="18" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Tdmr.png/98px-Tdmr.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Tdmr.png/130px-Tdmr.png 2x" data-file-width="288" data-file-height="80" /></a>), romanized: Tadmor; <a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a>: تَدْمُر, <a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Arabic" title="Romanization of Arabic">romanized</a>: Tadmur) is an ancient city in central <a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a>. It is located in the eastern part of the <a href="/wiki/Levant" title="Levant">Levant</a>, and archaeological finds date back to the <a href="/wiki/Neolithic" title="Neolithic">Neolithic</a> period, and documents first mention the city in the early second millennium BCE. Palmyra changed hands on a number of occasions between different empires before becoming a subject of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> in the first century CE. The city grew wealthy from <a href="/wiki/Caravan_(travellers)" title="Caravan (travellers)">trade caravans</a>; the Palmyrenes became renowned as merchants who established colonies along the <a href="/wiki/Silk_Road" title="Silk Road">Silk Road</a> and operated throughout the Roman Empire. Palmyra's wealth enabled the construction of monumental projects, such as the <a href="/wiki/Great_Colonnade_at_Palmyra" title="Great Colonnade at Palmyra">Great Colonnade</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Bel" title="Temple of Bel">Temple of Bel</a>, and the distinctive tower tombs. Ethnically, the Palmyrenes combined elements of <a href="/wiki/Amorites" title="Amorites">Amorites</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arameans" title="Arameans">Arameans</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Arabs" title="Arabs">Arabs</a>. Socially structured around kinship and clans, Palmyra's inhabitants spoke <a href="/wiki/Palmyrene_Aramaic" title="Palmyrene Aramaic">Palmyrene Aramaic</a>, a variety of <a href="/wiki/Aramaic#Middle_Aramaic" title="Aramaic">Western Middle Aramaic</a>, while using <a href="/wiki/Koine_Greek" title="Koine Greek">Koine Greek</a> for commercial and diplomatic purposes. The <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic period</a> of <a href="/wiki/West_Asia" title="West Asia">West Asia</a> influenced the <a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Syria" title="Culture of Syria">culture</a> of Palmyra, which produced distinctive art and architecture that combined different Mediterranean traditions. The city's inhabitants worshiped <a href="/wiki/Canaanite_religion" title="Canaanite religion">local Semitic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Mesopotamian_religion" title="Ancient Mesopotamian religion">Mesopotamian</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Religion_in_pre-Islamic_Arabia" title="Religion in pre-Islamic Arabia">Arab</a> deities. By the third century, Palmyra had become a prosperous regional center. It reached the apex of its power in the 260s, when the Palmyrene King <a href="/wiki/Odaenathus" title="Odaenathus">Odaenathus</a> defeated the <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanian</a> emperor <a href="/wiki/Shapur_I" title="Shapur I">Shapur I</a>. The king was succeeded by queen regent <a href="/wiki/Zenobia" title="Zenobia">Zenobia</a>, who rebelled against Rome and established the <a href="/wiki/Palmyrene_Empire" title="Palmyrene Empire">Palmyrene Empire</a>. In 273, Roman emperor <a href="/wiki/Aurelian" title="Aurelian">Aurelian</a> destroyed the city, which was later restored by <a href="/wiki/Diocletian" title="Diocletian">Diocletian</a> at a reduced size. The Palmyrenes converted to <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a> during the fourth century and to <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a> in the centuries following the conquest by the 7th-century <a href="/wiki/Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Rashidun Caliphate">Rashidun Caliphate</a>, after which the Palmyrene and Greek languages were replaced by <a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Arabic</a>. Before 273 CE, Palmyra enjoyed autonomy and was attached to the Roman <a href="/wiki/Syria_(Roman_province)" class="mw-redirect" title="Syria (Roman province)">province of Syria</a>, having its political organization influenced by the <a href="/wiki/Polis" title="Polis">Greek city-state</a> model during the first two centuries CE. The city became a <a href="/wiki/Colonia_(Roman)" title="Colonia (Roman)">Roman colonia</a> during the third century, leading to the incorporation of Roman governing institutions, before becoming a monarchy in 260. Following its destruction in 273, Palmyra became a minor center under the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantines</a> and later empires. Its destruction by the <a href="/wiki/Timurid_Empire" title="Timurid Empire">Timurids</a> in 1400 reduced it to a small village. Under <a href="/wiki/French_Mandate_of_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="French Mandate of Syria">French Mandatory</a> rule in 1932, the inhabitants were moved into the new village of <a href="/wiki/Tadmur" class="mw-redirect" title="Tadmur">Tadmur</a>, and the ancient site became available for excavations. During the <a href="/wiki/Syrian_civil_war" title="Syrian civil war">Syrian civil war</a> in 2015, the <a href="/wiki/Islamic_State" title="Islamic State">Islamic State</a> captured Palmyra and destroyed large parts of the ancient city, which was recaptured by the <a href="/wiki/Syrian_Army" title="Syrian Army">Syrian Army</a> on 2 March 2017. It was then recaptured by the <a href="/wiki/Syrian_Free_Army" title="Syrian Free Army">Syrian Free Army</a>, after the fall of the <a href="/wiki/Ba%27athist_Syria" title="Ba'athist Syria">Assad government</a> in December 2024. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology">Etymology</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Palmyra&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Etymology">edit</a>]</div> Records of the name "Tadmor" date from the early second millennium BC;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Connor1988[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidx1l_MfEV6kkCpgPA238_238]-1">[1]</a> eighteenth century BC tablets from <a href="/wiki/Mari,_Syria" title="Mari, Syria">Mari</a> written in <a href="/wiki/Cuneiform_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Cuneiform script">cuneiform</a> record the name as "Ta-ad-mi-ir", while Assyrian inscriptions of the eleventh century BC record it as "Ta-ad-mar".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELimet1977[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid-5o3AAAAIAAJpgPA104_104]-2">[2]</a> Aramaic Palmyrene inscriptions themselves showed two variants of the name; TDMR (i.e., Tadmar) and TDMWR (i.e., Tadmor).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBubeník1989[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDT98F5CFtQsCpgPA229_229]-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWolfensohn2016[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidm2WSDQAAQBAJpgPT118_118]-4">[4]</a> The etymology of the name is unclear; the standard interpretation, supported by <a href="/wiki/Albert_Schultens" title="Albert Schultens">Albert Schultens</a>, connects it to the Semitic word for "<a href="/wiki/Date_palm#Dates" title="Date palm">date palm</a>", tamar (<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1241449095">.mw-parser-output .script-hebrew,.mw-parser-output .script-Hebr{font-family:"Ezra SIL SR","Ezra SIL","SBL Hebrew","Taamey Frank CLM","SBL BibLit","Taamey Ashkenaz","Frank Ruehl CLM","Keter Aram Tsova","Taamey David CLM","Keter YG","Shofar","David CLM","Hadasim CLM","Simple CLM","Nachlieli",Cardo,Alef,"Noto Serif Hebrew","Noto Sans Hebrew","David Libre",David,"Times New Roman",Gisha,Arial,FreeSerif,FreeSans}</style><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D7%AA%D7%9E%D7%A8" class="extiw" title="wikt:תמר">תמר</a>‎),<a href="#cite_note-9">[note 1]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECharnock1859[httpsarchiveorgdetailsbub_gb_I2BulY4WvsYCpagen210_200]-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Connor1988[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidx1l_MfEV6kkCpgPA235_235]-8">[8]</a> thus referring to the palm trees that surrounded the city.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Connor1988[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidx1l_MfEV6kkCpgPA235_235]-8">[8]</a> The Greek name Παλμύρα (Latinized Palmyra) was first recorded by <a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder" title="Pliny the Elder">Pliny the Elder</a> in the 1st century AD.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Connor1988[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidx1l_MfEV6kkCpgPA248_248]-10">[9]</a> It was used throughout the <a href="/wiki/Greco-Roman" class="mw-redirect" title="Greco-Roman">Greco-Roman</a> world.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECharnock1859[httpsarchiveorgdetailsbub_gb_I2BulY4WvsYCpagen210_200]-7">[7]</a> It is generally believed that "Palmyra" derives from "Tadmor" and linguists have presented two possibilities; one view holds that Palmyra was an alteration of Tadmor.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECharnock1859[httpsarchiveorgdetailsbub_gb_I2BulY4WvsYCpagen210_200]-7">[7]</a> According to the suggestion by Schultens, "Palmyra" could have arisen as a corruption of "Tadmor", via an unattested form "Talmura", changed to "Palmura" by the influence of the Latin word <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/palma" class="extiw" title="wikt:palma">palma</a> (date "<a href="/wiki/Arecaceae" title="Arecaceae">palm</a>"),<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Connor1988[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidx1l_MfEV6kkCpgPA238_238]-1">[1]</a> in reference to the city's palm trees, then the name reached its final form "Palmyra".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECharnock1859[httpsarchiveorgdetailsbub_gb_I2BulY4WvsYCpagen211_201]-11">[10]</a> The second view, supported by some philologists, such as <a href="/wiki/Jean_Starcky" title="Jean Starcky">Jean Starcky</a>, holds that Palmyra is a translation of "Tadmor" (assuming that it meant palm), which had derived from the Greek word for palm, "palame".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Connor1988[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidx1l_MfEV6kkCpgPA238_238]-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Connor1988[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidx1l_MfEV6kkCpgPA235_235]-8">[8]</a> An alternative suggestion connects the name to the <a href="/wiki/Syriac_language" title="Syriac language">Syriac</a> tedmurtā (ܬܕܡܘܪܬܐ) "miracle", hence tedmurtā "object of wonder", from the root dmr "to wonder"; this possibility was mentioned favourably by <a href="/wiki/Franz_Altheim" title="Franz Altheim">Franz Altheim</a> and Ruth Altheim-Stiehl (1973), but rejected by Jean Starcky (1960) and Michael Gawlikowski (1974).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Connor1988[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidx1l_MfEV6kkCpgPA248_248]-10">[9]</a> <a href="/wiki/Michael_Patrick_O%27Connor" title="Michael Patrick O'Connor">Michael Patrick O'Connor</a> (1988) suggested that the names "Palmyra" and "Tadmor" originated in the <a href="/wiki/Hurrian_language" title="Hurrian language">Hurrian language</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Connor1988[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidx1l_MfEV6kkCpgPA238_238]-1">[1]</a> As evidence, he cited the inexplicability of alterations to the theorized roots of both names (represented in the addition of -d- to tamar and -ra- to palame).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Connor1988[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidx1l_MfEV6kkCpgPA235_235]-8">[8]</a> According to this theory, "Tadmor" derives from the Hurrian word tad ("to love") with the addition of the typical Hurrian <a href="/wiki/Mid_vowel" title="Mid vowel">mid vowel</a> rising (mVr) <a href="/wiki/Formant" title="Formant">formant</a> mar.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Connor1988[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidx1l_MfEV6kkCpgPA236_236]-12">[11]</a> Similarly, according to this theory, "Palmyra" derives from the Hurrian word pal ("to know") using the same mVr formant (mar).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Connor1988[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidx1l_MfEV6kkCpgPA236_236]-12">[11]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Region_and_city_layout">Region and city layout</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Palmyra&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Region and city layout">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Valley_of_the_Tombs" title="Valley of the Tombs">Valley of the Tombs</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:204px;max-width:204px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Palmyra,_Syria_-_3.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Palmyra%2C_Syria_-_3.jpg/250px-Palmyra%2C_Syria_-_3.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="133" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Palmyra%2C_Syria_-_3.jpg/330px-Palmyra%2C_Syria_-_3.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Palmyra%2C_Syria_-_3.jpg/500px-Palmyra%2C_Syria_-_3.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="1999" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">The northern Palmyrene mountain belt</div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Palmyra%27s_landmarks.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Palmyra%27s_landmarks.png/200px-Palmyra%27s_landmarks.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="244" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Palmyra%27s_landmarks.png/300px-Palmyra%27s_landmarks.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Palmyra%27s_landmarks.png/400px-Palmyra%27s_landmarks.png 2x" data-file-width="2191" data-file-height="2668" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">Palmyra's landmarks</div></div></div></div></div> The city of Palmyra lies 215 km (134 mi) northeast of the Syrian capital, <a href="/wiki/Damascus" title="Damascus">Damascus</a>;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuntern2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidcyGAqI9SHPECpgPA433_433]-13">[12]</a> along with an expanded hinterland of several settlements, farms and forts, the city forms part of the region known as the Palmyrene.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIntagliata2018[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidl6RTDwAAQBAJpgPA1_1]-14">[13]</a> The city is located in an <a href="/wiki/Oasis" title="Oasis">oasis</a> surrounded by <a href="/wiki/Date_palm" title="Date palm">palms</a> (of which twenty varieties have been reported).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Connor1988[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidx1l_MfEV6kkCpgPA235_235]-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStoneman1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8kLFfE1qPhICpgPA56_56]-15">[14]</a> Two mountain ranges overlook the city: the northern <a href="/wiki/Aleppo_plateau" title="Aleppo plateau">Palmyrene mountain belt</a> from the north and the southern Palmyrene mountains from the southwest.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIzumi199519-16">[15]</a> In the south and the east Palmyra is exposed to the <a href="/wiki/Syrian_Desert" title="Syrian Desert">Syrian Desert</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIzumi199519-16">[15]</a> A small <a href="/wiki/Wadi" title="Wadi">wadi</a>, al-Qubur, crosses the area, flowing from the western hills past the city before disappearing in the eastern gardens of the oasis.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZuchowska2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidFgML1EdUiWUCpgPA229_229]-17">[16]</a> South of the wadi is a spring, <a href="/wiki/Efqa" class="mw-redirect" title="Efqa">Efqa</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDirven1999[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid_LfXg2r6FT0CpgPA17_17]-18">[17]</a> Pliny the Elder described the town in the 70s AD as famous for its desert location, for the richness of its soil,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYoung2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidE5yCAgAAQBAJpgPA124_124]-19">[18]</a> and for the springs surrounding it, which made agriculture and herding possible.<a href="#cite_note-21">[note 2]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYoung2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidE5yCAgAAQBAJpgPA124_124]-19">[18]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Layout">Layout</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Palmyra&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Layout">edit</a>]</div> Palmyra began as a small Neolithic settlement near the Efqa spring on the southern bank of Wadi al-Qubur.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETomlinson2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidb9-KAgAAQBAJpgPA204_204]-22">[20]</a> The much later Hellenistic settlement of Palmyra was also located near the Efqa spring on the southern bank of Wadi al-Qubur.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETomlinson2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidb9-KAgAAQBAJpgPA204_204]-22">[20]</a> It had its residences expanding to the wadi's northern bank during the first century.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZuchowska2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidFgML1EdUiWUCpgPA229_229]-17">[16]</a> Although the city's walls at the time of Zenobia originally enclosed an extensive area on both banks of the wadi,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZuchowska2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidFgML1EdUiWUCpgPA229_229]-17">[16]</a> the walls rebuilt during Aurelian's reign surrounded only the northern-bank section.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJuchniewicz2013194-23">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZuchowska2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidFgML1EdUiWUCpgPA229_229]-17">[16]</a> Most of the city's monumental projects were built on the wadi's northern bank,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZuchowska2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidFgML1EdUiWUCpgPA230_230]-24">[22]</a> among them is the <a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Bel" title="Temple of Bel">Temple of Bel</a>, on a <a href="/wiki/Tell_(archaeology)" title="Tell (archaeology)">tell</a> which was the site of an earlier temple (known as the Hellenistic temple).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith_II2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidh5cMho6zFckCpgPA63_63]-25">[23]</a> However, excavation supports the theory that the tell was originally located on the southern bank, and the wadi was diverted south of the tell to incorporate the temple into Palmyra's late first and early second century urban organization on the north bank.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZuchowska2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidFgML1EdUiWUCpgPA231_231]-26">[24]</a> Also north of the wadi was the <a href="/wiki/Great_Colonnade_at_Palmyra" title="Great Colonnade at Palmyra">Great Colonnade</a>, Palmyra's 1.1-kilometre-long (0.68 mi) main street,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECrawford1990[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidgGMc04ge4yoCpgPA123_123]-27">[25]</a> which extended from the Temple of Bel in the east,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECotterman2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid0IKiAgAAQBAJpgPA17_17]-28">[26]</a> to the Funerary Temple no.86 in the city's western part.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGawlikowski2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidoZcr7SzzVYYCpgPA55_55]-29">[27]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBall2002[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid73-JAgAAQBAJpgPA364_364]-30">[28]</a> It had a <a href="/wiki/Arch_of_Triumph_(Palmyra)" class="mw-redirect" title="Arch of Triumph (Palmyra)">monumental arch</a> in its eastern section,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDe_Laborde1837[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidLwAcAQAAIAAJpgPA239_239]-31">[29]</a> and a <a href="/wiki/Tetrapylon" title="Tetrapylon">tetrapylon</a> stands in the center.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERicca2007[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid3SapTk5iGDkCpgPA295_295]-32">[30]</a> The Baths of Diocletian were on the left side of the colonnade.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStoneman1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8kLFfE1qPhICpgPA124_124]-33">[31]</a> Nearby were residences,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrijvers1976[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidmuQ3AAAAIAAJpgPA5_5]-34">[32]</a> the <a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Baalshamin" title="Temple of Baalshamin">Temple of Baalshamin</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith_II2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidh5cMho6zFckCpgPA22_22]-35">[33]</a> and the Byzantine churches, which include "Basilica IV", Palmyra's largest church.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMajcherek2013[httpdigiubuni-heidelbergdediglitstudia_palmyrenskie20130256sid869feb64802fc695d2e489a1718e1fbc_254]-36">[34]</a> The church is dated to the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire_under_the_Justinian_dynasty" title="Byzantine Empire under the Justinian dynasty">Justinian age</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMajcherek2013[httpdigiubuni-heidelbergdediglitstudia_palmyrenskie20130258sid869feb64802fc695d2e489a1718e1fbc_256]-37">[35]</a> its columns are estimated to be 7 metres (23 ft) high, and its base measured 27.5 by 47.5 metres (90 by 156 ft).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMajcherek2013[httpdigiubuni-heidelbergdediglitstudia_palmyrenskie20130256sid869feb64802fc695d2e489a1718e1fbc_254]-36">[34]</a> The Temple of <a href="/wiki/Nabu" title="Nabu">Nabu</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Theatre_at_Palmyra" title="Roman Theatre at Palmyra">Roman theater</a> were built on the colonnade's southern side.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECarterDunstonThomas2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid_R-I_Gx5OgQCpgPA208_208]-38">[36]</a> Behind the theater were a small senate building and the large <a href="/wiki/Agora" title="Agora">agora</a>, with the remains of a <a href="/wiki/Triclinium" title="Triclinium">triclinium</a> (banquet room) and the Tariff Court.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDarke2006[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidHuXAHGDSjNICpgPA240_240]-39">[37]</a> A cross street at the western end of the colonnade leads to the <a href="/wiki/Camp_of_Diocletian" title="Camp of Diocletian">Camp of Diocletian</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECrawford1990[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidgGMc04ge4yoCpgPA123_123]-27">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeattiePepper2001[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid9iCfkTe8v2ECpgRA2-PA290_290]-40">[38]</a> built by <a href="/wiki/Sossianus_Hierocles" title="Sossianus Hierocles">Sosianus Hierocles</a> (the Roman governor of Syria in the reign of <a href="/wiki/Diocletian" title="Diocletian">Diocletian</a>).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurns2009[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidz_IBAwAAQBAJpgPA216_216]-41">[39]</a> Nearby are the <a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Al-Lat" title="Temple of Al-Lat">Temple of Al-lāt</a> and the Damascus Gate.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrowning1979180-42">[40]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Demographic_history">Demographic history</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Palmyra&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Demographic history">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bronze_and_Iron_Ages">Bronze and Iron Ages</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Palmyra&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Bronze and Iron Ages">edit</a>]</div> The earliest known inhabitants were the <a href="/wiki/Amorites" title="Amorites">Amorites</a> in the early second millennium BC,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBen-YehoshuaBorowitzHanus2012[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidS_Jjwq206QoCpgPT26_26]-43">[41]</a> and by the end of the millennium, <a href="/wiki/Arameans" title="Arameans">Arameans</a> were mentioned as inhabiting the area.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreene2001[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidamlXOOaSuLMCpgPA17_17]-44">[42]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECotterman2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid0IKiAgAAQBAJpgPA4_4]-45">[43]</a> <a href="/wiki/Arabs" title="Arabs">Arabs</a> arrived in the city in the late first millennium BC.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBryce2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidXno9AgAAQBAJpgPA278_278]-46">[44]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hellenistic_to_Byzantine_periods">Hellenistic to Byzantine periods</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Palmyra&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Hellenistic to Byzantine periods">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Zabdibel&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Zabdibel (page does not exist)">Zabdibel</a>, who aided the <a href="/wiki/Seleucids" class="mw-redirect" title="Seleucids">Seleucids</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Raphia" title="Battle of Raphia">battle of Raphia</a> (217 BC), was mentioned as the commander of "the Arabs and neighbouring tribes to the number of ten thousands";<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaizer2017[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidC7Q1DwAAQBAJpgPA34lpgPA34_34]-47">[45]</a> Zabdibel and his men were not actually identified as Palmyrenes in the texts, but the name "Zabdibel" is a Palmyrene name leading to the conclusion that he hailed from Palmyra.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBryce2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidXno9AgAAQBAJpgPA359_359]-48">[46]</a> The Arab newcomers were assimilated by the earlier inhabitants, used Palmyrene as a mother tongue,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDirven1999[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid_LfXg2r6FT0CpgPA19_19]-49">[47]</a> and formed a significant segment of the aristocracy.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELuxenberg2007[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid227GhaeKYl4CpgPA11_11]-50">[48]</a> At its height during the reign of Zenobia (around 270), Palmyra had more than 200,000 residents.<a href="#cite_note-52">[note 3]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECotterman2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid0IKiAgAAQBAJpgPA5_5]-53">[50]</a> The classical city also had a Jewish community; inscriptions in Palmyrene from the <a href="/wiki/Beit_She%27arim_necropolis" title="Beit She'arim necropolis">Beit She'arim necropolis</a> in <a href="/wiki/Lower_Galilee" title="Lower Galilee">Lower Galilee</a> confirm the burial of Palmyrene Jews.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETeixidor2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidoZcr7SzzVYYCpgPA209_209]-54">[51]</a> During the Roman period, occasionally and rarely, members of the Palmyrene families took Greek names while ethnic Greeks were few; the majority of people with Greek names, who did not belong to one of the city's families, were freed slaves.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERostovtzeff1932[httpsarchiveorgstreamRostCaravanCitiesRost_Caravan_Citiespagen171mode2up_133]-55">[52]</a> The Palmyrenes seem to have disliked the Greeks, considered them foreigners, and restricted their settlement in the city.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERostovtzeff1932[httpsarchiveorgstreamRostCaravanCitiesRost_Caravan_Citiespagen171mode2up_133]-55">[52]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_Muslim_to_Late_Ottoman_periods">Early Muslim to Late Ottoman periods</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Palmyra&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Early Muslim to Late Ottoman periods">edit</a>]</div> During the <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad Caliphate</a>, Palmyra was mainly inhabited by the <a href="/wiki/Banu_Kalb" title="Banu Kalb">Banu Kalb</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrabarHolodKnustadTrousdale1978[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidQMSCNQlywSsCpgPA156_156]-56">[53]</a> <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_of_Tudela" title="Benjamin of Tudela">Benjamin of Tudela</a> recorded the existence of 2000 Jews in the city during the twelfth century.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStoneman1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8kLFfE1qPhICpgPA192_192]-57">[54]</a> Palmyra declined after its destruction by <a href="/wiki/Timur" title="Timur">Timur</a> in 1400,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKitto1837[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidxMBWAAAAcAAJpgPA341_341]-58">[55]</a> and was a village of 6,000 inhabitants at the beginning of the 20th century.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBelnapHaeri1997[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidl03h94vqCQMCpgPA21_21]-59">[56]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ethnicity_of_classical_Palmyra">Ethnicity of classical Palmyra</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Palmyra&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Ethnicity of classical Palmyra">edit</a>]</div> Palmyra's population was a mixture of the different peoples inhabiting the city,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDirven1999[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid_LfXg2r6FT0CpgPA18_18]-60">[57]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETeixidor1979[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidTccUAAAAIAAJpgPR9_9]-61">[58]</a> which is seen in Aramaic, Arabic and Amorite names of Palmyrene clans,<a href="#cite_note-63">[note 4]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStoneman1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8kLFfE1qPhICpgPA67_67]-62">[59]</a> but the ethnicity of Palmyra is a matter of debate.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVeyne2017[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidqZUtDwAAQBAJpgPA60_60]-64">[60]</a> Some scholars, such as Andrew M. Smith II, consider ethnicity a concept related to modern nationalism, and prefer not to describe the Palmyrenes with ethnic designations they themselves did not know, concluding that there is a lack of evidence regarding what ethnicity the Palmyrenes perceived themselves.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith_II2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidh5cMho6zFckCpgPA36_36],_37-65">[61]</a> On the other hand, many scholars, such as Eivind Seland, contend that a distinctive Palmyrene ethnicity is apparent in the available contemporary evidence.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESeland2013381-66">[62]</a> The second century work <a href="/wiki/De_Munitionibus_Castrorum" title="De Munitionibus Castrorum">De Munitionibus Castrorum</a> mentioned the Palmyrenes as a natio, the Latin equivalent of the Greek ἔθνος (éthnos).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacdonald20099-67">[63]</a> Seland noted the epigraphic evidence left by the Palmyrenes outside the city.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESeland2013381-66">[62]</a> The inscriptions reveal the existence of a real diaspora satisfying the three criteria set by the sociologist <a href="/wiki/Rogers_Brubaker" title="Rogers Brubaker">Rogers Brubaker</a>.<a href="#cite_note-69">[note 5]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESeland2013382-68">[64]</a> Palmyrene diaspora members always made clear their Palmyrene origin and used the Palmyrene language, and maintained their distinct religion even when the host society's religion was close to that of Palmyra. Seland concluded that in the case of Palmyra, the people perceived themselves different from their neighbours and a real Palmyrene ethnicity existed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESeland2013383-70">[65]</a> Aside from the existence of a Palmyrene ethnicity, Aramean or Arab are the two main ethnic designations debated by historians;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVeyne2017[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidqZUtDwAAQBAJpgPA60_60]-64">[60]</a> Javier Teixidor stated, "Palmyra was an Aramaean city and it is a mistake to consider it as an Arab town", while Yasamin Zahran criticized this statement and argued that the inhabitants considered themselves Arabs.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZahran200335,_36-71">[66]</a> In practice, according to several scholars such as Udo Hartmann and Michael Sommer, the citizenry of Palmyra were mainly the result of Arab and Aramaean tribes merging into a unity with a corresponding consciousness; they thought and acted as Palmyrenes.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHartmann2001[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidBdcHK8Ll1jMCpgPA88_88]-72">[67]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESommer2018146-73">[68]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Language">Language</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Palmyra&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Language">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Palmyrene_Aramaic" title="Palmyrene Aramaic">Palmyrene Aramaic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Palmyrene_alphabet" title="Palmyrene alphabet">Palmyrene alphabet</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Palmyrenisch.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Alphabetic inscription on stone" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Palmyrenisch.jpg/220px-Palmyrenisch.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="159" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Palmyrenisch.jpg/330px-Palmyrenisch.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Palmyrenisch.jpg/440px-Palmyrenisch.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2724" data-file-height="1963" /></a><figcaption>Alphabetic inscription in Palmyrene alphabet</figcaption></figure> Until the late third century, Palmyrenes spoke <a href="/wiki/Palmyrene_Aramaic" title="Palmyrene Aramaic">Palmyrene Aramaic</a> and used the <a href="/wiki/Palmyrene_alphabet" title="Palmyrene alphabet">Palmyrene alphabet</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeyer1986[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidpZ53zpMQNLECpgPA28_28]-74">[69]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHealey1990[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid0_KnI588AnkCpgPA46_46]-75">[70]</a> The use of <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> was minimal, but Greek was used by wealthier members of society for commercial and diplomatic purposes,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBryce2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidXno9AgAAQBAJpgPA280_280]-76">[71]</a> and it became the dominant language during the Byzantine era.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERicca2007[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid3SapTk5iGDkCpgPA293_293]-77">[72]</a> There are several theories explaining the disappearance of the Palmyrene language shortly after the campaigns of Aurelian. The linguist Jean Cantineau assumed that Aurelian suppressed all aspects of Palmyrene culture, including the language, but the last Palmyrene inscription dates to 279/280, after the death of the Roman emperor in 275, thus refuting such a theory.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHartmann201666-78">[73]</a> Many scholars ascribe the disappearance of the language to a change in society resulting from the reorganization of the Eastern Roman frontier following the fall of Zenobia.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHartmann201666-78">[73]</a> The archaeologist Karol Juchniewicz ascribed it to a change in the ethnic composition of the city, resulting from the influx of people who did not speak Aramaic, probably a Roman legion.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJuchniewicz2013194-23">[21]</a> Hartmann suggested that it was a Palmyrene initiative by nobles allied to Rome attempting to express their loyalty to the emperor; Hartmann noted that Palmyrene disappeared in the written form, and that this does not mean its extinction as spoken language.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHartmann201667-79">[74]</a> After the Arab conquest, Greek was replaced by <a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERicca2007[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid3SapTk5iGDkCpgPA293_293]-77">[72]</a> from which, although the city was surrounded by Bedouins, a Palmyrene dialect evolved.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBelnapHaeri1997[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidl03h94vqCQMCpgPA21_21]-59">[56]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Social_organization">Social organization</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Palmyra&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Social organization">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:PalmyraWoman.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Bust of a deceased woman, Aqmat" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/PalmyraWoman.JPG/220px-PalmyraWoman.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="271" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/PalmyraWoman.JPG/330px-PalmyraWoman.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/PalmyraWoman.JPG/440px-PalmyraWoman.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1150" data-file-height="1414" /></a><figcaption>Palmyrene funerary portrait representing Aqmat, a Palmyrene aristocrat</figcaption></figure> Classical Palmyra was a tribal community, but due to the lack of sources, an understanding of the nature of Palmyrene tribal structure is not possible.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith_II2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidh5cMho6zFckCpgPA38_38]-80">[75]</a> Thirty clans have been documented;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBryce2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidXno9AgAAQBAJpgPA282_282]-81">[76]</a> five of which were identified as tribes (Phylai <a href="/wiki/Koin%C4%93_Greek_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Koinē Greek language">Koinē Greek</a>: Φυλαί, pl. of <a href="/wiki/Phyle" title="Phyle">Phyle Φυλή</a>) comprising several sub-clans.<a href="#cite_note-83">[note 6]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDirven1999[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid_LfXg2r6FT0CpgPA24_24]-82">[77]</a> By the time of <a href="/wiki/Nero" title="Nero">Nero</a>, Palmyra had four tribes, each residing in an area of the city bearing its name.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDirven1999[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid_LfXg2r6FT0CpgPA25_25]-84">[78]</a> Three of the tribes were the <a href="/wiki/Bene_Komare" title="Bene Komare">Komare</a>, Mattabol and <a href="/wiki/Bene_Ma%27zin" title="Bene Ma'zin">Ma'zin</a>; the fourth tribe is uncertain, but was probably the Mita.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDirven1999[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid_LfXg2r6FT0CpgPA25_25]-84">[78]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDirven1999[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid_LfXg2r6FT0CpgPA74_74]-85">[79]</a> In time, the four tribes became highly civic and tribal lines blurred;<a href="#cite_note-87">[note 7]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDirven1999[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid_LfXg2r6FT0CpgPA25_25]-84">[78]</a> by the second century clan identity lost its importance, and it disappeared during the third century.<a href="#cite_note-88">[note 8]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDirven1999[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid_LfXg2r6FT0CpgPA25_25]-84">[78]</a> Even the four tribes ceased to be important by the third century as only one inscription mentions a tribe after the year 212; instead, aristocrats played the decisive role in the city's social organization.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHartmann201661,_62-89">[81]</a> Women seem to have been active in Palmyra's social and public life. They commissioned inscriptions, buildings or tombs, and in certain cases, held administrative offices. Offerings to gods in the names of women are documented.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoyland2001[httpsarchiveorgdetailsARABIAANDTHEARABSFromTheBronzeAgeToTheComingOfIslamRobertGHoylandpagen143_132]-90">[82]</a> The last Palmyrene inscription of 279/280 refers to the honouring of a citizen by the Maththabolians,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHartmann201666-78">[73]</a> which indicates that the tribal system still carried weight after the fall of Zenobia.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIntagliata201899-91">[83]</a> A noticeable change is the lack of development of aristocratic residences, and no important public buildings were constructed by locals, indicating that the elite diminished following the campaign of Aurelian. The social change and the reduction of the aristocratic elite is hard to explain. It could be a result of the aristocracy suffering many casualties in the war against Rome, or fleeing to the countryside. According to historian <a href="/w/index.php?title=Emanuele_Intagliata&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Emanuele Intagliata (page does not exist)">Emanuele Intagliata</a>, the change can be ascribed to the Roman reorganization following Zenobia's fall, as Palmyra ceased to be a rich caravan city and became a frontier fortress, leading the inhabitants to focus on satisfying the needs of a garrison instead of providing the empire with luxurious oriental items. Such a change in functions would have made the city less attractive for an aristocratic elite.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIntagliata201844,_45-92">[84]</a> Palmyra benefited from <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad rule</a>, since its role as a frontier city ended and the East-West trade route was restored, leading to the re-emergence of a merchant class. Palmyra's loyalty to the Umayyads led to an aggressive military retaliation from their successors, the <a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasid Caliphate</a>, and the city diminished in size, losing its merchant class.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIntagliata2018113-93">[85]</a> Following its destruction by <a href="/wiki/Timur" title="Timur">Timur</a>, Palmyra maintained the life of a small settlement until its relocation in 1932.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpeake1996[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidR44VRnNCzAYCpgPA568_568]-94">[86]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Culture">Culture</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Palmyra&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Culture">edit</a>]</div> The scarce artifacts found in the city dating to the Bronze Age reveal that, culturally, Palmyra was most affiliated with western Syria.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBielińska1997[httpdigiubuni-heidelbergdediglitstudia_palmyrenskie19970044_44]-95">[87]</a> <a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">Classical</a> Palmyra had a distinctive culture,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMillar1993[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidIA-YlZqHv90CpgPA246_246]-96">[88]</a> based on a <a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Syria" title="Culture of Syria">local Semitic</a> tradition,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBryce2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidXno9AgAAQBAJpgPA281_281]-97">[89]</a> and influenced by Greece and Rome.<a href="#cite_note-99">[note 9]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEdwell2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDQgmOZlsEWcCpgPA33_33]-100">[91]</a> To appear better integrated into the Roman Empire, some Palmyrenes adopted Greco-Roman names, either alone or in addition to a second native name.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYon2002[httpbooksopeneditionorgifpo3763_59]-101">[92]</a> The extent of Greek influence on Palmyra's culture is debated.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAndrade2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid4ROhAQAAQBAJpgPT264_264]-102">[93]</a> Scholars interpreted the Palmyrenes' Greek practices differently; many see those characters as a superficial layer over a local essence.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAndrade2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid4ROhAQAAQBAJpgPT263_263]-103">[94]</a> Palmyra's senate was an example; although Palmyrene texts written in Greek described it as a "<a href="/wiki/Boule_(ancient_Greece)" title="Boule (ancient Greece)">boule</a>" (a Greek institution), the senate was a gathering of non-elected tribal elders (a Near-Eastern assembly tradition).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBall2002[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid73-JAgAAQBAJpgPA446_446]-104">[95]</a> Others view Palmyra's culture as a fusion of local and Greco-Roman traditions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMillar2007[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidmimRtU4vtDwCpgPA108_108]-105">[96]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti" /><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:204px;max-width:204px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Istanbul_-_Museo_archeol._-_Colombario_funebre_da_Palmira_-_Foto_G._Dall%27Orto_28-5-2006.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Istanbul_-_Museo_archeol._-_Colombario_funebre_da_Palmira_-_Foto_G._Dall%27Orto_28-5-2006.jpg/250px-Istanbul_-_Museo_archeol._-_Colombario_funebre_da_Palmira_-_Foto_G._Dall%27Orto_28-5-2006.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="162" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Istanbul_-_Museo_archeol._-_Colombario_funebre_da_Palmira_-_Foto_G._Dall%27Orto_28-5-2006.jpg/330px-Istanbul_-_Museo_archeol._-_Colombario_funebre_da_Palmira_-_Foto_G._Dall%27Orto_28-5-2006.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Istanbul_-_Museo_archeol._-_Colombario_funebre_da_Palmira_-_Foto_G._Dall%27Orto_28-5-2006.jpg/500px-Istanbul_-_Museo_archeol._-_Colombario_funebre_da_Palmira_-_Foto_G._Dall%27Orto_28-5-2006.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1185" data-file-height="959" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">Palmyrene loculi (burial chambers) reassembled in the <a href="/wiki/%C4%B0stanbul_Archaeology_Museums" class="mw-redirect" title="İstanbul Archaeology Museums">İstanbul Archaeological Museum</a></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Palmyrene_mummy.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Palmyrene_mummy.png/250px-Palmyrene_mummy.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="301" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Palmyrene_mummy.png/330px-Palmyrene_mummy.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Palmyrene_mummy.png/500px-Palmyrene_mummy.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="902" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">Palmyrene mummy</div></div></div></div></div> The culture of <a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Iran" title="Culture of Iran">Persia</a> influenced Palmyrene military tactics, dress and court ceremonies.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBall2002[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid73-JAgAAQBAJpgPA86_86]-106">[97]</a> Palmyra had no large libraries or publishing facilities, and it lacked an intellectual movement characteristic of other Eastern cities such as <a href="/wiki/Edessa" title="Edessa">Edessa</a> or Antioch.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBall2002[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid73-JAgAAQBAJpgPA79_79]-107">[98]</a> Although Zenobia opened her court to academics, the only notable scholar documented was <a href="/wiki/Cassius_Longinus_(philosopher)" title="Cassius Longinus (philosopher)">Cassius Longinus</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBall2002[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid73-JAgAAQBAJpgPA79_79]-107">[98]</a> Palmyra had a large <a href="/wiki/Agora" title="Agora">agora</a>.<a href="#cite_note-109">[note 10]</a> However, unlike the Greek Agoras (public gathering places shared with public buildings), Palmyra's agora resembled an Eastern <a href="/wiki/Caravanserai" title="Caravanserai">caravanserai</a> more than a hub of public life.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERaja2012[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid0VK6uPyhFLACpgPA198_198]-110">[100]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBall2002[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid73-JAgAAQBAJpgPA296_296]-111">[101]</a> The Palmyrenes buried their dead in elaborate family mausoleums,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChapot2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidlDmEAgAAQBAJpgPA168_168]-112">[102]</a> most with interior walls forming rows of burial chambers (<a href="/wiki/Loculus_(architecture)" title="Loculus (architecture)">loculi</a>) in which the dead, lying at full length, were placed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBenzelGraffRakicWatts2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidgBCHchG6qDACpgPA106_106]-113">[103]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEvansKevorkian2000[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidCMaY0_y6gK0CpgPA115_115]-114">[104]</a> A <a href="/wiki/Relief" title="Relief">relief</a> of the person interred formed part of the wall's decoration, acting as a headstone.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEvansKevorkian2000[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidCMaY0_y6gK0CpgPA115_115]-114">[104]</a> <a href="/wiki/Sarcophagi" class="mw-redirect" title="Sarcophagi">Sarcophagi</a> appeared in the late second century and were used in some of the tombs.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGawlikowski2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidoZcr7SzzVYYCpgPA54_54]-115">[105]</a> Many burial monuments contained <a href="/wiki/Mummy" title="Mummy">mummies</a> embalmed in a method similar to that used in <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_burial_customs#Mummification" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Egyptian burial customs">Ancient Egypt</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEColledge197661-116">[106]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWood1753[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidQOYRAwAAQBAJpgPA22_22]-117">[107]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Art_and_architecture">Art and architecture</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Palmyra&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Art and architecture">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Palmyrene_funerary_reliefs" title="Palmyrene funerary reliefs">Palmyrene funerary reliefs</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti" /><div class="thumb tmulti tleft"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:204px;max-width:204px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Tomba_di_Elahbel,_Palmira.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Tomba_di_Elahbel%2C_Palmira.jpg/200px-Tomba_di_Elahbel%2C_Palmira.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="267" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Tomba_di_Elahbel%2C_Palmira.jpg/300px-Tomba_di_Elahbel%2C_Palmira.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Tomba_di_Elahbel%2C_Palmira.jpg/400px-Tomba_di_Elahbel%2C_Palmira.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1728" data-file-height="2304" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">Interior of the <a href="/wiki/Tower_of_Elahbel" title="Tower of Elahbel">Tower of Elahbel</a>, in 2010</div></div></div></div></div> Although Palmyrene art was related to <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_art" title="Hellenistic art">that of Greece</a>, it had a distinctive style unique to the middle-Euphrates region.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMillar1993[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidIA-YlZqHv90CpgPA329_329]-118">[108]</a> Palmyrene art is well represented by the <a href="/wiki/Palmyrene_funerary_reliefs" title="Palmyrene funerary reliefs">bust reliefs</a> which seal the openings of its burial chambers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMillar1993[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidIA-YlZqHv90CpgPA329_329]-118">[108]</a> The reliefs emphasized clothing, jewelry and a frontal representation of the person depicted,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMillar1993[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidIA-YlZqHv90CpgPA329_329]-118">[108]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETuck2015[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidPJ_mBQAAQBAJpgPA252_252]-119">[109]</a> characteristics which can be seen as a forerunner of <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_art" title="Byzantine art">Byzantine art</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMillar1993[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidIA-YlZqHv90CpgPA329_329]-118">[108]</a> According to <a href="/wiki/Michael_Rostovtzeff" title="Michael Rostovtzeff">Michael Rostovtzeff</a>, Palmyra's art was influenced by <a href="/wiki/Parthian_art" title="Parthian art">Parthian art</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYarshater1998[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid39XZDnOWUXsCpgPA16_16]-120">[110]</a> However, the origin of frontality that characterized Palmyrene and Parthian arts is a controversial issue; while Parthian origin has been suggested (by <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Schlumberger" title="Daniel Schlumberger">Daniel Schlumberger</a>),<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrijvers1990[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidz51PhFgWoksCpgPA69_69]-121">[111]</a> <a href="/wiki/Michael_Avi-Yonah" title="Michael Avi-Yonah">Michael Avi-Yonah</a> contends that it was a local Syrian tradition that influenced Parthian art.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHachlili1998[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidcKGpa-FJ3XsCpgPA177_177]-122">[112]</a> Little painting, and none of the bronze statues of prominent citizens (which stood on brackets on the main columns of the Great Colonnade), have survived.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStrong1995168-123">[113]</a> A damaged <a href="/wiki/Frieze" title="Frieze">frieze</a> and other sculptures from the Temple of Bel, many removed to museums in Syria and abroad, suggest the city's public monumental sculpture.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStrong1995168-123">[113]</a> Many surviving funerary busts reached Western museums during the 19th century.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERomano2006[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidta04lu10P0YCpgPA280_280]-124">[114]</a> Palmyra provided the most convenient Eastern examples bolstering an art-history controversy at the turn of the 20th century: to what extent Eastern influence on <a href="/wiki/Roman_art" title="Roman art">Roman art</a> replaced idealized classicism with frontal, hieratic and simplified figures (as believed by <a href="/wiki/Josef_Strzygowski" title="Josef Strzygowski">Josef Strzygowski</a> and others).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStrong1995168-123">[113]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFowden2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidYKY9MuRTFQ4CpgPA17_17]-125">[115]</a> This transition is seen as a response to cultural changes in the <a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western Roman Empire</a>, rather than artistic influence from the East.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStrong1995168-123">[113]</a> Palmyrene bust reliefs, unlike Roman sculptures, are rudimentary portraits; although many reflect high quality individuality, the majority vary little across figures of similar age and gender.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStrong1995168-123">[113]</a> Like its art, Palmyra's architecture was influenced by the Greco-Roman style, while preserving local elements (best seen in the Temple of Bel).<a href="#cite_note-129">[note 11]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStoneman1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8kLFfE1qPhICpgPA54_54]-126">[116]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStoneman1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8kLFfE1qPhICpgPA64_64]-130">[119]</a> Enclosed by a massive wall flanked with traditional Roman columns,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStoneman1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8kLFfE1qPhICpgPA64_64]-130">[119]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERostovtzeff1971[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidh5lVDl8uqMQCpgPA90_90]-131">[120]</a> Bel's sanctuary plan was primarily Semitic.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStoneman1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8kLFfE1qPhICpgPA64_64]-130">[119]</a> Similar to the <a href="/wiki/Second_Temple" title="Second Temple">Second Temple</a>, the sanctuary consisted of a large courtyard with the deity's main shrine off-center against its entrance (a plan preserving elements of the temples of <a href="/wiki/Ebla" title="Ebla">Ebla</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ugarit" title="Ugarit">Ugarit</a>).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStoneman1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8kLFfE1qPhICpgPA64_64]-130">[119]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStoneman1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8kLFfE1qPhICpgPA65_65]-132">[121]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Site">Site</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Palmyra&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Site">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cemeteries">Cemeteries</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Palmyra&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Cemeteries">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti" /><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:204px;max-width:204px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Tower_tombs,_Palmyra.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Tower_tombs%2C_Palmyra.jpg/250px-Tower_tombs%2C_Palmyra.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="122" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Tower_tombs%2C_Palmyra.jpg/330px-Tower_tombs%2C_Palmyra.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Tower_tombs%2C_Palmyra.jpg/500px-Tower_tombs%2C_Palmyra.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2930" data-file-height="1794" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">Valley of Tombs in 2010</div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Palmira._Senato_-_DecArch_-_1-123.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Palmira._Senato_-_DecArch_-_1-123.jpg/250px-Palmira._Senato_-_DecArch_-_1-123.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="133" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Palmira._Senato_-_DecArch_-_1-123.jpg/330px-Palmira._Senato_-_DecArch_-_1-123.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Palmira._Senato_-_DecArch_-_1-123.jpg/500px-Palmira._Senato_-_DecArch_-_1-123.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4416" data-file-height="2944" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">The senate</div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Bath_of_Zenobia(js).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Bath_of_Zenobia%28js%29.jpg/250px-Bath_of_Zenobia%28js%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="304" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Bath_of_Zenobia%28js%29.jpg/330px-Bath_of_Zenobia%28js%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Bath_of_Zenobia%28js%29.jpg/500px-Bath_of_Zenobia%28js%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="823" data-file-height="1250" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">Baths of Diocletian</div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Palmira_Museo_-_GAR_-_7-01.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Palmira_Museo_-_GAR_-_7-01.jpg/250px-Palmira_Museo_-_GAR_-_7-01.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="301" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Palmira_Museo_-_GAR_-_7-01.jpg/330px-Palmira_Museo_-_GAR_-_7-01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Palmira_Museo_-_GAR_-_7-01.jpg/500px-Palmira_Museo_-_GAR_-_7-01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="3008" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">The statue of Al-lāt (equated with Athena) found in its temple (destroyed in 2015)</div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Peristyl_House_Palmyra_Syria.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Peristyl_House_Palmyra_Syria.JPG/250px-Peristyl_House_Palmyra_Syria.JPG" decoding="async" width="200" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Peristyl_House_Palmyra_Syria.JPG/330px-Peristyl_House_Palmyra_Syria.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Peristyl_House_Palmyra_Syria.JPG/500px-Peristyl_House_Palmyra_Syria.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2272" data-file-height="1704" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">The Funerary Temple no.86</div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Wall_and_tombs_in_Palmyra.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Wall_and_tombs_in_Palmyra.JPG/250px-Wall_and_tombs_in_Palmyra.JPG" decoding="async" width="200" height="133" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Wall_and_tombs_in_Palmyra.JPG/330px-Wall_and_tombs_in_Palmyra.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Wall_and_tombs_in_Palmyra.JPG/500px-Wall_and_tombs_in_Palmyra.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2496" data-file-height="1664" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">Diocletian's walls</div></div></div></div></div> West of the ancient walls, the Palmyrenes built a number of large-scale funerary monuments which now form the <a href="/wiki/Valley_of_Tombs" class="mw-redirect" title="Valley of Tombs">Valley of Tombs</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurns2009[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidz_IBAwAAQBAJpgPA218_218]-133">[122]</a> a one-kilometre-long (0.62 mi) <a href="/wiki/Necropolis" title="Necropolis">necropolis</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeattiePepper2001[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid9iCfkTe8v2ECpgRA2-PA291_291]-134">[123]</a> The more than 50 monuments were primarily tower-shaped and up to four stories high.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERichardson200247-135">[124]</a> Towers were replaced by funerary temples in the first half of the second century AD, as the most recent tower is dated to AD 128.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGawlikowski2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidoZcr7SzzVYYCpgPA55_55]-29">[27]</a> The city had other cemeteries in the north, southwest and southeast, where the tombs are primarily <a href="/wiki/Hypogeum" title="Hypogeum">hypogea</a> (underground).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurns2009[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidz_IBAwAAQBAJpgPA219_219]-136">[125]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurns2009[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidz_IBAwAAQBAJpgPA220_220]-137">[126]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Notable_structures">Notable structures</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Palmyra&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Notable structures">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Public_buildings">Public buildings</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Palmyra&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Public buildings">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Camp_of_Diocletian" title="Camp of Diocletian">Camp of Diocletian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Roman_Theatre_at_Palmyra" title="Roman Theatre at Palmyra">Roman Theatre at Palmyra</a></div> <ul><li>The senate building is largely ruined.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDarke2006[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidHuXAHGDSjNICpgPA240_240]-39">[37]</a> It is a small building that consists of a <a href="/wiki/Peristyle" title="Peristyle">peristyle</a> courtyard and a chamber that has an <a href="/wiki/Apse" title="Apse">apse</a> at one end and rows of seats around it.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBryce2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidXno9AgAAQBAJpgPA282_282]-81">[76]</a></li> <li>Much of the Baths of Diocletian are ruined and do not survive above the level of the foundations.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeattiePepper2001[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid9iCfkTe8v2ECpgRA2-PA288_288]-138">[127]</a> The complex's entrance is marked by four massive Egyptian granite columns each 1.3 metres (4 ft 3 in) in diameter, 12.5 metres (41 ft) high and weigh 20 tonnes.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDarke2006[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidHuXAHGDSjNICpgPA240_240]-39">[37]</a> Inside, the outline of a bathing pool surrounded by a colonnade of <a href="/wiki/Corinthian_column" class="mw-redirect" title="Corinthian column">Corinthian columns</a> is still visible in addition to an octagonal room that served as a dressing room containing a drain in its center.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDarke2006[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidHuXAHGDSjNICpgPA240_240]-39">[37]</a> <a href="/wiki/Sossianus_Hierocles" title="Sossianus Hierocles">Sossianus Hierocles</a>, a governor under Emperor <a href="/wiki/Diocletian" title="Diocletian">Diocletian</a>, claimed to have built the baths, but the building was probably erected in the late second century and Sossianus Hierocles renovated it.<a href="#cite_note-140">[note 12]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHartmann201665-141">[129]</a></li> <li>The Agora of Palmyra is part of a complex that also includes the tariff court and the triclinium, built in the second half of the first century AD.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrowning1979157-142">[130]</a> The agora is a massive 71-by-84-metre (233 by 276 ft) structure with 11 entrances.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDarke2006[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidHuXAHGDSjNICpgPA240_240]-39">[37]</a> Inside the agora, 200 columnar bases that used to hold statues of prominent citizens were found.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDarke2006[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidHuXAHGDSjNICpgPA240_240]-39">[37]</a> The inscriptions on the bases allowed an understanding of the order by which the statues were grouped; the eastern side was reserved for senators, the northern side for Palmyrene officials, the western side for soldiers and the southern side for caravan chiefs.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDarke2006[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidHuXAHGDSjNICpgPA240_240]-39">[37]</a></li> <li>The Tariff Court is a large rectangular enclosure south of the agora and sharing its northern wall with it.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEButcher2003253-143">[131]</a> Originally, the entrance of the court was a massive vestibule in its southwestern wall.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEButcher2003253-143">[131]</a> However, the entrance was blocked by the construction of a defensive wall and the court was entered through three doors from the Agora.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEButcher2003253-143">[131]</a> The court gained its name by containing a 5-metre (16 ft) stone slab that had the Palmyrene tax law inscribed on it.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeattiePepper2001[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid9iCfkTe8v2ECpgRA2-PA289_289]-144">[132]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGawlikowski2011420-145">[133]</a></li> <li>The Triclinium of the Agora is at the northwestern corner of the Agora and can host up to 40 people.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECarterDunstonThomas2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid_R-I_Gx5OgQCpgPA209_209]-146">[134]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEal-AsaadChatonnetYon2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidoZcr7SzzVYYCpgPA6_6]-147">[135]</a> It is a small 12-by-15-metre (39 by 49 ft) hall decorated with <a href="/wiki/Meander_(art)" title="Meander (art)">Greek key motifs</a> that run in a continuous line halfway up the wall.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERichardson200246-148">[136]</a> The building was probably used by the rulers of the city;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECarterDunstonThomas2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid_R-I_Gx5OgQCpgPA209_209]-146">[134]</a> the French general director of antiquities in Syria, <a href="/wiki/Henri_Seyrig" title="Henri Seyrig">Henri Seyrig</a>, proposed that it was a small temple before being turned into a <a href="/wiki/Triclinium" title="Triclinium">triclinium</a> or banqueting hall.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEal-AsaadChatonnetYon2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidoZcr7SzzVYYCpgPA6_6]-147">[135]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Temples">Temples</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Palmyra&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Temples">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>The <a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Bel" title="Temple of Bel">Temple of Bel</a> was dedicated in AD 32;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMillar1993[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidIA-YlZqHv90CpgPA323_323]-149">[137]</a> it consisted of a large <a href="/wiki/Religious_precinct" title="Religious precinct">precinct</a> lined by <a href="/wiki/Porticos" class="mw-redirect" title="Porticos">porticos</a>; it had a rectangular shape and was oriented north-south.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGates2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid--x-3W2R_QwCpgPA390_390]-150">[138]</a> The exterior wall was 205-metre (673 ft) long with a <a href="/wiki/Propylaea" title="Propylaea">propylaea</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEButcher2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidYJPn3-rRjC0CpgPR361_361]-151">[139]</a> and the cella stood on a podium in the middle of the enclosure.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETeixidor1979[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidTccUAAAAIAAJpgPR128_128]-152">[140]</a></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Baalshamin" title="Temple of Baalshamin">Temple of Baalshamin</a> dates to the late 2nd century BC in its earliest phases;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBryce2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidXno9AgAAQBAJpgPA276_276]-153">[141]</a> its <a href="/wiki/Altar" title="Altar">altar</a> was built in AD 115,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStoneman1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8kLFfE1qPhICpgPA65_65]-132">[121]</a> and it was substantially rebuilt in AD 131.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMillar1993[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidIA-YlZqHv90CpgPA320_320]-154">[142]</a> It consisted of a central cella and two colonnaded courtyards north and south of the central structure.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurns2009[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidz_IBAwAAQBAJpgPA214_214]-155">[143]</a> A <a href="/wiki/Vestibule_(architecture)" title="Vestibule (architecture)">vestibule</a> consisting of six columns preceded the cella which had its side walls decorated with pilasters in Corinthian order.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurns2009[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidz_IBAwAAQBAJpgPA217_217]-156">[144]</a></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Nabu_(Palmyra)" title="Temple of Nabu (Palmyra)">Temple of Nabu</a> is largely ruined.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDarke2006[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidHuXAHGDSjNICpgPA241_241]-157">[145]</a> The temple was Eastern in its plan; the outer enclosure's <a href="/wiki/Propylaea" title="Propylaea">propylaea</a> led to a 20-by-9-metre (66 by 30 ft) podium through a portico of which the bases of the columns survives.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurns2009[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidz_IBAwAAQBAJpgPA214_214]-155">[143]</a> The peristyle <a href="/wiki/Cella" title="Cella">cella</a> opened onto an outdoor altar.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurns2009[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidz_IBAwAAQBAJpgPA214_214]-155">[143]</a></li></ul> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Temple_of_Nabu,_Palmira,_HPIM3168_deriv.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Temple_of_Nabu%2C_Palmira%2C_HPIM3168_deriv.jpg/200px-Temple_of_Nabu%2C_Palmira%2C_HPIM3168_deriv.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="157" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Temple_of_Nabu%2C_Palmira%2C_HPIM3168_deriv.jpg/300px-Temple_of_Nabu%2C_Palmira%2C_HPIM3168_deriv.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Temple_of_Nabu%2C_Palmira%2C_HPIM3168_deriv.jpg/400px-Temple_of_Nabu%2C_Palmira%2C_HPIM3168_deriv.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2059" data-file-height="1621" /></a><figcaption>Temple of <a href="/wiki/Nabu" title="Nabu">Nabu</a>, in CE.2010</figcaption></figure> <ul><li>The <a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Al-Lat" title="Temple of Al-Lat">Temple of Al-Lat</a> is largely ruined with only a podium, a few columns and the door frame remaining.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeattiePepper2001[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid9iCfkTe8v2ECpgRA2-PA290_290]-40">[38]</a> Inside the compound, a giant lion relief (<a href="/wiki/Lion_of_Al-l%C4%81t" title="Lion of Al-lāt">Lion of Al-lāt</a>) was excavated and in its original form, was a relief protruding from the temple compound's wall.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurns2009[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidz_IBAwAAQBAJpgPA217_217]-156">[144]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarkowski2005[httpswebarchiveorgweb20171020024412httpwwwpcmauweduplfileadminpamPAM_2004_XVI248pdf_473]-158">[146]</a></li> <li>The ruined Temple of Baal-hamon was located on the top of Jabal al-Muntar hill which oversees the spring of Efqa.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDowney1977[httpsbooksgooglecombooksiddKpnNw5Zj7cCpgPA21_21]-159">[147]</a> Constructed in AD 89, it consisted of a cella and a vestibule with two columns.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDowney1977[httpsbooksgooglecombooksiddKpnNw5Zj7cCpgPA21_21]-159">[147]</a> The temple had a defensive tower attached to it;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDowney1977[httpsbooksgooglecombooksiddKpnNw5Zj7cCpgPA22_22]-160">[148]</a> a <a href="/wiki/Mosaic" title="Mosaic">mosaic</a> depicting the sanctuary was excavated and it revealed that both the cella and the vestibule were decorated with <a href="/wiki/Merlon" title="Merlon">merlons</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDowney1977[httpsbooksgooglecombooksiddKpnNw5Zj7cCpgPA22_22]-160">[148]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Other_buildings">Other buildings</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Palmyra&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Other buildings">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>The <a href="/wiki/Monumental_Arch_of_Palmyra" title="Monumental Arch of Palmyra">Arch of Triumph</a> was one of Palmyra's monuments that was destroyed by ISIS in 2015 with the use of dynamite.<a href="#cite_note-161">[149]</a></li></ul> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Arch_of_Triumph_(Palmyra).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Arch_of_Triumph_%28Palmyra%29.jpg/220px-Arch_of_Triumph_%28Palmyra%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Arch_of_Triumph_%28Palmyra%29.jpg/330px-Arch_of_Triumph_%28Palmyra%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Arch_of_Triumph_%28Palmyra%29.jpg/440px-Arch_of_Triumph_%28Palmyra%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="7087" data-file-height="4724" /></a><figcaption>The Arch of Triumph, taken Feb 2, 1996. (Before its destruction by ISIS in 2015)</figcaption></figure> <ul><li>The Great Colonnade was Palmyra's 1.1-kilometre-long (0.68 mi) main street; most of the columns date to the second century AD and each is 9.50 metres (31.2 ft) high.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECrawford1990[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidgGMc04ge4yoCpgPA123_123]-27">[25]</a></li> <li>The Funerary Temple no. 86 (also known as the House Tomb) is located at the western end of the Great Colonnade.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGawlikowski2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidoZcr7SzzVYYCpgPA55_55]-29">[27]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECasule2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidQNGyWSx8U34CpgPA103_103]-162">[150]</a> It was built in the third century AD and has a portico of six columns and vine patterns carvings.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStoneman1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8kLFfE1qPhICpgPA67_67]-62">[59]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDarke2006[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidHuXAHGDSjNICpgPA238_238]-163">[151]</a> Inside the chamber, steps leads down to a vault crypt.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDarke2006[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidHuXAHGDSjNICpgPA238_238]-163">[151]</a> The shrine might have been connected to the royal family as it is the only tomb inside the city's walls.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStoneman1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8kLFfE1qPhICpgPA67_67]-62">[59]</a></li> <li>The Tetrapylon was erected during the renovations of Diocletian at the end of the third century.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpeake1996[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidR44VRnNCzAYCpgPA568_568]-94">[86]</a> It is a square platform and each corner contains a grouping of four columns.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECarterDunstonThomas2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid_R-I_Gx5OgQCpgPA208_208]-38">[36]</a> Each column group supports a 150-ton cornice and contains a pedestal in its center that originally carried a statue.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECarterDunstonThomas2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid_R-I_Gx5OgQCpgPA208_208]-38">[36]</a> Out of sixteen columns, only one is original while the rest are from reconstruction work by the <a href="/wiki/Directorate-General_of_Antiquities_and_Museums" title="Directorate-General of Antiquities and Museums">Syrian Directorate-General of Antiquities</a> in 1963, using concrete.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDarke2006[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidHuXAHGDSjNICpgPA238_238]-163">[151]</a> The original columns were brought from Egypt and carved out of pink granite.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECarterDunstonThomas2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid_R-I_Gx5OgQCpgPA208_208]-38">[36]</a></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Walls_of_Palmyra" title="Walls of Palmyra">Walls of Palmyra</a> started in the first century as a protective wall containing gaps where the surrounding mountains formed natural barriers; it encompassed the residential areas, the gardens and the oasis.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJuchniewicz2013194-23">[21]</a> After 273, Aurelian erected the rampart known as the wall of Diocletian;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJuchniewicz2013194-23">[21]</a> it enclosed about 80 hectares, a much smaller area than the original pre-273 city.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPollard2000[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid2ijMkjyG3cQCpgPA298_298]-164">[152]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidwnTOBAAAQBAJpgPA142_142]-165">[153]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Destruction_by_IS">Destruction by IS</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Palmyra&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Destruction by IS">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Destruction_of_cultural_heritage_by_the_Islamic_State#Palmyra" title="Destruction of cultural heritage by the Islamic State">Destruction of cultural heritage by the Islamic State § Palmyra</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti" /><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:204px;max-width:204px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Palmyra_after_freedom_(4).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Palmyra_after_freedom_%284%29.jpg/250px-Palmyra_after_freedom_%284%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="133" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Palmyra_after_freedom_%284%29.jpg/330px-Palmyra_after_freedom_%284%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Palmyra_after_freedom_%284%29.jpg/500px-Palmyra_after_freedom_%284%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="533" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">Bel's temple entrance arch remains after the destruction of the cella</div></div></div></div></div> According to eyewitnesses, on 23 May 2015 <a href="/wiki/Islamic_State" title="Islamic State">Islamic State</a> militants destroyed the <a href="/wiki/Lion_of_Al-l%C4%81t" title="Lion of Al-lāt">Lion of Al-lāt</a> and other statues; this came days after the militants had gathered the citizens and promised not to destroy the city's monuments.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJeffries2015-166">[154]</a> IS destroyed the Temple of Baalshamin on 23 August 2015.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEUnesco2015-167">[155]</a> On 30 August 2015, IS destroyed the cella of the Temple of Bel.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Connor2015-168">[156]</a> On 31 August 2015, the United Nations confirmed the temple was <a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Bel#Destruction" title="Temple of Bel">destroyed</a>;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarnardSaad2015-169">[157]</a> the temple's exterior walls and entrance arch remain.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Connor2015-168">[156]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETharoorMaruf2016-170">[158]</a> It became known on 4 September 2015 that IS had destroyed three of the best preserved tower tombs including the <a href="/wiki/Tower_of_Elahbel" title="Tower of Elahbel">Tower of Elahbel</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShaheenSwannLevett2015-171">[159]</a> On 5 October 2015, news media reported that IS was destroying buildings with no religious meaning, including the monumental arch.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMakieh2015-172">[160]</a> On 20 January 2017, news emerged that the militants had destroyed the tetrapylon and part of the theater.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShaheen2017-173">[161]</a> Following the March 2017 capture of Palmyra by the Syrian Army, Maamoun Abdulkarim, director of antiquities and museums at the <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Culture_(Syria)" title="Ministry of Culture (Syria)">Syrian Ministry of Culture</a>, stated that the damage to ancient monuments may be lesser than earlier believed and preliminary pictures showed almost no further damage than what was already known.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMakiehFrancis2017-174">[162]</a> Antiquities official Wael Hafyan stated that the Tetrapylon was badly damaged while the damage to the facade of the Roman theatre was less serious.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaqdisi2017-175">[163]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Restoration">Restoration</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Palmyra&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Restoration">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti" /><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:204px;max-width:204px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Bassel-bel-3.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Bassel-bel-3.jpg/200px-Bassel-bel-3.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Bassel-bel-3.jpg/300px-Bassel-bel-3.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Bassel-bel-3.jpg/400px-Bassel-bel-3.jpg 2x" data-file-width="990" data-file-height="742" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">Digital reconstruction of the Temple of Bel (New Palmyra project)</div></div></div></div></div> In response to the destruction, on 21 October 2015, <a href="/wiki/Creative_Commons" title="Creative Commons">Creative Commons</a> started the <a href="/wiki/NEWPALMYRA" title="NEWPALMYRA">New Palmyra</a> project, an online repository of three-dimensional models representing the city's monuments; the models were generated from images gathered, and released into the public domain, by the Syrian internet advocate <a href="/wiki/Bassel_Khartabil" title="Bassel Khartabil">Bassel Khartabil</a> between 2005 and 2012.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBusta2015-176">[164]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenberg2015-177">[165]</a> Minor restorations took place; two Palmyrene funerary busts, damaged and defaced by IS, were sent off to Rome where they were restored and sent back to Syria.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESquires2017-178">[166]</a> The restoration of the Lion of Al-lāt took two months and the statue was displayed on 1 October 2017; it will remain in the <a href="/wiki/National_Museum_of_Damascus" title="National Museum of Damascus">National Museum of Damascus</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMakiehPerryMerriman2017-179">[167]</a> Regarding the restoration, the discoverer of Ebla, <a href="/wiki/Paolo_Matthiae" title="Paolo Matthiae">Paolo Matthiae</a>, stated that: "The archaeological site of Palmyra is a vast field of ruins and only 20–30% of it is seriously damaged. Unfortunately these included important parts, such as the Temple of Bel, while the Arch of Triumph can be rebuilt." He added: "In any case, by using both traditional methods and advanced technologies, it might be possible to restore 98% of the site".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMatthiae2017-180">[168]</a> In February 2022, following acts of restoration and rehabilitation the Afqa spring site was reopened.<a href="#cite_note-181">[169]</a> In October 2022, the Syrian <a href="/wiki/Directorate-General_of_Antiquities_and_Museums" title="Directorate-General of Antiquities and Museums">Directorate-General of Antiquities and Museums</a> and the Institute for the History of Material Culture of <a href="/wiki/Russian_Academy_of_Sciences" title="Russian Academy of Sciences">Russian Academy of Sciences</a> signed an agreement to start the second and third phase of the project for restoring <a href="/wiki/Monumental_Arch_of_Palmyra" title="Monumental Arch of Palmyra">Arch of Triumph</a>.<a href="#cite_note-182">[170]</a> In February 2023, Directorate General of Antiquities and Museums has finalized the study required for restoring Palmyra National Museum which was subjected to damage by ISIS terrorists in 2015.<a href="#cite_note-183">[171]</a> By May 2023, the first phase of the reconstruction and rehabilitation project of the Arch of Triumph was completed.<a href="#cite_note-184">[172]</a> In July 2023, the comprehensive restoration of <a href="/wiki/Roman_Theatre_at_Palmyra" title="Roman Theatre at Palmyra">Roman Theatre</a> started.<a href="#cite_note-185">[173]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Palmyra&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: History">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Efqa.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Former spring, with steps" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Efqa.png/250px-Efqa.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="121" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Efqa.png/330px-Efqa.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Efqa.png/500px-Efqa.png 2x" data-file-width="914" data-file-height="501" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Efqa_Spring" title="Efqa Spring">Efqa Spring</a>, which dried up in 1994<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidwnTOBAAAQBAJpgPA18_18]-186">[174]</a></figcaption></figure> The area has a rich history of human habitation, with evidence of Paleolithic settlements.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaniharaSakaguchiAkazawa1978-187">[175]</a> Habitation in the area of Tell ez-Zor, dates as far back as the <a href="/wiki/Pre-Pottery_Neolithic_A" title="Pre-Pottery Neolithic A">Prepottery Neolithic A</a> period, with a three-unit architectural complex dating to the <a href="/wiki/Pre-Pottery_Neolithic_B" title="Pre-Pottery Neolithic B">Prepottery Neolithic B</a> period.<a href="#cite_note-188">[176]</a> In the <a href="/wiki/Efqa_Spring" title="Efqa Spring">Efqa Spring</a> site, not far from the Tell, a <a href="/wiki/Neolithic" title="Neolithic">Neolithic</a> settlement existed,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpeake1996[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidR44VRnNCzAYCpgPA565_565]-189">[177]</a> with <a href="/wiki/Stone_tool#Neolithic_industries" title="Stone tool">stone tools</a> dated to 7500 BC.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEColledgeWiesehöfer2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidAIgdBAAAQBAJpgPA566_566]-190">[178]</a> <a href="/wiki/Stratigraphy" title="Stratigraphy">Archaeological sounding</a> in the tell beneath the Temple of Bel uncovered a mud-brick structure built around 2500 BC, followed by structures built during the Middle Bronze Age and Iron Age.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEal-Maqdissi2010140-191">[179]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bronze_and_Iron_Ages_2">Bronze and Iron Ages</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Palmyra&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Bronze and Iron Ages">edit</a>]</div> The city entered the historical record during the <a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age" title="Bronze Age">Bronze Age</a> around 2000 BC, when Puzur-Ishtar the Tadmorean (Palmyrene) agreed to a contract at an <a href="/wiki/Assyria#Dynasty_of_Puzur-Ashur_I,_2025–1809_BC,_Old_Assyrian_Empire" title="Assyria">Assyrian</a> trading colony in <a href="/wiki/Kultepe" class="mw-redirect" title="Kultepe">Kultepe</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEColledgeWiesehöfer2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidAIgdBAAAQBAJpgPA566_566]-190">[178]</a> It was mentioned next in the <a href="/wiki/Mari,_Syria#Mari_tablets" title="Mari, Syria">Mari tablets</a> as a stop for trade caravans and nomadic tribes, such as the <a href="/wiki/Suteans" title="Suteans">Suteans</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDirven1999[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid_LfXg2r6FT0CpgPA18_18]-60">[57]</a> and was conquered along with its region by <a href="/wiki/Yahdun-Lim" title="Yahdun-Lim">Yahdun-Lim</a> of Mari.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith195638-192">[180]</a> King <a href="/wiki/Shamshi-Adad_I" title="Shamshi-Adad I">Shamshi-Adad I</a> of Assyria passed through the area on his way to the <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea" title="Mediterranean Sea">Mediterranean</a> at the beginning of the 18th century BC;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELiverani2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid0d1JAgAAQBAJpgPA234_234]-193">[181]</a> by then, Palmyra was the easternmost point of the kingdom of <a href="/wiki/Qatna" title="Qatna">Qatna</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsmail2002325-194">[182]</a> and it was attacked by the Suteans who paralyzed the traffic along the trade routes.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEvan_Koppen201587-195">[183]</a> Palmyra was mentioned in a 13th-century BC tablet discovered at <a href="/wiki/Emar" title="Emar">Emar</a>, which recorded the names of two "Tadmorean" witnesses.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDirven1999[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid_LfXg2r6FT0CpgPA18_18]-60">[57]</a> At the beginning of the 11th century BC, King <a href="/wiki/Tiglath-Pileser_I" title="Tiglath-Pileser I">Tiglath-Pileser I</a> of Assyria recorded his defeat of the "Arameans" of "Tadmar";<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDirven1999[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid_LfXg2r6FT0CpgPA18_18]-60">[57]</a> according to the king, Palmyra was part of the land of Amurru.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBryce2009[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidAwwNS0diXP4CpgPA686_686]-196">[184]</a> The city became the eastern border of <a href="/wiki/Aram-Damascus" title="Aram-Damascus">Aram-Damascus</a> which was conquered by the <a href="/wiki/Neo-Assyrian_Empire" title="Neo-Assyrian Empire">Neo-Assyrian Empire</a> in 732 BC.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESader2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidsW_AAgAAQBAJpgPA24_24]-197">[185]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_Bible" title="Hebrew Bible">Hebrew Bible</a> (<a href="/wiki/Books_of_Chronicles" title="Books of Chronicles">Second Book of Chronicles</a> 8:4) records a city by the name "Tadmor" as a desert city built (or fortified) by King <a href="/wiki/Solomon" title="Solomon">Solomon</a> of <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Israel_(united_monarchy)" title="Kingdom of Israel (united monarchy)">Israel</a>;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShahîd1995[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidBEvEV9OVzacCpgPA173_173]-198">[186]</a> Flavius <a href="/wiki/Josephus" title="Josephus">Josephus</a> mentions the Greek name "Palmyra", attributing its founding to Solomon in Book VIII of his <a href="/wiki/Antiquities_of_the_Jews" title="Antiquities of the Jews">Antiquities of the Jews</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMillar1993[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidIA-YlZqHv90CpgPA320_320]-154">[142]</a> Later Arabic traditions attribute the city's founding to Solomon's <a href="/wiki/Jinn#Solomon_and_the_Jinn" title="Jinn">Jinn</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShahîd2002[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidpfwAG3-rpzcCpgPA282_282]-199">[187]</a> The association of Palmyra with Solomon is a conflation of "Tadmor" and a city built by Solomon in <a href="/wiki/Judea" title="Judea">Judea</a> and known as "Tamar" in the <a href="/wiki/Books_of_Kings" title="Books of Kings">Books of Kings</a> (1 Kings 9:18).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBryce2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidXno9AgAAQBAJpgPA276_276]-153">[141]</a> The biblical description of "Tadmor" and its buildings does not fit archaeological findings in Palmyra, which was a small settlement during Solomon's reign in the 10th century BC.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBryce2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidXno9AgAAQBAJpgPA276_276]-153">[141]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Elephantine_papyri" class="mw-redirect" title="Elephantine papyri">Elephantine Jews</a>, a diaspora community established between 650 and 550 BC in Egypt, might have come from Palmyra.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEvan_der_Toorn2019[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidmpKsDwAAQBAJpgPA143_143]-200">[188]</a> <a href="/wiki/Papyrus_Amherst_63" title="Papyrus Amherst 63">Papyrus Amherst 63</a> indicates that the ancestors of the Elephantine Jews were <a href="/wiki/Samaria" title="Samaria">Samarians</a>. The historian <a href="/wiki/Karel_van_der_Toorn" title="Karel van der Toorn">Karel van der Toorn</a> suggested that these ancestors took refuge in <a href="/wiki/Judea" title="Judea">Judea</a> after the destruction of their kingdom by <a href="/wiki/Sargon_II" title="Sargon II">Sargon II</a> of Assyria in 721 BC, then had to leave Judea after <a href="/wiki/Sennacherib" title="Sennacherib">Sennacherib</a> devastated the land in 701 BC and headed to Palmyra. This scenario can explain the usage of Aramaic by the Elephantine Jews, and Papyrus Amherst 63, while not mentioning Palmyra, refers to a "fortress of palms" that is located near a spring on a trade route in the fringes of the desert, making Palmyra a plausible candidate.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEvan_der_Toorn2019[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidmpKsDwAAQBAJpgPA144_144,_145]-201">[189]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hellenistic_and_Roman_periods">Hellenistic and Roman periods</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Palmyra&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Hellenistic and Roman periods">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Royal_inscription_Palmyra.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Stone inscribed with Greek letters" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Royal_inscription_Palmyra.png/220px-Royal_inscription_Palmyra.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="171" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Royal_inscription_Palmyra.png/330px-Royal_inscription_Palmyra.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6f/Royal_inscription_Palmyra.png 2x" data-file-width="388" data-file-height="301" /></a><figcaption>The inscription mentioning king Epiphanes</figcaption></figure> During the <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic period</a> under the <a href="/wiki/Seleucids" class="mw-redirect" title="Seleucids">Seleucids</a> (between 312 and 64 BC), Palmyra became a prosperous settlement owing allegiance to the Seleucid king.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBryce2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidXno9AgAAQBAJpgPA276_276]-153">[141]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStoneman1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8kLFfE1qPhICpgPA52_52]-202">[190]</a> Evidence for Palmyra's urbanisation in the Hellenistic period is rare; an important piece is the <a href="/wiki/Aramaic_Inscription_of_Laghman" class="mw-redirect" title="Aramaic Inscription of Laghman">Laghman II</a> inscription found in <a href="/wiki/Laghman_Province" title="Laghman Province">Laghman</a>, modern <a href="/wiki/Afghanistan" title="Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a>, and commissioned by the Indian emperor <a href="/wiki/Ashoka" title="Ashoka">Ashoka</a> c. 250 BC. The reading is contested, but according to semitologist <a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Dupont-Sommer" title="André Dupont-Sommer">André Dupont-Sommer</a>, the inscription records the distance to "Tdmr" (Palmyra).<a href="#cite_note-209">[note 13]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaizer2017[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidC7Q1DwAAQBAJpgPA33_33],_34-204">[192]</a> In 217 BC, a Palmyrene force led by Zabdibel joined the army of King <a href="/wiki/Antiochus_III" class="mw-redirect" title="Antiochus III">Antiochus III</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Raphia" title="Battle of Raphia">Battle of Raphia</a> which ended in a Seleucid defeat by <a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_Kingdom" title="Ptolemaic Kingdom">Ptolemaic Egypt</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBryce2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidXno9AgAAQBAJpgPA278_278]-46">[44]</a> In the middle of the Hellenistic era, Palmyra, formerly south of the al-Qubur wadi, began to expand beyond its northern bank.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZuchowska2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidFgML1EdUiWUCpgPA231_231]-26">[24]</a> By the late second century BC, the tower tombs in the Palmyrene Valley of Tombs and the city temples (most notably, the temples of <a href="/wiki/Baalshamin" title="Baalshamin">Baalshamin</a>, Al-lāt and the Hellenistic temple) began to be built.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith_II2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidh5cMho6zFckCpgPA63_63]-25">[23]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBryce2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidXno9AgAAQBAJpgPA278_278]-46">[44]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBryce2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidXno9AgAAQBAJpgPA276_276]-153">[141]</a> A fragmentary inscription in Greek from the Temple of Bel's foundations mentions a king titled Epiphanes, a title used by the Seleucid kings.<a href="#cite_note-211">[note 14]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrainger1997[httpsbooksgooglecombooksideqxipjRXCf4CpgPA759lpgPA759_759]-212">[198]</a> In 64 BC, the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a> conquered the Seleucid kingdom, and the Roman general <a href="/wiki/Pompey" title="Pompey">Pompey</a> established the <a href="/wiki/Syria_(Roman_province)" class="mw-redirect" title="Syria (Roman province)">province of Syria</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBryce2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidXno9AgAAQBAJpgPA278_278]-46">[44]</a> Palmyra was left independent,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBryce2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidXno9AgAAQBAJpgPA278_278]-46">[44]</a> trading with Rome and <a href="/wiki/Parthian_empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Parthian empire">Parthia</a> but belonging to neither.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEElton1996[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidN0jAQ1oP3_wCpgPA90_90]-213">[199]</a> The earliest known inscription in Palmyrene is dated to around 44 BC;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDirven1999[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid_LfXg2r6FT0CpgPA19_19]-49">[47]</a> Palmyra was still a minor <a href="/wiki/Sheikhdom" title="Sheikhdom">sheikhdom</a>, offering water to caravans which occasionally took the desert route on which it was located.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBall2002[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid73-JAgAAQBAJpgPA74_74]-214">[200]</a> However, according to <a href="/wiki/Appian" title="Appian">Appian</a>, Palmyra was wealthy enough for <a href="/wiki/Mark_Antony" title="Mark Antony">Mark Antony</a> to send a force to conquer it in 41 BC.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEElton1996[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidN0jAQ1oP3_wCpgPA90_90]-213">[199]</a> The Palmyrenes evacuated to Parthian lands beyond the eastern bank of the <a href="/wiki/Euphrates" title="Euphrates">Euphrates</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEElton1996[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidN0jAQ1oP3_wCpgPA90_90]-213">[199]</a> which they prepared to defend.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDirven1999[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid_LfXg2r6FT0CpgPA19_19]-49">[47]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Autonomous_Palmyrene_region">Autonomous Palmyrene region</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Palmyra&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Autonomous Palmyrene region">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Temple_of_Bel,_Palmyra_02.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Temple ruins" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Temple_of_Bel%2C_Palmyra_02.jpg/220px-Temple_of_Bel%2C_Palmyra_02.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Temple_of_Bel%2C_Palmyra_02.jpg/330px-Temple_of_Bel%2C_Palmyra_02.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Temple_of_Bel%2C_Palmyra_02.jpg/440px-Temple_of_Bel%2C_Palmyra_02.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3278" data-file-height="2384" /></a><figcaption>Cella of the Temple of Bel (destroyed in 2015)</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Temple_of_Baal-Shamin,_Palmyra.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Temple_of_Baal-Shamin%2C_Palmyra.jpg/250px-Temple_of_Baal-Shamin%2C_Palmyra.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="152" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Temple_of_Baal-Shamin%2C_Palmyra.jpg/330px-Temple_of_Baal-Shamin%2C_Palmyra.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Temple_of_Baal-Shamin%2C_Palmyra.jpg/500px-Temple_of_Baal-Shamin%2C_Palmyra.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2892" data-file-height="1999" /></a><figcaption>Temple of Baal-Shamin (destroyed in 2015)</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Palmyra_theater02(js).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Well-preserved Roman amphitheater" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Palmyra_theater02%28js%29.jpg/220px-Palmyra_theater02%28js%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Palmyra_theater02%28js%29.jpg/330px-Palmyra_theater02%28js%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Palmyra_theater02%28js%29.jpg/440px-Palmyra_theater02%28js%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="1258" /></a><figcaption>Palmyra's theater (damaged in 2017)</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Palmyra,_Syria,_Monumental_Arch_and_Columns.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Ruins, with arches and columns" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Palmyra%2C_Syria%2C_Monumental_Arch_and_Columns.jpg/250px-Palmyra%2C_Syria%2C_Monumental_Arch_and_Columns.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Palmyra%2C_Syria%2C_Monumental_Arch_and_Columns.jpg/330px-Palmyra%2C_Syria%2C_Monumental_Arch_and_Columns.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Palmyra%2C_Syria%2C_Monumental_Arch_and_Columns.jpg/500px-Palmyra%2C_Syria%2C_Monumental_Arch_and_Columns.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="2248" /></a><figcaption>The monumental arch in the eastern section of Palmyra's colonnade (destroyed in 2015)</figcaption></figure> Palmyra became part of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> when it was conquered and paid tribute early in the reign of <a href="/wiki/Tiberius" title="Tiberius">Tiberius</a>, around 14 AD.<a href="#cite_note-216">[note 15]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBryce2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidXno9AgAAQBAJpgPA278_278]-46">[44]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEdwell2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid_UR8AgAAQBAJpgPT34_34]-217">[202]</a> The Romans included Palmyra in the province of Syria,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEdwell2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDQgmOZlsEWcCpgPA34_34]-215">[201]</a> and defined the region's boundaries.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEdwell2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDQgmOZlsEWcCpgPA41_41]-218">[203]</a> <a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder" title="Pliny the Elder">Pliny the Elder</a> asserted that both the Palmyrene and <a href="/wiki/Homs#Emesene_dynasty_and_Roman_rule" title="Homs">Emesene</a> regions were contiguous;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESeyrig1959189–190-219">[204]</a> a marker at the Palmyrene's southwestern border was found in 1936 by <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Schlumberger" title="Daniel Schlumberger">Daniel Schlumberger</a> at <a href="/wiki/Qasr_al-Hayr_al-Gharbi" title="Qasr al-Hayr al-Gharbi">Qasr al-Hayr al-Gharbi</a>, dating from the reign of <a href="/wiki/Hadrian" title="Hadrian">Hadrian</a> or one of his successors, which marked the boundary between the two regions.<a href="#cite_note-221">[note 16]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchlumberger193943,_66-222">[206]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBryce2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidXno9AgAAQBAJpgPA284_284]-223">[207]</a> This boundary probably ran northwards to Khirbet al-Bilaas on <a href="/wiki/Jabal_al-Bilas" title="Jabal al-Bilas">Jabal al-Bilas</a> where another marker, laid by the Roman governor <a href="/wiki/Quintus_Caecilius_Metellus_Creticus_Silanus" title="Quintus Caecilius Metellus Creticus Silanus">Silanus</a>, has been found, 75 kilometres (47 mi) northwest of Palmyra, probably marking a boundary with the territory of <a href="/wiki/Hama" title="Hama">Epiphania</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESeyrig1959190-224">[208]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEdwell2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDQgmOZlsEWcCpgPA41_41]-218">[203]</a> Meanwhile, Palmyra's eastern border extended to the Euphrates valley.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBryce2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidXno9AgAAQBAJpgPA284_284]-223">[207]</a> This region included numerous villages subordinate to the center,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeyer2013275-225">[209]</a> including large settlements such as <a href="/wiki/Al-Qaryatayn" title="Al-Qaryatayn">al-Qaryatayn</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith_II2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidh5cMho6zFckCpgPA124_124]-226">[210]</a> The Roman imperial period brought great prosperity to the city, which enjoyed a privileged status under the empire—retaining much of its internal autonomy,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBryce2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidXno9AgAAQBAJpgPA278_278]-46">[44]</a> being ruled by a council,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith_II2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidh5cMho6zFckCpgPA127_127]-227">[211]</a> and incorporating many Greek city-state (<a href="/wiki/Polis" title="Polis">polis</a>) institutions into its government.<a href="#cite_note-229">[note 17]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith_II2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidh5cMho6zFckCpgPA122_122]-228">[212]</a> The earliest Palmyrene text attesting a Roman presence in the city dates to 18 AD, when the Roman general <a href="/wiki/Germanicus" title="Germanicus">Germanicus</a> tried to develop a friendly relationship with Parthia; he sent the Palmyrene Alexandros to <a href="/wiki/Characene" title="Characene">Mesene</a>, a Parthian vassal kingdom.<a href="#cite_note-232">[note 18]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDirven1999[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid_LfXg2r6FT0CpgPA20_20]-233">[215]</a> This was followed by the arrival of the Roman legion <a href="/wiki/Legio_X_Fretensis" title="Legio X Fretensis">Legio X Fretensis</a> the following year.<a href="#cite_note-235">[note 19]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDąbrowa1993[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidyH4MQy0wrbcCpgPA12_12]-234">[216]</a> Roman authority was minimal during the first century AD, although tax collectors were resident,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEElton1996[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidN0jAQ1oP3_wCpgPA91_91]-236">[217]</a> and a road connecting Palmyra and <a href="/wiki/Sura,_Syria" title="Sura, Syria">Sura</a> was built in AD 75.<a href="#cite_note-238">[note 20]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEElton1996[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidN0jAQ1oP3_wCpgPA92_92]-237">[218]</a> The Romans used Palmyrene soldiers,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidecfiAAAAQBAJpgPA25_25]-239">[219]</a> but (unlike typical Roman cities) no local <a href="/wiki/Roman_magistrate" title="Roman magistrate">magistrates</a> or <a href="/wiki/Prefect#Ancient_Rome" title="Prefect">prefects</a> are recorded in the city.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEElton1996[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidN0jAQ1oP3_wCpgPA92_92]-237">[218]</a> Palmyra saw intensive construction during the first century, including the city's first walled fortifications,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrijvers1976[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidmuQ3AAAAIAAJpgPA3_3]-240">[220]</a> and the Temple of Bel (completed and dedicated in 32 AD).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMillar1993[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidIA-YlZqHv90CpgPA323_323]-149">[137]</a> During the first century Palmyra developed from a minor desert caravan station into a leading trading center,<a href="#cite_note-242">[note 21]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBall2002[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid73-JAgAAQBAJpgPA74_74]-214">[200]</a> with Palmyrene merchants establishing colonies in surrounding trade centers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDirven1999[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid_LfXg2r6FT0CpgPA20_20]-233">[215]</a> Palmyrene trade reached its acme during the second century,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDirven1999[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid_LfXg2r6FT0CpgPA22_22]-243">[222]</a> aided by two factors; the first was a trade route built by Palmyrenes,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYoung2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidE5yCAgAAQBAJpgPA124_124]-19">[18]</a> and protected by garrisons at major locations, including a garrison in <a href="/wiki/Dura-Europos" title="Dura-Europos">Dura-Europos</a> manned in 117 AD.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith_II2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidh5cMho6zFckCpgPA145_145]-244">[223]</a> The second was the <a href="/wiki/Arabia_Petraea#Roman_conquest" title="Arabia Petraea">Roman conquest</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Nabataean_kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Nabataean kingdom">Nabataean</a> capital <a href="/wiki/Petra" title="Petra">Petra</a> in 106,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBryce2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidXno9AgAAQBAJpgPA278_278]-46">[44]</a> shifting control over southern trade routes of the <a href="/wiki/Arabian_Peninsula" title="Arabian Peninsula">Arabian Peninsula</a> from the Nabataeans to Palmyra.<a href="#cite_note-246">[note 22]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBryce2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidXno9AgAAQBAJpgPA278_278]-46">[44]</a> In 129 Palmyra was visited by <a href="/wiki/Hadrian" title="Hadrian">Hadrian</a>, who named it "Hadriane Palmyra" and made it a <a href="/wiki/Free_city_(antiquity)" class="mw-redirect" title="Free city (antiquity)">free city</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBryce2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidXno9AgAAQBAJpgPA279_279]-247">[225]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDirven1999[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid_LfXg2r6FT0CpgPA21_21]-248">[226]</a> Hadrian promoted <a href="/wiki/Hellenization" title="Hellenization">Hellenism</a> throughout the empire,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith_II2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidh5cMho6zFckCpgPA25_25]-249">[227]</a> and Palmyra's urban expansion was modeled on that of Greece.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith_II2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidh5cMho6zFckCpgPA25_25]-249">[227]</a> This led to new projects, including the theatre, the colonnade and the Temple of Nabu.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith_II2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidh5cMho6zFckCpgPA25_25]-249">[227]</a> Roman garrisons are first attested in Palmyra in 167, when the cavalry <a href="/wiki/Auxilia#Alae" title="Auxilia">Ala I Thracum Herculiana</a> was moved to the city.<a href="#cite_note-252">[note 23]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERaschke1978878-253">[230]</a> By the end of the second century, urban development diminished after the city's building projects peaked.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith_II2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidh5cMho6zFckCpgPA26_26]-254">[231]</a> In the 190s, Palmyra was assigned to the province of <a href="/wiki/Phoenice_(Roman_province)" title="Phoenice (Roman province)">Phoenice</a>, newly created by the <a href="/wiki/Severan_dynasty" title="Severan dynasty">Severan dynasty</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEdwell2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDQgmOZlsEWcCpgPA27_27]-255">[232]</a> Toward the end of the second century, Palmyra began a steady transition from a traditional Greek city-state to a monarchy due to the increasing militarization of the city and the deteriorating economic situation;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESartre2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidMNSyT_PuYVMCpgPA512_512]-256">[233]</a> the Severan ascension to the imperial throne in Rome played a major role in Palmyra's transition:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith_II2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidh5cMho6zFckCpgPA26_26]-254">[231]</a> <ul><li>The Severan-led <a href="/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Parthian_Wars" title="Roman–Parthian Wars">Roman–Parthian War</a>, from 194 to 217, influenced regional security and affected the city's trade.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith_II2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidh5cMho6zFckCpgPA28_28]-257">[234]</a> <a href="/wiki/Banditry" title="Banditry">Bandits</a> began attacking caravans by 199, leading Palmyra to strengthen its military presence.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith_II2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidh5cMho6zFckCpgPA28_28]-257">[234]</a></li> <li>The new dynasty favored the city,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith_II2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidh5cMho6zFckCpgPA28_28]-257">[234]</a> stationing the <a href="/wiki/Auxilia#Cohortes" title="Auxilia">Cohors I Flavia Chalcidenorum</a> garrison there by 206.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEdwell2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDQgmOZlsEWcCpgPA60_60]-258">[235]</a> <a href="/wiki/Caracalla" title="Caracalla">Caracalla</a> made Palmyra a <a href="/wiki/Colonia_(Roman)" title="Colonia (Roman)">colonia</a> between 213 and 216, replacing many Greek institutions with Roman constitutional ones.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESartre2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidMNSyT_PuYVMCpgPA512_512]-256">[233]</a> <a href="/wiki/Severus_Alexander" title="Severus Alexander">Severus Alexander</a>, emperor from 222 to 235, visited Palmyra in 229.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith_II2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidh5cMho6zFckCpgPA28_28]-257">[234]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETeixidor1979[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidTccUAAAAIAAJpgPR33_33]-259">[236]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Palmyrene_kingdom">Palmyrene kingdom</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Palmyra&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Palmyrene kingdom">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_Palmyrene_monarchs" title="List of Palmyrene monarchs">List of Palmyrene monarchs</a></div> The rise of the <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanian Empire</a> in Persia considerably damaged Palmyrene trade.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith_II2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidh5cMho6zFckCpgPA176_176]-260">[237]</a> The Sasanians disbanded Palmyrene colonies in their lands,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith_II2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidh5cMho6zFckCpgPA176_176]-260">[237]</a> and began a war against the Roman Empire.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith_II2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidh5cMho6zFckCpgPA29_29]-261">[238]</a> In an inscription dated to 252 <a href="/wiki/Odaenathus" title="Odaenathus">Odaenathus</a> appears bearing the title of <a href="/wiki/Exarch" title="Exarch">exarchos</a> (lord) of Palmyra.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidecfiAAAAQBAJpgPA44_44]-262">[239]</a> The weakness of the Roman Empire and the constant Persian danger were probably the reasons behind the Palmyrene council's decision to elect a lord for the city in order for him to lead a strengthened army.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBall2002[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid73-JAgAAQBAJpgPA77_77]-263">[240]</a> Odaenathus approached <a href="/wiki/Shapur_I" title="Shapur I">Shapur I</a> of Persia to request him to guarantee Palmyrene interests in Persia, but was rebuffed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith_II2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidh5cMho6zFckCpgPA177_177]-264">[241]</a> In 260 the Emperor <a href="/wiki/Valerian_(emperor)" title="Valerian (emperor)">Valerian</a> fought Shapur at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Edessa" title="Battle of Edessa">Battle of Edessa</a>, but was defeated and captured.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith_II2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidh5cMho6zFckCpgPA177_177]-264">[241]</a> One of Valerian's officers, <a href="/wiki/Macrianus_Major" title="Macrianus Major">Macrianus Major</a>, his sons <a href="/wiki/Quietus" title="Quietus">Quietus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Macrianus_Minor" title="Macrianus Minor">Macrianus</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Praetorian_prefect" title="Praetorian prefect">prefect</a> <a href="/wiki/Balista" title="Balista">Balista</a> rebelled against Valerian's son <a href="/wiki/Gallienus" title="Gallienus">Gallienus</a>, usurping imperial power in Syria.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrinkwater2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidMNSyT_PuYVMCpgPA44_44]-265">[242]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Persian_wars">Persian wars</h5>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Palmyra&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Persian wars">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tessera_from_Palmyra_2.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="clay piece bearing a depiction of a king wearing a diadem and earring" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Tessera_from_Palmyra_2.png/250px-Tessera_from_Palmyra_2.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="219" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Tessera_from_Palmyra_2.png/330px-Tessera_from_Palmyra_2.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Tessera_from_Palmyra_2.png/500px-Tessera_from_Palmyra_2.png 2x" data-file-width="1106" data-file-height="1100" /></a><figcaption>A clay tessera bearing a possible depiction of Odaenathus wearing a diadem</figcaption></figure> Odaenathus formed an army of Palmyrenes and Syrian peasants against Shapur.<a href="#cite_note-267">[note 24]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith_II2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidh5cMho6zFckCpgPA177_177]-264">[241]</a> According to the <a href="/wiki/Augustan_History" class="mw-redirect" title="Augustan History">Augustan History</a>, Odaenathus declared himself king prior to the battle.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDignasWinter2007[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidMG2hqcRDvJgCpgPA159_159]-268">[244]</a> The Palmyrene leader won a decisive victory near the banks of the Euphrates later in 260 forcing the Persians to retreat.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHartmann2001139-269">[245]</a> In 261 Odaenathus marched against the remaining usurpers in Syria, defeating and killing Quietus and Balista.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHartmann2001144,_145-270">[246]</a> As a reward, he received the title Imperator Totius Orientis ("Governor of the East") from Gallienus,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidwnTOBAAAQBAJpgPA67_67]-271">[247]</a> and ruled Syria, <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia_(Roman_province)" title="Mesopotamia (Roman province)">Mesopotamia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arabia_Petraea" title="Arabia Petraea">Arabia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Anatolia" title="Anatolia">Anatolia</a>'s eastern regions as the imperial representative.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDe_Blois1976[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid7-jUAMmMS5cCpgPA35_35]-272">[248]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAndrade2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidy6IaBQAAQBAJpgPA333_333]-273">[249]</a> Palmyra itself remained officially part of the empire but Palmyrene inscriptions started to describe it as a "metrocolonia", indicating that the city's status was higher than normal Roman colonias.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYoung2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidE5yCAgAAQBAJpgPA215_215]-274">[250]</a> In practice, Palmyra shifted from a provincial city to a de facto allied kingdom.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYoung2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidE5yCAgAAQBAJpgPA159_159]-275">[251]</a> In 262 Odaenathus launched a new campaign against Shapur,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAndo2012[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid2fTcCQAAQBAJpgPA237_237]-276">[252]</a> reclaiming the rest of Roman Mesopotamia (most importantly, the cities of <a href="/wiki/Nisibis" class="mw-redirect" title="Nisibis">Nisibis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Carrhae" class="mw-redirect" title="Carrhae">Carrhae</a>), sacking the Jewish city of <a href="/wiki/Nehardea" title="Nehardea">Nehardea</a>,<a href="#cite_note-278">[note 25]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDubnov1968[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidLLCXomFNU3cCpgPA151_151]-277">[253]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHartmann2001[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidBdcHK8Ll1jMCpgPA171_171]-279">[254]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ctesiphon_(263)" title="Battle of Ctesiphon (263)">besieging</a> the Persian capital <a href="/wiki/Ctesiphon" title="Ctesiphon">Ctesiphon</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDignasWinter2007[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidMG2hqcRDvJgCpgPA160_160]-280">[255]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHartmann2001[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidBdcHK8Ll1jMCpgPA172_172]-281">[256]</a> Following his victory, the Palmyrene monarch assumed the title <a href="/wiki/King_of_Kings" title="King of Kings">King of Kings</a>.<a href="#cite_note-284">[note 26]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA32_32]-285">[259]</a> Later, Odaenathus crowned his son <a href="/wiki/Hairan_I" title="Hairan I">Hairan I</a> as co-King of Kings near Antioch in 263.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHartmann2001[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidBdcHK8Ll1jMCpgPA176_176]-286">[260]</a> Although he did not take the Persian capital, Odaenathus drove the Persians out of all Roman lands conquered since the beginning of Shapur's <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Nisibis_(252)" title="Siege of Nisibis (252)">wars in 252</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDe_Blois1976[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid7-jUAMmMS5cCpgPA3_3]-287">[261]</a> In a second campaign that took place in 266, the Palmyrene king reached Ctesiphon again; however, he had to leave the siege and move north, accompanied by Hairan I, to repel <a href="/wiki/Asia_(Roman_province)#Decline" title="Asia (Roman province)">Gothic attacks</a> on <a href="/wiki/Asia_Minor" class="mw-redirect" title="Asia Minor">Asia Minor</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidwnTOBAAAQBAJpgPA76_76]-288">[262]</a> The king and his son were assassinated during their return in 267;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidwnTOBAAAQBAJpgPA77_77]-289">[263]</a> according to the Augustan History and <a href="/wiki/Joannes_Zonaras" title="Joannes Zonaras">Joannes Zonaras</a>, Odaenathus was killed by a cousin (Zonaras says nephew) named in the History as <a href="/wiki/Maeonius" title="Maeonius">Maeonius</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA78_78]-290">[264]</a> The Augustan History also says that Maeonius was proclaimed emperor for a brief period before being killed by the soldiers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA78_78]-290">[264]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBryce2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidXno9AgAAQBAJpgPA292_292]-291">[265]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStoneman1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8kLFfE1qPhICpgPA108_108]-292">[266]</a> However, no inscriptions or other evidence exist for Maeonius' reign.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrauer1975[httpsarchiveorgdetailsageofsoldierem00brau_163]-293">[267]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ZENOBIA_-_RIC_V_2_-_80000750.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/ZENOBIA_-_RIC_V_2_-_80000750.jpg/220px-ZENOBIA_-_RIC_V_2_-_80000750.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="111" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/ZENOBIA_-_RIC_V_2_-_80000750.jpg/330px-ZENOBIA_-_RIC_V_2_-_80000750.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/ZENOBIA_-_RIC_V_2_-_80000750.jpg/440px-ZENOBIA_-_RIC_V_2_-_80000750.jpg 2x" data-file-width="741" data-file-height="373" /></a><figcaption>Zenobia as Augusta, on the obverse of an Antoninianus.</figcaption></figure> Odaenathus was succeeded by his son; the ten-year-old <a href="/wiki/Vaballathus" title="Vaballathus">Vaballathus</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBryce2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidXno9AgAAQBAJpgPA299_299]-294">[268]</a> <a href="/wiki/Zenobia" title="Zenobia">Zenobia</a>, the mother of the new king, was the de facto ruler and Vaballathus remained in her shadow while she consolidated her power.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBryce2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidXno9AgAAQBAJpgPA299_299]-294">[268]</a> Gallienus dispatched his prefect <a href="/wiki/Aurelius_Heraclianus" title="Aurelius Heraclianus">Heraclian</a> to command military operations against the Persians, but he was marginalized by Zenobia and returned to the West.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDe_Blois1976[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid7-jUAMmMS5cCpgPA3_3]-287">[261]</a> The queen was careful not to provoke Rome, claiming for herself and her son the titles held by her husband while guaranteeing the safety of the borders with Persia and pacifying the <a href="/wiki/Tanukhids" class="mw-redirect" title="Tanukhids">Tanukhids</a> in <a href="/wiki/Hauran" title="Hauran">Hauran</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBryce2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidXno9AgAAQBAJpgPA299_299]-294">[268]</a> To protect the borders with Persia, Zenobia fortified different settlements on the Euphrates including the citadels of <a href="/wiki/Halabiye" title="Halabiye">Halabiye</a> and <a href="/wiki/Zalabiye" title="Zalabiye">Zalabiye</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidwnTOBAAAQBAJpgPA91_91]-295">[269]</a> Circumstantial evidence exist for confrontations with the Sasanians; probably in 269 Vaballathus took the title Persicus Maximus ("The great victor in Persia") and the title might be linked with an unrecorded battle against a Persian army trying to regain control of Northern Mesopotamia.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidwnTOBAAAQBAJpgPA92_92]-296">[270]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHartmann2001[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidBdcHK8Ll1jMCpgPA267_267]-297">[271]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Palmyrene_empire">Palmyrene empire</h5>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Palmyra&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Palmyrene empire">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Palmyrene_Empire" title="Palmyrene Empire">Palmyrene Empire</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Palmyra_imposed.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Map of the Palmyrene empire" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Palmyra_imposed.png/250px-Palmyra_imposed.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="99" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Palmyra_imposed.png/330px-Palmyra_imposed.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Palmyra_imposed.png/500px-Palmyra_imposed.png 2x" data-file-width="1296" data-file-height="581" /></a><figcaption>The Palmyrene empire in AD 271</figcaption></figure> Zenobia began her military career in the spring of 270, during the reign of <a href="/wiki/Claudius_Gothicus" title="Claudius Gothicus">Claudius Gothicus</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBryce2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidXno9AgAAQBAJpgPA302_302]-298">[272]</a> Under the pretext of attacking the Tanukhids, she conquered Roman Arabia.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBryce2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidXno9AgAAQBAJpgPA302_302]-298">[272]</a> This was followed in October by an <a href="/wiki/Palmyrene_invasion_of_Egypt" title="Palmyrene invasion of Egypt">invasion of Egypt</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA62_62]-299">[273]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBryce2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidXno9AgAAQBAJpgPA303_303]-300">[274]</a> ending with a Palmyrene victory and Zenobia's proclamation as queen of Egypt.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBryce2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidXno9AgAAQBAJpgPA304_304]-301">[275]</a> Palmyra invaded Anatolia the following year, reaching <a href="/wiki/Ankara" title="Ankara">Ankara</a> and the pinnacle of its expansion.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBall2002[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid73-JAgAAQBAJpgPA80_80]-302">[276]</a> The conquests were made behind a mask of subordination to Rome.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith_II2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidh5cMho6zFckCpgPA179_179]-303">[277]</a> Zenobia issued coins in the name of Claudius' successor <a href="/wiki/Aurelian" title="Aurelian">Aurelian</a>, with Vaballathus depicted as king;<a href="#cite_note-304">[note 27]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith_II2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidh5cMho6zFckCpgPA179_179]-303">[277]</a> since Aurelian was occupied with repelling insurgencies in Europe, he tolerated the Palmyrene coinage and encroachments.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA67_67]-305">[278]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA118_118]-306">[279]</a> In late 271, Vaballathus and his mother assumed the titles of <a href="/wiki/Augustus_(honorific)" class="mw-redirect" title="Augustus (honorific)">Augustus</a> (emperor) and <a href="/wiki/List_of_Augustae" title="List of Augustae">Augusta</a>.<a href="#cite_note-310">[note 28]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith_II2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidh5cMho6zFckCpgPA179_179]-303">[277]</a> The following year, Aurelian crossed the <a href="/wiki/Bosphorus" class="mw-redirect" title="Bosphorus">Bosphorus</a> and advanced quickly through Anatolia.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBryce2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidXno9AgAAQBAJpgPA307_307]-311">[283]</a> According to one account, Roman general <a href="/wiki/Marcus_Aurelius_Probus" class="mw-redirect" title="Marcus Aurelius Probus">Marcus Aurelius Probus</a> regained Egypt from Palmyra;<a href="#cite_note-313">[note 29]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBryce2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidXno9AgAAQBAJpgPA308_308]-312">[284]</a> Aurelian entered <a href="/wiki/Issus_(town)" class="mw-redirect" title="Issus (town)">Issus</a> and headed to <a href="/wiki/Antioch" title="Antioch">Antioch</a>, where he defeated Zenobia in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Immae" title="Battle of Immae">Battle of Immae</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBryce2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidXno9AgAAQBAJpgPA309_309]-314">[285]</a> Zenobia was defeated again at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Emesa" title="Battle of Emesa">Battle of Emesa</a>, taking refuge in <a href="/wiki/Homs" title="Homs">Homs</a> before quickly returning to her capital.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBryce2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidXno9AgAAQBAJpgPA310_310]-315">[286]</a> When the Romans besieged Palmyra, Zenobia refused their order to surrender in person to the emperor.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBall2002[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid73-JAgAAQBAJpgPA80_80]-302">[276]</a> She escaped east to ask the Persians for help, but was captured by the Romans; the city capitulated soon afterwards.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBall2002[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid73-JAgAAQBAJpgPA81_81]-316">[287]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrinkwater2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidMNSyT_PuYVMCpgPA52_52]-317">[288]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Later_Roman_and_Byzantine_periods">Later Roman and Byzantine periods</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Palmyra&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Later Roman and Byzantine periods">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Diocletian%27s_Camp,_Palmyra_01.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Ruins, with columns and arches" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Diocletian%27s_Camp%2C_Palmyra_01.jpg/250px-Diocletian%27s_Camp%2C_Palmyra_01.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="89" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Diocletian%27s_Camp%2C_Palmyra_01.jpg/330px-Diocletian%27s_Camp%2C_Palmyra_01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Diocletian%27s_Camp%2C_Palmyra_01.jpg/500px-Diocletian%27s_Camp%2C_Palmyra_01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3449" data-file-height="1394" /></a><figcaption>Diocletian's camp</figcaption></figure> Aurelian spared the city and stationed a garrison of 600 archers, led by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Sandarion&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sandarion (page does not exist)">Sandarion</a>, as a peacekeeping force.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBryce2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidXno9AgAAQBAJpgPA313_313]-318">[289]</a> In 273 Palmyra rebelled under the leadership of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Septimius_Apsaios&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Septimius Apsaios (page does not exist)">Septimius Apsaios</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith_II2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidh5cMho6zFckCpgPA180_180]-309">[282]</a> declaring <a href="/wiki/Septimius_Antiochus" title="Septimius Antiochus">Antiochus</a> (a relative of Zenobia) as Augustus.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith_II2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidh5cMho6zFckCpgPA181_181]-319">[290]</a> Aurelian marched against Palmyra, razing it to the ground and seizing the most valuable monuments to decorate his <a href="/wiki/Sol_Invictus#Aurelian" title="Sol Invictus">Temple of Sol</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBall2002[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid73-JAgAAQBAJpgPA81_81]-316">[287]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESartre2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidMNSyT_PuYVMCpgPA515_515]-320">[291]</a> Palmyrene buildings were smashed, residents massacred and the Temple of Bel pillaged.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBall2002[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid73-JAgAAQBAJpgPA81_81]-316">[287]</a> Palmyra was significantly reduced and it largely disappeared from historical records of that period.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPollard2000[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid2ijMkjyG3cQCpgPA299_299]-321">[292]</a> After its sacking, Aurelian repaired the Temple of Bel, and the <a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_legions#Late_Empire_legions" title="List of Roman legions">Legio I Illyricorum</a> was stationed in the city.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPollard2000[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid2ijMkjyG3cQCpgPA298_298]-164">[152]</a> Shortly before 303 the Camp of Diocletian, a <a href="/wiki/Castrum" class="mw-redirect" title="Castrum">castrum</a> in the western part of the city, was built.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPollard2000[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid2ijMkjyG3cQCpgPA298_298]-164">[152]</a> The 4-hectare (9.9-acre) camp was a base for the Legio I Illyricorum,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPollard2000[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid2ijMkjyG3cQCpgPA298_298]-164">[152]</a> which guarded the trade routes around the city.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPollard2000[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid2ijMkjyG3cQCpgPA299_299]-321">[292]</a> Though some of the city would not be rebuilt, Palmyra would become a major stronghold and fortress in the East. Thanks in part to this, in the following years Palmyra began to regain importance, becoming a Christian city in the decades following its destruction by Aurelian.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStoneman1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8kLFfE1qPhICpgPA190_190]-322">[293]</a> In late 527, <a href="/wiki/Justinian_I" title="Justinian I">Justinian I</a> further strengthened the city, ordering the restoration of Palmyra's churches and public buildings to protect the empire against raids by <a href="/wiki/Lakhmids" class="mw-redirect" title="Lakhmids">Lakhmid</a> king <a href="/wiki/Al-Mundhir_III_ibn_al-Nu%27man" title="Al-Mundhir III ibn al-Nu'man">Al-Mundhir III ibn al-Nu'man</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreatrexLieu2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidawCGAgAAQBAJpgPA85_85]-323">[294]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Arab_caliphates">Arab caliphates</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Palmyra&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Arab caliphates">edit</a>]</div> Palmyra was conquered by the <a href="/wiki/Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Rashidun Caliphate">Rashidun Caliphate</a> after its 634 capture by the <a href="/wiki/Muslim" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim">Muslim</a> general <a href="/wiki/Khalid_ibn_al-Walid" title="Khalid ibn al-Walid">Khalid ibn al-Walid</a>, who took the city on his way to <a href="/wiki/Damascus" title="Damascus">Damascus</a>; an 18-day march by his <a href="/wiki/Rashidun_army" title="Rashidun army">army</a> through the <a href="/wiki/Syrian_Desert" title="Syrian Desert">Syrian Desert</a> from <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurns2007[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidpoCBAgAAQBAJpgPA99_99]-324">[295]</a> By then Palmyra was limited to the Diocletian camp.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpeake1996[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidR44VRnNCzAYCpgPA568_568]-94">[86]</a> After the conquest, the city became part of <a href="/wiki/Jund_Hims" title="Jund Hims">Homs Province</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELe_Strange189036-325">[296]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Umayyad_and_early_Abbasid_periods">Umayyad and early Abbasid periods</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Palmyra&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Umayyad and early Abbasid periods">edit</a>]</div> Palmyra prospered as part of the Umayyad Caliphate, and its population grew.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHillenbrand1999[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidQ6ppv17CP6ECpgPA87_87]-326">[297]</a> It was a key stop on the East-West trade route, with a large <a href="/wiki/Souq" class="mw-redirect" title="Souq">souq</a> (market), built by the Umayyads,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHillenbrand1999[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidQ6ppv17CP6ECpgPA87_87]-326">[297]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBacharach1996[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidNdCTI5FqayACpgPA31_31]-327">[298]</a> who also commissioned part of the Temple of Bel as a <a href="/wiki/Jama_Masjid" class="mw-redirect" title="Jama Masjid">mosque</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBacharach1996[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidNdCTI5FqayACpgPA31_31]-327">[298]</a> During this period, Palmyra was a stronghold of the <a href="/wiki/Banu_Kalb" title="Banu Kalb">Banu Kalb</a> tribe,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrabarHolodKnustadTrousdale1978[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidQMSCNQlywSsCpgPA156_156]-56">[53]</a> which began to take abode in and around the city after the conquest.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECaskel1966369-328">[299]</a> After being defeated by <a href="/wiki/Marwan_II" title="Marwan II">Marwan II</a> during a <a href="/wiki/Third_Muslim_Civil_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Third Muslim Civil War">civil war in the caliphate</a>, Umayyad contender <a href="/wiki/Sulayman_ibn_Hisham" title="Sulayman ibn Hisham">Sulayman ibn Hisham</a> fled to the Banu Kalb in Palmyra, but eventually pledged allegiance to Marwan in 744; Palmyra continued to oppose Marwan until the surrender of the Banu Kalb chief <a href="/wiki/Al-Asbagh_ibn_Dhu%27ala" title="Al-Asbagh ibn Dhu'ala">al-Asbagh ibn Dhu'ala</a> in 745.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIntagliata2018140-329">[300]</a> That year, Marwan ordered the city's walls demolished.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpeake1996[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidR44VRnNCzAYCpgPA568_568]-94">[86]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECobb2001[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid2C6KIBw4F9YCpgPA73_73]-330">[301]</a> In 750 a revolt, led by <a href="/wiki/Abu_al-Ward" title="Abu al-Ward">Majza'a ibn al-Kawthar</a> and Umayyad pretender <a href="/wiki/Abu_Muhammad_al-Sufyani" title="Abu Muhammad al-Sufyani">Abu Muhammad al-Sufyani</a>, against the new <a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasid Caliphate</a> swept across Syria;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECobb2001[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid2C6KIBw4F9YCpgPA47_47]-331">[302]</a> the tribes in Palmyra supported the rebels.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECobb2001[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid2C6KIBw4F9YCpgPA48_48]-332">[303]</a> After his defeat Abu Muhammad took refuge in the city, which withstood an Abbasid assault long enough to allow him to escape.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECobb2001[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid2C6KIBw4F9YCpgPA48_48]-332">[303]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Decentralization">Decentralization</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Palmyra&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Decentralization">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gate_of_the_fortified_Temple_of_Bel_Palmyra_Syria.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Stone wall, with an arch and pillars" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Gate_of_the_fortified_Temple_of_Bel_Palmyra_Syria.jpg/220px-Gate_of_the_fortified_Temple_of_Bel_Palmyra_Syria.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Gate_of_the_fortified_Temple_of_Bel_Palmyra_Syria.jpg/330px-Gate_of_the_fortified_Temple_of_Bel_Palmyra_Syria.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Gate_of_the_fortified_Temple_of_Bel_Palmyra_Syria.jpg/440px-Gate_of_the_fortified_Temple_of_Bel_Palmyra_Syria.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2272" data-file-height="1704" /></a><figcaption>Fortifications at the Temple of Bel</figcaption></figure> Abbasid power dwindled during the 10th century, when the empire disintegrated and was divided among a number of vassals.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolt2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidTqasAgAAQBAJpgPA13_13]-333">[304]</a> Most of the new rulers acknowledged the caliph as their nominal sovereign, a situation which continued until the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Baghdad_(1258)" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege of Baghdad (1258)">Mongol destruction</a> of the Abbasid Caliphate in 1258.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoewe1923[httpsarchiveorgstreamcambridgemedieva04buryuoftpage300mode2up_300]-334">[305]</a> The population of the city started to decrease in the ninth century and the process continued in the tenth century.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeyer2017a72-335">[306]</a> In 955 <a href="/wiki/Sayf_al-Dawla" title="Sayf al-Dawla">Sayf al-Dawla</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Hamdanid_dynasty" title="Hamdanid dynasty">Hamdanid</a> prince of <a href="/wiki/Aleppo" title="Aleppo">Aleppo</a>, defeated the nomads near the city,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrabarHolodKnustadTrousdale1978[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidQMSCNQlywSsCpgPA11_11]-336">[307]</a> and built a <a href="/wiki/Kasbah" title="Kasbah">kasbah</a> (fortress) in response to <a href="/wiki/Arab%E2%80%93Byzantine_wars#Byzantine_resurgence,_863–11th_century" title="Arab–Byzantine wars">campaigns</a> by the Byzantine emperors <a href="/wiki/Nikephoros_II_Phokas" title="Nikephoros II Phokas">Nikephoros II Phokas</a> and <a href="/wiki/John_I_Tzimiskes" title="John I Tzimiskes">John I Tzimiskes</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrabarHolodKnustadTrousdale1978[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidQMSCNQlywSsCpgPA158_158]-337">[308]</a> With the advent of <a href="/wiki/Fatimid_Caliphate" title="Fatimid Caliphate">Fatimid</a> rule in the late 10th century, Palmyra remained a stronghold of the Kalb and taxes on the oasis' crops was a major source of the tribe's income. Toward the end of the century, the Kalb around Palmyra migrated from the area.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBianquis1989440,_641-338">[309]</a> Earthquakes devastated Palmyra in 1068 and 1089.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpeake1996[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidR44VRnNCzAYCpgPA568_568]-94">[86]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFowden1999[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidUC5v4mgERxwCpgPA184_184]-339">[310]</a> In the 1070s Syria was conquered by the <a href="/wiki/Seljuk_Empire" title="Seljuk Empire">Seljuk Empire</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChamberlain2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid1ioTXW3316ACpgPA148_148]-340">[311]</a> and in 1082, the district of Homs came under the control of the Arab lord <a href="/wiki/Khalaf_ibn_Mula%27ib" title="Khalaf ibn Mula'ib">Khalaf ibn Mula'ib</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEÉlisséeff2007[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidUB4uSVt3ulUCpgPA158_158]-341">[312]</a> The latter was a brigand and was removed and imprisoned in 1090 by the Seljuq sultan <a href="/wiki/Malik-Shah_I" title="Malik-Shah I">Malik-Shah I</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEÉlisséeff2007[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidUB4uSVt3ulUCpgPA158_158]-341">[312]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIbn_al-ʻAdīm1988[httpshamelawsbrowsephpbook-10798page-3283_3354]-342">[313]</a> Khalaf's lands were given to Malik-Shah's brother, <a href="/wiki/Tutush_I" title="Tutush I">Tutush I</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIbn_al-ʻAdīm1988[httpshamelawsbrowsephpbook-10798page-3283_3354]-342">[313]</a> who gained his independence after his brother's 1092 death and established a <a href="/wiki/List_of_Seljuk_rulers_in_Syria_(1076%E2%80%931117)" title="List of Seljuk rulers in Syria (1076–1117)">cadet branch</a> of the Seljuk dynasty in Syria.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHanne2007[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidnDVOR7jZYJECpgPA135_135]-343">[314]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Qalat_ibn_maan01(js).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Ruins of an old stone castle" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Qalat_ibn_maan01%28js%29.jpg/220px-Qalat_ibn_maan01%28js%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Qalat_ibn_maan01%28js%29.jpg/330px-Qalat_ibn_maan01%28js%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Qalat_ibn_maan01%28js%29.jpg/440px-Qalat_ibn_maan01%28js%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="1269" /></a><figcaption>Fakhr-al-Din al-Maani Castle</figcaption></figure> By the twelfth century, the population moved into the courtyard of the Temple of Bel which was fortified;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeyer2017a72-335">[306]</a> Palmyra was then ruled by <a href="/wiki/Toghtekin" title="Toghtekin">Toghtekin</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Burid_dynasty" title="Burid dynasty">Burid</a> <a href="/wiki/Atabeg" title="Atabeg">atabeg</a> of Damascus, who appointed his nephew governor.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGibb2002[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid5ds1vuFg8j0CpgPA178_178]-344">[315]</a> Toghtekin's nephew was killed by rebels, and the atabeg retook the city in 1126.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGibb2002[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid5ds1vuFg8j0CpgPA178_178]-344">[315]</a> Palmyra was given to Toghtekin's grandson, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Shihab-ud-din_Mahmud&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Shihab-ud-din Mahmud (page does not exist)">Shihab-ud-din Mahmud</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGibb2002[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid5ds1vuFg8j0CpgPA178_178]-344">[315]</a> who was replaced by governor <a href="/wiki/Yusuf_ibn_Firuz" title="Yusuf ibn Firuz">Yusuf ibn Firuz</a> when Shihab-ud-din Mahmud returned to Damascus after his father <a href="/wiki/Taj_al-Muluk_Buri" title="Taj al-Muluk Buri">Taj al-Muluk Buri</a> succeeded Toghtekin.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIbn_al-Qalanisi1983[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidO94rCwAAQBAJpgPT378_386]-345">[316]</a> The Burids transformed the Temple of Bel into a citadel in 1132, fortifying the city,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrabarHolodKnustadTrousdale1978[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidQMSCNQlywSsCpgPA161_161]-346">[317]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGibb2002[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid5ds1vuFg8j0CpgPA237_237]-347">[318]</a> and transferring it to the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Bin_Qaraja&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bin Qaraja (page does not exist)">Bin Qaraja</a> family three years later in exchange for Homs.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGibb2002[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid5ds1vuFg8j0CpgPA237_237]-347">[318]</a> During the mid-twelfth century, Palmyra was ruled by the <a href="/wiki/Zengid_dynasty" title="Zengid dynasty">Zengid</a> king <a href="/wiki/Nur_ad-Din,_atabeg_of_Aleppo" class="mw-redirect" title="Nur ad-Din, atabeg of Aleppo">Nur ad-Din Mahmud</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIbn_'Asakir1995[httpshamelawsbrowsephpbook-71page-26366_121]-348">[319]</a> It became part of the district of Homs,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEByliński1999161-349">[320]</a> which was given as a fiefdom to the Ayyubid general <a href="/wiki/Shirkuh" title="Shirkuh">Shirkuh</a> in 1168 and confiscated after his death in 1169.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEhrenkreutz1972[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidG9jnL131V3UCpgPA46_46],_[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidG9jnL131V3UCpgPA72_72]-350">[321]</a> Homs region was conquered by the <a href="/wiki/Ayyubid_dynasty" title="Ayyubid dynasty">Ayyubid sultanate</a> in 1174;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHamilton2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidIySQoHdviNkCpgPA98_98]-351">[322]</a> the following year, <a href="/wiki/Saladin" title="Saladin">Saladin</a> gave Homs (including Palmyra) to his cousin <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_ibn_Shirkuh" title="Muhammad ibn Shirkuh">Nasir al-Din Muhammad</a> as a fiefdom.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHumphreys1977[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidJfXl5kvabhoCpgPA51_51]-352">[323]</a> After Saladin's death, the Ayyubid realm was divided and Palmyra was given to Nasir al-Din Muhammad's son <a href="/wiki/Al-Mujahid" title="Al-Mujahid">Al-Mujahid Shirkuh II</a> (who built the castle of Palmyra known as <a href="/wiki/Fakhr-al-Din_al-Maani_Castle" class="mw-redirect" title="Fakhr-al-Din al-Maani Castle">Fakhr-al-Din al-Maani Castle</a> around 1230).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMajor2001[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid1m4fbJyQ4pkCpgPA62_62]-353">[324]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurns2009[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidz_IBAwAAQBAJpgPA243_243]-354">[325]</a> Five years earlier, Syrian geographer <a href="/wiki/Yaqut_al-Hamawi" title="Yaqut al-Hamawi">Yaqut al-Hamawi</a> described Palmyra's residents as living in "a castle surrounded by a stone wall".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELe_Strange1890541-355">[326]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mamluk_period">Mamluk period</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Palmyra&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Mamluk period">edit</a>]</div> Palmyra was used as a refuge by Shirkuh II's grandson, <a href="/wiki/Al-Ashraf_Musa,_Emir_of_Homs" title="Al-Ashraf Musa, Emir of Homs">al-Ashraf Musa</a>, who allied himself with the <a href="/wiki/Mongol_Empire" title="Mongol Empire">Mongol</a> king <a href="/wiki/Hulagu_Khan" class="mw-redirect" title="Hulagu Khan">Hulagu Khan</a> and fled after the Mongol defeat in the 1260 <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ain_Jalut" title="Battle of Ain Jalut">Battle of Ain Jalut</a> against the <a href="/wiki/Mamluk_Sultanate_(Cairo)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo)">Mamluks</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHumphreys1977[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidJfXl5kvabhoCpgPA360_360]-356">[327]</a> Al-Ashraf Musa asked the Mamluk sultan <a href="/wiki/Qutuz" title="Qutuz">Qutuz</a> for pardon and was accepted as a vassal.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHumphreys1977[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidJfXl5kvabhoCpgPA360_360]-356">[327]</a> Al-Ashraf Musa died in 1263 without an heir, bringing the Homs district under direct Mamluk rule.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolt1995[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidb2oeolaGUCECpgPA38_38]-357">[328]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Al_Fadl_principality">Al Fadl principality</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Palmyra&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Al Fadl principality">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Palmyra_Ruins_-_Flickr_-_edbrambley.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Date trees, with Palmyra in the background" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Palmyra_Ruins_-_Flickr_-_edbrambley.jpg/250px-Palmyra_Ruins_-_Flickr_-_edbrambley.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Palmyra_Ruins_-_Flickr_-_edbrambley.jpg/330px-Palmyra_Ruins_-_Flickr_-_edbrambley.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Palmyra_Ruins_-_Flickr_-_edbrambley.jpg/500px-Palmyra_Ruins_-_Flickr_-_edbrambley.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3800" data-file-height="2137" /></a><figcaption>Palmyra's gardens</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Al_Fadl" title="Al Fadl">Al Fadl</a> clan (a branch of the <a href="/wiki/Tayy" title="Tayy">Tayy</a> tribe) were loyal to the Mamluks, and in 1281, Prince <a href="/wiki/Isa_ibn_Muhanna" title="Isa ibn Muhanna">Issa bin Muhanna</a> of the Al Fadl was appointed lord of Palmyra by sultan <a href="/wiki/Al_Mansur_Qalawun" class="mw-redirect" title="Al Mansur Qalawun">Qalawun</a>.[[Template:Usurped/doc|[usurped]]]_358-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEQīṭāz2007[httpswebarchiveorgweb20221104070406httpwwwarab-encycomsyencydetails824719D985D987D986D8A7D8A3D8B3D8B1D8A9_788][[Template:Usurped/doc|[usurped]]]-358">[329]</a> Issa was succeeded in 1284 by his son <a href="/wiki/Muhanna_ibn_Isa" title="Muhanna ibn Isa">Muhanna bin Issa</a> who was imprisoned by sultan <a href="/wiki/Al-Ashraf_Khalil" title="Al-Ashraf Khalil">al-Ashraf Khalil</a> in 1293, and restored two years later by sultan <a href="/wiki/Al-Adil_Kitbugha" title="Al-Adil Kitbugha">al-Adil Kitbugha</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEal-Ziriklī2002[httpshamelawsbrowsephpbook-12286page-6880_316]-359">[330]</a> Muhanna declared his loyalty to <a href="/wiki/%C3%96ljait%C3%BC" title="Öljaitü">Öljaitü</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Ilkhanate" title="Ilkhanate">Ilkhanate</a> in 1312 and was dismissed and replaced with his brother <a href="/wiki/Fadl_ibn_Isa" title="Fadl ibn Isa">Fadl</a> by sultan <a href="/wiki/An-Nasir_Muhammad" class="mw-redirect" title="An-Nasir Muhammad">an-Nasir Muhammad</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEal-Ziriklī2002[httpshamelawsbrowsephpbook-12286page-6880_316]-359">[330]</a> Although Muhanna was forgiven by an-Nasir and restored in 1317, he and his tribe were expelled in 1320 for his continued relations with the Ilkhanate,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEal-Ziriklī2002[httpshamelawsbrowsephpbook-12286page-6881_317]-360">[331]</a> and he was replaced by tribal chief <a href="/w/index.php?title=Muhammad_ibn_Abi_Bakr_(chief)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr (chief) (page does not exist)">Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIbn_Khaldūn1988[httpshamelawsbrowsephpbook-12320page-3301_501]-361">[332]</a> Muhanna was forgiven and restored by an-Nasir in 1330; he remained loyal to the sultan until his death in 1335, when he was succeeded by his son.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIbn_Khaldūn1988[httpshamelawsbrowsephpbook-12320page-3301_501]-361">[332]</a> Contemporary historian <a href="/wiki/Shihab_al-Umari" class="mw-redirect" title="Shihab al-Umari">Ibn Fadlallah al-Omari</a> described the city as having "vast gardens, flourishing trades and bizarre monuments".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEal-ʻUmarī2002[httpshamelawsbrowsephpbook-11790page-458_528]-362">[333]</a> The Al Fadl clan protected the trade routes and villages from <a href="/wiki/Bedouin" title="Bedouin">Bedouin</a> raids,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIbn_Battuta1997[httpshamelawsbrowsephpbook-11769page-383_413]-363">[334]</a> raiding other cities and fighting among themselves.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIbn_Khaldūn1988[httpshamelawsbrowsephpbook-12320page-3302_502]-364">[335]</a> The Mamluks intervened militarily several times, dismissing, imprisoning or expelling its leaders.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIbn_Khaldūn1988[httpshamelawsbrowsephpbook-12320page-3302_502]-364">[335]</a> In 1400 Palmyra was attacked by <a href="/wiki/Timur" title="Timur">Timur</a>; the Fadl prince <a href="/w/index.php?title=Muhammad_bin_Hayyar&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Muhammad bin Hayyar (page does not exist)">Nu'air</a> escaped the battle and later fought <a href="/wiki/List_of_rulers_of_Aleppo#Mamluks" class="mw-redirect" title="List of rulers of Aleppo">Jakam</a>, the sultan of Aleppo.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEal-ʻAsqalānī1969[httpshamelawsbrowsephpbook-26317page-885_350]-365">[336]</a> Nu'air was captured, taken to Aleppo and executed in 1406; this, according to <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Hajar_al-Asqalani" title="Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani">Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani</a>, ended the Al Fadl clan's power.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEal-ʻAsqalānī1969[httpshamelawsbrowsephpbook-26317page-885_350]-365">[336]</a>[[Template:Usurped/doc|[usurped]]]_358-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEQīṭāz2007[httpswebarchiveorgweb20221104070406httpwwwarab-encycomsyencydetails824719D985D987D986D8A7D8A3D8B3D8B1D8A9_788][[Template:Usurped/doc|[usurped]]]-358">[329]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ottoman_era">Ottoman era</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Palmyra&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Ottoman era">edit</a>]</div> <div class="thumb tnone" style="margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto;overflow:hidden;width:auto;max-width:1144px"><div class="thumbinner"><div class="noresize thumbimage" style="overflow:auto"><a href="/wiki/File:Gezicht_op_Palmyra-Hofstede-1693-Bijzondere_Collecties_UvA.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Gerard Hofsted van Essen's painting of the ruins, following his participation in the 1691 Levant Company expedition, the first Western expedition to the site. This is the earliest Western depiction of Palmyra. A group stands in the center foreground around a large stone, on which the date 1693 is shown. The gold text at the top explains the 1743 donation of the picture as part of the Papenbroek Collection. Scroll left and right to view the full panorama."><img alt="Painting of Palmyra" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Gezicht_op_Palmyra-Hofstede-1693-Bijzondere_Collecties_UvA.jpg/1134px-Gezicht_op_Palmyra-Hofstede-1693-Bijzondere_Collecties_UvA.jpg" decoding="async" width="1134" height="230" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Gezicht_op_Palmyra-Hofstede-1693-Bijzondere_Collecties_UvA.jpg/1701px-Gezicht_op_Palmyra-Hofstede-1693-Bijzondere_Collecties_UvA.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Gezicht_op_Palmyra-Hofstede-1693-Bijzondere_Collecties_UvA.jpg/2268px-Gezicht_op_Palmyra-Hofstede-1693-Bijzondere_Collecties_UvA.jpg 2x" data-file-width="8665" data-file-height="1758" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Gezicht_op_Palmyra-Hofstede-1693-Bijzondere_Collecties_UvA.jpg" title="File:Gezicht op Palmyra-Hofstede-1693-Bijzondere Collecties UvA.jpg"> </a></div><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerard_Hofsted_van_Essen" class="extiw" title="nl:Gerard Hofsted van Essen">Gerard Hofsted van Essen</a>'s painting of the ruins, following his participation in the 1691 <a href="/wiki/Levant_Company" title="Levant Company">Levant Company</a> expedition, the first Western expedition to the site. This is the earliest Western depiction of Palmyra. A group stands in the center foreground around a large stone, on which the date 1693 is shown. The gold text at the top explains the 1743 donation of the picture as part of the <a href="/wiki/Papenbroek_Collection" title="Papenbroek Collection">Papenbroek Collection</a>. Scroll left and right to view the full panorama.</div></div></div> While most of Syria came under <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman</a> rule in 1516, Palmyra (Tadmur) does not appear to have been incorporated into the Empire before the conquest of <a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a> in 1534–1535. It first appears as the centre of an administrative district (<a href="/wiki/Sanjak" title="Sanjak">sanjak</a>) around 1560.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWinter201989-90-366">[337]</a><a href="#cite_note-368">[note 30]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEÇelebi1834[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid66hCAAAAcAAJpgPA93_93]-367">[338]</a> The region was important to the Ottomans above all for its salt deposits. In 1568, the governor of the sancak restored the medieval citadel.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWinter201990-91-369">[339]</a> After 1568 the Ottomans appointed the <a href="/wiki/Lebanese_people" title="Lebanese people">Lebanese</a> emir <a href="/wiki/Harfush_clan" class="mw-redirect" title="Harfush clan">Ali bin Musa Harfush</a> as governor of Palmyra's sanjak,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWinter2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKGeuAeFFJCECpgPA43_43]-370">[340]</a> dismissing him in 1584 for insubordination.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWinter2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKGeuAeFFJCECpgPA48_48]-371">[341]</a> In 1630 Palmyra came under the tax authority of another Lebanese emir, <a href="/wiki/Fakhr-al-Din_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Fakhr-al-Din II">Fakhr-al-Din II</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarris2012[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidXwUTDAAAQBAJpgPA103_103]-372">[342]</a> who renovated Shirkuh II's castle (which became known as Fakhr-al-Din al-Maani Castle).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurns2009[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidz_IBAwAAQBAJpgPA243_243]-354">[325]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEByliński1995146-373">[343]</a> The prince fell from grace with the Ottomans in 1633 and lost control of the village,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarris2012[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidXwUTDAAAQBAJpgPA103_103]-372">[342]</a> which remained a separate sanjak until it was absorbed by <a href="/wiki/Zor_Sanjak" title="Zor Sanjak">Zor Sanjak</a> in 1857.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeters1911[[:s:1911_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Deir|933]]-374">[344]</a> The Ottoman governor of <a href="/wiki/Syria_Vilayet" class="mw-redirect" title="Syria Vilayet">Syria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mehmed_Rashid_Pasha" title="Mehmed Rashid Pasha">Mehmed Rashid Pasha</a>, established a garrison in the village to control the Bedouin in 1867.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHudson200825-375">[345]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedyRiley2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidg1eQAgAAQBAJpgPA143_143]-376">[346]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="20th_century">20th century</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Palmyra&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: 20th century">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:01_tadmor_old_village.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="People in an alley, with ruins in the background" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/01_tadmor_old_village.jpg/220px-01_tadmor_old_village.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="325" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/01_tadmor_old_village.jpg/330px-01_tadmor_old_village.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/01_tadmor_old_village.jpg/440px-01_tadmor_old_village.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2686" data-file-height="3966" /></a><figcaption>The village, within the Temple of Bel, during the early 20th century</figcaption></figure> In 1918, as <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a> was ending, the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Air_Force" title="Royal Air Force">Royal Air Force</a> built an airfield for two planes,<a href="#cite_note-378">[note 31]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrainger2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidLG2cG5SshpECpgPA228_228]-377">[347]</a> and in November the Ottomans retreated from Zor Sanjak without a fight.<a href="#cite_note-380">[note 32]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEQaddūrī2000[httplibrarytebyannetarViewerText113382116_38]-379">[348]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Arab_Kingdom_of_Syria#The_Arab_constitutional_government" title="Arab Kingdom of Syria">Syrian Emirate</a>'s army entered <a href="/wiki/Deir_ez-Zor" title="Deir ez-Zor">Deir ez-Zor</a> on 4 December, and Zor Sanjak became part of Syria.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEQaddūrī2000[httplibrarytebyannetarViewerText113382118_40]-381">[349]</a> In 1919, as the British and French argued over the borders of the planned <a href="/wiki/League_of_Nations_mandate" title="League of Nations mandate">mandates</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrainger2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidLG2cG5SshpECpgPA228_228]-377">[347]</a> the British permanent military representative to the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_War_Council" title="Supreme War Council">Supreme War Council</a> <a href="/wiki/Sir_Henry_Wilson,_1st_Baronet" title="Sir Henry Wilson, 1st Baronet">Henry Wilson</a> suggested adding Palmyra to the <a href="/wiki/British_Mandate_for_Mesopotamia_(legal_instrument)" class="mw-redirect" title="British Mandate for Mesopotamia (legal instrument)">British mandate</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrainger2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidLG2cG5SshpECpgPA228_228]-377">[347]</a> However, the British general <a href="/wiki/Edmund_Allenby,_1st_Viscount_Allenby" title="Edmund Allenby, 1st Viscount Allenby">Edmund Allenby</a> persuaded his government to abandon this plan.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrainger2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidLG2cG5SshpECpgPA228_228]-377">[347]</a> Syria (including Palmyra) became part of the <a href="/wiki/French_Mandate_for_Syria_and_the_Lebanon" class="mw-redirect" title="French Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon">French Mandate</a> after Syria's defeat in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Maysalun" title="Battle of Maysalun">Battle of Maysalun</a> on 24 July 1920.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeep2012[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid1Z7TbtGaAX8CpgPA28_28]-382">[350]</a> With Palmyra gaining importance in the French efforts to pacify the <a href="/wiki/Syrian_Desert" title="Syrian Desert">Syrian Desert</a>, a base was constructed in the village near the Temple of Bel in 1921.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeep2012[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid1Z7TbtGaAX8CpgPA142_142]-383">[351]</a> In 1929, Henri Seyrig, began excavating the ruins and convinced the villagers to move to a new, French-built village next to the site.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDarke2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidjv2jHT_GRe0CpgPA257_257]-384">[352]</a> The relocation was completed in 1932;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStoneman1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8kLFfE1qPhICpgPA12_12]-385">[353]</a> ancient Palmyra was ready for excavation as its villagers settled into the new village of <a href="/wiki/Tadmur" class="mw-redirect" title="Tadmur">Tadmur</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrijvers1976[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidmuQ3AAAAIAAJpgPA4_4]-386">[354]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDarke2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidjv2jHT_GRe0CpgPA257_257]-384">[352]</a> During <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, the Mandate came under the authority of <a href="/wiki/Vichy_France" title="Vichy France">Vichy France</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoubayed2012[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid2UANAgAAQBAJpgPA46_46]-387">[355]</a> who gave permission to <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a> to use the airfield at Palmyra;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatson2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksido4vrUbMK5eECpgPA80_80]-388">[356]</a> forces of <a href="/wiki/Free_France" title="Free France">Free France</a>, backed by British forces, invaded Syria in June 1941,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoubayed2012[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid2UANAgAAQBAJpgPA46_46]-387">[355]</a> and on 3 July 1941, the British took control over the city in the aftermath of a <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Palmyra_(1941)" title="Battle of Palmyra (1941)">battle</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECave2012[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid-3y-BAAAQBAJpgPA55_55]-389">[357]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Syrian_civil_war">Syrian civil war</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Palmyra&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Syrian civil war">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Palmyra_offensive_(May_2015)" title="Palmyra offensive (May 2015)">Palmyra offensive (May 2015)</a>, <a href="/wiki/Palmyra_offensive_(March_2016)" title="Palmyra offensive (March 2016)">Palmyra offensive (March 2016)</a>, <a href="/wiki/Palmyra_offensive_(December_2016)" title="Palmyra offensive (December 2016)">Palmyra offensive (December 2016)</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Palmyra_offensive_(2017)" title="Palmyra offensive (2017)">Palmyra offensive (2017)</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti" /><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:442px;max-width:442px"><div class="trow"><div class="theader">Destructions in Palmyra</div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:224px;max-width:224px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:147px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Palmira_Museo_-_GAR_-_7-03.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Palmira_Museo_-_GAR_-_7-03.jpg/222px-Palmira_Museo_-_GAR_-_7-03.jpg" decoding="async" width="222" height="148" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Palmira_Museo_-_GAR_-_7-03.jpg/333px-Palmira_Museo_-_GAR_-_7-03.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Palmira_Museo_-_GAR_-_7-03.jpg/444px-Palmira_Museo_-_GAR_-_7-03.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3008" data-file-height="2000" /></a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:214px;max-width:214px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:147px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Palmyra_13970826_03.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Palmyra_13970826_03.jpg/250px-Palmyra_13970826_03.jpg" decoding="async" width="212" height="148" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Palmyra_13970826_03.jpg/330px-Palmyra_13970826_03.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Palmyra_13970826_03.jpg/500px-Palmyra_13970826_03.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="557" /></a></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">Sculpture in the Palmyra Museum, before and after the conflict.</div></div></div></div> As a result of the <a href="/wiki/Syrian_civil_war" title="Syrian civil war">Syrian civil war</a>, Palmyra experienced widespread looting and damage by combatants.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolmes2013-390">[358]</a> In 2013, the façade of the Temple of Bel sustained a large hole from <a href="/wiki/Mortar_(weapon)" title="Mortar (weapon)">mortar</a> fire, and colonnade columns have been damaged by <a href="/wiki/Fragmentation_(weaponry)" title="Fragmentation (weaponry)">shrapnel</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolmes2013-390">[358]</a> According to Maamoun Abdulkarim, the <a href="/wiki/Syrian_Army" title="Syrian Army">Syrian Army</a> positioned its troops in some archaeological-site areas,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolmes2013-390">[358]</a> while <a href="/wiki/Syrian_opposition" class="mw-redirect" title="Syrian opposition">Syrian opposition</a> fighters positioned themselves in gardens around the city.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolmes2013-390">[358]</a> On 13 May 2015, ISIL launched an attack on the modern town of Tadmur, sparking fears that the <a href="/wiki/Iconoclasm" title="Iconoclasm">iconoclastic</a> group would destroy the adjacent ancient site of Palmyra.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMackay2015-391">[359]</a> On 21 May, some artifacts were transported from the Palmyra museum to Damascus for safekeeping; a number of Greco-Roman busts, jewelry, and other objects looted from the museum have been found on the international market.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcGirk2015-392">[360]</a> ISIL forces entered Palmyra the same day.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShaheen2015-393">[361]</a> Local residents reported that the <a href="/wiki/Syrian_Air_Force" title="Syrian Air Force">Syrian Air Force</a> bombed the site on 13 June, damaging the northern wall close to the Temple of Baalshamin.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoveluck2015-394">[362]</a> During ISIL's occupation of the site, Palmyra's theatre was used as a place of public executions of their opponents and captives; videos were released by ISIL showing the killing of Syrian prisoners in front of crowds at the theatre.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESaul2015-395">[363]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECarissimo2015-396">[364]</a> On 18 August, Palmyra's retired antiquities chief <a href="/wiki/Khaled_al-Asaad" title="Khaled al-Asaad">Khaled al-Asaad</a> was beheaded by ISIL after being tortured for a month to extract information about the city and its treasures; al-Asaad refused to give any information to his captors.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWithnall2015-397">[365]</a> Syrian government forces supported by <a href="/wiki/Russian_military_intervention_in_the_Syrian_Civil_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian military intervention in the Syrian Civil War">Russian airstrikes</a> recaptured Palmyra on 27 March 2016 after intense fighting against ISIL fighters.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlets201718-398">[366]</a> According to initial reports, the damage to the archaeological site was less extensive than anticipated, with numerous structures still standing.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGambino2016-399">[367]</a> Following the recapture of the city, Russian de-mining teams began clearing mines planted by ISIL prior to their retreat.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMakieh2016-400">[368]</a> Following heavy fighting, ISIL briefly reoccupied the city on 11 December 2016,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams2016-401">[369]</a> prompting an offensive by the Syrian Army which retook the city on 2 March 2017.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDearden2017-402">[370]</a> On 7 December 2024, the city was <a href="/wiki/Palmyra_offensive_(2024)" title="Palmyra offensive (2024)">retaken</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Syrian_Free_Army" title="Syrian Free Army">Syrian Free Army</a>.<a href="#cite_note-403">[371]</a><a href="#cite_note-404">[372]</a><a href="#cite_note-405">[373]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Government">Government</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Palmyra&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Government">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Palmyra_Julius_Aurelius_Zenobius_inscription.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Inscription on a stone pillar" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Palmyra_Julius_Aurelius_Zenobius_inscription.jpg/250px-Palmyra_Julius_Aurelius_Zenobius_inscription.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="340" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Palmyra_Julius_Aurelius_Zenobius_inscription.jpg/330px-Palmyra_Julius_Aurelius_Zenobius_inscription.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Palmyra_Julius_Aurelius_Zenobius_inscription.jpg/500px-Palmyra_Julius_Aurelius_Zenobius_inscription.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1047" data-file-height="1618" /></a><figcaption>Inscription in Greek and Aramaic honoring the <a href="/wiki/Strategos" title="Strategos">strategos</a> Zabdilas, whose Roman name was Julius Aurelius Zenobius, dated 242–243 AD.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMillar2006[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDFLqCQAAQBAJpgPA205_205]-406">[374]</a></figcaption></figure> From the beginning of its history to the first century AD Palmyra was a petty sheikhdom,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBall200956-407">[375]</a> and by the first century BC a Palmyrene identity began to develop.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith_II2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidh5cMho6zFckCpgPA125_125]-408">[376]</a> During the first half of the first century AD, Palmyra incorporated some of the institutions of a Greek city (polis);<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith_II2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidh5cMho6zFckCpgPA122_122]-228">[212]</a> the notion of an existing citizenship first appears in an inscription, dated to AD 10, mentioning the "people of Palmyra".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith_II2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidh5cMho6zFckCpgPA126_126]-409">[377]</a> In AD 74, an inscription mentions the city's boule (senate).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith_II2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidh5cMho6zFckCpgPA122_122]-228">[212]</a> The tribal role in Palmyra is debated; during the first century, four treasurers representing the four tribes seems to have partially controlled the administration but their role became ceremonial by the second century and power rested in the hands of the council.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEdwell2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDQgmOZlsEWcCpgPA48_48]-410">[378]</a> The Palmyrene council consisted of about six hundred members of the local elite (such as the elders or heads of wealthy families or clans),<a href="#cite_note-411">[note 33]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith_II2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidh5cMho6zFckCpgPA127_127]-227">[211]</a> representing the city's four-quarters.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDirven1999[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid_LfXg2r6FT0CpgPA74_74]-85">[79]</a> The council, headed by a president,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith_II2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidh5cMho6zFckCpgPA128_128]-412">[379]</a> managed civic responsibilities;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith_II2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidh5cMho6zFckCpgPA127_127]-227">[211]</a> it supervised public works (including the construction of public buildings), approved expenditures, collected taxes,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith_II2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidh5cMho6zFckCpgPA127_127]-227">[211]</a> and appointed two <a href="/wiki/Eponymous_archon" title="Eponymous archon">archons</a> (lords) each year.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith_II2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidh5cMho6zFckCpgPA128_128]-412">[379]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidwnTOBAAAQBAJpgPA43_43]-413">[380]</a> Palmyra's military was led by <a href="/wiki/Strategos" title="Strategos">strategoi</a> (generals) appointed by the council.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith_II2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidh5cMho6zFckCpgPA129_129]-414">[381]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYoung2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidE5yCAgAAQBAJpgPA145_145]-415">[382]</a> Roman provincial authority set and approved Palmyra's tariff structure,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEdwell2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDQgmOZlsEWcCpgPA54_54]-416">[383]</a> but the provincial interference in local government was kept minimal as the empire sought to ensure the continuous success of Palmyrene trade most beneficial to Rome.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEdwell2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDQgmOZlsEWcCpgPA49_49]-417">[384]</a> An imposition of direct provincial administration would have jeopardized Palmyra's ability to conduct its trading activities in the East, especially in Parthia.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEdwell2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDQgmOZlsEWcCpgPA49_49]-417">[384]</a> With the elevation of Palmyra to a <a href="/wiki/Colonia_(Roman)" title="Colonia (Roman)">colonia</a> around 213–216, the city ceased being subject to Roman provincial governors and taxes.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClineGraham2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid1eRb5h7ATbsCpgPA271_271]-418">[385]</a> Palmyra incorporated Roman institutions into its system while keeping many of its former ones.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith_II2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidh5cMho6zFckCpgPA130_130]-419">[386]</a> The council remained, and the strategos designated one of two annually-elected magistrates.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith_II2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidh5cMho6zFckCpgPA130_130]-419">[386]</a> This <a href="/wiki/Duumviri" title="Duumviri">duumviri</a> implemented the new colonial constitution,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith_II2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidh5cMho6zFckCpgPA130_130]-419">[386]</a> replacing the archons.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidwnTOBAAAQBAJpgPA43_43]-413">[380]</a> Palmyra's political scene changed with the rise of Odaenathus and his family; an inscription dated to 251 describes Odaenathus' son Hairan I as "Ras" (lord) of Palmyra (exarch in the Greek section of the inscription) and another inscription dated to 252 describes Odaenathus with the same title.<a href="#cite_note-420">[note 34]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidecfiAAAAQBAJpgPA44_44]-262">[239]</a> Odaenathus was probably elected by the council as exarch,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBall2002[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid73-JAgAAQBAJpgPA77_77]-263">[240]</a> which was an unusual title in the Roman empire and was not part of the traditional Palmyrene governance institutions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidecfiAAAAQBAJpgPA44_44]-262">[239]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMackay2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid6rLDy6qqi0UCpgPA272_272]-421">[387]</a> Whether Odaenathus' title indicated a military or a priestly position is unknown,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith_II2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidh5cMho6zFckCpgPA131_131]-422">[388]</a> but the military role is more likely.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMennen2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksiduZqQjkb07g8CpgPA224_224]-423">[389]</a> By 257 Odaenathus was known as a <a href="/wiki/Consularis" title="Consularis">consularis</a>, possibly the <a href="/wiki/Legatus" class="mw-redirect" title="Legatus">legatus</a> of the province of Phoenice.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith_II2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidh5cMho6zFckCpgPA131_131]-422">[388]</a> In 258 Odaenathus began extending his political influence, taking advantage of regional instability caused by Sasanian aggression;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith_II2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidh5cMho6zFckCpgPA131_131]-422">[388]</a> this culminated in the Battle of Edessa,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith_II2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidh5cMho6zFckCpgPA177_177]-264">[241]</a> Odaenathus' royal elevation and mobilization of troops, which made Palmyra a kingdom.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith_II2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidh5cMho6zFckCpgPA177_177]-264">[241]</a> The monarchy continued most civic institutions,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith_II2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidh5cMho6zFckCpgPA131_131]-422">[388]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESivertsev2002[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidOfWUkVoHP7YCpgPA72_72]-424">[390]</a> but the duumviri and the council were no longer attested after 264; Odaenathus appointed a governor for the city.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHartmann201664-425">[391]</a> In the absence of the monarch, the city was administered by a <a href="/wiki/Viceroy" title="Viceroy">viceroy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECooke1903[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKwsIAwAAQBAJpgPA286_286]-426">[392]</a> Although governors of the eastern Roman provinces under Odaenathus' control were still appointed by Rome, the king had overall authority.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidwnTOBAAAQBAJpgPA75_75]-427">[393]</a> During Zenobia's rebellion, governors were appointed by the queen.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidecfiAAAAQBAJpgPA115_115]-428">[394]</a> Not all Palmyrenes accepted the dominion of the royal family; a senator, Septimius Haddudan, appears in a later Palmyrene inscription as aiding Aurelian's armies during the 273 rebellion.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEButcher2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidYJPn3-rRjC0CpgPA60_60]-429">[395]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA81_81]-430">[396]</a> After the Roman destruction of the city, Palmyra was ruled directly by Rome,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShahîd1984[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidW4H97SA6pMACpgPA15_15]-431">[397]</a> and then by a succession of other rulers, including the Burids and Ayyubids,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGibb2002[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid5ds1vuFg8j0CpgPA178_178]-344">[315]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHumphreys1977[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidJfXl5kvabhoCpgPA51_51]-352">[323]</a> and subordinate Bedouin chiefs—primarily the Fadl family, who governed for the Mamluks.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIrwin2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidaxNbLoiLLgMCpgPA256_256]-432">[398]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Military">Military</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Palmyra&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Military">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:PALMYRA_Tempio_di_Baal_particolare_del_fregio_con_sfilata_degli_dei_-_GAR_-_6-057.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Stone relief depicting warriors" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/PALMYRA_Tempio_di_Baal_particolare_del_fregio_con_sfilata_degli_dei_-_GAR_-_6-057.jpg/250px-PALMYRA_Tempio_di_Baal_particolare_del_fregio_con_sfilata_degli_dei_-_GAR_-_6-057.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/PALMYRA_Tempio_di_Baal_particolare_del_fregio_con_sfilata_degli_dei_-_GAR_-_6-057.jpg/330px-PALMYRA_Tempio_di_Baal_particolare_del_fregio_con_sfilata_degli_dei_-_GAR_-_6-057.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/PALMYRA_Tempio_di_Baal_particolare_del_fregio_con_sfilata_degli_dei_-_GAR_-_6-057.jpg/500px-PALMYRA_Tempio_di_Baal_particolare_del_fregio_con_sfilata_degli_dei_-_GAR_-_6-057.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3962" data-file-height="2614" /></a><figcaption>Relief in the Temple of Bel depicting Palmyrene war gods</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Syria_-_Palmyra_-_Museum_-_14753655956.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Syria_-_Palmyra_-_Museum_-_14753655956.jpg/220px-Syria_-_Palmyra_-_Museum_-_14753655956.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Syria_-_Palmyra_-_Museum_-_14753655956.jpg/330px-Syria_-_Palmyra_-_Museum_-_14753655956.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Syria_-_Palmyra_-_Museum_-_14753655956.jpg/440px-Syria_-_Palmyra_-_Museum_-_14753655956.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3648" data-file-height="2736" /></a><figcaption>Palmyrene horseman, in a hunting scene.</figcaption></figure> Due to its military character and efficiency in battle, Palmyra was described by <a href="/wiki/Irfan_Shah%C3%AEd" title="Irfan Shahîd">Irfan Shahîd</a> as the "<a href="/wiki/Sparta" title="Sparta">Sparta</a> among the cities of the Orient, Arab and other, and even its gods were represented dressed in military uniforms."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShahîd1984[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidW4H97SA6pMACpgPA38_38]-433">[399]</a> Palmyra's army protected the city and its economy, helping extend Palmyrene authority beyond the city walls and protecting the countryside's desert trade routes.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith_II2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidh5cMho6zFckCpgPA143_143]-434">[400]</a> The city had a substantial military;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBryce2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidXno9AgAAQBAJpgPA284_284]-223">[207]</a> Zabdibel commanded a force of 10,000 in the third century BC,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBryce2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidXno9AgAAQBAJpgPA278_278]-46">[44]</a> and Zenobia led an army of 70,000 in the Battle of Emesa.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHartmann2001[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidBdcHK8Ll1jMCpgPA371_371]-435">[401]</a> Soldiers were recruited from the city and its territories, spanning several thousand square kilometers from the outskirts of Homs to the Euphrates valley.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBryce2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidXno9AgAAQBAJpgPA284_284]-223">[207]</a> Non-Palmyrene soldiers were also recruited; a <a href="/wiki/Nabataeans" title="Nabataeans">Nabatean</a> cavalryman is recorded in 132 as serving in a Palmyrene unit stationed at <a href="/wiki/Anah" title="Anah">Anah</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYoung2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidE5yCAgAAQBAJpgPA124_124]-19">[18]</a> Palmyra's recruiting system is unknown; the city might have selected and equipped the troops and the strategoi led, trained and disciplined them.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidecfiAAAAQBAJpgPA26_26]-436">[402]</a> The strategoi were appointed by the council with the approval of Rome.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYoung2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidE5yCAgAAQBAJpgPA145_145]-415">[382]</a> The royal army in the mid 3rd century AD was under the leadership of the monarch aided by generals,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPotter2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidg4ZmqsyC5kECpgPA162_162]-437">[403]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStoneman1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8kLFfE1qPhICpgPA122_122]-438">[404]</a> and was modeled on the <a href="/wiki/Military_of_the_Sasanian_Empire" title="Military of the Sasanian Empire">Sasanians</a> in arms and tactics.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBall2002[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid73-JAgAAQBAJpgPA86_86]-106">[97]</a> The Palmyrenes were noted archers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBryce2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidXno9AgAAQBAJpgPA289_289]-439">[405]</a> They used infantry while a heavily armored cavalry (<a href="/wiki/Clibanarii" title="Clibanarii">clibanarii</a>) constituted the main attacking force.<a href="#cite_note-441">[note 35]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidecfiAAAAQBAJpgPA24_24]-442">[407]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDixonSouthern2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidik9S7vNkQzkCpgPA76_76]-443">[408]</a> Palmyra's infantry was armed with swords, lances and small round shields;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidecfiAAAAQBAJpgPA25_25]-239">[219]</a> the clibanarii were fully armored (including their horses), and used heavy spears (<a href="/wiki/Kontos_(weapon)" title="Kontos (weapon)">kontos</a>) 3.65 metres (12.0 ft) long without shields.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDixonSouthern2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidik9S7vNkQzkCpgPA76_76]-443">[408]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFields200818-444">[409]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Relations_with_Rome">Relations with Rome</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Palmyra&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Relations with Rome">edit</a>]</div> Citing the Palmyrenes' combat skills in large, sparsely populated areas, the Romans formed a Palmyrene <a href="/wiki/Auxilia" title="Auxilia">auxilia</a> to serve in the <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Roman_army" title="Imperial Roman army">Imperial Roman army</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidecfiAAAAQBAJpgPA25_25]-239">[219]</a> Vespasian reportedly had 8,000 Palmyrene archers in Judea,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidecfiAAAAQBAJpgPA25_25]-239">[219]</a> and Trajan established the first Palmyrene Auxilia in 116 (a <a href="/wiki/Camel_cavalry" title="Camel cavalry">camel cavalry</a> unit, Ala I Ulpia dromedariorum Palmyrenorum).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidecfiAAAAQBAJpgPA25_25]-239">[219]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStoneman1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8kLFfE1qPhICpgPA27_27]-445">[410]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWheeler2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid1D612o_X2VYCpgPA258_258]-446">[411]</a> Palmyrene units were deployed throughout the Roman Empire,<a href="#cite_note-448">[note 36]</a> serving in <a href="/wiki/Roman_Dacia" title="Roman Dacia">Dacia</a> late in Hadrian's reign,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEdwell2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDQgmOZlsEWcCpgPA52_52]-449">[413]</a> and at <a href="/wiki/El_Kantara" title="El Kantara">El Kantara</a> in <a href="/wiki/Numidia" title="Numidia">Numidia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Moesia" title="Moesia">Moesia</a> under <a href="/wiki/Antoninus_Pius" title="Antoninus Pius">Antoninus Pius</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEdwell2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDQgmOZlsEWcCpgPA52_52]-449">[413]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDirven1999[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid_LfXg2r6FT0CpgPA181_181]-450">[414]</a> During the late second century Rome formed the <a href="/wiki/Cohors_XX_Palmyrenorum" title="Cohors XX Palmyrenorum">Cohors XX Palmyrenorum</a>, which was stationed in Dura-Europos.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEdwell2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDQgmOZlsEWcCpgPA139_139]-451">[415]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Religion">Religion</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Palmyra&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Religion">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Relief_of_the_divine_trinity-AO_19801-IMG_4334-gradient.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Relief of three human-appearing Palmyrene gods" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Relief_of_the_divine_trinity-AO_19801-IMG_4334-gradient.jpg/250px-Relief_of_the_divine_trinity-AO_19801-IMG_4334-gradient.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Relief_of_the_divine_trinity-AO_19801-IMG_4334-gradient.jpg/330px-Relief_of_the_divine_trinity-AO_19801-IMG_4334-gradient.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Relief_of_the_divine_trinity-AO_19801-IMG_4334-gradient.jpg/500px-Relief_of_the_divine_trinity-AO_19801-IMG_4334-gradient.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6000" data-file-height="4000" /></a><figcaption>Baalshamin (center), Aglibol (left) and Malakbel (right)</figcaption></figure> Palmyra's gods were primarily part of the <a href="/wiki/Canaanite_religion" title="Canaanite religion">northwestern Semitic</a> <a href="/wiki/Pantheon_(religion)" title="Pantheon (religion)">pantheon</a>, with the addition of gods from the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Mesopotamian_religion" title="Ancient Mesopotamian religion">Mesopotamian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Arabian_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabian mythology">Arab</a> pantheons.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELevick2007[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidBjkfKsCttrkCpgPA15_15]-452">[416]</a> The city's chief pre-Hellenistic deity was called Bol,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETeixidor1979[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidTccUAAAAIAAJpgPR1_1]-453">[417]</a> an abbreviation of <a href="/wiki/Baal" title="Baal">Baal</a> (a northwestern Semitic honorific).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrijvers1980[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid69YUAAAAIAAJpgPA46_46]-454">[418]</a> The Babylonian cult of <a href="/wiki/Bel-Marduk" class="mw-redirect" title="Bel-Marduk">Bel-Marduk</a> influenced the Palmyrene religion and by 217 BC the chief deity's name was changed to <a href="/wiki/Bel_(mythology)" title="Bel (mythology)">Bel</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETeixidor1979[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidTccUAAAAIAAJpgPR1_1]-453">[417]</a> This did not indicate the replacing of the northwestern Semitic Bol with a Mesopotamian deity, but was a mere change in the name.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrijvers1980[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid69YUAAAAIAAJpgPA46_46]-454">[418]</a> Second in importance, after the supreme deity,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWaardenburg2002[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidrMmsS7tr1AECpgPA33_33]-455">[419]</a> were over sixty ancestral gods of the Palmyrene clans.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWaardenburg2002[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidrMmsS7tr1AECpgPA33_33]-455">[419]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDirven199883-456">[420]</a> Palmyra had unique deities,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEButcher2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidYJPn3-rRjC0CpgPA345_345]-457">[421]</a> such as the god of justice and Efqa's guardian <a href="/wiki/Yarhibol" title="Yarhibol">Yarhibol</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith_II2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidh5cMho6zFckCpgPA64_64]-458">[422]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith_II2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidh5cMho6zFckCpgPA66_66]-459">[423]</a> the sun god <a href="/wiki/Malakbel" title="Malakbel">Malakbel</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETeixidor1979[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidTccUAAAAIAAJpgPR52_52]-460">[424]</a> and the moon god <a href="/wiki/Aglibol" title="Aglibol">Aglibol</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETeixidor1979[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidTccUAAAAIAAJpgPR52_52]-460">[424]</a> Palmyrenes worshiped regional deities, including the greater <a href="/wiki/Levant" title="Levant">Levantine</a> gods <a href="/wiki/Astarte" title="Astarte">Astarte</a>, <a href="/wiki/Baal-hamon" class="mw-redirect" title="Baal-hamon">Baal-hamon</a>, Baalshamin and <a href="/wiki/Atargatis" title="Atargatis">Atargatis</a>;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEButcher2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidYJPn3-rRjC0CpgPA345_345]-457">[421]</a> the Babylonian gods Nabu and <a href="/wiki/Nergal" title="Nergal">Nergal</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEButcher2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidYJPn3-rRjC0CpgPA345_345]-457">[421]</a> and the Arab <a href="/wiki/Azizos" title="Azizos">Azizos</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arsu" title="Arsu">Arsu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shamash" title="Shamash">Šams</a> and Al-lāt.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEButcher2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidYJPn3-rRjC0CpgPA345_345]-457">[421]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith_II2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidh5cMho6zFckCpgPA64_64]-458">[422]</a> The deities worshiped in the countryside were depicted as camel or horse riders and bore Arab names.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrijvers1976[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidmuQ3AAAAIAAJpgPA4_4]-386">[354]</a> The nature of those deities is uncertain as only names are known, most importantly <a href="/wiki/Abgal_(god)" title="Abgal (god)">Abgal</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrijvers1976[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidmuQ3AAAAIAAJpgPA21_21]-461">[425]</a> The Palmyrene pantheon included <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ginnaye&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ginnaye (page does not exist)">ginnaye</a> (some were given the designation "<a href="/wiki/Gad_(deity)" title="Gad (deity)">Gad</a>"),<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEColledge1986[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidlSZfkzVk3GMCpgPA6_6]-462">[426]</a> a group of lesser deities popular in the countryside,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWaardenburg1984[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidmQnv_Wh3gCwCpgPA273_273]-463">[427]</a> who were similar to the Arab <a href="/wiki/Jinn" title="Jinn">jinn</a> and the Roman <a href="/wiki/Genius_(mythology)" title="Genius (mythology)">genius</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETeixidor1979[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidTccUAAAAIAAJpgPR77_77]-464">[428]</a> Ginnaye were believed to have the appearance and behavior of humans, similar to Arab jinn.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETeixidor1979[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidTccUAAAAIAAJpgPR77_77]-464">[428]</a> Unlike jinn, however, the ginnaye could not <a href="/wiki/Demonic_possession" class="mw-redirect" title="Demonic possession">possess</a> or injure humans.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETeixidor1979[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidTccUAAAAIAAJpgPR77_77]-464">[428]</a> Their role was similar to the Roman genius: <a href="/wiki/Tutelary_deity" title="Tutelary deity">tutelary deities</a> who guarded individuals and their caravans, cattle and villages.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWaardenburg2002[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidrMmsS7tr1AECpgPA33_33]-455">[419]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETeixidor1979[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidTccUAAAAIAAJpgPR77_77]-464">[428]</a> Although the Palmyrenes worshiped their deities as individuals, some were associated with other gods.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDirven1999[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid_LfXg2r6FT0CpgPA159_159]-465">[429]</a> Bel had <a href="/w/index.php?title=Astarte-Belti&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Astarte-Belti (page does not exist)">Astarte-Belti</a> as his consort, and formed a <a href="/wiki/Triple_deity" title="Triple deity">triple deity</a> with Aglibol and Yarhibol (who became a sun god in his association with Bel).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith_II2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidh5cMho6zFckCpgPA64_64]-458">[422]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrijvers1976[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidmuQ3AAAAIAAJpgPA12_12]-466">[430]</a> Malakbel was part of many associations,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDirven1999[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid_LfXg2r6FT0CpgPA159_159]-465">[429]</a> pairing with <a href="/w/index.php?title=Gad_Taimi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Gad Taimi (page does not exist)">Gad Taimi</a> and Aglibol,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDirven1999[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid_LfXg2r6FT0CpgPA160_160]-467">[431]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDirven1999[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid_LfXg2r6FT0CpgPA160_160]-467">[431]</a> and forming a triple deity with Baalshamin and Aglibol.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDirven1999[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid_LfXg2r6FT0CpgPA161_161]-468">[432]</a> Palmyra hosted an <a href="/wiki/Akitu" title="Akitu">Akitu</a> (spring festival) each <a href="/wiki/Nisan" title="Nisan">Nisan</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDirven1999[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid_LfXg2r6FT0CpgPA146_146],_[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid_LfXg2r6FT0CpgPA147_147]-469">[433]</a> Each of the city's four-quarters had a sanctuary for a deity considered ancestral to the resident tribe; Malakbel and Aglibol's sanctuary was in the Komare quarter.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETeixidor1979[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidTccUAAAAIAAJpgPR36_36]-470">[434]</a> The Baalshamin sanctuary was in the Ma'zin quarter, the Arsu sanctuary in the Mattabol quarter,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETeixidor1979[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidTccUAAAAIAAJpgPR36_36]-470">[434]</a> and the Atargatis sanctuary in the fourth tribe's quarter.<a href="#cite_note-471">[note 37]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDirven1999[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid_LfXg2r6FT0CpgPA161_161]-468">[432]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:0_Autel_d%C3%A9di%C3%A9_au_dieu_Malakb%C3%AAl_et_aux_dieux_de_Palmyra_-_Musei_Capitolini_(1).JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/0_Autel_d%C3%A9di%C3%A9_au_dieu_Malakb%C3%AAl_et_aux_dieux_de_Palmyra_-_Musei_Capitolini_%281%29.JPG/220px-0_Autel_d%C3%A9di%C3%A9_au_dieu_Malakb%C3%AAl_et_aux_dieux_de_Palmyra_-_Musei_Capitolini_%281%29.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="330" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/0_Autel_d%C3%A9di%C3%A9_au_dieu_Malakb%C3%AAl_et_aux_dieux_de_Palmyra_-_Musei_Capitolini_%281%29.JPG/330px-0_Autel_d%C3%A9di%C3%A9_au_dieu_Malakb%C3%AAl_et_aux_dieux_de_Palmyra_-_Musei_Capitolini_%281%29.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/0_Autel_d%C3%A9di%C3%A9_au_dieu_Malakb%C3%AAl_et_aux_dieux_de_Palmyra_-_Musei_Capitolini_%281%29.JPG/440px-0_Autel_d%C3%A9di%C3%A9_au_dieu_Malakb%C3%AAl_et_aux_dieux_de_Palmyra_-_Musei_Capitolini_%281%29.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2509" data-file-height="3763" /></a><figcaption>An Altar found in <a href="/wiki/Trastevere" title="Trastevere">Trastevere</a> dedicated to Malakbel bearing the epithet Sol Sanctissimus</figcaption></figure> The priests of Palmyra were selected from the city's leading families,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaizer2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkTxg2_vRM1YCpgPA179_179]-472">[435]</a> and are recognized in busts through their headdresses which have the shape of a <a href="/wiki/Polos" title="Polos">polos</a> adorned with laurel wreath or other tree made of bronze among other elements.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrijvers1976[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidmuQ3AAAAIAAJpgPA22_22]-473">[436]</a> The high priest of Bel's temple was the highest religious authority and headed the clergy of priests who were organized into collegia each headed by a higher priest.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWright2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksiduvtebmqZZDYCpgPA296_296]-474">[437]</a> The personnel of Efqa spring's sanctuary dedicated to Yarhibol belonged to a special class of priests as they were oracles.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWright2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksiduvtebmqZZDYCpgPA296_296]-474">[437]</a> Palmyra's paganism was replaced with Christianity as the religion spread across the Roman Empire, and a bishop was reported in the city by 325.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStoneman1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8kLFfE1qPhICpgPA190_190]-322">[293]</a> Although most temples became churches, the Temple of Al-lāt was destroyed in 385 at the order of <a href="/wiki/Maternus_Cynegius" title="Maternus Cynegius">Maternus Cynegius</a> (the <a href="/wiki/Praetorian_prefecture_of_the_East" title="Praetorian prefecture of the East">eastern praetorian prefect</a>).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStoneman1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8kLFfE1qPhICpgPA190_190]-322">[293]</a> After the Muslim conquest in 634 <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a> gradually replaced Christianity, and the last known bishop of Palmyra was consecrated after 818.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShahîd1995[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidBEvEV9OVzacCpgPA439_439]-475">[438]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Malakbel_and_the_Roman_Sol_Invictus">Malakbel and the Roman Sol Invictus</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Palmyra&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Malakbel and the Roman Sol Invictus">edit</a>]</div> In 274, following his victory over Palmyra, Aurelian dedicated a large temple of <a href="/wiki/Sol_Invictus" title="Sol Invictus">Sol Invictus</a> in Rome;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHijmans2009484-476">[439]</a> most scholars consider Aurelian's Sol Invictus to be of Syrian origin,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHijmans2009485-477">[440]</a> either a continuation of emperor <a href="/wiki/Elagabalus" title="Elagabalus">Elagabalus</a> cult of <a href="/wiki/Elagabalus_(deity)" title="Elagabalus (deity)">Sol Invictus Elagabalus</a>, or Malakbel of Palmyra.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHalsberghe1972[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8tIUAAAAIAAJpgPA156_156]-478">[441]</a> The Palmyrene deity was commonly identified with the Roman god <a href="/wiki/Sol_(Roman_mythology)" title="Sol (Roman mythology)">Sol</a> and he had a temple dedicated for him on the right bank of the <a href="/wiki/Tiber" title="Tiber">Tiber</a> since the second century.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA196_196]-479">[442]</a> Also, he bore the epithet Invictus and was known with the name Sol "Sanctissimus", the latter was an epithet Aurelian bore on an inscription from <a href="/wiki/Capena" title="Capena">Capena</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA196_196]-479">[442]</a> The position of the Palmyrene deity as Aurelian's Sol Invictus is inferred from a passage by <a href="/wiki/Zosimus_(historian)" title="Zosimus (historian)">Zosimus</a> reading: "and the magnificent temple of the sun he (i.e. Aurelian) embellished with votive gifts from Palmyra, setting up statues of <a href="/wiki/Helios" title="Helios">Helios</a> and Bel".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDirven1999[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid_LfXg2r6FT0CpgPA174_174]-480">[443]</a> Three deities from Palmyra exemplified solar features: Malakbel, Yarhibol and Šams, hence the identification of the Palmyrene Helios appearing in Zosimus' work with Malakbel.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDirven1999[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid_LfXg2r6FT0CpgPA174_174]-480">[443]</a> Some scholars criticize the notion of Malakbel's identification with Sol Invictus; according to <a href="/w/index.php?title=Gaston_Halsberghe&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Gaston Halsberghe (page does not exist)">Gaston Halsberghe</a>, the cult of Malakbel was too local for it to become an imperial Roman god and Aurelian's restoration of Bel's temple and sacrifices dedicated to Malakbel were a sign of his attachment to the sun god in general and his respect to the many ways in which the deity was worshiped.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHalsberghe1972[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8tIUAAAAIAAJpgPA157_157]-481">[444]</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Richard_Stoneman&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Richard Stoneman (page does not exist)">Richard Stoneman</a> suggested another approach in which Aurelian simply borrowed the imagery of Malakbel to enhance his own solar deity.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStoneman1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8kLFfE1qPhICpgPA185_185]-482">[445]</a> The relation between Malakbel and Sol Invictus can not be confirmed and will probably remain unresolved.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA196_196]-479">[442]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Economy">Economy</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Palmyra&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Economy">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Canalizations_of_Zenobia" title="Canalizations of Zenobia">Canalizations of Zenobia</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Agora_of_Palmyra.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Ruins of two stone walls, with doorways" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Agora_of_Palmyra.jpg/220px-Agora_of_Palmyra.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Agora_of_Palmyra.jpg/330px-Agora_of_Palmyra.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Agora_of_Palmyra.jpg/440px-Agora_of_Palmyra.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3456" data-file-height="2592" /></a><figcaption>Palmyra's Agora; the two front entrances lead to the interior, the city's marketplace</figcaption></figure> Palmyra's economy before and at the beginning of the Roman period was based on agriculture, pastoralism, and trade;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYoung2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidE5yCAgAAQBAJpgPA124_124]-19">[18]</a> the city served as a rest station for the caravans which sporadically crossed the desert.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBall2002[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid73-JAgAAQBAJpgPA74_74]-214">[200]</a> By the end of the first century BC, the city had a mixed economy based on agriculture, pastoralism, taxation,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith_II2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidh5cMho6zFckCpgPA51_51]-483">[446]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStoneman1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8kLFfE1qPhICpgPA57_57]-484">[447]</a> and, most importantly, the caravan trade.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoward2012[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid6QPWXrCCzBICpgPA158_158]-485">[448]</a> Taxation was an important source of revenue for the Palmyrene government.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStoneman1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8kLFfE1qPhICpgPA57_57]-484">[447]</a> Caravaneers paid taxes in the building known as the Tariff Court,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBryce2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidXno9AgAAQBAJpgPA282_282]-81">[76]</a> where a tax law dating to AD 137 was exhibited.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGawlikowski2011420-145">[133]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERostovtzeff.1932[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidr68SAAAAIAAJpgPA74_74]-486">[449]</a> The law regulated the tariffs paid by the merchants for goods sold at the internal market or exported from the city.<a href="#cite_note-488">[note 38]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBryce2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidXno9AgAAQBAJpgPA282_282]-81">[76]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith_II2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidh5cMho6zFckCpgPA70_70]-489">[451]</a> The classicist <a href="/w/index.php?title=Andrew_M._Smith_II&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Andrew M. Smith II (page does not exist)">Andrew M. Smith II</a> suggested that most land in Palmyra was owned by the city, which collected grazing taxes.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith_II2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidh5cMho6zFckCpgPA51_51]-483">[446]</a> The oasis had about 1,000 hectares (2,500 acres) of irrigable land,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMétral2000[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidiwxeHaKUGFMCpgPA130_130]-490">[452]</a> which surrounded the city.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidecfiAAAAQBAJpgPA27_27]-491">[453]</a> The Palmyrenes constructed an extensive irrigation system in the northern mountains that consisted of reservoirs and channels to capture and store the occasional rainfall.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeyer2013273-492">[454]</a> The most notable irrigation work is <a href="/wiki/Harbaqa_Dam" title="Harbaqa Dam">Harbaqa Dam</a> which was constructed in the late first century AD;<a href="#cite_note-493">[note 39]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEButcher2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidYJPn3-rRjC0CpgPA163_163]-494">[455]</a> it is located 48 km (30 mi) southwest of the city and can collect 140,000 cubic metres (4,900,000 cu ft) of water.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoffmann-Salz2015[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidHvApCgAAQBAJpgPA242_242]-495">[456]</a> <a href="/wiki/Pistacia_palaestina" class="mw-redirect" title="Pistacia palaestina">Terebinth trees</a> in the hinterland were an important source of charcoal, resin and oil; although evidence is lacking, it is possible that olive trees were also planted, and dairy products were produced in the villages;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeyer2013275-225">[209]</a> it is also apparent that barley was cultivated.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeyer2013274-496">[457]</a> However, agriculture could not support the population and food was imported.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidecfiAAAAQBAJpgPA27_27]-491">[453]</a> After Palmyra's destruction in 273, it became a market for villagers and nomads from the surrounding area.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStoneman1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8kLFfE1qPhICpgPA189_189]-497">[458]</a> The city regained some of its prosperity during the Umayyad era, indicated by the discovery of a large Umayyad souq in the colonnaded street.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy2006[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidXdFqgSBTYeYCpgPA54-IA30_296]-498">[459]</a> Palmyra was a minor trading center until its destruction in 1400;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERobinson194610-499">[460]</a> according to <a href="/wiki/Sharaf_ad-Din_Ali_Yazdi" class="mw-redirect" title="Sharaf ad-Din Ali Yazdi">Sharaf ad-Din Ali Yazdi</a>, Timur's men took 200,000 sheep,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIbn_Arabshah1986296-500">[461]</a> and the city was reduced into a settlement on the desert border whose inhabitants herded and cultivated small plots for vegetables and corn.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAddison1838[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid2Zy3NgMGcu0CpgPA333_333]-501">[462]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Commerce">Commerce</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Palmyra&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: Commerce">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Silk_Road" title="Silk Road">Silk Road</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Palmyra_caravan.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Palmyra_caravan.jpg/220px-Palmyra_caravan.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="141" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Palmyra_caravan.jpg/330px-Palmyra_caravan.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Palmyra_caravan.jpg/440px-Palmyra_caravan.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3590" data-file-height="2295" /></a><figcaption>Palmyra caravan. Palmyra Archaeological Museum</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Palmyra_trade.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Map of the Silk Road, from China to Europe" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Palmyra_trade.png/220px-Palmyra_trade.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="132" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Palmyra_trade.png/330px-Palmyra_trade.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Palmyra_trade.png/440px-Palmyra_trade.png 2x" data-file-width="1194" data-file-height="716" /></a><figcaption>The Silk Road</figcaption></figure> If the Laghman II inscription in Afghanistan is referring to Palmyra, then the city's role in Central Asian overland trade was prominent as early as the third century BC.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaizer2017[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidC7Q1DwAAQBAJpgPA34_34]-206">[194]</a> During the first centuries AD, Palmyra's main trade route ran east to the Euphrates where it connected at the city of <a href="/wiki/H%C4%ABt" class="mw-redirect" title="Hīt">Hīt</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLaughlin2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidnTEdCgAAQBAJpgPA97_97]-502">[463]</a> The route then ran south along the river toward the port of <a href="/wiki/Charax_Spasinu" title="Charax Spasinu">Charax Spasinu</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Persian_Gulf" title="Persian Gulf">Persian Gulf</a>, where Palmyrene ships traveled back and forth to India.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYoung2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidE5yCAgAAQBAJpgPA133_133]-503">[464]</a> Goods were imported from India, China and <a href="/wiki/Transoxiana" title="Transoxiana">Transoxiana</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBryce2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidXno9AgAAQBAJpgPA283_283]-504">[465]</a> and exported west to Emesa (or Antioch) then the Mediterranean ports,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStoneman1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8kLFfE1qPhICpgPA19_19]-505">[466]</a> from which they were distributed throughout the Roman Empire.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYoung2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidE5yCAgAAQBAJpgPA133_133]-503">[464]</a> In addition to the usual route some Palmyrene merchants used the <a href="/wiki/Red_Sea#Ancient_era" title="Red Sea">Red Sea</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBryce2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidXno9AgAAQBAJpgPA283_283]-504">[465]</a> probably as a result of the <a href="/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Parthian_Wars" title="Roman–Parthian Wars">Roman–Parthian Wars</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA111_111]-506">[467]</a> Goods were carried overland from the seaports to a <a href="/wiki/Nile" title="Nile">Nile</a> port, and then taken to the Egyptian Mediterranean ports for export.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA111_111]-506">[467]</a> Inscriptions attesting a Palmyrene presence in Egypt date to the reign of Hadrian.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHourani1995[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidZDh2KKSlQg4CpgPA34_34]-507">[468]</a> Since Palmyra was not on the main trading route (which followed the Euphrates),<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYoung2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidE5yCAgAAQBAJpgPA124_124]-19">[18]</a> the Palmyrenes secured the desert route passing their city.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYoung2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidE5yCAgAAQBAJpgPA124_124]-19">[18]</a> They connected it to the Euphrates valley, providing water and shelter.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYoung2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidE5yCAgAAQBAJpgPA124_124]-19">[18]</a> The Palmyrene route connected the Silk Road with the Mediterranean,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoffmann-Salz2015[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidjfApCgAAQBAJpgPA234_234]-508">[469]</a> and was used almost exclusively by the city's merchants,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYoung2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidE5yCAgAAQBAJpgPA124_124]-19">[18]</a> who maintained a presence in many cities, including Dura-Europos in 33 BC,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEdwell2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDQgmOZlsEWcCpgPA36_36]-241">[221]</a> <a href="/wiki/Babylon" title="Babylon">Babylon</a> by AD 19, <a href="/wiki/Seleucia" title="Seleucia">Seleucia</a> by AD 24,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDirven1999[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid_LfXg2r6FT0CpgPA20_20]-233">[215]</a> <a href="/wiki/Dendera" title="Dendera">Dendera</a>, <a href="/wiki/Qift" title="Qift">Coptos</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYoung2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidE5yCAgAAQBAJpgPA137_137]-509">[470]</a> Bahrain, the <a href="/wiki/Indus_River_Delta" title="Indus River Delta">Indus River Delta</a>, <a href="/wiki/Merv" title="Merv">Merv</a> and Rome.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBall2002[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid73-JAgAAQBAJpgPA76_76]-510">[471]</a> The caravan trade depended on patrons and merchants.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoward2012[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid6QPWXrCCzBICpgPA159_159]-511">[472]</a> Patrons owned the land on which the caravan animals were raised, providing animals and guards for the merchants.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoward2012[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid6QPWXrCCzBICpgPA159_159]-511">[472]</a> The lands were located in the numerous villages of the Palmyrene countryside.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrijvers1976[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidmuQ3AAAAIAAJpgPA4_4]-386">[354]</a> Although merchants used the patrons to conduct business, their roles often overlapped and a patron would sometimes lead a caravan.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoward2012[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid6QPWXrCCzBICpgPA159_159]-511">[472]</a> Commerce made Palmyra and its merchants among the wealthiest in the region.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoward2012[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid6QPWXrCCzBICpgPA158_158]-485">[448]</a> Some caravans were financed by a single merchant,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBryce2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidXno9AgAAQBAJpgPA282_282]-81">[76]</a> such as Male' Agrippa (who financed Hadrian's visit in 129 and the 139 rebuilding of the Temple of Bel).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBryce2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidXno9AgAAQBAJpgPA279_279]-247">[225]</a> The primary income-generating trade good was silk, which was exported from the East to the West.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStoneman1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8kLFfE1qPhICpgPA59_59]-512">[473]</a> Other exported goods included jade, muslin, spices, ebony, ivory and precious stones.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBall2002[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid73-JAgAAQBAJpgPA76_76]-510">[471]</a> For its domestic market Palmyra imported a variety of goods including slaves, prostitutes, olive oil, dyed goods, myrrh and perfume.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStoneman1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8kLFfE1qPhICpgPA58_58]-487">[450]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBall2002[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid73-JAgAAQBAJpgPA76_76]-510">[471]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Research_and_excavations">Research and excavations</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Palmyra&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: Research and excavations">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti" /><div class="thumb tmulti tleft"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:204px;max-width:204px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Palmyra_01.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A road of colonnades" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Palmyra_01.jpg/200px-Palmyra_01.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="149" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Palmyra_01.jpg/300px-Palmyra_01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Palmyra_01.jpg/400px-Palmyra_01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3316" data-file-height="2474" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">The Colonnade</div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Tetrapylon_Palmyra.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Four groups of four columns each" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Tetrapylon_Palmyra.jpg/200px-Tetrapylon_Palmyra.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="127" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Tetrapylon_Palmyra.jpg/300px-Tetrapylon_Palmyra.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Tetrapylon_Palmyra.jpg/400px-Tetrapylon_Palmyra.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2200" data-file-height="1400" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">The Tetrapylon (destroyed in 2017)</div></div></div></div></div> Palmyra's first scholarly description appeared in a 1695 paper in the Philosophical Transactions of the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Society" title="Royal Society">Royal Society</a> by <a href="/wiki/William_Hallifax" title="William Hallifax">William Hallifax</a> followed by a 1696 book by <a href="/wiki/Abednego_Seller" title="Abednego Seller">Abednego Seller</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHallifax1695-513">[474]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETerpakBonfitto2017-514">[475]</a> In 1751, an expedition led by <a href="/wiki/Robert_Wood_(antiquarian)" title="Robert Wood (antiquarian)">Robert Wood</a> and <a href="/wiki/James_Dawkins_(antiquarian)" title="James Dawkins (antiquarian)">James Dawkins</a> studied Palmyra's architecture.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStoneman1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8kLFfE1qPhICpgPA7_7]-515">[476]</a> French artist and architect <a href="/wiki/Louis-Fran%C3%A7ois_Cassas" title="Louis-François Cassas">Louis-François Cassas</a> conducted an extensive survey of the city's monuments in 1785, publishing over a hundred drawings of Palmyra's civic buildings and tombs.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETerpakBonfitto2017-514">[475]</a> Palmyra was photographed for the first time in 1864 by Louis Vignes.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETerpakBonfitto2017-514">[475]</a> In 1882, the <a href="/wiki/Palmyra_Tariff" title="Palmyra Tariff">Palmyra Tariff</a>, an inscribed stone slab from AD 137 in Greek and Palmyrene detailing import and export taxation, was discovered by prince <a href="/wiki/Semyon_Semyonovich_Abamelik-Lazarev" class="mw-redirect" title="Semyon Semyonovich Abamelik-Lazarev">Semyon Semyonovich Abamelik-Lazarev</a> in the Tariff Court.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGawlikowski2011415-516">[477]</a> It has been described by the historian <a href="/wiki/John_F._Matthews" class="mw-redirect" title="John F. Matthews">John F. Matthews</a> as "one of the most important single items of evidence for the economic life of any part of the Roman Empire".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHealey2009[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidOp8VDAAAQBAJpgPA164_164]-517">[478]</a> In 1901, the slab was gifted by the Ottoman Sultan <a href="/wiki/Abdul_Hamid_II" title="Abdul Hamid II">Abdul Hamid II</a> to the Russian Tsar and is now in the <a href="/wiki/Hermitage_Museum" title="Hermitage Museum">Hermitage Museum</a> in <a href="/wiki/Saint_Petersburg" title="Saint Petersburg">Saint Petersburg</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGawlikowski2011416-518">[479]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kazimierz_Micha%C5%82owski,_Palmyra.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Kazimierz_Micha%C5%82owski%2C_Palmyra.jpg/250px-Kazimierz_Micha%C5%82owski%2C_Palmyra.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="276" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Kazimierz_Micha%C5%82owski%2C_Palmyra.jpg/330px-Kazimierz_Micha%C5%82owski%2C_Palmyra.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Kazimierz_Micha%C5%82owski%2C_Palmyra.jpg/500px-Kazimierz_Micha%C5%82owski%2C_Palmyra.jpg 2x" data-file-width="596" data-file-height="747" /></a><figcaption>Excavations at Palmyra, 1962, Polish archaeologist <a href="/wiki/Kazimierz_Micha%C5%82owski" title="Kazimierz Michałowski">Kazimierz Michałowski</a></figcaption></figure> Palmyra's first excavations were conducted in 1902 by <a href="/wiki/Otto_Puchstein" title="Otto Puchstein">Otto Puchstein</a> and in 1917 by <a href="/wiki/Theodor_Wiegand" title="Theodor Wiegand">Theodor Wiegand</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStoneman1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8kLFfE1qPhICpgPA12_12]-385">[353]</a> In 1929, French general director of antiquities of Syria and Lebanon Henri Seyrig began large-scale excavation of the site;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStoneman1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8kLFfE1qPhICpgPA12_12]-385">[353]</a> interrupted by World War II, it resumed soon after the war's end.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStoneman1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8kLFfE1qPhICpgPA12_12]-385">[353]</a> Seyrig started with the Temple of Bel in 1929 and between 1939 and 1940 he excavated the Agora.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrijvers1976[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidmuQ3AAAAIAAJpgPA4_4]-386">[354]</a> Daniel Schlumberger conducted excavations in the Palmyrene northwest countryside in 1934 and 1935 where he studied different local sanctuaries in the Palmyrene villages.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrijvers1976[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidmuQ3AAAAIAAJpgPA4_4]-386">[354]</a> From 1954 to 1956, a Swiss expedition organized by <a href="/wiki/UNESCO" title="UNESCO">UNESCO</a> excavated the Temple of Baalshamin.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStoneman1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8kLFfE1qPhICpgPA12_12]-385">[353]</a> Since 1958, the site has been excavated by the Syrian Directorate-General of Antiquities,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDarke2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidjv2jHT_GRe0CpgPA257_257]-384">[352]</a> and Polish expeditions of the <a href="/wiki/Polish_Centre_of_Mediterranean_Archaeology" class="mw-redirect" title="Polish Centre of Mediterranean Archaeology">Polish Centre of Mediterranean Archaeology University of Warsaw</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGawlikowski2013[httpsdigiubuni-heidelbergdediglitstudia_palmyrenskie20130015image_13]-519">[480]</a> led by many archaeologists including <a href="/wiki/Kazimierz_Micha%C5%82owski" title="Kazimierz Michałowski">Kazimierz Michałowski</a> (until 1980) and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Michael_Gawlikowski&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Michael Gawlikowski (page does not exist)">Michael Gawlikowski</a> (until 2009).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStoneman1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8kLFfE1qPhICpgPA12_12]-385">[353]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMichalska2016-520">[481]</a> The stratigraphic sounding beneath the Temple of Bel was conducted in 1967 by <a href="/wiki/Robert_du_Mesnil_du_Buisson" title="Robert du Mesnil du Buisson">Robert du Mesnil du Buisson</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBielińska1997[httpdigiubuni-heidelbergdediglitstudia_palmyrenskie19970044_44]-95">[87]</a> who also discovered the Temple of Baal-hamon in the 1970s.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDowney1977[httpsbooksgooglecombooksiddKpnNw5Zj7cCpgPA21_21]-159">[147]</a> In 1980, the historic site including the necropolis outside the walls was declared a <a href="/wiki/World_Heritage_Site" title="World Heritage Site">World Heritage Site</a> by the UNESCO.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECameronRössler2016[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidWdYoDAAAQBAJpgPA105_105]-521">[482]</a> The Polish expedition concentrated its work on the Camp of Diocletian while the Syrian Directorate-General of Antiquities excavated the Temple of Nabu.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrijvers1976[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidmuQ3AAAAIAAJpgPA4_4]-386">[354]</a> Most of the hypogea were excavated jointly by the Polish expedition and the Syrian Directorate,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDowney1996[httpjournalscambridgeorgactiondisplayAbstractfromPageonlineaid9116455_469]-522">[483]</a> while the area of Efqa was excavated by Jean Starcky and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Jafar_al-Hassani&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jafar al-Hassani (page does not exist)">Jafar al-Hassani</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrijvers1976[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidmuQ3AAAAIAAJpgPA5_5]-34">[32]</a> The Palmyrene irrigation system was discovered in 2008 by <a href="/w/index.php?title=J%C3%B8rgen_Christian_Meyer&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jørgen Christian Meyer (page does not exist)">Jørgen Christian Meyer</a> who researched the Palmyrene countryside through ground inspections and satellite images.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeyer2017b[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid5D5nDwAAQBAJpgPA30_30]-523">[484]</a> Most of Palmyra still remains unexplored especially the residential quarters in the north and south while the necropolis has been thoroughly excavated by the Directorate and the Polish expedition.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrijvers1976[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidmuQ3AAAAIAAJpgPA5_5]-34">[32]</a> Excavation expeditions left Palmyra in 2011 due to the Syrian Civil War.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECurry2012-524">[485]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Palmyra&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1266661725">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><a href="/wiki/File:Asia_(orthographic_projection).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Asia_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/28px-Asia_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Asia_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/42px-Asia_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Asia_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/56px-Asia_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="541" data-file-height="541" /></a><a href="/wiki/Portal:Asia" title="Portal:Asia">Asia portal</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aureliano_in_Palmira" title="Aureliano in Palmira">Aureliano in Palmira</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crisis_of_the_Third_Century" title="Crisis of the Third Century">Crisis of the Third Century</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palmyrene_(Unicode_block)" title="Palmyrene (Unicode block)">Palmyrene (Unicode block)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirty_Tyrants_(Roman)" title="Thirty Tyrants (Roman)">Thirty Tyrants (Roman)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Septimius_Worod" title="Septimius Worod">Septimius Worod</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zabdas" title="Zabdas">Zabdas</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Palmyra&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-9"><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a> The Semitic word T.M.R is the common root for the words that designate palm dates in <a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ge%27ez_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ge'ez language">Ge'ez</a> and other Semitic languages.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMurtonen1986[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidt_9NkGsNtcYCpgPA445_445]-5">[5]</a> Schultens argued that in the Bible (1 Kings 9:18), the name is written "Tamor" in the text and "Tadmor" in the margin.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIbn_Šaddād1732[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidFCgVAAAAQAAJpgRA3-PT79lpgRA3-PT79_79]-6">[6]</a> Schultens considered "Tamor" to be the original name and derived from "Tamar".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECharnock1859[httpsarchiveorgdetailsbub_gb_I2BulY4WvsYCpagen210_200]-7">[7]</a> However, the inclusion of a -d- in "Tamar" cannot be explained.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Connor1988[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidx1l_MfEV6kkCpgPA235_235]-8">[8]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a> Pliny mentioned that Palmyra was independent, but by AD 70, Palmyra was part of the Roman empire; modern scholars dismiss Pliny's account of Palmyra's political situation, considering it to rely on older accounts dating to the period of <a href="/wiki/Octavian" class="mw-redirect" title="Octavian">Octavian</a>, when Palmyra was independent.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEdwell2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDQgmOZlsEWcCpgPA44_44]-20">[19]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a> Estimates vary from as low as 30,000 to 200,000; the latter number is doubted considering the environment of Palmyra and its hinterland which makes it difficult to provide the population with the necessary foodstuff.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeyer2013270-51">[49]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a> E.g for Aramaic: Gaddibol and Yedi'bel.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStoneman1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8kLFfE1qPhICpgPA67_67]-62">[59]</a> E.g for Arab: Bene Ma'zin.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStoneman1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8kLFfE1qPhICpgPA67_67]-62">[59]</a> E.g for Amorite: Zmr' and Kohen-Nadu.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStoneman1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8kLFfE1qPhICpgPA67_67]-62">[59]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a> These criteria are: dispersion in a wide geographical range; orientation towards a homeland through the usage of own language and reference to a distinct origin and pantheon; the usage of own language and origin to preserve a distinct identity amongst host societies.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESeland2013382-68">[64]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a> The Phylai are the Bene Mita, Komare, Mattabol, Ma'zin and Claudia.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDirven1999[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid_LfXg2r6FT0CpgPA24_24]-82">[77]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a> In general, a civic tribe (Phyle) is a collection of people chosen from the collective population and ascribed a deity as a tribal ancestor, then assigned a territory for them to reside in. The Phylai were united by their citizenship instead of origin.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeier1990[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidEx8HGWKViYQCpgPA60_60]-86">[80]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a> The clans might have gathered under the name of the four tribes causing them to disappear.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDirven1999[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid_LfXg2r6FT0CpgPA25_25]-84">[78]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a> E.g. by the second century AD, Palmyrene goddess <a href="/wiki/Al-l%C4%81t" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-lāt">Al-lāt</a> was portrayed in the style of the Greek goddess <a href="/wiki/Athena" title="Athena">Athena</a>, and named Athena-Al-lāt. However, this assimilation of Al-lāt to Athena did not extend beyond iconography.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETeixidor1979[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidTccUAAAAIAAJpgPR62_62]-98">[90]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a> In the Hellenistic tradition, the agora was the center of athletic, artistic, spiritual and political life of the city.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVasudevan1995[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid74JI2UlcU8ACpgPA66_66]-108">[99]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-129"><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a> There are hints of Greek training; the names of three Greeks who worked on the construction of the Temple of Bel are known through inscriptions, including a probably Greek architect named Alexandras (Αλεξάνδρας).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStoneman1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8kLFfE1qPhICpgPA54_54]-126">[116]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchmidt-Colinet1997157-127">[117]</a> However, some Palmyrenes adopted Greco-Roman names and native citizens with the name Alexander are attested in the city.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYon2002[httpbooksopeneditionorgifpo3763_59,_10]-128">[118]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-140"><a href="#cite_ref-140">^</a> The historian Rudolf Fellmann suggested that this building was the royal palace.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFellmann1987136-139">[128]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-209"><a href="#cite_ref-209">^</a> According to the reading of Dupont-Sommer, Palmyra is separated by two hundreds "bows" from Laghman; In the inscription, the word used to indicate bow is "QŠTN", and Dupont-Sommer asserted that it is an Aramaic word denoting a unit to measure a distance of 15 to 20 kilometres.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDupont-Sommer1970163-203">[191]</a> <a href="/wiki/Franz_Altheim" title="Franz Altheim">Franz Altheim</a> and Ruth Altheim-Stiehl read three hundred instead of two hundred bows; they equated it with the Vedic unit of measurement <a href="/wiki/Yojana" title="Yojana">yojona</a>, c. 12 kilometres, which would result in a number close to the actual 3800 kilometres distance between Laghman and Palmyra.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaizer2017[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidC7Q1DwAAQBAJpgPA33_33],_34-204">[192]</a> The linguist Helmut Humbach criticized the reading of Dupont-Sommer and considered his claims regarding the distance to have no validation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacDowallTaddei1978192-205">[193]</a> In the Aramaic alphabet, the letters "r" and "d" share an identical character;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaizer2017[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidC7Q1DwAAQBAJpgPA34_34]-206">[194]</a> <a href="/wiki/Jean_de_Menasce" title="Jean de Menasce">Jean de Menasce</a> read the city's name "Trmd" and identified it with <a href="/wiki/Termez" title="Termez">Termez</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Amu_Darya" title="Amu Darya">Oxus</a> river.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMukherjee200011-207">[195]</a> The linguist <a href="/wiki/Franz_Rosenthal" title="Franz Rosenthal">Franz Rosenthal</a> also contested the reading of Dupont-Sommer and considered that the inscription refers to an estate called "Trmn".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERosenthal197899-208">[196]</a> Historian <a href="/wiki/B._N._Mukherjee" title="B. N. Mukherjee">Bratindra Nath Mukherjee</a> rejected the readings of both Dupont-Sommer and de Menasce; he contested the large value attributed to "bow", considering it a small unit. The historian also rejected the reading of Tdmr and Trmd as referring to a city; in the view of Mukherjee, the name, whether Tdmr or Trmd refers to the rock on which the inscription was carved itself.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMukherjee200011-207">[195]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-211"><a href="#cite_ref-211">^</a> The inscription is in bad shape but the letters' form, especially the four-branched <a href="/wiki/Sigma" title="Sigma">sigma</a>, indicate that it is one of the earliest inscriptions from Palmyra, dating to the beginning of the first century AD or the former first century BC. Seyrig concluded that it is futile to identify the king as the title Epiphanes was borne by many Seleucid kings, the last of them, <a href="/wiki/Antiochus_XII_Dionysus" title="Antiochus XII Dionysus">Antiochus XII</a>, died in 82 BC. Even then, according to Seyrig, the date is too high for the form of the letters. Seyrig suggested a king of <a href="/wiki/Commagene" title="Commagene">Commagene</a> or, more likely, a Parthian king.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESeyrig1939322,_323-210">[197]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-216"><a href="#cite_ref-216">^</a> The attribution of Palmyra annexation to Tiberius was supported by Seyrig and became the most influential. However, other dates have been suggested ranging from as early as <a href="/wiki/Pompey" title="Pompey">Pompey</a>'s era to as late as <a href="/wiki/Vespasian" title="Vespasian">Vespasian</a>'s reign.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEdwell2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDQgmOZlsEWcCpgPA34_34]-215">[201]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-221"><a href="#cite_ref-221">^</a> Inscription reproduced:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchlumberger193964-220">[205]</a>        Fin[es]        inteṛ Hadriano[s] Palmyrenos            et [He]ṃesenos </li> <li id="cite_note-229"><a href="#cite_ref-229">^</a> The exact year for when Palmyra first made use of some Greek institutions is not known; the evidence that specifically identify Palmyra as a polis is not extensive, and the earliest known reference is an inscription dated to AD 51, written in Palmyrene and Greek, mentioning the "City of the Palmyrenes" in its Greek section.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith_II2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidh5cMho6zFckCpgPA122_122]-228">[212]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-232"><a href="#cite_ref-232">^</a> Despite his Greek name, Alexandros was probably a native Palmyrene.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith_II2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidh5cMho6zFckCpgPA226_226]-230">[213]</a> There is no evidence that Germanicus visited Palmyra.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith_II2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidh5cMho6zFckCpgPA24_24]-231">[214]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-235"><a href="#cite_ref-235">^</a> The legion was part of Germanicus' eastern campaign and was not stationed in the city as a garrison.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDąbrowa1993[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidyH4MQy0wrbcCpgPA12_12]-234">[216]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-238"><a href="#cite_ref-238">^</a> Commissioned by <a href="/wiki/Marcus_Ulpius_Traianus_(senior)" class="mw-redirect" title="Marcus Ulpius Traianus (senior)">Traianus</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEElton1996[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidN0jAQ1oP3_wCpgPA92_92]-237">[218]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-242"><a href="#cite_ref-242">^</a> The transformation already began in the first century BC.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEdwell2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDQgmOZlsEWcCpgPA36_36]-241">[221]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-246"><a href="#cite_ref-246">^</a> Although Palmyra benefiting from the annexation of Petra is a mainstream view, Palmyra's trade was mostly with the East, while Petra's trade counted on southern Arabia. In addition to the fact that Palmyra and Petra traded in different articles, hence the annexation of Petra might have not had a real effect on Palmyra's trade.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYoung2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidE5yCAgAAQBAJpgPA125_125]-245">[224]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-252"><a href="#cite_ref-252">^</a> The Ala I Thracum Herculiana was a milliaria.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDąbrowa1979[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidd2DmN0xH5-gCpgPA235_235]-250">[228]</a> Generally, a milliaria consisted of a thousand horsemen.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESidebothamHenseNouwens2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidEyemu-_MncwCpgPA354_354]-251">[229]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-267"><a href="#cite_ref-267">^</a> No evidence exist for Roman units serving in the ranks of Odaenathus; whether Roman soldiers fought under Odaenathus or not is a matter of speculation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidwnTOBAAAQBAJpgPA60_60]-266">[243]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-278"><a href="#cite_ref-278">^</a> The Mesopotamian Jewish population was regarded by the Palmyrenes as loyal to the Persians.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDubnov1968[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidLLCXomFNU3cCpgPA151_151]-277">[253]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-284"><a href="#cite_ref-284">^</a> The first decisive evidence for the use of this title for Odaenathus is an inscription dated to 271, posthumously describing Odaenathus as "King of Kings".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith_II2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidh5cMho6zFckCpgPA177_177]-264">[241]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStoneman1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8kLFfE1qPhICpgPA78_78]-282">[257]</a> Known inscriptions dating to his reign address him as king. However, Odaenathus' son Hairan I, is directly attested as "King of Kings" during his lifetime. Hairan I was proclaimed by his father as co-ruler and was assassinated during the same assassination incident that took the life of Odaenathus and it is unlikely that Odaenathus was simply a king while his son held the King of Kings title.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidwnTOBAAAQBAJpgPA72_72]-283">[258]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-304"><a href="#cite_ref-304">^</a> Claudius died in August 270, shortly before Zenobia's invasion of Egypt.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA62_62]-299">[273]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-310"><a href="#cite_ref-310">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Palmyrene_Empire#Evaluation_and_legacy" title="Palmyrene Empire">Scholarly opinion is divided</a> as to whether this was a declaration of independence or a usurpation of the Roman throne.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBall2002[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid73-JAgAAQBAJpgPA82_82]-307">[280]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhittow2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidGSmrBAAAQBAJpgPT154_77]-308">[281]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith_II2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidh5cMho6zFckCpgPA180_180]-309">[282]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-313"><a href="#cite_ref-313">^</a> All other accounts indicate that a military action was not necessary, as it seems that Zenobia withdrew her forces in order to defend Syria.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBryce2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidXno9AgAAQBAJpgPA308_308]-312">[284]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-368"><a href="#cite_ref-368">^</a> Named in Ottoman system "Salyane Sanjak", which is a <a href="/wiki/Sanjak" title="Sanjak">Sanjak</a> that had an annual allowance from the government, in contrast to the Khas Sanjaks, which yielded a land revenue.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEÇelebi1834[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid66hCAAAAcAAJpgPA93_93]-367">[338]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-378"><a href="#cite_ref-378">^</a> The British did not occupy the area and the local Bedouins agreed to protect the field.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrainger2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidLG2cG5SshpECpgPA228_228]-377">[347]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-380"><a href="#cite_ref-380">^</a> Neither the British, French or Arab armies attacked the Sanjak.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEQaddūrī2000[httplibrarytebyannetarViewerText113382116_38]-379">[348]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-411"><a href="#cite_ref-411">^</a> The number of 600 is hypothetical.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith_II2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidh5cMho6zFckCpgPA127_127]-227">[211]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-420"><a href="#cite_ref-420">^</a> Hairan I was described as "Ras" in 251 indicating that Odaenathus was promoted at that time as well.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidecfiAAAAQBAJpgPA44_44]-262">[239]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-441"><a href="#cite_ref-441">^</a> The Palmyrene army that invaded Egypt was mainly composed of clibanarii supported by archers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraf1989155-440">[406]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-448"><a href="#cite_ref-448">^</a> A Palmyrene monument was discovered near <a href="/wiki/Newcastle_upon_Tyne" title="Newcastle upon Tyne">Newcastle</a> in England; it was set by a Palmyrene named Baratas, who was either a soldier or a camp follower.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPurcell1997[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidYkgTbON-GGUCpgPA80_80]-447">[412]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-471"><a href="#cite_ref-471">^</a> The fourth tribe's name is not certain but most likely the Mita.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDirven1999[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid_LfXg2r6FT0CpgPA161_161]-468">[432]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-488"><a href="#cite_ref-488">^</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Richard_Stoneman&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Richard Stoneman (page does not exist)">Richard Stoneman</a> proposes that the law regulated taxes imposed on goods destined for the internal market and did not cover the transit trade.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStoneman1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8kLFfE1qPhICpgPA58_58]-487">[450]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-493"><a href="#cite_ref-493">^</a> The dating of the dam's construction was questioned by the archaeologist Denis Genequand who compared it to several Umayyad dams and suggested a date corresponding to the Umayyad period.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeyer2013270-51">[49]</a> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Palmyra&action=edit&section=47" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Palmyra&action=edit&section=48" title="Edit section: Citations">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626" /><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 25em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Connor1988[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidx1l_MfEV6kkCpgPA238_238]-1">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEO'Connor1988[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidx1l_MfEV6kkCpgPA238_238]_1-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEO'Connor1988[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidx1l_MfEV6kkCpgPA238_238]_1-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEO'Connor1988[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidx1l_MfEV6kkCpgPA238_238]_1-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEO'Connor1988[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidx1l_MfEV6kkCpgPA238_238]_1-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFO'Connor1988">O'Connor 1988</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=x1l_MfEV6kkC&pg=PA238">238</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELimet1977[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid-5o3AAAAIAAJpgPA104_104]-2"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELimet1977[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid-5o3AAAAIAAJpgPA104_104]_2-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLimet1977">Limet 1977</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-5o3AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA104">104</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBubeník1989[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDT98F5CFtQsCpgPA229_229]-3"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBubeník1989[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDT98F5CFtQsCpgPA229_229]_3-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBubeník1989">Bubeník 1989</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DT98F5CFtQsC&pg=PA229">229</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWolfensohn2016[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidm2WSDQAAQBAJpgPT118_118]-4"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWolfensohn2016[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidm2WSDQAAQBAJpgPT118_118]_4-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWolfensohn2016">Wolfensohn 2016</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=m2WSDQAAQBAJ&pg=PT118">118</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMurtonen1986[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidt_9NkGsNtcYCpgPA445_445]-5"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMurtonen1986[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidt_9NkGsNtcYCpgPA445_445]_5-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMurtonen1986">Murtonen 1986</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=t_9NkGsNtcYC&pg=PA445">445</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEIbn_Šaddād1732[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidFCgVAAAAQAAJpgRA3-PT79lpgRA3-PT79_79]-6"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIbn_Šaddād1732[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidFCgVAAAAQAAJpgRA3-PT79lpgRA3-PT79_79]_6-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFIbn_Šaddād1732">Ibn Šaddād 1732</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=FCgVAAAAQAAJ&pg=RA3-PT79&lpg=RA3-PT79">79</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECharnock1859[httpsarchiveorgdetailsbub_gb_I2BulY4WvsYCpagen210_200]-7">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECharnock1859[httpsarchiveorgdetailsbub_gb_I2BulY4WvsYCpagen210_200]_7-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECharnock1859[httpsarchiveorgdetailsbub_gb_I2BulY4WvsYCpagen210_200]_7-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECharnock1859[httpsarchiveorgdetailsbub_gb_I2BulY4WvsYCpagen210_200]_7-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECharnock1859[httpsarchiveorgdetailsbub_gb_I2BulY4WvsYCpagen210_200]_7-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFCharnock1859">Charnock 1859</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_I2BulY4WvsYC/page/n210">200</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Connor1988[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidx1l_MfEV6kkCpgPA235_235]-8">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEO'Connor1988[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidx1l_MfEV6kkCpgPA235_235]_8-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEO'Connor1988[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidx1l_MfEV6kkCpgPA235_235]_8-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEO'Connor1988[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidx1l_MfEV6kkCpgPA235_235]_8-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEO'Connor1988[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidx1l_MfEV6kkCpgPA235_235]_8-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEO'Connor1988[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidx1l_MfEV6kkCpgPA235_235]_8-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEO'Connor1988[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidx1l_MfEV6kkCpgPA235_235]_8-5">f</a> <a href="#CITEREFO'Connor1988">O'Connor 1988</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=x1l_MfEV6kkC&pg=PA235">235</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Connor1988[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidx1l_MfEV6kkCpgPA248_248]-10">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEO'Connor1988[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidx1l_MfEV6kkCpgPA248_248]_10-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEO'Connor1988[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidx1l_MfEV6kkCpgPA248_248]_10-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFO'Connor1988">O'Connor 1988</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=x1l_MfEV6kkC&pg=PA248">248</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECharnock1859[httpsarchiveorgdetailsbub_gb_I2BulY4WvsYCpagen211_201]-11"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECharnock1859[httpsarchiveorgdetailsbub_gb_I2BulY4WvsYCpagen211_201]_11-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCharnock1859">Charnock 1859</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_I2BulY4WvsYC/page/n211">201</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Connor1988[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidx1l_MfEV6kkCpgPA236_236]-12">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEO'Connor1988[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidx1l_MfEV6kkCpgPA236_236]_12-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEO'Connor1988[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidx1l_MfEV6kkCpgPA236_236]_12-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFO'Connor1988">O'Connor 1988</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=x1l_MfEV6kkC&pg=PA236">236</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuntern2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidcyGAqI9SHPECpgPA433_433]-13"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGuntern2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidcyGAqI9SHPECpgPA433_433]_13-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGuntern2010">Guntern 2010</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cyGAqI9SHPEC&pg=PA433">433</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEIntagliata2018[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidl6RTDwAAQBAJpgPA1_1]-14"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIntagliata2018[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidl6RTDwAAQBAJpgPA1_1]_14-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFIntagliata2018">Intagliata 2018</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=l6RTDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1">1</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStoneman1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8kLFfE1qPhICpgPA56_56]-15"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStoneman1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8kLFfE1qPhICpgPA56_56]_15-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFStoneman1994">Stoneman 1994</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8kLFfE1qPhIC&pg=PA56">56</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEIzumi199519-16">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIzumi199519_16-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIzumi199519_16-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFIzumi1995">Izumi 1995</a>, p. 19. </li> <li 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href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_LfXg2r6FT0C&pg=PA17">17</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEYoung2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidE5yCAgAAQBAJpgPA124_124]-19">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYoung2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidE5yCAgAAQBAJpgPA124_124]_19-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYoung2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidE5yCAgAAQBAJpgPA124_124]_19-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYoung2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidE5yCAgAAQBAJpgPA124_124]_19-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYoung2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidE5yCAgAAQBAJpgPA124_124]_19-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYoung2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidE5yCAgAAQBAJpgPA124_124]_19-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYoung2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidE5yCAgAAQBAJpgPA124_124]_19-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYoung2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidE5yCAgAAQBAJpgPA124_124]_19-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYoung2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidE5yCAgAAQBAJpgPA124_124]_19-7">h</a> <a 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class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=b9-KAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA204">204</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJuchniewicz2013194-23">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJuchniewicz2013194_23-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJuchniewicz2013194_23-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJuchniewicz2013194_23-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJuchniewicz2013194_23-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFJuchniewicz2013">Juchniewicz 2013</a>, p. 194. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEZuchowska2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidFgML1EdUiWUCpgPA230_230]-24"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZuchowska2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidFgML1EdUiWUCpgPA230_230]_24-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFZuchowska2008">Zuchowska 2008</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=FgML1EdUiWUC&pg=PA230">230</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith_II2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidh5cMho6zFckCpgPA63_63]-25">^ <a 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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrijvers1976[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidmuQ3AAAAIAAJpgPA5_5]-34">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDrijvers1976[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidmuQ3AAAAIAAJpgPA5_5]_34-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDrijvers1976[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidmuQ3AAAAIAAJpgPA5_5]_34-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDrijvers1976[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidmuQ3AAAAIAAJpgPA5_5]_34-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFDrijvers1976">Drijvers 1976</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=muQ3AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA5">5</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith_II2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidh5cMho6zFckCpgPA22_22]-35"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith_II2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidh5cMho6zFckCpgPA22_22]_35-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSmith_II2013">Smith II 2013</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=h5cMho6zFckC&pg=PA22">22</a>. </li> <li 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href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_R-I_Gx5OgQC&pg=PA209">209</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEal-AsaadChatonnetYon2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidoZcr7SzzVYYCpgPA6_6]-147">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEal-AsaadChatonnetYon2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidoZcr7SzzVYYCpgPA6_6]_147-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEal-AsaadChatonnetYon2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidoZcr7SzzVYYCpgPA6_6]_147-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFal-AsaadChatonnetYon2005">al-Asaad, Chatonnet & Yon 2005</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=oZcr7SzzVYYC&pg=PA6">6</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERichardson200246-148"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERichardson200246_148-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRichardson2002">Richardson 2002</a>, p. 46. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMillar1993[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidIA-YlZqHv90CpgPA323_323]-149">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMillar1993[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidIA-YlZqHv90CpgPA323_323]_149-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMillar1993[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidIA-YlZqHv90CpgPA323_323]_149-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMillar1993">Millar 1993</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=IA-YlZqHv90C&pg=PA323">323</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGates2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid--x-3W2R_QwCpgPA390_390]-150"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGates2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid--x-3W2R_QwCpgPA390_390]_150-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGates2003">Gates 2003</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=--x-3W2R_QwC&pg=PA390">390</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEButcher2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidYJPn3-rRjC0CpgPR361_361]-151"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEButcher2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidYJPn3-rRjC0CpgPR361_361]_151-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFButcher2003">Butcher 2003</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YJPn3-rRjC0C&pg=PR361">361</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETeixidor1979[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidTccUAAAAIAAJpgPR128_128]-152"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETeixidor1979[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidTccUAAAAIAAJpgPR128_128]_152-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTeixidor1979">Teixidor 1979</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=TccUAAAAIAAJ&pg=PR128">128</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBryce2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidXno9AgAAQBAJpgPA276_276]-153">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBryce2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidXno9AgAAQBAJpgPA276_276]_153-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBryce2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidXno9AgAAQBAJpgPA276_276]_153-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBryce2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidXno9AgAAQBAJpgPA276_276]_153-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBryce2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidXno9AgAAQBAJpgPA276_276]_153-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBryce2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidXno9AgAAQBAJpgPA276_276]_153-4">e</a> <a href="#CITEREFBryce2014">Bryce 2014</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Xno9AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA276">276</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMillar1993[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidIA-YlZqHv90CpgPA320_320]-154">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMillar1993[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidIA-YlZqHv90CpgPA320_320]_154-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMillar1993[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidIA-YlZqHv90CpgPA320_320]_154-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMillar1993">Millar 1993</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=IA-YlZqHv90C&pg=PA320">320</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurns2009[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidz_IBAwAAQBAJpgPA214_214]-155">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBurns2009[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidz_IBAwAAQBAJpgPA214_214]_155-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBurns2009[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidz_IBAwAAQBAJpgPA214_214]_155-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBurns2009[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidz_IBAwAAQBAJpgPA214_214]_155-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFBurns2009">Burns 2009</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=z_IBAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA214">214</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurns2009[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidz_IBAwAAQBAJpgPA217_217]-156">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBurns2009[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidz_IBAwAAQBAJpgPA217_217]_156-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBurns2009[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidz_IBAwAAQBAJpgPA217_217]_156-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFBurns2009">Burns 2009</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=z_IBAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA217">217</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDarke2006[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidHuXAHGDSjNICpgPA241_241]-157"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDarke2006[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidHuXAHGDSjNICpgPA241_241]_157-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDarke2006">Darke 2006</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=HuXAHGDSjNIC&pg=PA241">241</a>. </li> <li 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href="https://books.google.com/books?id=dKpnNw5Zj7cC&pg=PA21">21</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDowney1977[httpsbooksgooglecombooksiddKpnNw5Zj7cCpgPA22_22]-160">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDowney1977[httpsbooksgooglecombooksiddKpnNw5Zj7cCpgPA22_22]_160-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDowney1977[httpsbooksgooglecombooksiddKpnNw5Zj7cCpgPA22_22]_160-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFDowney1977">Downey 1977</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=dKpnNw5Zj7cC&pg=PA22">22</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-161"><a href="#cite_ref-161">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px 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a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFSommerSommer-Theohari2017" class="citation book cs1">Sommer, Michael; Sommer-Theohari, Diana (22 November 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9781315122397-8">"Ch. 8: Palmyra"</a>. Palmyra: A History. London: Routledge. pp. 171–209. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4324%2F9781315122397-8">10.4324/9781315122397-8</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-315-12239-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-315-12239-7"><bdi>978-1-315-12239-7</bdi></a>. 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Retrieved 20 October 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Workshop+on+the+restoration+acts+of+Palmyra%27s+Arch+of+Triumph+launched&rft.pub=Syrian+Arab+News+Agency&rft.date=2023-05-25&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsana.sy%2Fen%2F%3Fp%3D309456&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APalmyra" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-185"><a href="#cite_ref-185">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://sana.sy/en/?p=316782">"Acts of restoration of the archeological Palmyra amphitheater façade continue"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Syrian_Arab_News_Agency" title="Syrian Arab News Agency">Syrian Arab News Agency</a>. 14 September 2023. 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href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith_II2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidh5cMho6zFckCpgPA122_122]_228-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith_II2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidh5cMho6zFckCpgPA122_122]_228-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFSmith_II2013">Smith II 2013</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=h5cMho6zFckC&pg=PA122">122</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith_II2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidh5cMho6zFckCpgPA226_226]-230"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith_II2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidh5cMho6zFckCpgPA226_226]_230-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSmith_II2013">Smith II 2013</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=h5cMho6zFckC&pg=PA226">226</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith_II2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidh5cMho6zFckCpgPA24_24]-231"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith_II2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidh5cMho6zFckCpgPA24_24]_231-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSmith_II2013">Smith II 2013</a>, p. <a 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href="#CITEREFDąbrowa1993">Dąbrowa 1993</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=yH4MQy0wrbcC&pg=PA12">12</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEElton1996[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidN0jAQ1oP3_wCpgPA91_91]-236"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEElton1996[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidN0jAQ1oP3_wCpgPA91_91]_236-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFElton1996">Elton 1996</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=N0jAQ1oP3_wC&pg=PA91">91</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEElton1996[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidN0jAQ1oP3_wCpgPA92_92]-237">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEElton1996[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidN0jAQ1oP3_wCpgPA92_92]_237-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEElton1996[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidN0jAQ1oP3_wCpgPA92_92]_237-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEElton1996[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidN0jAQ1oP3_wCpgPA92_92]_237-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFElton1996">Elton 1996</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=N0jAQ1oP3_wC&pg=PA92">92</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidecfiAAAAQBAJpgPA25_25]-239">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidecfiAAAAQBAJpgPA25_25]_239-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidecfiAAAAQBAJpgPA25_25]_239-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidecfiAAAAQBAJpgPA25_25]_239-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidecfiAAAAQBAJpgPA25_25]_239-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidecfiAAAAQBAJpgPA25_25]_239-4">e</a> <a href="#CITEREFSouthern2008">Southern 2008</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ecfiAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA25">25</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrijvers1976[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidmuQ3AAAAIAAJpgPA3_3]-240"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDrijvers1976[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidmuQ3AAAAIAAJpgPA3_3]_240-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDrijvers1976">Drijvers 1976</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=muQ3AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA3">3</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEdwell2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDQgmOZlsEWcCpgPA36_36]-241">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEdwell2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDQgmOZlsEWcCpgPA36_36]_241-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEdwell2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDQgmOZlsEWcCpgPA36_36]_241-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFEdwell2008">Edwell 2008</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DQgmOZlsEWcC&pg=PA36">36</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDirven1999[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid_LfXg2r6FT0CpgPA22_22]-243"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDirven1999[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid_LfXg2r6FT0CpgPA22_22]_243-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDirven1999">Dirven 1999</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_LfXg2r6FT0C&pg=PA22">22</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith_II2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidh5cMho6zFckCpgPA145_145]-244"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith_II2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidh5cMho6zFckCpgPA145_145]_244-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSmith_II2013">Smith II 2013</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=h5cMho6zFckC&pg=PA145">145</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEYoung2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidE5yCAgAAQBAJpgPA125_125]-245"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYoung2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidE5yCAgAAQBAJpgPA125_125]_245-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFYoung2003">Young 2003</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=E5yCAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA125">125</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBryce2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidXno9AgAAQBAJpgPA279_279]-247">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBryce2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidXno9AgAAQBAJpgPA279_279]_247-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBryce2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidXno9AgAAQBAJpgPA279_279]_247-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFBryce2014">Bryce 2014</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Xno9AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA279">279</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDirven1999[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid_LfXg2r6FT0CpgPA21_21]-248"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDirven1999[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid_LfXg2r6FT0CpgPA21_21]_248-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDirven1999">Dirven 1999</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_LfXg2r6FT0C&pg=PA21">21</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith_II2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidh5cMho6zFckCpgPA25_25]-249">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith_II2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidh5cMho6zFckCpgPA25_25]_249-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith_II2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidh5cMho6zFckCpgPA25_25]_249-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith_II2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidh5cMho6zFckCpgPA25_25]_249-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFSmith_II2013">Smith II 2013</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=h5cMho6zFckC&pg=PA25">25</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDąbrowa1979[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidd2DmN0xH5-gCpgPA235_235]-250"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDąbrowa1979[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidd2DmN0xH5-gCpgPA235_235]_250-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDąbrowa1979">Dąbrowa 1979</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=d2DmN0xH5-gC&pg=PA235">235</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESidebothamHenseNouwens2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidEyemu-_MncwCpgPA354_354]-251"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESidebothamHenseNouwens2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidEyemu-_MncwCpgPA354_354]_251-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSidebothamHenseNouwens2008">Sidebotham, Hense & Nouwens 2008</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Eyemu-_MncwC&pg=PA354">354</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERaschke1978878-253"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERaschke1978878_253-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRaschke1978">Raschke 1978</a>, p. 878. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith_II2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidh5cMho6zFckCpgPA26_26]-254">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith_II2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidh5cMho6zFckCpgPA26_26]_254-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith_II2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidh5cMho6zFckCpgPA26_26]_254-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFSmith_II2013">Smith II 2013</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=h5cMho6zFckC&pg=PA26">26</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEdwell2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDQgmOZlsEWcCpgPA27_27]-255"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEdwell2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDQgmOZlsEWcCpgPA27_27]_255-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFEdwell2008">Edwell 2008</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DQgmOZlsEWcC&pg=PA27">27</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESartre2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidMNSyT_PuYVMCpgPA512_512]-256">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESartre2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidMNSyT_PuYVMCpgPA512_512]_256-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESartre2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidMNSyT_PuYVMCpgPA512_512]_256-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFSartre2005">Sartre 2005</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=MNSyT_PuYVMC&pg=PA512">512</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith_II2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidh5cMho6zFckCpgPA28_28]-257">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith_II2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidh5cMho6zFckCpgPA28_28]_257-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith_II2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidh5cMho6zFckCpgPA28_28]_257-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith_II2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidh5cMho6zFckCpgPA28_28]_257-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith_II2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidh5cMho6zFckCpgPA28_28]_257-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFSmith_II2013">Smith II 2013</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=h5cMho6zFckC&pg=PA28">28</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEdwell2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDQgmOZlsEWcCpgPA60_60]-258"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEdwell2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDQgmOZlsEWcCpgPA60_60]_258-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFEdwell2008">Edwell 2008</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DQgmOZlsEWcC&pg=PA60">60</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETeixidor1979[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidTccUAAAAIAAJpgPR33_33]-259"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETeixidor1979[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidTccUAAAAIAAJpgPR33_33]_259-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTeixidor1979">Teixidor 1979</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=TccUAAAAIAAJ&pg=PR33">33</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith_II2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidh5cMho6zFckCpgPA176_176]-260">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith_II2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidh5cMho6zFckCpgPA176_176]_260-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith_II2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidh5cMho6zFckCpgPA176_176]_260-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFSmith_II2013">Smith II 2013</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=h5cMho6zFckC&pg=PA176">176</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith_II2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidh5cMho6zFckCpgPA29_29]-261"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith_II2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidh5cMho6zFckCpgPA29_29]_261-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSmith_II2013">Smith II 2013</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=h5cMho6zFckC&pg=PA29">29</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidecfiAAAAQBAJpgPA44_44]-262">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidecfiAAAAQBAJpgPA44_44]_262-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidecfiAAAAQBAJpgPA44_44]_262-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidecfiAAAAQBAJpgPA44_44]_262-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidecfiAAAAQBAJpgPA44_44]_262-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFSouthern2008">Southern 2008</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ecfiAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA44">44</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBall2002[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid73-JAgAAQBAJpgPA77_77]-263">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBall2002[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid73-JAgAAQBAJpgPA77_77]_263-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBall2002[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid73-JAgAAQBAJpgPA77_77]_263-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFBall2002">Ball 2002</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=73-JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA77">77</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith_II2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidh5cMho6zFckCpgPA177_177]-264">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith_II2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidh5cMho6zFckCpgPA177_177]_264-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith_II2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidh5cMho6zFckCpgPA177_177]_264-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith_II2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidh5cMho6zFckCpgPA177_177]_264-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith_II2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidh5cMho6zFckCpgPA177_177]_264-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith_II2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidh5cMho6zFckCpgPA177_177]_264-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith_II2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidh5cMho6zFckCpgPA177_177]_264-5">f</a> <a href="#CITEREFSmith_II2013">Smith II 2013</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=h5cMho6zFckC&pg=PA177">177</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrinkwater2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidMNSyT_PuYVMCpgPA44_44]-265"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDrinkwater2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidMNSyT_PuYVMCpgPA44_44]_265-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDrinkwater2005">Drinkwater 2005</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=MNSyT_PuYVMC&pg=PA44">44</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidwnTOBAAAQBAJpgPA60_60]-266"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidwnTOBAAAQBAJpgPA60_60]_266-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSouthern2008">Southern 2008</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wnTOBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA60">60</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDignasWinter2007[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidMG2hqcRDvJgCpgPA159_159]-268"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDignasWinter2007[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidMG2hqcRDvJgCpgPA159_159]_268-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDignasWinter2007">Dignas & Winter 2007</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=MG2hqcRDvJgC&pg=PA159">159</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHartmann2001139-269"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHartmann2001139_269-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHartmann2001">Hartmann 2001</a>, p. 139. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHartmann2001144,_145-270"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHartmann2001144,_145_270-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHartmann2001">Hartmann 2001</a>, pp. 144, 145. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidwnTOBAAAQBAJpgPA67_67]-271"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidwnTOBAAAQBAJpgPA67_67]_271-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSouthern2008">Southern 2008</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wnTOBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA67">67</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDe_Blois1976[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid7-jUAMmMS5cCpgPA35_35]-272"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDe_Blois1976[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid7-jUAMmMS5cCpgPA35_35]_272-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDe_Blois1976">De Blois 1976</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7-jUAMmMS5cC&pg=PA35">35</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAndrade2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidy6IaBQAAQBAJpgPA333_333]-273"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAndrade2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidy6IaBQAAQBAJpgPA333_333]_273-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAndrade2013">Andrade 2013</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=y6IaBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA333">333</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEYoung2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidE5yCAgAAQBAJpgPA215_215]-274"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYoung2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidE5yCAgAAQBAJpgPA215_215]_274-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFYoung2003">Young 2003</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=E5yCAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA215">215</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEYoung2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidE5yCAgAAQBAJpgPA159_159]-275"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYoung2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidE5yCAgAAQBAJpgPA159_159]_275-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFYoung2003">Young 2003</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=E5yCAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA159">159</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAndo2012[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid2fTcCQAAQBAJpgPA237_237]-276"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAndo2012[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid2fTcCQAAQBAJpgPA237_237]_276-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAndo2012">Ando 2012</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2fTcCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA237">237</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDubnov1968[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidLLCXomFNU3cCpgPA151_151]-277">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDubnov1968[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidLLCXomFNU3cCpgPA151_151]_277-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDubnov1968[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidLLCXomFNU3cCpgPA151_151]_277-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFDubnov1968">Dubnov 1968</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LLCXomFNU3cC&pg=PA151">151</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHartmann2001[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidBdcHK8Ll1jMCpgPA171_171]-279"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHartmann2001[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidBdcHK8Ll1jMCpgPA171_171]_279-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHartmann2001">Hartmann 2001</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=BdcHK8Ll1jMC&pg=PA171">171</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDignasWinter2007[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidMG2hqcRDvJgCpgPA160_160]-280"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDignasWinter2007[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidMG2hqcRDvJgCpgPA160_160]_280-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDignasWinter2007">Dignas & Winter 2007</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=MG2hqcRDvJgC&pg=PA160">160</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHartmann2001[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidBdcHK8Ll1jMCpgPA172_172]-281"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHartmann2001[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidBdcHK8Ll1jMCpgPA172_172]_281-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHartmann2001">Hartmann 2001</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=BdcHK8Ll1jMC&pg=PA172">172</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStoneman1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8kLFfE1qPhICpgPA78_78]-282"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStoneman1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8kLFfE1qPhICpgPA78_78]_282-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFStoneman1994">Stoneman 1994</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8kLFfE1qPhIC&pg=PA78">78</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidwnTOBAAAQBAJpgPA72_72]-283"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidwnTOBAAAQBAJpgPA72_72]_283-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSouthern2008">Southern 2008</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wnTOBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA72">72</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA32_32]-285"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA32_32]_285-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWatson2004">Watson 2004</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kJ2JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA32">32</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHartmann2001[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidBdcHK8Ll1jMCpgPA176_176]-286"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHartmann2001[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidBdcHK8Ll1jMCpgPA176_176]_286-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHartmann2001">Hartmann 2001</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=BdcHK8Ll1jMC&pg=PA176">176</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDe_Blois1976[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid7-jUAMmMS5cCpgPA3_3]-287">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDe_Blois1976[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid7-jUAMmMS5cCpgPA3_3]_287-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDe_Blois1976[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid7-jUAMmMS5cCpgPA3_3]_287-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFDe_Blois1976">De Blois 1976</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7-jUAMmMS5cC&pg=PA3">3</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidwnTOBAAAQBAJpgPA76_76]-288"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidwnTOBAAAQBAJpgPA76_76]_288-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSouthern2008">Southern 2008</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wnTOBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA76">76</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidwnTOBAAAQBAJpgPA77_77]-289"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidwnTOBAAAQBAJpgPA77_77]_289-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSouthern2008">Southern 2008</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wnTOBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA77">77</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA78_78]-290">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA78_78]_290-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA78_78]_290-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFSouthern2008">Southern 2008</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DqMrR29Cc7MC&pg=PA78">78</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBryce2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidXno9AgAAQBAJpgPA292_292]-291"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBryce2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidXno9AgAAQBAJpgPA292_292]_291-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBryce2014">Bryce 2014</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Xno9AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA292">292</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStoneman1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8kLFfE1qPhICpgPA108_108]-292"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStoneman1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8kLFfE1qPhICpgPA108_108]_292-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFStoneman1994">Stoneman 1994</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8kLFfE1qPhIC&pg=PA108">108</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrauer1975[httpsarchiveorgdetailsageofsoldierem00brau_163]-293"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrauer1975[httpsarchiveorgdetailsageofsoldierem00brau_163]_293-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBrauer1975">Brauer 1975</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ageofsoldierem00brau">163</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBryce2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidXno9AgAAQBAJpgPA299_299]-294">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBryce2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidXno9AgAAQBAJpgPA299_299]_294-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBryce2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidXno9AgAAQBAJpgPA299_299]_294-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBryce2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidXno9AgAAQBAJpgPA299_299]_294-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFBryce2014">Bryce 2014</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Xno9AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA299">299</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidwnTOBAAAQBAJpgPA91_91]-295"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidwnTOBAAAQBAJpgPA91_91]_295-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSouthern2008">Southern 2008</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wnTOBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA91">91</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidwnTOBAAAQBAJpgPA92_92]-296"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidwnTOBAAAQBAJpgPA92_92]_296-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSouthern2008">Southern 2008</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wnTOBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA92">92</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHartmann2001[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidBdcHK8Ll1jMCpgPA267_267]-297"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHartmann2001[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidBdcHK8Ll1jMCpgPA267_267]_297-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHartmann2001">Hartmann 2001</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=BdcHK8Ll1jMC&pg=PA267">267</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBryce2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidXno9AgAAQBAJpgPA302_302]-298">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBryce2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidXno9AgAAQBAJpgPA302_302]_298-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBryce2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidXno9AgAAQBAJpgPA302_302]_298-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFBryce2014">Bryce 2014</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Xno9AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA302">302</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA62_62]-299">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA62_62]_299-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA62_62]_299-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFWatson2004">Watson 2004</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kJ2JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA62">62</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBryce2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidXno9AgAAQBAJpgPA303_303]-300"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBryce2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidXno9AgAAQBAJpgPA303_303]_300-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBryce2014">Bryce 2014</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Xno9AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA303">303</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBryce2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidXno9AgAAQBAJpgPA304_304]-301"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBryce2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidXno9AgAAQBAJpgPA304_304]_301-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBryce2014">Bryce 2014</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Xno9AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA304">304</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBall2002[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid73-JAgAAQBAJpgPA80_80]-302">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBall2002[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid73-JAgAAQBAJpgPA80_80]_302-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBall2002[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid73-JAgAAQBAJpgPA80_80]_302-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFBall2002">Ball 2002</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=73-JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA80">80</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith_II2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidh5cMho6zFckCpgPA179_179]-303">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith_II2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidh5cMho6zFckCpgPA179_179]_303-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith_II2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidh5cMho6zFckCpgPA179_179]_303-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith_II2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidh5cMho6zFckCpgPA179_179]_303-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFSmith_II2013">Smith II 2013</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=h5cMho6zFckC&pg=PA179">179</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA67_67]-305"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA67_67]_305-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWatson2004">Watson 2004</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kJ2JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA67">67</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA118_118]-306"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA118_118]_306-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSouthern2008">Southern 2008</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DqMrR29Cc7MC&pg=PA118">118</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBall2002[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid73-JAgAAQBAJpgPA82_82]-307"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBall2002[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid73-JAgAAQBAJpgPA82_82]_307-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBall2002">Ball 2002</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=73-JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA82">82</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhittow2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidGSmrBAAAQBAJpgPT154_77]-308"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhittow2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidGSmrBAAAQBAJpgPT154_77]_308-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWhittow2010">Whittow 2010</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GSmrBAAAQBAJ&pg=PT154">77</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith_II2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidh5cMho6zFckCpgPA180_180]-309">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith_II2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidh5cMho6zFckCpgPA180_180]_309-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith_II2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidh5cMho6zFckCpgPA180_180]_309-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFSmith_II2013">Smith II 2013</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=h5cMho6zFckC&pg=PA180">180</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBryce2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidXno9AgAAQBAJpgPA307_307]-311"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBryce2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidXno9AgAAQBAJpgPA307_307]_311-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBryce2014">Bryce 2014</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Xno9AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA307">307</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBryce2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidXno9AgAAQBAJpgPA308_308]-312">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBryce2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidXno9AgAAQBAJpgPA308_308]_312-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBryce2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidXno9AgAAQBAJpgPA308_308]_312-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFBryce2014">Bryce 2014</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Xno9AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA308">308</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBryce2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidXno9AgAAQBAJpgPA309_309]-314"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBryce2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidXno9AgAAQBAJpgPA309_309]_314-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBryce2014">Bryce 2014</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Xno9AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA309">309</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBryce2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidXno9AgAAQBAJpgPA310_310]-315"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBryce2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidXno9AgAAQBAJpgPA310_310]_315-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBryce2014">Bryce 2014</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Xno9AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA310">310</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBall2002[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid73-JAgAAQBAJpgPA81_81]-316">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBall2002[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid73-JAgAAQBAJpgPA81_81]_316-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBall2002[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid73-JAgAAQBAJpgPA81_81]_316-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBall2002[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid73-JAgAAQBAJpgPA81_81]_316-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFBall2002">Ball 2002</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=73-JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA81">81</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrinkwater2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidMNSyT_PuYVMCpgPA52_52]-317"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDrinkwater2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidMNSyT_PuYVMCpgPA52_52]_317-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDrinkwater2005">Drinkwater 2005</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=MNSyT_PuYVMC&pg=PA52">52</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBryce2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidXno9AgAAQBAJpgPA313_313]-318"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBryce2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidXno9AgAAQBAJpgPA313_313]_318-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBryce2014">Bryce 2014</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Xno9AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA313">313</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith_II2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidh5cMho6zFckCpgPA181_181]-319"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith_II2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidh5cMho6zFckCpgPA181_181]_319-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSmith_II2013">Smith II 2013</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=h5cMho6zFckC&pg=PA181">181</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESartre2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidMNSyT_PuYVMCpgPA515_515]-320"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESartre2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidMNSyT_PuYVMCpgPA515_515]_320-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSartre2005">Sartre 2005</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=MNSyT_PuYVMC&pg=PA515">515</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPollard2000[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid2ijMkjyG3cQCpgPA299_299]-321">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPollard2000[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid2ijMkjyG3cQCpgPA299_299]_321-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPollard2000[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid2ijMkjyG3cQCpgPA299_299]_321-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFPollard2000">Pollard 2000</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2ijMkjyG3cQC&pg=PA299">299</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStoneman1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8kLFfE1qPhICpgPA190_190]-322">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStoneman1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8kLFfE1qPhICpgPA190_190]_322-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStoneman1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8kLFfE1qPhICpgPA190_190]_322-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStoneman1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8kLFfE1qPhICpgPA190_190]_322-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFStoneman1994">Stoneman 1994</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8kLFfE1qPhIC&pg=PA190">190</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreatrexLieu2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidawCGAgAAQBAJpgPA85_85]-323"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreatrexLieu2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidawCGAgAAQBAJpgPA85_85]_323-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGreatrexLieu2005">Greatrex & Lieu 2005</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=awCGAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA85">85</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurns2007[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidpoCBAgAAQBAJpgPA99_99]-324"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBurns2007[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidpoCBAgAAQBAJpgPA99_99]_324-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBurns2007">Burns 2007</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=poCBAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA99">99</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELe_Strange189036-325"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELe_Strange189036_325-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLe_Strange1890">Le Strange 1890</a>, p. 36. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHillenbrand1999[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidQ6ppv17CP6ECpgPA87_87]-326">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHillenbrand1999[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidQ6ppv17CP6ECpgPA87_87]_326-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHillenbrand1999[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidQ6ppv17CP6ECpgPA87_87]_326-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFHillenbrand1999">Hillenbrand 1999</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Q6ppv17CP6EC&pg=PA87">87</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBacharach1996[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidNdCTI5FqayACpgPA31_31]-327">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBacharach1996[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidNdCTI5FqayACpgPA31_31]_327-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBacharach1996[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidNdCTI5FqayACpgPA31_31]_327-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFBacharach1996">Bacharach 1996</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NdCTI5FqayAC&pg=PA31">31</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECaskel1966369-328"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECaskel1966369_328-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCaskel1966">Caskel 1966</a>, p. 369. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEIntagliata2018140-329"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIntagliata2018140_329-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFIntagliata2018">Intagliata 2018</a>, p. 140. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECobb2001[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid2C6KIBw4F9YCpgPA73_73]-330"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECobb2001[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid2C6KIBw4F9YCpgPA73_73]_330-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCobb2001">Cobb 2001</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2C6KIBw4F9YC&pg=PA73">73</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECobb2001[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid2C6KIBw4F9YCpgPA47_47]-331"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECobb2001[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid2C6KIBw4F9YCpgPA47_47]_331-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCobb2001">Cobb 2001</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2C6KIBw4F9YC&pg=PA47">47</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECobb2001[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid2C6KIBw4F9YCpgPA48_48]-332">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECobb2001[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid2C6KIBw4F9YCpgPA48_48]_332-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECobb2001[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid2C6KIBw4F9YCpgPA48_48]_332-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFCobb2001">Cobb 2001</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2C6KIBw4F9YC&pg=PA48">48</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolt2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidTqasAgAAQBAJpgPA13_13]-333"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolt2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidTqasAgAAQBAJpgPA13_13]_333-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHolt2013">Holt 2013</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=TqasAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA13">13</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELoewe1923[httpsarchiveorgstreamcambridgemedieva04buryuoftpage300mode2up_300]-334"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoewe1923[httpsarchiveorgstreamcambridgemedieva04buryuoftpage300mode2up_300]_334-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLoewe1923">Loewe 1923</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/cambridgemedieva04buryuoft#page/300/mode/2up">300</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeyer2017a72-335">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeyer2017a72_335-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeyer2017a72_335-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMeyer2017a">Meyer 2017a</a>, p. 72. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrabarHolodKnustadTrousdale1978[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidQMSCNQlywSsCpgPA11_11]-336"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrabarHolodKnustadTrousdale1978[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidQMSCNQlywSsCpgPA11_11]_336-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGrabarHolodKnustadTrousdale1978">Grabar et al. 1978</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QMSCNQlywSsC&pg=PA11">11</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrabarHolodKnustadTrousdale1978[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidQMSCNQlywSsCpgPA158_158]-337"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrabarHolodKnustadTrousdale1978[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidQMSCNQlywSsCpgPA158_158]_337-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGrabarHolodKnustadTrousdale1978">Grabar et al. 1978</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QMSCNQlywSsC&pg=PA158">158</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBianquis1989440,_641-338"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBianquis1989440,_641_338-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBianquis1989">Bianquis 1989</a>, pp. 440, 641. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFowden1999[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidUC5v4mgERxwCpgPA184_184]-339"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFowden1999[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidUC5v4mgERxwCpgPA184_184]_339-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFowden1999">Fowden 1999</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=UC5v4mgERxwC&pg=PA184">184</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChamberlain2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid1ioTXW3316ACpgPA148_148]-340"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChamberlain2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid1ioTXW3316ACpgPA148_148]_340-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFChamberlain2005">Chamberlain 2005</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1ioTXW3316AC&pg=PA148">148</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEÉlisséeff2007[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidUB4uSVt3ulUCpgPA158_158]-341">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEÉlisséeff2007[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidUB4uSVt3ulUCpgPA158_158]_341-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEÉlisséeff2007[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidUB4uSVt3ulUCpgPA158_158]_341-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFÉlisséeff2007">Élisséeff 2007</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=UB4uSVt3ulUC&pg=PA158">158</a>. </li> <li 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href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWinter201989-90_366-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWinter2019">Winter 2019</a>, p. 89-90. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEÇelebi1834[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid66hCAAAAcAAJpgPA93_93]-367">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEÇelebi1834[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid66hCAAAAcAAJpgPA93_93]_367-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEÇelebi1834[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid66hCAAAAcAAJpgPA93_93]_367-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFÇelebi1834">Çelebi 1834</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=66hCAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA93">93</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWinter201990-91-369"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWinter201990-91_369-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWinter2019">Winter 2019</a>, p. 90-91. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWinter2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKGeuAeFFJCECpgPA43_43]-370"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWinter2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKGeuAeFFJCECpgPA43_43]_370-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWinter2010">Winter 2010</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KGeuAeFFJCEC&pg=PA43">43</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWinter2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKGeuAeFFJCECpgPA48_48]-371"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWinter2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKGeuAeFFJCECpgPA48_48]_371-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWinter2010">Winter 2010</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KGeuAeFFJCEC&pg=PA48">48</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarris2012[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidXwUTDAAAQBAJpgPA103_103]-372">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarris2012[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidXwUTDAAAQBAJpgPA103_103]_372-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarris2012[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidXwUTDAAAQBAJpgPA103_103]_372-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFHarris2012">Harris 2012</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=XwUTDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA103">103</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEByliński1995146-373"><a 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href="https://books.google.com/books?id=g1eQAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA143">143</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrainger2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidLG2cG5SshpECpgPA228_228]-377">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrainger2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidLG2cG5SshpECpgPA228_228]_377-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrainger2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidLG2cG5SshpECpgPA228_228]_377-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrainger2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidLG2cG5SshpECpgPA228_228]_377-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrainger2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidLG2cG5SshpECpgPA228_228]_377-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrainger2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidLG2cG5SshpECpgPA228_228]_377-4">e</a> <a href="#CITEREFGrainger2013">Grainger 2013</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LG2cG5SshpEC&pg=PA228">228</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEQaddūrī2000[httplibrarytebyannetarViewerText113382116_38]-379">^ <a 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href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1Z7TbtGaAX8C&pg=PA28">28</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENeep2012[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid1Z7TbtGaAX8CpgPA142_142]-383"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeep2012[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid1Z7TbtGaAX8CpgPA142_142]_383-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNeep2012">Neep 2012</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1Z7TbtGaAX8C&pg=PA142">142</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDarke2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidjv2jHT_GRe0CpgPA257_257]-384">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDarke2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidjv2jHT_GRe0CpgPA257_257]_384-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDarke2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidjv2jHT_GRe0CpgPA257_257]_384-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDarke2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidjv2jHT_GRe0CpgPA257_257]_384-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFDarke2010">Darke 2010</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jv2jHT_GRe0C&pg=PA257">257</a>. </li> <li 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href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoubayed2012[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid2UANAgAAQBAJpgPA46_46]_387-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMoubayed2012">Moubayed 2012</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2UANAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA46">46</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatson2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksido4vrUbMK5eECpgPA80_80]-388"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWatson2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksido4vrUbMK5eECpgPA80_80]_388-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWatson2003">Watson 2003</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=o4vrUbMK5eEC&pg=PA80">80</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECave2012[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid-3y-BAAAQBAJpgPA55_55]-389"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECave2012[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid-3y-BAAAQBAJpgPA55_55]_389-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCave2012">Cave 2012</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-3y-BAAAQBAJ&pg=PA55">55</a>. </li> <li 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href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEdwell2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDQgmOZlsEWcCpgPA54_54]_416-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFEdwell2008">Edwell 2008</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DQgmOZlsEWcC&pg=PA54">54</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEdwell2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDQgmOZlsEWcCpgPA49_49]-417">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEdwell2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDQgmOZlsEWcCpgPA49_49]_417-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEdwell2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDQgmOZlsEWcCpgPA49_49]_417-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFEdwell2008">Edwell 2008</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DQgmOZlsEWcC&pg=PA49">49</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEClineGraham2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid1eRb5h7ATbsCpgPA271_271]-418"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClineGraham2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid1eRb5h7ATbsCpgPA271_271]_418-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFClineGraham2011">Cline & Graham 2011</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1eRb5h7ATbsC&pg=PA271">271</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith_II2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidh5cMho6zFckCpgPA130_130]-419">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith_II2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidh5cMho6zFckCpgPA130_130]_419-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith_II2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidh5cMho6zFckCpgPA130_130]_419-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith_II2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidh5cMho6zFckCpgPA130_130]_419-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFSmith_II2013">Smith II 2013</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=h5cMho6zFckC&pg=PA130">130</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMackay2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid6rLDy6qqi0UCpgPA272_272]-421"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMackay2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid6rLDy6qqi0UCpgPA272_272]_421-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMackay2004">Mackay 2004</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6rLDy6qqi0UC&pg=PA272">272</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith_II2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidh5cMho6zFckCpgPA131_131]-422">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith_II2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidh5cMho6zFckCpgPA131_131]_422-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith_II2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidh5cMho6zFckCpgPA131_131]_422-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith_II2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidh5cMho6zFckCpgPA131_131]_422-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith_II2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidh5cMho6zFckCpgPA131_131]_422-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFSmith_II2013">Smith II 2013</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=h5cMho6zFckC&pg=PA131">131</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMennen2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksiduZqQjkb07g8CpgPA224_224]-423"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMennen2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksiduZqQjkb07g8CpgPA224_224]_423-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMennen2011">Mennen 2011</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uZqQjkb07g8C&pg=PA224">224</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESivertsev2002[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidOfWUkVoHP7YCpgPA72_72]-424"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESivertsev2002[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidOfWUkVoHP7YCpgPA72_72]_424-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSivertsev2002">Sivertsev 2002</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=OfWUkVoHP7YC&pg=PA72">72</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHartmann201664-425"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHartmann201664_425-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHartmann2016">Hartmann 2016</a>, p. 64. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECooke1903[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKwsIAwAAQBAJpgPA286_286]-426"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECooke1903[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKwsIAwAAQBAJpgPA286_286]_426-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCooke1903">Cooke 1903</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KwsIAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA286">286</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidwnTOBAAAQBAJpgPA75_75]-427"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidwnTOBAAAQBAJpgPA75_75]_427-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSouthern2008">Southern 2008</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wnTOBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA75">75</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidecfiAAAAQBAJpgPA115_115]-428"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidecfiAAAAQBAJpgPA115_115]_428-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSouthern2008">Southern 2008</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ecfiAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA115">115</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEButcher2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidYJPn3-rRjC0CpgPA60_60]-429"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEButcher2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidYJPn3-rRjC0CpgPA60_60]_429-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFButcher2003">Butcher 2003</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YJPn3-rRjC0C&pg=PA60">60</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA81_81]-430"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA81_81]_430-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWatson2004">Watson 2004</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kJ2JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA81">81</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEShahîd1984[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidW4H97SA6pMACpgPA15_15]-431"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShahîd1984[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidW4H97SA6pMACpgPA15_15]_431-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFShahîd1984">Shahîd 1984</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=W4H97SA6pMAC&pg=PA15">15</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEIrwin2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidaxNbLoiLLgMCpgPA256_256]-432"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIrwin2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidaxNbLoiLLgMCpgPA256_256]_432-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFIrwin2003">Irwin 2003</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=axNbLoiLLgMC&pg=PA256">256</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEShahîd1984[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidW4H97SA6pMACpgPA38_38]-433"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShahîd1984[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidW4H97SA6pMACpgPA38_38]_433-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFShahîd1984">Shahîd 1984</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=W4H97SA6pMAC&pg=PA38">38</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith_II2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidh5cMho6zFckCpgPA143_143]-434"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith_II2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidh5cMho6zFckCpgPA143_143]_434-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSmith_II2013">Smith II 2013</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=h5cMho6zFckC&pg=PA143">143</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHartmann2001[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidBdcHK8Ll1jMCpgPA371_371]-435"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHartmann2001[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidBdcHK8Ll1jMCpgPA371_371]_435-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHartmann2001">Hartmann 2001</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=BdcHK8Ll1jMC&pg=PA371">371</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidecfiAAAAQBAJpgPA26_26]-436"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidecfiAAAAQBAJpgPA26_26]_436-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSouthern2008">Southern 2008</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ecfiAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA26">26</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPotter2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidg4ZmqsyC5kECpgPA162_162]-437"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPotter2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidg4ZmqsyC5kECpgPA162_162]_437-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPotter2010">Potter 2010</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=g4ZmqsyC5kEC&pg=PA162">162</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStoneman1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8kLFfE1qPhICpgPA122_122]-438"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStoneman1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8kLFfE1qPhICpgPA122_122]_438-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFStoneman1994">Stoneman 1994</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8kLFfE1qPhIC&pg=PA122">122</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBryce2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidXno9AgAAQBAJpgPA289_289]-439"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBryce2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidXno9AgAAQBAJpgPA289_289]_439-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBryce2014">Bryce 2014</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Xno9AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA289">289</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraf1989155-440"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraf1989155_440-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGraf1989">Graf 1989</a>, p. 155. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidecfiAAAAQBAJpgPA24_24]-442"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidecfiAAAAQBAJpgPA24_24]_442-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSouthern2008">Southern 2008</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ecfiAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA24">24</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDixonSouthern2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidik9S7vNkQzkCpgPA76_76]-443">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDixonSouthern2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidik9S7vNkQzkCpgPA76_76]_443-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDixonSouthern2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidik9S7vNkQzkCpgPA76_76]_443-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFDixonSouthern2005">Dixon & Southern 2005</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ik9S7vNkQzkC&pg=PA76">76</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFields200818-444"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFields200818_444-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFields2008">Fields 2008</a>, p. 18. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStoneman1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8kLFfE1qPhICpgPA27_27]-445"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStoneman1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8kLFfE1qPhICpgPA27_27]_445-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFStoneman1994">Stoneman 1994</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8kLFfE1qPhIC&pg=PA27">27</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWheeler2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid1D612o_X2VYCpgPA258_258]-446"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWheeler2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid1D612o_X2VYCpgPA258_258]_446-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWheeler2011">Wheeler 2011</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1D612o_X2VYC&pg=PA258">258</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPurcell1997[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidYkgTbON-GGUCpgPA80_80]-447"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPurcell1997[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidYkgTbON-GGUCpgPA80_80]_447-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPurcell1997">Purcell 1997</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YkgTbON-GGUC&pg=PA80">80</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEdwell2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDQgmOZlsEWcCpgPA52_52]-449">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEdwell2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDQgmOZlsEWcCpgPA52_52]_449-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEdwell2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDQgmOZlsEWcCpgPA52_52]_449-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFEdwell2008">Edwell 2008</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DQgmOZlsEWcC&pg=PA52">52</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDirven1999[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid_LfXg2r6FT0CpgPA181_181]-450"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDirven1999[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid_LfXg2r6FT0CpgPA181_181]_450-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDirven1999">Dirven 1999</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_LfXg2r6FT0C&pg=PA181">181</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEdwell2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDQgmOZlsEWcCpgPA139_139]-451"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEdwell2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDQgmOZlsEWcCpgPA139_139]_451-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFEdwell2008">Edwell 2008</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DQgmOZlsEWcC&pg=PA139">139</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELevick2007[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidBjkfKsCttrkCpgPA15_15]-452"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELevick2007[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidBjkfKsCttrkCpgPA15_15]_452-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLevick2007">Levick 2007</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=BjkfKsCttrkC&pg=PA15">15</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETeixidor1979[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidTccUAAAAIAAJpgPR1_1]-453">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETeixidor1979[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidTccUAAAAIAAJpgPR1_1]_453-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETeixidor1979[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidTccUAAAAIAAJpgPR1_1]_453-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFTeixidor1979">Teixidor 1979</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=TccUAAAAIAAJ&pg=PR1">1</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrijvers1980[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid69YUAAAAIAAJpgPA46_46]-454">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDrijvers1980[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid69YUAAAAIAAJpgPA46_46]_454-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDrijvers1980[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid69YUAAAAIAAJpgPA46_46]_454-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFDrijvers1980">Drijvers 1980</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=69YUAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA46">46</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWaardenburg2002[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidrMmsS7tr1AECpgPA33_33]-455">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWaardenburg2002[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidrMmsS7tr1AECpgPA33_33]_455-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWaardenburg2002[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidrMmsS7tr1AECpgPA33_33]_455-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWaardenburg2002[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidrMmsS7tr1AECpgPA33_33]_455-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFWaardenburg2002">Waardenburg 2002</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rMmsS7tr1AEC&pg=PA33">33</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDirven199883-456"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDirven199883_456-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDirven1998">Dirven 1998</a>, p. 83. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEButcher2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidYJPn3-rRjC0CpgPA345_345]-457">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEButcher2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidYJPn3-rRjC0CpgPA345_345]_457-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEButcher2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidYJPn3-rRjC0CpgPA345_345]_457-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEButcher2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidYJPn3-rRjC0CpgPA345_345]_457-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEButcher2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidYJPn3-rRjC0CpgPA345_345]_457-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFButcher2003">Butcher 2003</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YJPn3-rRjC0C&pg=PA345">345</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith_II2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidh5cMho6zFckCpgPA64_64]-458">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith_II2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidh5cMho6zFckCpgPA64_64]_458-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith_II2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidh5cMho6zFckCpgPA64_64]_458-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith_II2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidh5cMho6zFckCpgPA64_64]_458-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFSmith_II2013">Smith II 2013</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=h5cMho6zFckC&pg=PA64">64</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith_II2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidh5cMho6zFckCpgPA66_66]-459"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith_II2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidh5cMho6zFckCpgPA66_66]_459-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSmith_II2013">Smith II 2013</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=h5cMho6zFckC&pg=PA66">66</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETeixidor1979[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidTccUAAAAIAAJpgPR52_52]-460">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETeixidor1979[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidTccUAAAAIAAJpgPR52_52]_460-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETeixidor1979[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidTccUAAAAIAAJpgPR52_52]_460-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFTeixidor1979">Teixidor 1979</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=TccUAAAAIAAJ&pg=PR52">52</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrijvers1976[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidmuQ3AAAAIAAJpgPA21_21]-461"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDrijvers1976[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidmuQ3AAAAIAAJpgPA21_21]_461-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDrijvers1976">Drijvers 1976</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=muQ3AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA21">21</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEColledge1986[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidlSZfkzVk3GMCpgPA6_6]-462"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEColledge1986[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidlSZfkzVk3GMCpgPA6_6]_462-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFColledge1986">Colledge 1986</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lSZfkzVk3GMC&pg=PA6">6</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWaardenburg1984[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidmQnv_Wh3gCwCpgPA273_273]-463"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWaardenburg1984[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidmQnv_Wh3gCwCpgPA273_273]_463-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWaardenburg1984">Waardenburg 1984</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=mQnv_Wh3gCwC&pg=PA273">273</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETeixidor1979[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidTccUAAAAIAAJpgPR77_77]-464">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETeixidor1979[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidTccUAAAAIAAJpgPR77_77]_464-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETeixidor1979[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidTccUAAAAIAAJpgPR77_77]_464-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETeixidor1979[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidTccUAAAAIAAJpgPR77_77]_464-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETeixidor1979[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidTccUAAAAIAAJpgPR77_77]_464-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFTeixidor1979">Teixidor 1979</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=TccUAAAAIAAJ&pg=PR77">77</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDirven1999[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid_LfXg2r6FT0CpgPA159_159]-465">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDirven1999[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid_LfXg2r6FT0CpgPA159_159]_465-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDirven1999[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid_LfXg2r6FT0CpgPA159_159]_465-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFDirven1999">Dirven 1999</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_LfXg2r6FT0C&pg=PA159">159</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrijvers1976[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidmuQ3AAAAIAAJpgPA12_12]-466"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDrijvers1976[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidmuQ3AAAAIAAJpgPA12_12]_466-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDrijvers1976">Drijvers 1976</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=muQ3AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA12">12</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDirven1999[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid_LfXg2r6FT0CpgPA160_160]-467">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDirven1999[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid_LfXg2r6FT0CpgPA160_160]_467-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDirven1999[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid_LfXg2r6FT0CpgPA160_160]_467-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFDirven1999">Dirven 1999</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_LfXg2r6FT0C&pg=PA160">160</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDirven1999[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid_LfXg2r6FT0CpgPA161_161]-468">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDirven1999[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid_LfXg2r6FT0CpgPA161_161]_468-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDirven1999[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid_LfXg2r6FT0CpgPA161_161]_468-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDirven1999[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid_LfXg2r6FT0CpgPA161_161]_468-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFDirven1999">Dirven 1999</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_LfXg2r6FT0C&pg=PA161">161</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDirven1999[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid_LfXg2r6FT0CpgPA146_146],_[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid_LfXg2r6FT0CpgPA147_147]-469"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDirven1999[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid_LfXg2r6FT0CpgPA146_146],_[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid_LfXg2r6FT0CpgPA147_147]_469-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDirven1999">Dirven 1999</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_LfXg2r6FT0C&pg=PA146">146</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_LfXg2r6FT0C&pg=PA147">147</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETeixidor1979[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidTccUAAAAIAAJpgPR36_36]-470">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETeixidor1979[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidTccUAAAAIAAJpgPR36_36]_470-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETeixidor1979[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidTccUAAAAIAAJpgPR36_36]_470-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFTeixidor1979">Teixidor 1979</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=TccUAAAAIAAJ&pg=PR36">36</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaizer2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkTxg2_vRM1YCpgPA179_179]-472"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaizer2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkTxg2_vRM1YCpgPA179_179]_472-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKaizer2005">Kaizer 2005</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kTxg2_vRM1YC&pg=PA179">179</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrijvers1976[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidmuQ3AAAAIAAJpgPA22_22]-473"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDrijvers1976[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidmuQ3AAAAIAAJpgPA22_22]_473-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDrijvers1976">Drijvers 1976</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=muQ3AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA22">22</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWright2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksiduvtebmqZZDYCpgPA296_296]-474">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWright2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksiduvtebmqZZDYCpgPA296_296]_474-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWright2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksiduvtebmqZZDYCpgPA296_296]_474-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFWright2004">Wright 2004</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uvtebmqZZDYC&pg=PA296">296</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEShahîd1995[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidBEvEV9OVzacCpgPA439_439]-475"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShahîd1995[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidBEvEV9OVzacCpgPA439_439]_475-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFShahîd1995">Shahîd 1995</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=BEvEV9OVzacC&pg=PA439">439</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHijmans2009484-476"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHijmans2009484_476-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHijmans2009">Hijmans 2009</a>, p. 484. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHijmans2009485-477"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHijmans2009485_477-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHijmans2009">Hijmans 2009</a>, p. 485. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHalsberghe1972[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8tIUAAAAIAAJpgPA156_156]-478"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHalsberghe1972[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8tIUAAAAIAAJpgPA156_156]_478-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHalsberghe1972">Halsberghe 1972</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8tIUAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA156">156</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA196_196]-479">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA196_196]_479-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA196_196]_479-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA196_196]_479-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFWatson2004">Watson 2004</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kJ2JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA196">196</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDirven1999[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid_LfXg2r6FT0CpgPA174_174]-480">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDirven1999[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid_LfXg2r6FT0CpgPA174_174]_480-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDirven1999[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid_LfXg2r6FT0CpgPA174_174]_480-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFDirven1999">Dirven 1999</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_LfXg2r6FT0C&pg=PA174">174</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHalsberghe1972[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8tIUAAAAIAAJpgPA157_157]-481"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHalsberghe1972[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8tIUAAAAIAAJpgPA157_157]_481-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHalsberghe1972">Halsberghe 1972</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8tIUAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA157">157</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStoneman1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8kLFfE1qPhICpgPA185_185]-482"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStoneman1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8kLFfE1qPhICpgPA185_185]_482-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFStoneman1994">Stoneman 1994</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8kLFfE1qPhIC&pg=PA185">185</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith_II2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidh5cMho6zFckCpgPA51_51]-483">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith_II2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidh5cMho6zFckCpgPA51_51]_483-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith_II2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidh5cMho6zFckCpgPA51_51]_483-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFSmith_II2013">Smith II 2013</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=h5cMho6zFckC&pg=PA51">51</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStoneman1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8kLFfE1qPhICpgPA57_57]-484">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStoneman1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8kLFfE1qPhICpgPA57_57]_484-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStoneman1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8kLFfE1qPhICpgPA57_57]_484-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFStoneman1994">Stoneman 1994</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8kLFfE1qPhIC&pg=PA57">57</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoward2012[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid6QPWXrCCzBICpgPA158_158]-485">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoward2012[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid6QPWXrCCzBICpgPA158_158]_485-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoward2012[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid6QPWXrCCzBICpgPA158_158]_485-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFHoward2012">Howard 2012</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6QPWXrCCzBIC&pg=PA158">158</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERostovtzeff.1932[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidr68SAAAAIAAJpgPA74_74]-486"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERostovtzeff.1932[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidr68SAAAAIAAJpgPA74_74]_486-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRostovtzeff.1932">Rostovtzeff. 1932</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=r68SAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA74">74</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStoneman1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8kLFfE1qPhICpgPA58_58]-487">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStoneman1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8kLFfE1qPhICpgPA58_58]_487-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStoneman1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8kLFfE1qPhICpgPA58_58]_487-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFStoneman1994">Stoneman 1994</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8kLFfE1qPhIC&pg=PA58">58</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith_II2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidh5cMho6zFckCpgPA70_70]-489"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith_II2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidh5cMho6zFckCpgPA70_70]_489-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSmith_II2013">Smith II 2013</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=h5cMho6zFckC&pg=PA70">70</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMétral2000[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidiwxeHaKUGFMCpgPA130_130]-490"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMétral2000[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidiwxeHaKUGFMCpgPA130_130]_490-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMétral2000">Métral 2000</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=iwxeHaKUGFMC&pg=PA130">130</a>. </li> <li 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href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA111_111]_506-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA111_111]_506-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFSouthern2008">Southern 2008</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DqMrR29Cc7MC&pg=PA111">111</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHourani1995[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidZDh2KKSlQg4CpgPA34_34]-507"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHourani1995[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidZDh2KKSlQg4CpgPA34_34]_507-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHourani1995">Hourani 1995</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ZDh2KKSlQg4C&pg=PA34">34</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoffmann-Salz2015[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidjfApCgAAQBAJpgPA234_234]-508"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoffmann-Salz2015[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidjfApCgAAQBAJpgPA234_234]_508-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHoffmann-Salz2015">Hoffmann-Salz 2015</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jfApCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA234">234</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEYoung2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidE5yCAgAAQBAJpgPA137_137]-509"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYoung2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidE5yCAgAAQBAJpgPA137_137]_509-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFYoung2003">Young 2003</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=E5yCAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA137">137</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBall2002[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid73-JAgAAQBAJpgPA76_76]-510">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBall2002[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid73-JAgAAQBAJpgPA76_76]_510-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBall2002[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid73-JAgAAQBAJpgPA76_76]_510-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBall2002[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid73-JAgAAQBAJpgPA76_76]_510-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFBall2002">Ball 2002</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=73-JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA76">76</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoward2012[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid6QPWXrCCzBICpgPA159_159]-511">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoward2012[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid6QPWXrCCzBICpgPA159_159]_511-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoward2012[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid6QPWXrCCzBICpgPA159_159]_511-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoward2012[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid6QPWXrCCzBICpgPA159_159]_511-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFHoward2012">Howard 2012</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6QPWXrCCzBIC&pg=PA159">159</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStoneman1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8kLFfE1qPhICpgPA59_59]-512"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStoneman1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8kLFfE1qPhICpgPA59_59]_512-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFStoneman1994">Stoneman 1994</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8kLFfE1qPhIC&pg=PA59">59</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHallifax1695-513"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHallifax1695_513-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHallifax1695">Hallifax 1695</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETerpakBonfitto2017-514">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETerpakBonfitto2017_514-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETerpakBonfitto2017_514-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETerpakBonfitto2017_514-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFTerpakBonfitto2017">Terpak & Bonfitto 2017</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStoneman1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8kLFfE1qPhICpgPA7_7]-515"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStoneman1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8kLFfE1qPhICpgPA7_7]_515-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFStoneman1994">Stoneman 1994</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8kLFfE1qPhIC&pg=PA7">7</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGawlikowski2011415-516"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGawlikowski2011415_516-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGawlikowski2011">Gawlikowski 2011</a>, p. 415. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHealey2009[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidOp8VDAAAQBAJpgPA164_164]-517"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHealey2009[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidOp8VDAAAQBAJpgPA164_164]_517-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHealey2009">Healey 2009</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Op8VDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA164">164</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGawlikowski2011416-518"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGawlikowski2011416_518-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGawlikowski2011">Gawlikowski 2011</a>, p. 416. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGawlikowski2013[httpsdigiubuni-heidelbergdediglitstudia_palmyrenskie20130015image_13]-519"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGawlikowski2013[httpsdigiubuni-heidelbergdediglitstudia_palmyrenskie20130015image_13]_519-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGawlikowski2013">Gawlikowski 2013</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://digi.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/diglit/studia_palmyrenskie2013/0015/image">13</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMichalska2016-520"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMichalska2016_520-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMichalska2016">Michalska 2016</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECameronRössler2016[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidWdYoDAAAQBAJpgPA105_105]-521"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECameronRössler2016[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidWdYoDAAAQBAJpgPA105_105]_521-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCameronRössler2016">Cameron & Rössler 2016</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=WdYoDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA105">105</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDowney1996[httpjournalscambridgeorgactiondisplayAbstractfromPageonlineaid9116455_469]-522"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDowney1996[httpjournalscambridgeorgactiondisplayAbstractfromPageonlineaid9116455_469]_522-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDowney1996">Downey 1996</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=9116455">469</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeyer2017b[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid5D5nDwAAQBAJpgPA30_30]-523"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeyer2017b[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid5D5nDwAAQBAJpgPA30_30]_523-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMeyer2017b">Meyer 2017b</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5D5nDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA30">30</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECurry2012-524"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECurry2012_524-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCurry2012">Curry 2012</a>. </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources">Sources</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Palmyra&action=edit&section=49" title="Edit section: Sources">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFAddison1838" class="citation book cs1">Addison, Charles Greenstreet (1838). Damascus and Palmyra: a journey to the East. Vol. 2. Richard Bentley. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/833460514">833460514</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Damascus+and+Palmyra%3A+a+journey+to+the+East&rft.pub=Richard+Bentley&rft.date=1838&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F833460514&rft.aulast=Addison&rft.aufirst=Charles+Greenstreet&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APalmyra" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFal-AsaadChatonnetYon2005" class="citation book cs1">al-Asaad, Khaled; Chatonnet, Françoise Briquel; Yon, Jean-Baptiste (2005). "Reflections on the tokens found in the Arsu temple". In Cussini, Eleonora (ed.). A Journey to Palmyra: Collected Essays to Remember Delbert R. Hillers. Brill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-12418-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-12418-9"><bdi>978-90-04-12418-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Reflections+on+the+tokens+found+in+the+Arsu+temple&rft.btitle=A+Journey+to+Palmyra%3A+Collected+Essays+to+Remember+Delbert+R.+Hillers&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-90-04-12418-9&rft.aulast=al-Asaad&rft.aufirst=Khaled&rft.au=Chatonnet%2C+Fran%C3%A7oise+Briquel&rft.au=Yon%2C+Jean-Baptiste&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APalmyra" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFal-ʻAsqalānī1969" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">al-ʻAsqalānī, Aḥmad ibn ʻAlī Ibn Ḥajar (1969) [1446]. Ḥabashī, Ḥasan (ed.). Inbāʼ al-ghumr bi-anbāʼ al-ʻumr (in Arabic). Vol. 2. Majlis al-Aʻlá lil-Shuʼūn al-Islāmīyah: Lajnat Iḥyāʼ al-Turāth al-Islāmī. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/22742875">22742875</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Inb%C4%81%CA%BC+al-ghumr+bi-anb%C4%81%CA%BC+al-%CA%BBumr&rft.pub=Majlis+al-A%CA%BBl%C3%A1+lil-Shu%CA%BC%C5%ABn+al-Isl%C4%81m%C4%AByah%3A+Lajnat+I%E1%B8%A5y%C4%81%CA%BC+al-Tur%C4%81th+al-Isl%C4%81m%C4%AB&rft.date=1969&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F22742875&rft.aulast=al-%CA%BBAsqal%C4%81n%C4%AB&rft.aufirst=A%E1%B8%A5mad+ibn+%CA%BBAl%C4%AB+Ibn+%E1%B8%A4ajar&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APalmyra" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFal-Maqdissi2010" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">al-Maqdissi, Michel (2010). "Matériel pour l'Étude de la Ville en Syrie (Deuxième Partie): Urban Planning in Syria during the SUR (Second Urban Revolution) (Mid-third Millennium BC)". Al-Rāfidān (Journal of Western Asiatic Studies). Special Issue. Institulte for Cultural studies of Ancient Iraq, Kokushikan University. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0285-4406">0285-4406</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Al-R%C4%81fid%C4%81n+%28Journal+of+Western+Asiatic+Studies%29&rft.atitle=Mat%C3%A9riel+pour+l%27%C3%89tude+de+la+Ville+en+Syrie+%28Deuxi%C3%A8me+Partie%29%3A+Urban+Planning+in+Syria+during+the+SUR+%28Second+Urban+Revolution%29+%28Mid-third+Millennium+BC%29&rft.volume=Special+Issue&rft.date=2010&rft.issn=0285-4406&rft.aulast=al-Maqdissi&rft.aufirst=Michel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APalmyra" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFal-ʻUmarī2002" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">al-ʻUmarī, Aḥmad ibn Yaḥyá Ibn Faḍl Allāh (2002) [1348]. al-Sarīḥī, ʻAbd Allāh ibn Yaḥyá (ed.). Masālik al-abṣār fī mamālik al-amṣār (مسالك الأبصار في ممالك الأمصار) (in Arabic). Vol. 3. 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Vol. 7 (15 ed.). Dār al-ʻIlm lil-Malāyīn. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/78683884">78683884</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=al-A%CA%BBl%C4%81m+%3A+q%C4%81m%C5%ABs+tar%C4%81jim+li-ashhar+al-rij%C4%81l+wa-al-nis%C4%81%CA%BC+min+al-%CA%BBArab+wa-al-musta%CA%BBrib%C4%ABn+wa-al-mustashriq%C4%ABn&rft.edition=15&rft.pub=D%C4%81r+al-%CA%BBIlm+lil-Mal%C4%81y%C4%ABn&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F78683884&rft.aulast=al-Zirikl%C4%AB&rft.aufirst=Khayr+al-D%C4%ABn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APalmyra" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFAndo2012" class="citation book cs1">Ando, Clifford (2012). Imperial Rome AD 193 to 284: The Critical Century. 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Art of the Ancient Near East: A Resource for Educators. Metropolitan Museum of Art. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-58839-358-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-58839-358-6"><bdi>978-1-58839-358-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Art+of+the+Ancient+Near+East%3A+A+Resource+for+Educators&rft.pub=Metropolitan+Museum+of+Art&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-58839-358-6&rft.aulast=Benzel&rft.aufirst=Kim&rft.au=Graff%2C+Sarah+B.&rft.au=Rakic%2C+Yelena&rft.au=Watts%2C+Edith+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APalmyra" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBeyer1986" class="citation book cs1">Beyer, Klaus (1986) [1984]. The Aramaic Language, Its Distribution and Subdivisions. Translated by Healey, John F. Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-525-53573-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-525-53573-8"><bdi>978-3-525-53573-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Aramaic+Language%2C+Its+Distribution+and+Subdivisions&rft.pub=Vandenhoeck+%26+Ruprecht&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=978-3-525-53573-8&rft.aulast=Beyer&rft.aufirst=Klaus&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APalmyra" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBielińska1997" class="citation journal cs1">Bielińska, Dorota (1997). "Small finds from pre-Classical Palmyra". Studia Palmyreńskie. 10. 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Bulletin d'Études Orientales. 51. l'Institut français d'archéologie du Proche-Orient. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-901315-56-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-901315-56-8"><bdi>978-2-901315-56-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2077-4079">2077-4079</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bulletin+d%27%C3%89tudes+Orientales&rft.atitle=Qal%27at+Shirkuh+at+Palmyra%3A+A+Medieval+Fortress+Reinterpreted&rft.volume=51&rft.date=1999&rft.issn=2077-4079&rft.isbn=978-2-901315-56-8&rft.aulast=Byli%C5%84ski&rft.aufirst=Janusz&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APalmyra" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCameronRössler2016" class="citation book cs1">Cameron, Christina; Rössler, Mechtild (2016) [2013]. Many Voices, One Vision: The Early Years of the World Heritage Convention. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-317-10102-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-317-10102-4"><bdi>978-1-317-10102-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Many+Voices%2C+One+Vision%3A+The+Early+Years+of+the+World+Heritage+Convention&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1-317-10102-4&rft.aulast=Cameron&rft.aufirst=Christina&rft.au=R%C3%B6ssler%2C+Mechtild&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APalmyra" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCarissimo2015" class="citation web cs1">Carissimo, Justin (4 July 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/isis-propaganda-video-shows-20-syrian-government-soldiers-executed-in-palmyra-by-young-islamists-10366533.html">"Isis propaganda video shows 25 Syrian soldiers executed by teenage militants in Palmyra"</a>. The Independent. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220524/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/isis-propaganda-video-shows-20-syrian-government-soldiers-executed-in-palmyra-by-young-islamists-10366533.html">Archived</a> from the original on 24 May 2022. 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Casa Editrice Bonechi. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-88-476-0119-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-88-476-0119-2"><bdi>978-88-476-0119-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Art+and+History%3A+Syria&rft.pub=Casa+Editrice+Bonechi&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-88-476-0119-2&rft.aulast=Casule&rft.aufirst=Francesca&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APalmyra" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCave2012" class="citation book cs1">Cave, Terry (2012) [2003]. The Battle Honours of the Second World War 1939–1945 and Korea 1950–1953: British and Colonial Regiments. Andrews UK Limited. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-781-51379-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-781-51379-8"><bdi>978-1-781-51379-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Battle+Honours+of+the+Second+World+War+1939%E2%80%931945+and+Korea+1950%E2%80%931953%3A+British+and+Colonial+Regiments&rft.pub=Andrews+UK+Limited&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1-781-51379-8&rft.aulast=Cave&rft.aufirst=Terry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APalmyra" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFÇelebi1834" class="citation book cs1">Çelebi, Evliya (1834) [1681]. Narrative of Travels in Europe, Asia, and Africa in the Seventeenth Century. Vol. 1. Translated by von Hammer-Purgstall, Freiherr. 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Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-134-73140-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-134-73140-4"><bdi>978-1-134-73140-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Roman+World&rft.series=The+History+of+Civilization&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1-134-73140-4&rft.aulast=Chapot&rft.aufirst=Victor&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APalmyra" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCharnock1859" class="citation book cs1">Charnock, Richard Stephen (1859). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_I2BulY4WvsYC">Local Etymology: A Derivative Dictionary of Geographical Names</a>. 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Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-88911-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-88911-7"><bdi>978-0-521-88911-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Empires%3A+From+Mesopotamia+to+the+Rise+of+Islam&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-521-88911-7&rft.aulast=Cline&rft.aufirst=Eric+H.&rft.au=Graham%2C+Mark+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APalmyra" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCobb2001" class="citation book cs1">Cobb, Paul M. (2001). White Banners: Contention in 'Abbasid Syria, 750–880. 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Thames & Hudson. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-89158-617-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-89158-617-3"><bdi>978-0-89158-617-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Art+of+Palmyra&rft.series=Studies+in+Ancient+Art+and+Archaeology&rft.pub=Thames+%26+Hudson&rft.date=1976&rft.isbn=978-0-89158-617-3&rft.aulast=Colledge&rft.aufirst=Malcolm+Andrew+Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APalmyra" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFColledge1986" class="citation book cs1">Colledge, Malcolm Andrew Richard (1986). van Baaren, Theodoor Pieter; van den Bosch, Lourens Peter; Kippenberg, Hans Gerhard; Leertouwer, Lammert; Leemhuis, Fred; te Velde, Henk; Witte, Hans Antonius; Buning, H. (eds.). The Parthian Period. Iconography of Religions. Section XIV: Iran (Institute of Religious Iconography, State University Groningen). Vol. 3. Brill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-07115-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-07115-5"><bdi>978-90-04-07115-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0169-9873">0169-9873</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Parthian+Period&rft.series=Iconography+of+Religions.+Section+XIV%3A+Iran+%28Institute+of+Religious+Iconography%2C+State+University+Groningen%29&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=1986&rft.issn=0169-9873&rft.isbn=978-90-04-07115-5&rft.aulast=Colledge&rft.aufirst=Malcolm+Andrew+Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APalmyra" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFColledgeWiesehöfer2014" class="citation book cs1">Colledge, Malcolm Andrew Richard; Wiesehöfer, Josef (2014) [1998]. 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The Clarendon Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-5-87188-785-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-5-87188-785-1"><bdi>978-5-87188-785-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Text-Book+of+North-Semitic+Inscriptions%3A+Moabite%2C+Hebrew%2C+Phoenician%2C+Aramaic%2C+Nabataean%2C+Palmyrene%2C+Jewish&rft.pub=The+Clarendon+Press&rft.date=1903&rft.isbn=978-5-87188-785-1&rft.aulast=Cooke&rft.aufirst=George+Albert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcu31924096083104&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APalmyra" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCotterman2013" class="citation book cs1">Cotterman, William W. (2013). Improbable Women: Five who Explored the Middle East. Contemporary Issues in the Middle East. Syracuse University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8156-5231-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8156-5231-1"><bdi>978-0-8156-5231-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Improbable+Women%3A+Five+who+Explored+the+Middle+East&rft.series=Contemporary+Issues+in+the+Middle+East&rft.pub=Syracuse+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0-8156-5231-1&rft.aulast=Cotterman&rft.aufirst=William+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APalmyra" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCrawford1990" class="citation book cs1">Crawford, J. Stephens (1990). The Byzantine Shops at Sardis. Monograph / Archaeological Exploration of Sardis. Vol. 9. Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-08968-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-08968-6"><bdi>978-0-674-08968-6</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0066-5975">0066-5975</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Byzantine+Shops+at+Sardis&rft.series=Monograph+%2F+Archaeological+Exploration+of+Sardis&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1990&rft.issn=0066-5975&rft.isbn=978-0-674-08968-6&rft.aulast=Crawford&rft.aufirst=J.+Stephens&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APalmyra" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCurry2012" class="citation web cs1">Curry, Andrew (20 July 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120719115624/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2012/07/120717-palmyra-roman-city-syria-science-farming-world-ancient/">"Mystery of Lost Roman City Solved: Ancients Greened the Desert?"</a>. National Geographic News. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2012/07/120717-palmyra-roman-city-syria-science-farming-world-ancient/">the original</a> on 19 July 2012. Retrieved 11 December 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Mystery+of+Lost+Roman+City+Solved%3A+Ancients+Greened+the+Desert%3F&rft.pub=National+Geographic+News&rft.date=2012-07-20&rft.aulast=Curry&rft.aufirst=Andrew&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.nationalgeographic.com%2Fnews%2F2012%2F07%2F120717-palmyra-roman-city-syria-science-farming-world-ancient%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APalmyra" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFDąbrowa1979" class="citation journal cs1">Dąbrowa, Edward (1979). "Les Troupes Auxiliaires de L'armée Romaine en Syrie au Ier Siècle de Notre ère". Dialogues d'Histoire Ancienne. Annales littéraires de l'Université de Besançon (Volume 239). 5. les Presses universitaires de Franche-Comté. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3406%2Fdha.1979.1387">10.3406/dha.1979.1387</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-251-60239-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-251-60239-4"><bdi>978-2-251-60239-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0755-7256">0755-7256</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Dialogues+d%27Histoire+Ancienne&rft.atitle=Les+Troupes+Auxiliaires+de+L%27arm%C3%A9e+Romaine+en+Syrie+au+Ier+Si%C3%A8cle+de+Notre+%C3%A8re&rft.volume=5&rft.date=1979&rft.issn=0755-7256&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3406%2Fdha.1979.1387&rft.isbn=978-2-251-60239-4&rft.aulast=D%C4%85browa&rft.aufirst=Edward&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APalmyra" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFDąbrowa1993" class="citation journal cs1">Dąbrowa, Edward (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/legioxfretensisp0000dabr">"Legio X Fretensis. A Prosopographical Study of its Officers (I–III c. AD)"</a>. Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte. Historia Einzelschriften. 66. Franz Steiner Verlag. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-515-05809-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-515-05809-4"><bdi>978-3-515-05809-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0341-0056">0341-0056</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Historia%3A+Zeitschrift+f%C3%BCr+Alte+Geschichte&rft.atitle=Legio+X+Fretensis.+A+Prosopographical+Study+of+its+Officers+%28I%E2%80%93III+c.+AD%29&rft.volume=66&rft.date=1993&rft.issn=0341-0056&rft.isbn=978-3-515-05809-4&rft.aulast=D%C4%85browa&rft.aufirst=Edward&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Flegioxfretensisp0000dabr&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APalmyra" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFDarke2006" class="citation book cs1">Darke, Diana (2006). Syria. Bradt Travel Guides. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84162-162-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84162-162-3"><bdi>978-1-84162-162-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Syria&rft.pub=Bradt+Travel+Guides&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-1-84162-162-3&rft.aulast=Darke&rft.aufirst=Diana&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APalmyra" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFDarke2010" class="citation book cs1">Darke, Diana (2010) [2006]. Syria (2nd ed.). Bradt Travel Guides. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84162-314-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84162-314-6"><bdi>978-1-84162-314-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Syria&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Bradt+Travel+Guides&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-84162-314-6&rft.aulast=Darke&rft.aufirst=Diana&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APalmyra" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFDearden2017" class="citation web cs1">Dearden, Lizzie (2 March 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/isis-palmyra-syria-driven-out-second-time-islamic-state-ancient-roman-ruins-assad-executions-a7607351.html">"Isis driven out of ancient Syrian city of Palmyra for second time"</a>. The Independent. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220524/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/isis-palmyra-syria-driven-out-second-time-islamic-state-ancient-roman-ruins-assad-executions-a7607351.html">Archived</a> from the original on 24 May 2022. Retrieved 4 March 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Independent&rft.atitle=Isis+driven+out+of+ancient+Syrian+city+of+Palmyra+for+second+time&rft.date=2017-03-02&rft.aulast=Dearden&rft.aufirst=Lizzie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.independent.co.uk%2Fnews%2Fworld%2Fmiddle-east%2Fisis-palmyra-syria-driven-out-second-time-islamic-state-ancient-roman-ruins-assad-executions-a7607351.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APalmyra" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFDe_Blois1976" class="citation book cs1">De Blois, Lukas (1976). The Policy of the Emperor Gallienus. Dutch Archaeological and Historical Society: Studies of the Dutch Archaeological and Historical Society. Vol. 7. Brill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-04508-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-04508-8"><bdi>978-90-04-04508-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Policy+of+the+Emperor+Gallienus&rft.series=Dutch+Archaeological+and+Historical+Society%3A+Studies+of+the+Dutch+Archaeological+and+Historical+Society&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=1976&rft.isbn=978-90-04-04508-8&rft.aulast=De+Blois&rft.aufirst=Lukas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APalmyra" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFDe_Laborde1837" class="citation journal cs1">De Laborde, Leon (1837). "Journey Through Arabia Petraea, To Mount Sinai, And The Excavated City Of Petra, The Edom Of The Prophecies 1836". The Quarterly Christian Spectator. 9. New Haven: A. H. Maltby. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/176276638">176276638</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Quarterly+Christian+Spectator&rft.atitle=Journey+Through+Arabia+Petraea%2C+To+Mount+Sinai%2C+And+The+Excavated+City+Of+Petra%2C+The+Edom+Of+The+Prophecies+1836&rft.volume=9&rft.date=1837&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F176276638&rft.aulast=De+Laborde&rft.aufirst=Leon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APalmyra" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFDignasWinter2007" class="citation book cs1">Dignas, Beate; Winter, Engelbert (2007) [2001]. Rome and Persia in Late Antiquity: Neighbours and Rivals. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-84925-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-84925-8"><bdi>978-0-521-84925-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rome+and+Persia+in+Late+Antiquity%3A+Neighbours+and+Rivals&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-521-84925-8&rft.aulast=Dignas&rft.aufirst=Beate&rft.au=Winter%2C+Engelbert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APalmyra" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFDirven1998" class="citation book cs1">Dirven, Lucinda (1998). "The Palmyrene diaspora in East and West : a Syrian community in the diaspora in the Roman period". In ter Haar, Gerrie (ed.). Strangers and sojourners: religious communities in the diaspora. Peeters Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-429-0663-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-429-0663-1"><bdi>978-90-429-0663-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Palmyrene+diaspora+in+East+and+West+%3A+a+Syrian+community+in+the+diaspora+in+the+Roman+period&rft.btitle=Strangers+and+sojourners%3A+religious+communities+in+the+diaspora&rft.pub=Peeters+Publishers&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-90-429-0663-1&rft.aulast=Dirven&rft.aufirst=Lucinda&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APalmyra" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFDirven1999" class="citation book cs1">Dirven, Lucinda (1999). The Palmyrenes of Dura-Europos: A Study of Religious Interaction in Roman Syria. Religions in the Graeco-Roman World. Vol. 138. Brill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-11589-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-11589-7"><bdi>978-90-04-11589-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0927-7633">0927-7633</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Palmyrenes+of+Dura-Europos%3A+A+Study+of+Religious+Interaction+in+Roman+Syria&rft.series=Religions+in+the+Graeco-Roman+World&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=1999&rft.issn=0927-7633&rft.isbn=978-90-04-11589-7&rft.aulast=Dirven&rft.aufirst=Lucinda&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APalmyra" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFDixonSouthern2005" class="citation book cs1">Dixon, Karen R.; Southern, Patricia (2005) [1992]. The Roman Cavalry. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-135-11407-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-135-11407-7"><bdi>978-1-135-11407-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Roman+Cavalry&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-1-135-11407-7&rft.aulast=Dixon&rft.aufirst=Karen+R.&rft.au=Southern%2C+Patricia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APalmyra" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFDowney1977" class="citation book cs1">Downey, Susan (1977). ""Temples a Escaliers": The Dura Evidence". In Stroud, Ronald S.; Levine, Philip (eds.). California Studies in Classical Antiquity. Vol. 9. University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-09565-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-09565-6"><bdi>978-0-520-09565-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=%22Temples+a+Escaliers%22%3A+The+Dura+Evidence&rft.btitle=California+Studies+in+Classical+Antiquity&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1977&rft.isbn=978-0-520-09565-6&rft.aulast=Downey&rft.aufirst=Susan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APalmyra" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFDowney1996" class="citation journal cs1">Downey, Susan (1996). "Funerary sculptures of Palmyra; Review of A. Sadurska and A. Bounni, Les sculptures funéraires de Palmyre". Journal of Roman Archaeology. 9. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1047-7594">1047-7594</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Roman+Archaeology&rft.atitle=Funerary+sculptures+of+Palmyra%3B+Review+of+A.+Sadurska+and+A.+Bounni%2C+Les+sculptures+fun%C3%A9raires+de+Palmyre&rft.volume=9&rft.date=1996&rft.issn=1047-7594&rft.aulast=Downey&rft.aufirst=Susan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APalmyra" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFDrijvers1976" class="citation book cs1">Drijvers, Hendrik Jan Willem (1976). van Baaren, Theodoor Pieter; Leertouwer, Lammert; Leemhuis, Fred; Buning, H. (eds.). The Religion of Palmyra. Iconography of Religions. Section XV Mesopotamia and the Near East (Institute of Religious Iconography, State University Groningen). Brill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-585-36013-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-585-36013-3"><bdi>978-0-585-36013-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0169-8036">0169-8036</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/714982019">714982019</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Religion+of+Palmyra&rft.series=Iconography+of+Religions.+Section+XV+Mesopotamia+and+the+Near+East+%28Institute+of+Religious+Iconography%2C+State+University+Groningen%29&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=1976&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F714982019&rft.issn=0169-8036&rft.isbn=978-0-585-36013-3&rft.aulast=Drijvers&rft.aufirst=Hendrik+Jan+Willem&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APalmyra" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFDrijvers1980" class="citation book cs1">Drijvers, Hendrik Jan Willem (1980). Cults and Beliefs at Edessa. Études préliminaires aux religions orientales dans l'Empire romain. Vol. 82. Brill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-06050-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-06050-0"><bdi>978-90-04-06050-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cults+and+Beliefs+at+Edessa&rft.series=%C3%89tudes+pr%C3%A9liminaires+aux+religions+orientales+dans+l%27Empire+romain&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=1980&rft.isbn=978-90-04-06050-0&rft.aulast=Drijvers&rft.aufirst=Hendrik+Jan+Willem&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APalmyra" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFDrijvers1990" class="citation book cs1">Drijvers, Hendrik Jan Willem (1990). "The Syrian Cult Relief". In Kippenberg, Hans G.; van den Bosch, Lourens P.; Leertouwer, Lammert; Witte, Hans Antonius (eds.). Genres in Visual Representations: Proceedings of a Conference Held in 1986 by Invitation of the Werner-Reimers-Stiftung in Bad Homburg (Federal Republic of Germany). Visible Religion. Annual for Religious Iconography (Institute of Religious Iconography, State University Groningen). Vol. 7. Brill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-09094-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-09094-1"><bdi>978-90-04-09094-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Syrian+Cult+Relief&rft.btitle=Genres+in+Visual+Representations%3A+Proceedings+of+a+Conference+Held+in+1986+by+Invitation+of+the+Werner-Reimers-Stiftung+in+Bad+Homburg+%28Federal+Republic+of+Germany%29.&rft.series=Visible+Religion.+Annual+for+Religious+Iconography+%28Institute+of+Religious+Iconography%2C+State+University+Groningen%29&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-90-04-09094-1&rft.aulast=Drijvers&rft.aufirst=Hendrik+Jan+Willem&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APalmyra" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFDrinkwater2005" class="citation book cs1">Drinkwater, John (2005). "Maximinus to Diocletian and the 'crisis'". In Bowman, Alan K.; Garnsey, Peter; Cameron, Averil (eds.). The Crisis of Empire, AD 193–337. The Cambridge Ancient History. Vol. 12. 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Thomas Yoseloff. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/900833618">900833618</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+the+Jews+From+the+Roman+Empire+to+the+Early+Medieval+Period&rft.pub=Thomas+Yoseloff&rft.date=1968&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F900833618&rft.aulast=Dubnov&rft.aufirst=Simon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APalmyra" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFDupont-Sommer1970" class="citation journal cs1">Dupont-Sommer, André (1970). "Une Nouvelle Inscription Araméenne d'Asoka Trouvée Dans la Vallée du Laghman (Afghanistan)". Comptes Rendus des Séances de l'Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres. 114 (1). Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0151-0509">0151-0509</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Comptes+Rendus+des+S%C3%A9ances+de+l%27Acad%C3%A9mie+des+Inscriptions+et+Belles-Lettres&rft.atitle=Une+Nouvelle+Inscription+Aram%C3%A9enne+d%27Asoka+Trouv%C3%A9e+Dans+la+Vall%C3%A9e+du+Laghman+%28Afghanistan%29&rft.volume=114&rft.issue=1&rft.date=1970&rft.issn=0151-0509&rft.aulast=Dupont-Sommer&rft.aufirst=Andr%C3%A9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APalmyra" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFEdwell2008" class="citation book cs1">Edwell, Peter (2008). Between Rome and Persia: The Middle Euphrates, Mesopotamia and Palmyra Under Roman Control. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-134-09573-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-134-09573-5"><bdi>978-1-134-09573-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Between+Rome+and+Persia%3A+The+Middle+Euphrates%2C+Mesopotamia+and+Palmyra+Under+Roman+Control&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1-134-09573-5&rft.aulast=Edwell&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APalmyra" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFEhrenkreutz1972" class="citation book cs1">Ehrenkreutz, Andrew S. (1972). Saladin. State University of New York Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87395-095-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87395-095-4"><bdi>978-0-87395-095-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Saladin&rft.pub=State+University+of+New+York+Press&rft.date=1972&rft.isbn=978-0-87395-095-4&rft.aulast=Ehrenkreutz&rft.aufirst=Andrew+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APalmyra" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFÉlisséeff2007" class="citation book cs1">Élisséeff, Nikita (2007). "Homs". In Bosworth, Clifford Edmund (ed.). Historic Cities of the Islamic World. EI Reference Guides. Vol. 1. Brill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-15388-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-15388-2"><bdi>978-90-04-15388-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Homs&rft.btitle=Historic+Cities+of+the+Islamic+World&rft.series=EI+Reference+Guides&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-90-04-15388-2&rft.aulast=%C3%89liss%C3%A9eff&rft.aufirst=Nikita&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APalmyra" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFElton1996" class="citation book cs1">Elton, Hugh (1996). Frontiers of the Roman Empire. Indiana University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-253-33111-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-253-33111-3"><bdi>978-0-253-33111-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Frontiers+of+the+Roman+Empire&rft.pub=Indiana+University+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-253-33111-3&rft.aulast=Elton&rft.aufirst=Hugh&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APalmyra" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFEvansKevorkian2000" class="citation book cs1">Evans, Jean M.; Kevorkian, Hagop (2000). "Palmyra". In Milleker, Elizabeth J. (ed.). The Year One: Art of the Ancient World East and West. Metropolitan Museum of Art. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87099-961-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87099-961-1"><bdi>978-0-87099-961-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Palmyra&rft.btitle=The+Year+One%3A+Art+of+the+Ancient+World+East+and+West&rft.pub=Metropolitan+Museum+of+Art&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-87099-961-1&rft.aulast=Evans&rft.aufirst=Jean+M.&rft.au=Kevorkian%2C+Hagop&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APalmyra" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFFellmann1987" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Fellmann, Rudolf (1987). "Der Palast der Königin Zenobia". In al-Asaad, Khaled; Ruprechtsberger, Erwin Maria (eds.). Palmyra, Geschichte, Kunst und Kultur der Syrischen Oasenstadt: Einführende Beiträge und Katalog zur Ausstellung. Linzer Archäologische Forschungen (in German). Vol. 16. Gutenberg. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-900-40115-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-900-40115-3"><bdi>978-3-900-40115-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Der+Palast+der+K%C3%B6nigin+Zenobia&rft.btitle=Palmyra%2C+Geschichte%2C+Kunst+und+Kultur+der+Syrischen+Oasenstadt%3A+Einf%C3%BChrende+Beitr%C3%A4ge+und+Katalog+zur+Ausstellung&rft.series=Linzer+Arch%C3%A4ologische+Forschungen&rft.pub=Gutenberg&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=978-3-900-40115-3&rft.aulast=Fellmann&rft.aufirst=Rudolf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APalmyra" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFFields2008" class="citation book cs1">Fields, Nic (2008). The Walls of Rome. Osprey Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84603-198-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84603-198-4"><bdi>978-1-84603-198-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Walls+of+Rome&rft.pub=Osprey+Publishing&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1-84603-198-4&rft.aulast=Fields&rft.aufirst=Nic&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APalmyra" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFFowden1999" class="citation book cs1">Fowden, Elizabeth Key (1999). The Barbarian Plain: Saint Sergius between Rome and Iran. Transformation of the Classical Heritage. Vol. 28. University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-92220-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-92220-4"><bdi>978-0-520-92220-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Barbarian+Plain%3A+Saint+Sergius+between+Rome+and+Iran&rft.series=Transformation+of+the+Classical+Heritage&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-520-92220-4&rft.aulast=Fowden&rft.aufirst=Elizabeth+Key&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APalmyra" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFFowden2004" class="citation book cs1">Fowden, Garth (2004). Qusayr 'Amra: Art and the Umayyad Elite in Late Antique Syria. Transformation of the Classical Heritage Series. Vol. 36. University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-92960-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-92960-9"><bdi>978-0-520-92960-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Qusayr+%27Amra%3A+Art+and+the+Umayyad+Elite+in+Late+Antique+Syria&rft.series=Transformation+of+the+Classical+Heritage+Series&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-520-92960-9&rft.aulast=Fowden&rft.aufirst=Garth&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APalmyra" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGambino2016" class="citation web cs1">Gambino, Lauren (28 March 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/mar/28/palmyra-ruins-syria-recapture-isis-antiquities">"Damages to Palmyra ruins in Syrian recapture less than feared, experts say"</a>. The Guardian. Retrieved 12 December 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Damages+to+Palmyra+ruins+in+Syrian+recapture+less+than+feared%2C+experts+say&rft.date=2016-03-28&rft.aulast=Gambino&rft.aufirst=Lauren&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fworld%2F2016%2Fmar%2F28%2Fpalmyra-ruins-syria-recapture-isis-antiquities&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APalmyra" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGates2003" class="citation book cs1">Gates, Charles (2003). Ancient Cities: The Archaeology of Urban Life in the Ancient Near East and Egypt, Greece and Rome. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-134-67662-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-134-67662-0"><bdi>978-1-134-67662-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Cities%3A+The+Archaeology+of+Urban+Life+in+the+Ancient+Near+East+and+Egypt%2C+Greece+and+Rome&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-1-134-67662-0&rft.aulast=Gates&rft.aufirst=Charles&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APalmyra" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGawlikowski2005" class="citation book cs1">Gawlikowski, Michal (2005). "The City of the Dead". In Cussini, Eleonora (ed.). A Journey to Palmyra: Collected Essays to Remember Delbert R. Hillers. Brill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-12418-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-12418-9"><bdi>978-90-04-12418-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+City+of+the+Dead&rft.btitle=A+Journey+to+Palmyra%3A+Collected+Essays+to+Remember+Delbert+R.+Hillers&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-90-04-12418-9&rft.aulast=Gawlikowski&rft.aufirst=Michal&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APalmyra" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGawlikowski2011" class="citation journal cs1">Gawlikowski, Michał (2011). Zych, Iwona; Szymczak, Agnieszka (eds.). "Palmyra: reexcavating the site of the Tariff (fieldwork in 2010 and 2011)". Polish Archaeology in the Mediterranean. 23 (1). 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Studia Palmyreńskie. 12: Fifty Years of Polish Excavations in Palmyra 1959–2009, International Conference, Warsaw, 6–8 December 2010. 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Dover publications. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-486-42519-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-486-42519-1"><bdi>978-0-486-42519-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Damascus+Chronicle+of+the+Crusades%3A+Extracted+and+Translated+from+the+Chronicle+of+Ibn+Al-Qalanisi&rft.edition=Dover&rft.pub=Dover+publications&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-486-42519-1&rft.aulast=Gibb&rft.aufirst=Hamilton+Alexander+Rosskeen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fdamascuschronicl00harg&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APalmyra" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGrabarHolodKnustadTrousdale1978" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Grabar, Oleg; Holod, Reneta; Knustad, James; Trousdale, William (1978). 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The Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Letters- Specialtrykkeriet Viborg a-s. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-8-773-04397-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-8-773-04397-4"><bdi>978-8-773-04397-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1904-5506">1904-5506</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=What+was+it+Like+to+be+a+Palmyrene+in+the+Age+of+Crisis%3F+Changing+Palmyrene+Identities+in+the+Third+Century+AD&rft.btitle=The+World+of+Palmyra&rft.series=Palmyrenske+Studier&rft.pub=The+Royal+Danish+Academy+of+Sciences+and+Letters-+Specialtrykkeriet+Viborg+a-s&rft.date=2016&rft.issn=1904-5506&rft.isbn=978-8-773-04397-4&rft.aulast=Hartmann&rft.aufirst=Udo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F26788091&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APalmyra" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHealey1990" class="citation book cs1">Healey, John F. (1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/earlyalphabet0000heal">The Early Alphabet</a>. Reading the Past. Vol. 9. University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-07309-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-07309-8"><bdi>978-0-520-07309-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1754-7989">1754-7989</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Early+Alphabet&rft.series=Reading+the+Past&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1990&rft.issn=1754-7989&rft.isbn=978-0-520-07309-8&rft.aulast=Healey&rft.aufirst=John+F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fearlyalphabet0000heal&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APalmyra" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHealey2009" class="citation book cs1">Healey, John F. 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The Idea and Ideal of the Town Between Late Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages. The Transformation of the Roman World. Vol. 4. 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Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-134-32351-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-134-32351-7"><bdi>978-1-134-32351-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Julia+Domna%3A+Syrian+Empress&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1-134-32351-7&rft.aulast=Levick&rft.aufirst=Barbara&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APalmyra" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLimet1977" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Limet, Henri (1977). "Permanence et changement dans la toponymie". In Fahd, Toufic (ed.). La Toponymie Antique (actes du colloque de Strasbourg, 12–14 juin 1975). Travaux du Centre de recherche sur le Proche-Orient et la Grèce antiques (in French). Vol. 4. Brill. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/629792501">629792501</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Permanence+et+changement+dans+la+toponymie&rft.btitle=La+Toponymie+Antique+%28actes+du+colloque+de+Strasbourg%2C+12%E2%80%9314+juin+1975%29&rft.series=Travaux+du+Centre+de+recherche+sur+le+Proche-Orient+et+la+Gr%C3%A8ce+antiques&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=1977&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F629792501&rft.aulast=Limet&rft.aufirst=Henri&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APalmyra" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLiverani2013" class="citation book cs1">Liverani, Mario (2013). The Ancient Near East: History, Society and Economy. 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The Telegraph. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/syria/11679477/Syrian-regime-launches-air-strike-on-world-famous-ancient-city-of-Palmyra.html">the original</a> on 16 June 2015. Retrieved 12 December 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Syrian+regime+%27launches+air+strike+on+world+famous+ancient+city+of+Palmyra%27&rft.pub=The+Telegraph&rft.date=2015-06-16&rft.aulast=Loveluck&rft.aufirst=Louisa&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.telegraph.co.uk%2Fnews%2Fworldnews%2Fmiddleeast%2Fsyria%2F11679477%2FSyrian-regime-launches-air-strike-on-world-famous-ancient-city-of-Palmyra.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APalmyra" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLuxenberg2007" class="citation book cs1">Luxenberg, Christoph (2007) [2000]. 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In Allchin, Frank Raymond; Hammond, Norman (eds.). The Archaeology of Afghanistan from Earliest Times to the Timurid Period. Academic Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-120-50440-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-120-50440-4"><bdi>978-0-120-50440-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Early+Historic+Period%3A+Achaemenids+and+Greeks&rft.btitle=The+Archaeology+of+Afghanistan+from+Earliest+Times+to+the+Timurid+Period&rft.pub=Academic+Press&rft.date=1978&rft.isbn=978-0-120-50440-4&rft.aulast=MacDowall&rft.aufirst=David+w.&rft.au=Taddei%2C+Maurizio&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APalmyra" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMackay2004" class="citation book cs1">Mackay, Christopher S. (2004). Ancient Rome: A Military and Political History. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-80918-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-80918-4"><bdi>978-0-521-80918-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Rome%3A+A+Military+and+Political+History&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-521-80918-4&rft.aulast=Mackay&rft.aufirst=Christopher+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APalmyra" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMackay2015" class="citation web cs1">Mackay, Mairi (18 May 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://edition.cnn.com/2015/05/15/middleeast/syria-palmyra-isis/">"Palmyra: Will ISIS bulldoze ancient Syrian city?"</a>. CNN. 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Polish Centre of Mediterranean Archaeology, University of Warsaw. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0081-6787">0081-6787</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Studia+Palmyre%C5%84skie&rft.atitle=Excavating+the+basilicas&rft.volume=12+%28Fifty+Years+of+Polish+Excavations+in+Palmyra+1959%E2%80%932009%3A+International+Conference%2C+Warsaw%2C+6%E2%80%938+December+2010%29&rft.date=2013&rft.issn=0081-6787&rft.aulast=Majcherek&rft.aufirst=Grzegorz&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APalmyra" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMajor2001" class="citation book cs1">Major, Balázs (2001). "Al-Malik Al-Mujahid, Ruler of Homs, and the Hospitallers (The Evidence in the Chronicle of Ibn Wasil)". In Hunyadi, Zsolt; Laszlovszky, József (eds.). The Crusades and the Military Orders: Expanding the Frontiers of Medieval Latin Christianity. Central European University Medievalia Series. Vol. 1. Central European University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-963-9241-42-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-963-9241-42-8"><bdi>978-963-9241-42-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1587-6470">1587-6470</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Al-Malik+Al-Mujahid%2C+Ruler+of+Homs%2C+and+the+Hospitallers+%28The+Evidence+in+the+Chronicle+of+Ibn+Wasil%29&rft.btitle=The+Crusades+and+the+Military+Orders%3A+Expanding+the+Frontiers+of+Medieval+Latin+Christianity&rft.series=Central+European+University+Medievalia+Series&rft.pub=Central+European+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.issn=1587-6470&rft.isbn=978-963-9241-42-8&rft.aulast=Major&rft.aufirst=Bal%C3%A1zs&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APalmyra" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMakieh2015" class="citation web cs1">Makieh, Kinda (4 October 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-palmyra-idUKKCN0RY0YN20151004">"Islamic State militants blow up ancient Arch of Triumph in Palmyra"</a>. Reuters. Retrieved 2 December 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Islamic+State+militants+blow+up+ancient+Arch+of+Triumph+in+Palmyra&rft.pub=Reuters&rft.date=2015-10-04&rft.aulast=Makieh&rft.aufirst=Kinda&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.reuters.com%2Farticle%2Fus-mideast-crisis-palmyra-idUKKCN0RY0YN20151004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APalmyra" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMakieh2016" class="citation web cs1">Makieh, Kinda (2 April 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria-palmyra-idUSKCN0WX1Z3">"Palmyra's dynamited temple can be restored, de-miners use robots"</a>. Reuters. Retrieved 12 December 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Palmyra%27s+dynamited+temple+can+be+restored%2C+de-miners+use+robots&rft.pub=Reuters&rft.date=2016-04-02&rft.aulast=Makieh&rft.aufirst=Kinda&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.reuters.com%2Farticle%2Fus-mideast-crisis-syria-palmyra-idUSKCN0WX1Z3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APalmyra" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMakiehFrancis2017" class="citation web cs1">Makieh, Kinda; Francis, Ellen (3 March 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria-palmyra-idUSKBN16A1L2">"Less damage to ancient Palmyra than feared, Syrian antiquities chief says"</a>. Reuters. Retrieved 6 March 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Less+damage+to+ancient+Palmyra+than+feared%2C+Syrian+antiquities+chief+says&rft.pub=Reuters&rft.date=2017-03-03&rft.aulast=Makieh&rft.aufirst=Kinda&rft.au=Francis%2C+Ellen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.reuters.com%2Farticle%2Fus-mideast-crisis-syria-palmyra-idUSKBN16A1L2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APalmyra" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMakiehPerryMerriman2017" class="citation web cs1">Makieh, Kinda; Perry, Tom; Merriman, Jane (1 October 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171001172121/https://uk.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria-statue/palmyra-statue-damaged-by-islamic-state-goes-on-display-in-damascus-idUKKCN1C61FA">"Palmyra statue damaged by Islamic State goes on display in Damascus"</a>. Reuters. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://uk.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria-statue/palmyra-statue-damaged-by-islamic-state-goes-on-display-in-damascus-idUKKCN1C61FA">the original</a> on 1 October 2017. Retrieved 3 October 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Palmyra+statue+damaged+by+Islamic+State+goes+on+display+in+Damascus&rft.pub=Reuters&rft.date=2017-10-01&rft.aulast=Makieh&rft.aufirst=Kinda&rft.au=Perry%2C+Tom&rft.au=Merriman%2C+Jane&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fuk.reuters.com%2Farticle%2Fus-mideast-crisis-syria-statue%2Fpalmyra-statue-damaged-by-islamic-state-goes-on-display-in-damascus-idUKKCN1C61FA&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APalmyra" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMaqdisi2017" class="citation web cs1">Maqdisi, Firas (5 March 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria-palmyra-idUSKBN16B0Q2">"Expert says Islamic State has badly damaged major Palmyra monument"</a>. Reuters. Retrieved 6 March 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Expert+says+Islamic+State+has+badly+damaged+major+Palmyra+monument&rft.pub=Reuters&rft.date=2017-03-05&rft.aulast=Maqdisi&rft.aufirst=Firas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.reuters.com%2Farticle%2Fus-mideast-crisis-syria-palmyra-idUSKBN16B0Q2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APalmyra" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMarkowski2005" class="citation journal cs1">Markowski, Bartosz (2005). Gawlikowski, Michał; Daszewski, Wiktor A. (eds.). "The Lion of Allat in Palmyra New Museum Display Project". Polish Archaeology in the Mediterranean. 16. Warsaw University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1234-5415">1234-5415</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Polish+Archaeology+in+the+Mediterranean&rft.atitle=The+Lion+of+Allat+in+Palmyra+New+Museum+Display+Project&rft.volume=16&rft.date=2005&rft.issn=1234-5415&rft.aulast=Markowski&rft.aufirst=Bartosz&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APalmyra" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMatthiae2017" class="citation web cs1">Matthiae, Paolo (30 June 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220221072210/https://www.ansamed.info/ansamed/en/news/sections/culture/2017/06/28/archeaologist-says-70-of-palmyra-can-be-rebuilt_1003e771-b64b-4c8e-83b8-0a4aa7f362b5.html">"Archeaologist says '70% of Palmyra can be rebuilt'"</a>. Agenzia Nazionale Stampa Associata (ANSA). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ansamed.info/ansamed/en/news/sections/culture/2017/06/28/archeaologist-says-70-of-palmyra-can-be-rebuilt_1003e771-b64b-4c8e-83b8-0a4aa7f362b5.html">the original</a> on 21 February 2022. Retrieved 4 July 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Archeaologist+says+%2770%25+of+Palmyra+can+be+rebuilt%27&rft.pub=Agenzia+Nazionale+Stampa+Associata+%28ANSA%29&rft.date=2017-06-30&rft.aulast=Matthiae&rft.aufirst=Paolo&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ansamed.info%2Fansamed%2Fen%2Fnews%2Fsections%2Fculture%2F2017%2F06%2F28%2Farcheaologist-says-70-of-palmyra-can-be-rebuilt_1003e771-b64b-4c8e-83b8-0a4aa7f362b5.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APalmyra" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMacdonald2009" class="citation book cs1">Macdonald, Michael C. A. (2009). "On Saracens, the Rawwāfah Inscription and the Roman Army". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/4421918">Literacy and Identity in Pre-Islamic Arabia</a>. Variorum Collected Studies Series. Ashgate Variorum. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-754-65965-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-754-65965-5"><bdi>978-0-754-65965-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=On+Saracens%2C+the+Raww%C4%81fah+Inscription+and+the+Roman+Army&rft.btitle=Literacy+and+Identity+in+Pre-Islamic+Arabia&rft.series=Variorum+Collected+Studies+Series&rft.pub=Ashgate+Variorum&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-754-65965-5&rft.aulast=Macdonald&rft.aufirst=Michael+C.+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F4421918&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APalmyra" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMcGirk2015" class="citation web cs1">McGirk, Tim (10 July 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150714072120/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/2015/07/150710-palmyra-syria-isis-looting-museum-archaeology/">"Syrians Race to Save Ancient City's Treasures from ISIS"</a>. 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Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-36232-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-36232-1"><bdi>978-0-674-36232-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Greek+Discovery+of+Politics&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-0-674-36232-1&rft.aulast=Meier&rft.aufirst=Christian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APalmyra" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMennen2011" class="citation book cs1">Mennen, Inge (2011). Power and Status in the Roman Empire, AD 193–284. Impact of Empire. Vol. 12. 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Palmyrena: Palmyra and the Surrounding Territory from the Roman to the Early Islamic Period. Archaeopress Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-784-91708-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-784-91708-1"><bdi>978-1-784-91708-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Palmyrena%3A+Palmyra+and+the+Surrounding+Territory+from+the+Roman+to+the+Early+Islamic+Period&rft.pub=Archaeopress+Publishing&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-1-784-91708-1&rft.aulast=Meyer&rft.aufirst=J%C3%B8rgen+Christian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APalmyra" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMeyer2017b" class="citation book cs1">Meyer, Jørgen Christian (2017b). "The Bride of the Dry Steppe: Palmyra and the Surrounding Territory". 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Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-88402-214-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-88402-214-5"><bdi>978-0-88402-214-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Byzantium+and+the+Arabs+in+the+Sixth+Century+%28Part1%3A+Political+and+Military+History%29&rft.pub=Dumbarton+Oaks+Research+Library+and+Collection&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-88402-214-5&rft.aulast=Shah%C3%AEd&rft.aufirst=Irfan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APalmyra" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFShahîd2002" class="citation book cs1">Shahîd, Irfan (2002). Byzantium and the Arabs in the Sixth Century (Part1: Toponymy, Monuments, Historical Geography, and Frontier Studies). Vol. 2. Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-88402-284-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-88402-284-8"><bdi>978-0-88402-284-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Byzantium+and+the+Arabs+in+the+Sixth+Century+%28Part1%3A+Toponymy%2C+Monuments%2C+Historical+Geography%2C+and+Frontier+Studies%29&rft.pub=Dumbarton+Oaks+Research+Library+and+Collection&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-88402-284-8&rft.aulast=Shah%C3%AEd&rft.aufirst=Irfan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APalmyra" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSidebothamHenseNouwens2008" class="citation book cs1">Sidebotham, Steven E.; Hense, Martin; Nouwens, Hendrikje M. (2008). The Red Land: The Illustrated Archaeology of Egypt's Eastern Desert. American University in Cairo Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-977-416-094-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-977-416-094-3"><bdi>978-977-416-094-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Red+Land%3A+The+Illustrated+Archaeology+of+Egypt%27s+Eastern+Desert&rft.pub=American+University+in+Cairo+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-977-416-094-3&rft.aulast=Sidebotham&rft.aufirst=Steven+E.&rft.au=Hense%2C+Martin&rft.au=Nouwens%2C+Hendrikje+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APalmyra" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSivertsev2002" class="citation book cs1">Sivertsev, Alexei (2002). Private Households and Public Politics in 3rd–5th Century Jewish Palestine. Texte und Studien zum antiken Judentum. Vol. 90. Mohr Siebeck. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-16-147780-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-16-147780-5"><bdi>978-3-16-147780-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0721-8753">0721-8753</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Private+Households+and+Public+Politics+in+3rd%E2%80%935th+Century+Jewish+Palestine&rft.series=Texte+und+Studien+zum+antiken+Judentum&rft.pub=Mohr+Siebeck&rft.date=2002&rft.issn=0721-8753&rft.isbn=978-3-16-147780-5&rft.aulast=Sivertsev&rft.aufirst=Alexei&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APalmyra" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSmith1956" class="citation journal cs1">Smith, Sidney (1956). "Ursu and Ḫaššum". Anatolian Studies. 6. Cambridge University Press on Behalf of the British Institute of Archaeology at Ankara: 35–43. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3642395">10.2307/3642395</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0066-1546">0066-1546</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3642395">3642395</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:155659015">155659015</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Anatolian+Studies&rft.atitle=Ursu+and+%E1%B8%AAa%C5%A1%C5%A1um&rft.volume=6&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E35-%3C%2Fspan%3E43&rft.date=1956&rft.issn=0066-1546&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A155659015%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3642395%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F3642395&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=Sidney&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APalmyra" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSmith_II2013" class="citation book cs1">Smith II, Andrew M. (2013). Roman Palmyra: Identity, Community, and State Formation. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-986110-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-986110-1"><bdi>978-0-19-986110-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Roman+Palmyra%3A+Identity%2C+Community%2C+and+State+Formation&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0-19-986110-1&rft.aulast=Smith+II&rft.aufirst=Andrew+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APalmyra" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSommer2018" class="citation book cs1">Sommer, Michael (2018). Palmyra: a History. Cities of the Ancient World. Vol. 6. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-72002-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-72002-1"><bdi>978-0-415-72002-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Palmyra%3A+a+History&rft.series=Cities+of+the+Ancient+World&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-0-415-72002-1&rft.aulast=Sommer&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APalmyra" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSouthern2008" class="citation book cs1">Southern, Patricia (2008). Empress Zenobia: Palmyra's Rebel Queen. Continuum International Publishing Group. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4411-4248-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4411-4248-1"><bdi>978-1-4411-4248-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Empress+Zenobia%3A+Palmyra%27s+Rebel+Queen&rft.pub=Continuum+International+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1-4411-4248-1&rft.aulast=Southern&rft.aufirst=Patricia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APalmyra" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSpeake1996" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Speake, Graham (1996). "Palmyra (Homs, Syria)". In Berney, Kathryn Ann; Ring, Trudy; Watson, Noelle (eds.). International Dictionary of Historic Places. Vol. 4 (Middle East and Africe). Fitzroy Dearborn Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-884964-03-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-884964-03-9"><bdi>978-1-884964-03-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Palmyra+%28Homs%2C+Syria%29&rft.btitle=International+Dictionary+of+Historic+Places&rft.pub=Fitzroy+Dearborn+Publishers&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-1-884964-03-9&rft.aulast=Speake&rft.aufirst=Graham&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APalmyra" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSquires2017" class="citation news cs1">Squires, Nick (16 February 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2017/02/16/stone-sculptures-smashed-isil-ancient-city-palmyra-restored/">"Stone Sculptures Smashed by ISIL in Ancient City of Palmyra Restored to Former Glory by Italian Experts"</a>. The Telegraph. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220112/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2017/02/16/stone-sculptures-smashed-isil-ancient-city-palmyra-restored/">Archived</a> from the original on 12 January 2022. Retrieved 16 June 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Telegraph&rft.atitle=Stone+Sculptures+Smashed+by+ISIL+in+Ancient+City+of+Palmyra+Restored+to+Former+Glory+by+Italian+Experts&rft.date=2017-02-16&rft.aulast=Squires&rft.aufirst=Nick&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.telegraph.co.uk%2Fnews%2F2017%2F02%2F16%2Fstone-sculptures-smashed-isil-ancient-city-palmyra-restored%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APalmyra" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFStoneman1994" class="citation book cs1">Stoneman, Richard (1994) [1992]. Palmyra and Its Empire: Zenobia's Revolt Against Rome. University of Michigan Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-472-08315-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-472-08315-2"><bdi>978-0-472-08315-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Palmyra+and+Its+Empire%3A+Zenobia%27s+Revolt+Against+Rome&rft.pub=University+of+Michigan+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-472-08315-2&rft.aulast=Stoneman&rft.aufirst=Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APalmyra" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFStrong1995" class="citation book cs1">Strong, Donald Emrys (1995) [1976]. Toynbee, Jocelyn Mary Catherine; Ling, Roger (eds.). Roman Art. Pelican History of Art. Vol. 44. Yale University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-05293-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-300-05293-0"><bdi>978-0-300-05293-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0553-4755">0553-4755</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Roman+Art&rft.series=Pelican+History+of+Art&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.issn=0553-4755&rft.isbn=978-0-300-05293-0&rft.aulast=Strong&rft.aufirst=Donald+Emrys&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APalmyra" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFTeixidor1979" class="citation book cs1">Teixidor, Javier (1979). The Pantheon of Palmyra. Études préliminaires aux religions orientales dans l'Empire romain. Vol. 79. Brill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-05987-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-05987-0"><bdi>978-90-04-05987-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Pantheon+of+Palmyra&rft.series=%C3%89tudes+pr%C3%A9liminaires+aux+religions+orientales+dans+l%27Empire+romain&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=1979&rft.isbn=978-90-04-05987-0&rft.aulast=Teixidor&rft.aufirst=Javier&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APalmyra" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFTeixidor2005" class="citation book cs1">Teixidor, Javier (2005). "Palmyra in the third century". In Cussini, Eleonora (ed.). A Journey to Palmyra: Collected Essays to Remember Delbert R. Hillers. Brill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-12418-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-12418-9"><bdi>978-90-04-12418-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Palmyra+in+the+third+century&rft.btitle=A+Journey+to+Palmyra%3A+Collected+Essays+to+Remember+Delbert+R.+Hillers&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-90-04-12418-9&rft.aulast=Teixidor&rft.aufirst=Javier&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APalmyra" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFTerpakBonfitto2017" class="citation web cs1">Terpak, Frances; Bonfitto, Peter Louis (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.getty.edu/research/exhibitions_events/exhibitions/palmyra/index.html">"The Legacy of Ancient Palmyra"</a>. The Getty Research Institute. Retrieved 10 February 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Legacy+of+Ancient+Palmyra&rft.pub=The+Getty+Research+Institute&rft.date=2017&rft.aulast=Terpak&rft.aufirst=Frances&rft.au=Bonfitto%2C+Peter+Louis&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.getty.edu%2Fresearch%2Fexhibitions_events%2Fexhibitions%2Fpalmyra%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APalmyra" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFTharoorMaruf2016" class="citation web cs1">Tharoor, Kanishk; Maruf, Maryam (1 March 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-35688943">"Museum of Lost Objects: The Temple of Bel"</a>. BBC News. Retrieved 29 June 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Museum+of+Lost+Objects%3A+The+Temple+of+Bel&rft.pub=BBC+News&rft.date=2016-03-01&rft.aulast=Tharoor&rft.aufirst=Kanishk&rft.au=Maruf%2C+Maryam&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.com%2Fnews%2Fmagazine-35688943&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APalmyra" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFTomlinson2003" class="citation book cs1">Tomlinson, Richard A. (2003) [1992]. From Mycenae to Constantinople: The Evolution of the Ancient City. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-134-92894-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-134-92894-1"><bdi>978-1-134-92894-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+Mycenae+to+Constantinople%3A+The+Evolution+of+the+Ancient+City&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-1-134-92894-1&rft.aulast=Tomlinson&rft.aufirst=Richard+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APalmyra" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFTuck2015" class="citation book cs1">Tuck, Steven L. (2015). A History of Roman Art. John Wiley & Sons. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4443-3025-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4443-3025-0"><bdi>978-1-4443-3025-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Roman+Art&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1-4443-3025-0&rft.aulast=Tuck&rft.aufirst=Steven+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APalmyra" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFUnesco2015" class="citation web cs1">Unesco (24 August 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220910123554/https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1339">"Director-General of UNESCO Irina Bokova firmly condemns the destruction of Palmyra's ancient temple of Baalshamin, Syria"</a>. Unesco. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1339">the original</a> on 10 September 2022. Retrieved 10 September 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Director-General+of+UNESCO+Irina+Bokova+firmly+condemns+the+destruction+of+Palmyra%27s+ancient+temple+of+Baalshamin%2C+Syria&rft.pub=Unesco&rft.date=2015-08-24&rft.au=Unesco&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwhc.unesco.org%2Fen%2Fnews%2F1339&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APalmyra" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFvan_der_Toorn2019" class="citation book cs1">van der Toorn, Karel (2019). Becoming Diaspora Jews: Behind the Story of Elephantine. Yale University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-24949-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-300-24949-1"><bdi>978-0-300-24949-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Becoming+Diaspora+Jews%3A+Behind+the+Story+of+Elephantine&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-0-300-24949-1&rft.aulast=van+der+Toorn&rft.aufirst=Karel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APalmyra" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFvan_Koppen2015" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">van Koppen, Frans (2015). Pfälzner, Peter (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/12137231">"Qaṭna in altsyrischer Zeit"</a>. Qaṭna Studien Supplementa: Übergreifende und vergleichende Forschungsaktivitäten des Qaṭna-Projekts der Universität Tübingen (in German). 2: Qaṭna and the Networks of Bronze Age Globalism. Proceedings of an International Conference in Stuttgart and Tübingen in October 2009. Harrassowitz Verlag. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-447-10350-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-447-10350-3"><bdi>978-3-447-10350-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2195-4305">2195-4305</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Qa%E1%B9%ADna+Studien+Supplementa%3A+%C3%9Cbergreifende+und+vergleichende+Forschungsaktivit%C3%A4ten+des+Qa%E1%B9%ADna-Projekts+der+Universit%C3%A4t+T%C3%BCbingen&rft.atitle=Qa%E1%B9%ADna+in+altsyrischer+Zeit&rft.volume=2%3A+Qa%E1%B9%ADna+and+the+Networks+of+Bronze+Age+Globalism.+Proceedings+of+an+International+Conference+in+Stuttgart+and+T%C3%BCbingen+in+October+2009&rft.date=2015&rft.issn=2195-4305&rft.isbn=978-3-447-10350-3&rft.aulast=van+Koppen&rft.aufirst=Frans&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F12137231&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APalmyra" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFVasudevan1995" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Vasudevan, Aruna (1995). "Athens (Attica, Greece): Agora". In Ring, Trudy; Salkin, Robert M.; La Boda, Sharon (eds.). International Dictionary of Historic Places. Vol. 3 (Southern Europe). Fitzroy Dearborn Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-884964-02-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-884964-02-2"><bdi>978-1-884964-02-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Athens+%28Attica%2C+Greece%29%3A+Agora&rft.btitle=International+Dictionary+of+Historic+Places&rft.pub=Fitzroy+Dearborn+Publishers&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-1-884964-02-2&rft.aulast=Vasudevan&rft.aufirst=Aruna&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APalmyra" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFVeyne2017" class="citation book cs1">Veyne, Paul (2017) [2015]. Palmyra: An Irreplaceable Treasure. Translated by Fagan, Teresa Lavender. The University of Chicago Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-42782-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-42782-9"><bdi>978-0-226-42782-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Palmyra%3A+An+Irreplaceable+Treasure&rft.pub=The+University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-0-226-42782-9&rft.aulast=Veyne&rft.aufirst=Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APalmyra" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWaardenburg1984" class="citation book cs1">Waardenburg, Jacques (1984). "Changes of Belief in Spiritual Beings, Prophethood, and the Rise of Islam". In Kippenberg, Hans Gerhard; Drijvers, Hendrik Jan Willem; Kuiper, Yme B. (eds.). 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Walter de Gruyter. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-279-3460-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-279-3460-4"><bdi>978-90-279-3460-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0080-0848">0080-0848</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Changes+of+Belief+in+Spiritual+Beings%2C+Prophethood%2C+and+the+Rise+of+Islam&rft.btitle=Struggles+of+Gods%3A+Papers+of+the+Groningen+Work+Group+for+the+Study+of+the+History+of+Religions&rft.series=Religion+and+Reason&rft.pub=Walter+de+Gruyter&rft.date=1984&rft.issn=0080-0848&rft.isbn=978-90-279-3460-4&rft.aulast=Waardenburg&rft.aufirst=Jacques&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APalmyra" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWaardenburg2002" class="citation book cs1">Waardenburg, Jean Jacques (2002). Islam: Historical, Social, and Political Perspectives. Religion and Reason. Vol. 40. Walter de Gruyter. pp. 405–436. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1515%2F9783110200942.bm">10.1515/9783110200942.bm</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-017178-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-11-017178-5"><bdi>978-3-11-017178-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0080-0848">0080-0848</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Islam%3A+Historical%2C+Social%2C+and+Political+Perspectives&rft.series=Religion+and+Reason&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E405-%3C%2Fspan%3E436&rft.pub=Walter+de+Gruyter&rft.date=2002&rft.issn=0080-0848&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1515%2F9783110200942.bm&rft.isbn=978-3-11-017178-5&rft.aulast=Waardenburg&rft.aufirst=Jean+Jacques&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APalmyra" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWatson2004" class="citation book cs1">Watson, Alaric (2004) [1999]. Aurelian and the Third Century. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-134-90815-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-134-90815-8"><bdi>978-1-134-90815-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Aurelian+and+the+Third+Century&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-1-134-90815-8&rft.aulast=Watson&rft.aufirst=Alaric&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APalmyra" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWatson2003" class="citation book cs1">Watson, William E. (2003). Tricolor and Crescent: France and the Islamic World. Praeger Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-275-97470-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-275-97470-1"><bdi>978-0-275-97470-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Tricolor+and+Crescent%3A+France+and+the+Islamic+World&rft.pub=Praeger+Publishers&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-275-97470-1&rft.aulast=Watson&rft.aufirst=William+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APalmyra" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWheeler2011" class="citation book cs1">Wheeler, Everett L (2011). "The Army and the Limes in the East". In Erdkamp, Paul (ed.). A Companion to the Roman Army. Wiley-Blackwell. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4443-9376-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4443-9376-7"><bdi>978-1-4443-9376-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Army+and+the+Limes+in+the+East&rft.btitle=A+Companion+to+the+Roman+Army&rft.pub=Wiley-Blackwell&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-4443-9376-7&rft.aulast=Wheeler&rft.aufirst=Everett+L&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APalmyra" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWhittow2010" class="citation book cs1">Whittow, Mark (2010). "The late Roman/early Byzantine Near East". In Robinson, Chase F. (ed.). The formation of the Islamic World. Sixth to Eleventh Centuries. The New Cambridge History of Islam. Vol. 1. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-316-18430-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-316-18430-1"><bdi>978-1-316-18430-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+late+Roman%2Fearly+Byzantine+Near+East&rft.btitle=The+formation+of+the+Islamic+World.+Sixth+to+Eleventh+Centuries&rft.series=The+New+Cambridge+History+of+Islam&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-316-18430-1&rft.aulast=Whittow&rft.aufirst=Mark&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APalmyra" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWilliams2016" class="citation news cs1">Williams, Sara Elizabeth (11 December 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2016/12/10/islamic-state-back-unesco-world-heritage-city-palmyra-surprise/">"Isil retakes historic city of Palmyra"</a>. The Telegraph. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220112/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2016/12/10/islamic-state-back-unesco-world-heritage-city-palmyra-surprise/">Archived</a> from the original on 12 January 2022. Retrieved 13 December 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Telegraph&rft.atitle=Isil+retakes+historic+city+of+Palmyra&rft.date=2016-12-11&rft.aulast=Williams&rft.aufirst=Sara+Elizabeth&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.telegraph.co.uk%2Fnews%2F2016%2F12%2F10%2Fislamic-state-back-unesco-world-heritage-city-palmyra-surprise%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APalmyra" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWinter2010" class="citation book cs1">Winter, Stefan (2010). The Shiites of Lebanon under Ottoman Rule, 1516–1788. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-139-48681-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-139-48681-1"><bdi>978-1-139-48681-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Shiites+of+Lebanon+under+Ottoman+Rule%2C+1516%E2%80%931788&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-139-48681-1&rft.aulast=Winter&rft.aufirst=Stefan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APalmyra" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWinter2019" class="citation book cs1">Winter, Stefan (2019). "Alep et l'émirat du désert (çöl beyliği) au XVIIe-XVIIIe siècle". In Winter, Stefan; Ade, Mafalda (eds.). Aleppo and its Hinterland in the Ottoman Period / Alep et sa province à l'époque ottomane. 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The ruins of Palmyra, otherwise Tedmor, in the desart. London, Robert Wood. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/642403707">642403707</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+ruins+of+Palmyra%2C+otherwise+Tedmor%2C+in+the+desart&rft.pub=London%2C+Robert+Wood&rft.date=1753&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F642403707&rft.aulast=Wood&rft.aufirst=Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APalmyra" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWright2004" class="citation book cs1">Wright, David P. (2004). "Syria and Canaan". In Johnston, Sarah Iles (ed.). Religions of the Ancient World: A Guide. 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Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-59185-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-59185-0"><bdi>978-0-521-59185-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Persian+Presence+in+the+Islamic+World&rft.series=Giorgio+Levi+della+Vida+Conference&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-521-59185-0&rft.aulast=Yarshater&rft.aufirst=Ehsan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APalmyra" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFYon2002" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Yon, Jean-Baptiste (2002). Les notables de Palmyre (in French). l'Institut français d'archéologie du Proche-Orient. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-912738-19-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-912738-19-6"><bdi>978-2-912738-19-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Les+notables+de+Palmyre&rft.pub=l%27Institut+fran%C3%A7ais+d%27arch%C3%A9ologie+du+Proche-Orient&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-2-912738-19-6&rft.aulast=Yon&rft.aufirst=Jean-Baptiste&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APalmyra" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFYoung2003" class="citation book cs1">Young, Gary K. (2003) [2001]. Rome's Eastern Trade: International Commerce and Imperial Policy 31 BC – AD 305. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-134-54793-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-134-54793-7"><bdi>978-1-134-54793-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rome%27s+Eastern+Trade%3A+International+Commerce+and+Imperial+Policy+31+BC+%E2%80%93+AD+305&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-1-134-54793-7&rft.aulast=Young&rft.aufirst=Gary+K.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APalmyra" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFZahran2003" class="citation book cs1">Zahran, Yasamin (2003). Zenobia between Reality and Legend. BAR (British Archaeological Reports) International Series. Vol. 1169. Archaeopress. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84171-537-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84171-537-7"><bdi>978-1-84171-537-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0143-3067">0143-3067</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Zenobia+between+Reality+and+Legend&rft.series=BAR+%28British+Archaeological+Reports%29+International+Series&rft.pub=Archaeopress&rft.date=2003&rft.issn=0143-3067&rft.isbn=978-1-84171-537-7&rft.aulast=Zahran&rft.aufirst=Yasamin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APalmyra" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFZuchowska2008" class="citation book cs1">Zuchowska, Marta (2008). "Wadi al Qubur and Its Interrelations with the Development of Urban Space of the City of Palmyra in the Hellenistic and Roman Periods". In Kühne, Hartmut; Czichon, Rainer Maria; Kreppner, Florian Janoscha (eds.). Proceedings of the 4th International Congress of the Archaeology of the Ancient Near East, 29 March – 3 April 2004, Freie Universität Berlin. Vol. 1. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-447-05703-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-447-05703-5"><bdi>978-3-447-05703-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Wadi+al+Qubur+and+Its+Interrelations+with+the+Development+of+Urban+Space+of+the+City+of+Palmyra+in+the+Hellenistic+and+Roman+Periods&rft.btitle=Proceedings+of+the+4th+International+Congress+of+the+Archaeology+of+the+Ancient+Near+East%2C+29+March+%E2%80%93+3+April+2004%2C+Freie+Universit%C3%A4t+Berlin&rft.pub=Otto+Harrassowitz+Verlag&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-3-447-05703-5&rft.aulast=Zuchowska&rft.aufirst=Marta&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APalmyra" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Palmyra&action=edit&section=50" 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Italian-Syrian Archaeological Mission of the University of Milan</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200619182452/http://users.unimi.it/progettopalmira">Archived</a> 19 June 2020 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pcma.uw.edu.pl/en/2019/02/11/palmyra-2/">Polish excavations in Palmyra</a>.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.kaemena360.com/360/PalmyraTour/">Interactive 360° panoramas of Palmyra</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150814053343/http://cuicui.be/syria-roman-palmyra/">360° full-screen photospheric visit of Palmyra</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/ancient-art-civilizations/palmyra/a/palmyrene-portraiture">Tower Tombs, Funerary Portraiture</a> <a href="/wiki/Khan_Academy" title="Khan Academy">Khan Academy</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.getty.edu/research/exhibitions_events/exhibitions/palmyra/exhibition.html">The legacy of ancient Palmyra, exhibition</a> <a href="/wiki/J._Paul_Getty_Museum" title="J. Paul Getty Museum">Getty</a>.</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist 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.navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Palmyra" title="Template:Palmyra"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Palmyra" title="Template talk:Palmyra"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Palmyra" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Palmyra"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="23x15px&#124;border_&#124;alt=Syria&#124;link=Syria_Palmyra190" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria"><img alt="Syria" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Flag_of_the_Syrian_revolution.svg/40px-Flag_of_the_Syrian_revolution.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Flag_of_the_Syrian_revolution.svg/60px-Flag_of_the_Syrian_revolution.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Palmyra</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historic buildings</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Temples</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Bel" title="Temple of Bel">Temple of Bel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Baalshamin" title="Temple of Baalshamin">Temple of Baalshamin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Al-Lat" title="Temple of Al-Lat">Temple of Al-Lat</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Colonnade_at_Palmyra" title="Great Colonnade at Palmyra">Great Colonnade at Palmyra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Theatre_at_Palmyra" title="Roman Theatre at Palmyra">Roman Theatre at Palmyra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valley_of_the_Tombs" title="Valley of the Tombs">Valley of the Tombs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tower_of_Elahbel" title="Tower of Elahbel">Tower of Elahbel</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Camp_of_Diocletian" title="Camp of Diocletian">Camp of Diocletian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canalizations_of_Zenobia" title="Canalizations of Zenobia">Canalizations of Zenobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palmyra_Castle" title="Palmyra Castle">Palmyra Castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monumental_Arch_of_Palmyra" title="Monumental Arch of Palmyra">Monumental Arch of Palmyra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harbaqa_Dam" title="Harbaqa Dam">Harbaqa Dam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walls_of_Palmyra" title="Walls of Palmyra">Walls of Palmyra</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Monarchs</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Odaenathus" title="Odaenathus">Odaenathus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zenobia" title="Zenobia">Zenobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hairan_I" title="Hairan I">Hairan I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaballathus" title="Vaballathus">Vaballathus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Septimius_Antiochus" title="Septimius Antiochus">Septimius Antiochus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Tribes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bene_Komare" title="Bene Komare">Bene Komare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bene_Ma%27zin" title="Bene Ma'zin">Bene Ma'zin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maeonius" title="Maeonius">Maeonius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hairan_II" title="Hairan II">Hairan II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Septimius_Worod" title="Septimius Worod">Septimius Worod</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zabdas" title="Zabdas">Zabdas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Septimius_Zabbai" title="Septimius Zabbai">Septimius Zabbai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Septimius_Haddudan" title="Septimius Haddudan">Septimius Haddudan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Society</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Art</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Palmyrene_funerary_reliefs" title="Palmyrene funerary reliefs">Palmyrene funerary reliefs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lion_of_Al-l%C4%81t" title="Lion of Al-lāt">Lion of Al-lāt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypogeum_of_Yarhai" title="Hypogeum of Yarhai">Hypogeum of Yarhai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portraits_of_Odaenathus" title="Portraits of Odaenathus">Portraits of Odaenathus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Language</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Palmyrene_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Palmyrene dialect">Palmyrene dialect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palmyrene_alphabet" title="Palmyrene alphabet">Palmyrene alphabet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palmyrene_(Unicode_block)" title="Palmyrene (Unicode block)">Palmyrene (Unicode block)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Religion</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bel_(mythology)" title="Bel (mythology)">Bel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malakbel" title="Malakbel">Malakbel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aglibol" title="Aglibol">Aglibol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yarhibol" title="Yarhibol">Yarhibol</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Governance</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Palmyrene_Empire" title="Palmyrene Empire">Palmyrene Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al_Fadl" title="Al Fadl">Al Fadl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Palmyrene_monarchs" title="List of Palmyrene monarchs">List of Palmyrene monarchs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palmyrene_invasion_of_Egypt" title="Palmyrene invasion of Egypt">Palmyrene invasion of Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sack_of_Bostra" title="Sack of Bostra">Sack of Bostra</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><a href="/wiki/Category:Palmyra" title="Category:Palmyra">Category:Palmyra</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Syria_articles527" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Syria_topics" title="Template:Syria topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Syria_topics" title="Template talk:Syria topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Syria_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Syria topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Syria_articles527" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a> <a href="/wiki/Index_of_Syria-related_articles" title="Index of Syria-related articles">articles</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Syria" title="History of Syria">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Syrian_history" title="Timeline of Syrian history">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_years_in_Syria" title="List of years in Syria">Years in Syria</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Prehistorical Syria</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Levantine_corridor" title="Levantine corridor">Levantine corridor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natufian_culture" title="Natufian culture">Natufian culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halaf_culture" title="Halaf culture">Halaf culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uruk_period" title="Uruk period">Uruk period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Hureyra" class="mw-redirect" title="Abu Hureyra">Abu Hureyra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tell_Aswad" title="Tell Aswad">Aswad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yarmukian_culture" title="Yarmukian culture">Yarmukian culture</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Syria">Ancient Syria</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amorites" title="Amorites">Amorites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akkadian_Empire" title="Akkadian Empire">Akkadian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arameans" title="Arameans">Arameans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canaanites" class="mw-redirect" title="Canaanites">Canaanites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Assyrian_Empire" title="Middle Assyrian Empire">Middle Assyrian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ebla" title="Ebla">Ebla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yamhad" title="Yamhad">Yamhad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qatna" title="Qatna">Qatna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mari,_Syria" title="Mari, Syria">Mari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ugarit" title="Ugarit">Ugarit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aram-Damascus" title="Aram-Damascus">Aram-Damascus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syro-Hittite_states" title="Syro-Hittite states">Syro-Hittite states</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Assyrian_Empire" title="Neo-Assyrian Empire">Neo-Assyrian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Babylonian_Empire" title="Neo-Babylonian Empire">Neo-Babylonian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eber-Nari" title="Eber-Nari">Achaemenid Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Seleucid Syria">Seleucid Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Syria" title="Roman Syria">Roman Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palmyrene_Empire" title="Palmyrene Empire">Palmyrene Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine Syria">Byzantine Syria</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Medieval_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Medieval Syria">Medieval Syria</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_the_Levant" title="Muslim conquest of the Levant">Muslim conquest</a> (636)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bilad_al-Sham" title="Bilad al-Sham">Caliphal Syria (Bilad al-Sham)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tulunid_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Tulunid dynasty">Tulunid dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ikhshidid_dynasty" title="Ikhshidid dynasty">Ikhshidid dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zangid_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Zangid dynasty">Zangid dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamdanid_dynasty" title="Hamdanid dynasty">Hamdanid dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mirdasid_dynasty" title="Mirdasid dynasty">Mirdasid dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fatimid_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Fatimid Syria">Fatimid Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saljuqid_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Saljuqid Syria">Saljuqid Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusader_states" title="Crusader states">Crusader states</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/County_of_Edessa" title="County of Edessa">County of Edessa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Antioch" title="Principality of Antioch">Principality of Antioch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/County_of_Tripoli" title="County of Tripoli">County of Tripoli</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayyubid_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Ayyubid Syria">Ayyubid Syria</a> (1174–1260)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mamluk_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Mamluk Syria">Mamluk Syria</a> (1260–1516)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Early modern Syria</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Syria" title="Ottoman Syria">Ottoman Syria</a> (1516–1918)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Modern_history_of_Syria" title="Modern history of Syria">Modern Syria</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Kingdom_of_Syria" title="Arab Kingdom of Syria">Arab kingdom</a> (1920)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haj_Fadel_Government" title="Haj Fadel Government">Haj Fadel Government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandate_for_Syria_and_Lebanon" class="mw-redirect" title="Mandate for Syria and Lebanon">French Mandate</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_Federation" title="Syrian Federation">Syrian Federation</a> (1922–25)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_of_Syria_(1925%E2%80%931930)" class="mw-redirect" title="State of Syria (1925–1930)">State of Syria</a> (1925–30)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandatory_Syrian_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Mandatory Syrian Republic">Mandatory Republic</a> (1930–46)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independent_First_Syrian_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Independent First Syrian Republic">independent First Republic</a> (1946–50)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Syrian_Republic" title="Second Syrian Republic">Second Republic</a> (1950–1963)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ba%27athist_Syria" title="Ba'athist Syria">Ba'athist Syria</a> (1963–2024) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_civil_war" title="Syrian civil war">Civil war</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_transitional_government" title="Syrian transitional government">Post-Assad Syria</a> (2024–present)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Syria" title="Geography of Syria">Geography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Borders_of_Syria" title="Template:Borders of Syria">Borders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_in_Syria" title="List of cities in Syria">Cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Districts_of_Syria" title="Districts of Syria">Districts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Governorates_of_Syria" title="Governorates of Syria">Governorates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rivers_of_Syria" title="List of rivers of Syria">Rivers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_volcanoes_in_Syria" title="List of volcanoes in Syria">Volcanoes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Features</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Jazira,_Mesopotamia" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Jazira, Mesopotamia">Al-Jazira</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Lebanon_Mountains" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Lebanon Mountains">Anti-Lebanon Mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euphrates" title="Euphrates">Euphrates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golan_Heights" title="Golan Heights">Golan Heights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hauran" title="Hauran">Hauran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mount_Hermon" title="Mount Hermon">Hermon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orontes_River" title="Orontes River">Orontes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_Desert" title="Syrian Desert">Syrian Desert</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Syria_(region)" title="Syria (region)">Syria (region)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Syria" title="Southern Syria">Southern Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fertile_Crescent" title="Fertile Crescent">Fertile Crescent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Levant" title="Levant">Levant</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Government_of_Syria" title="Government of Syria">Politics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Syria" title="Constitution of Syria">Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Corruption in Syria">Corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/President_of_Syria" title="President of Syria">President</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_Syria" title="List of presidents of Syria">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vice_President_of_Syria" title="Vice President of Syria">Vice President</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Ministers_(Syria)" title="Council of Ministers (Syria)">Council of Ministers</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Syria" title="Prime Minister of Syria">Prime Minister</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Prime_Ministers_of_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Prime Ministers of Syria">list</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_Syria" title="Elections in Syria">Elections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_Syria" title="Foreign relations of Syria">Foreign relations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Golan_Heights#Territorial_claims" title="Golan Heights">Golan Heights claim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hatay_Province#Turkish–Syrian_dispute" title="Hatay Province">Iskandaron</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government_ministries_of_Syria" title="Government ministries of Syria">Government ministries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Syria" title="Human rights in Syria">Human rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights in Syria">LGBT</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judiciary_of_Syria" title="Judiciary of Syria">Judiciary</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Judicial_Council_of_Syria" title="Supreme Judicial Council of Syria">Supreme Judicial Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Constitutional_Court_of_Syria" title="Supreme Constitutional Court of Syria">Supreme Constitutional Court</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Council_of_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="People's Council of Syria">Parliament</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Speaker_of_the_People%27s_Council_of_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Speaker of the People's Council of Syria">Speakers</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_parties_in_Syria" title="List of political parties in Syria">Political parties</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ba%27ath_Party" title="Ba'ath Party">Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ba%27ath_Party_(Syrian-dominated_faction)" title="Ba'ath Party (Syrian-dominated faction)">national</a> / <a href="/wiki/Arab_Socialist_Ba%27ath_Party_%E2%80%93_Syria_Region" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Syria Region">regional command</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Progressive_Front_(Syria)" title="National Progressive Front (Syria)">National Progressive Front</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Popular_Front_for_Change_and_Liberation" title="Popular Front for Change and Liberation">Popular Front for Change and Liberation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Status_of_the_Golan_Heights" class="mw-redirect" title="Status of the Golan Heights">Political status of the Golan Heights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_nationalism" title="Syrian nationalism">Nationalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Syria_(region)" title="Syria (region)">Syria (region)</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terrorism_in_Syria" title="Terrorism in Syria">Terrorism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Military_of_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Military of Syria">Military</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_Army" title="Syrian Army">Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_Air_Force" title="Syrian Air Force">Air force</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_Air_Defense_Force" class="mw-redirect" title="Syrian Air Defense Force">air defense</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_Navy" title="Syrian Navy">Navy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chief_of_the_General_Staff_(Syria)" title="Chief of the General Staff (Syria)">Chief of the General Staff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syria_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="Syria and weapons of mass destruction">Weapons of mass destruction</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Syria" title="Economy of Syria">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Syria" title="Agriculture in Syria">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Bank_of_Syria" title="Central Bank of Syria">Central Bank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_companies_of_Syria" title="List of companies of Syria">Companies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industry_in_Syria" title="Industry in Syria">Industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_rankings_of_Syria" title="International rankings of Syria">International rankings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_pound" title="Syrian pound">Pound (currency)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Damascus_Securities_Exchange" title="Damascus Securities Exchange">Securities Exchange (stock exchange)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Infrastructure</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Syria#Energy_and_mineral_resources" title="Economy of Syria">Energy and mineral resources</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electricity_in_Syria" title="Electricity in Syria">Electricity sector</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petroleum_industry_in_Syria" title="Petroleum industry in Syria">Petroleum industry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Syria" title="Telecommunications in Syria">Telecommunications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_in_Syria" title="Transport in Syria">Transport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Syria" title="Water supply and sanitation in Syria">Water supply and sanitation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Society_of_Syria" title="Category:Society of Syria">Society</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Censorship_in_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Censorship in Syria">Censorship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_Syria" title="Demographics of Syria">Demographics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Syria" title="Education in Syria">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_in_Syria" title="Health in Syria">Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hunger_in_Syria" title="Hunger in Syria">Hunger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrians" title="Syrians">People</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_diaspora" title="Syrian diaspora">diaspora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Refugees_of_the_Syrian_Civil_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Refugees of the Syrian Civil War">refugees (2011–present)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Syria" title="Women in Syria">women</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_holidays_in_Syria" title="Public holidays in Syria">Public holidays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scouts_of_Syria" title="Scouts of Syria">Scouting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Squatting_in_Syria" title="Squatting in Syria">Squatting</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Syria" title="Culture of Syria">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E1%B8%A4um%C4%81t_ad-Diy%C4%81r" title="Ḥumāt ad-Diyār">Anthem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coat_of_arms_of_Syria" title="Coat of arms of Syria">Coat of arms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_cuisine" title="Syrian cuisine">Cuisine</a> (<a href="/wiki/Syrian_wine" title="Syrian wine">wine</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Syrian_films" title="List of Syrian films">Films</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_Syria" title="Flag of Syria">Flag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_media_in_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Mass media in Syria">Media</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/General_Organization_of_Radio_and_TV_(Syria)" title="General Organization of Radio and TV (Syria)">State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Television_in_Syria" title="Television in Syria">television</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Syria" title="Music of Syria">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Syria" title="Religion in Syria">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smoking_in_Syria" title="Smoking in Syria">Smoking</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight:bold;"><div><div style="margin-bottom:-0.4em;"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Syria" title="Outline of Syria">Outline</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_Syria-related_articles" title="Index of Syria-related articles">Index</a></li></ul></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Syria" title="Category:Syria">Category</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Homs_Governorate20" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible uncollapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Homs_Governorate" title="Template:Homs Governorate"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Homs_Governorate" title="Template talk:Homs Governorate"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Homs_Governorate" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Homs Governorate"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Homs_Governorate20" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Homs_Governorate" title="Homs Governorate">Homs Governorate</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="padding-left: 108px;"><div id="Homs_District20" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Homs_District" title="Homs District">Homs District</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-center: 108px">Homs Subdistrict</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Homs" title="Homs">Homs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abil" title="Abil">Abil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Dali,_Homs" title="Abu Dali, Homs">Abu Dali</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ashrafiyah&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ashrafiyah (page does not exist)">Ashrafiyah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Dar_al-Kabirah" title="Al-Dar al-Kabirah">al-Dar al-Kabirah</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fahilah&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Fahilah (page does not exist)">Fahilah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fairouzeh" title="Fairouzeh">Fairouzeh</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hubub_al-Rih&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hubub al-Rih (page does not exist)">Hubub al-Rih</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Halmuz&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Halmuz (page does not exist)">Halmuz</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al-Hurriyah,_Homs&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Al-Hurriyah, Homs (page does not exist)">al-Hurriyah</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jawalik&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jawalik (page does not exist)">Jawalik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jawbar,_Homs" title="Jawbar, Homs">Jawbar</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Judaydat_al-Assi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Judaydat al-Assi (page does not exist)">Judaydat al-Assi</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Judaydat_al-Sharqiyah&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Judaydat al-Sharqiyah (page does not exist)">Judaydat al-Sharqiyah</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kafr_Abed&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kafr Abed (page does not exist)">Kafr Abed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kafr_Aya" title="Kafr Aya">Kafr Aya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maskanah,_Homs_Governorate" title="Maskanah, Homs Governorate">Maskanah</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al-Mubarakiyah&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Al-Mubarakiyah (page does not exist)">al-Mubarakiyah</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al-Mukhtariyah&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Al-Mukhtariyah (page does not exist)">al-Mukhtariyah</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al-Najmah,_Syria&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Al-Najmah, Syria (page does not exist)">al-Najmah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Naqirah" title="Al-Naqirah">al-Naqirah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qattinah" title="Qattinah">Qattinah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Rayyan,_Syria" title="Al-Rayyan, Syria">al-Rayyan</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al-Riyadh,_Syria&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Al-Riyadh, Syria (page does not exist)">al-Riyadh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sakrah" title="Sakrah">Sakrah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teir_Maalah" title="Teir Maalah">Teir Maalah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tell_Ahmar" class="mw-redirect" title="Tell Ahmar">Tell Ahmar</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tell_al-Naqa&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tell al-Naqa (page does not exist)">Tell al-Naqa</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tell_al-Shur&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tell al-Shur (page does not exist)">Tell al-Shur</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tell_Zubaydah&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tell Zubaydah (page does not exist)">Tell Zubaydah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Thabitiyah" title="Al-Thabitiyah">al-Thabitiyah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zaidal" title="Zaidal">Zaidal</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Zhuriyah&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Zhuriyah (page does not exist)">Zhuriyah</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-center: 108px">Ayn al-Niser Subdistrict</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ayn_al-Niser" title="Ayn al-Niser">Ayn al-Niser</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ayn_al-Dananir&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ayn al-Dananir (page does not exist)">Ayn al-Dananir</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ayn_Husayn_Gharbi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ayn Husayn Gharbi (page does not exist)">Ayn Husayn Gharbi</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ayn_Husayn_Shamali&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ayn Husayn Shamali (page does not exist)">Ayn Husayn Shamali</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Baddu&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Baddu (page does not exist)">Baddu</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Burzah&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Burzah (page does not exist)">Burzah</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Humaydiyah&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Humaydiyah (page does not exist)">Humaydiyah</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al-Jabiriyah&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Al-Jabiriyah (page does not exist)">al-Jabiriyah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Mushrifah" title="Al-Mushrifah">al-Mushrifah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Talamri" title="Talamri">Talamri</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Waridah&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Waridah (page does not exist)">Waridah</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-center: 108px">Furqlus Subdistrict</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Furqlus" title="Furqlus">Furqlus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fatim_al-Arnouk" title="Fatim al-Arnouk">Fatim al-Arnouk</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al-Hazzah&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Al-Hazzah (page does not exist)">al-Hazzah</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hulayah&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hulayah (page does not exist)">Hulayah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jabab_Hamad" title="Jabab Hamad">Jabab Hamad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jubb_al-Shami" title="Jubb al-Shami">Jubb al-Shami</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al-Nasriyah&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Al-Nasriyah (page does not exist)">al-Nasriyah</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al-Sabuniyah&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Al-Sabuniyah (page does not exist)">al-Sabuniyah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Sayyid,_Syria" title="Al-Sayyid, Syria">al-Sayyid</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-center: 108px">Hisyah Subdistrict</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hisyah" title="Hisyah">Hisyah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bureij,_Homs" title="Bureij, Homs">Bureij</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dibeh&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Dibeh (page does not exist)">Dibeh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jandar,_Syria" title="Jandar, Syria">Jandar</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al-Kashaf,_Syria&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Al-Kashaf, Syria (page does not exist)">al-Kashaf</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al-Ma%27murah&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Al-Ma'murah (page does not exist)">al-Ma'murah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shamsin" title="Shamsin">Shamsin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-center: 108px">Khirbet Tin Nur Subdistrict</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Khirbet_Tin_Nur" title="Khirbet Tin Nur">Khirbet Tin Nur</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aysun,_Syria&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Aysun, Syria (page does not exist)">Aysun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balqasah" title="Balqasah">Balqasah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bataysah" title="Bataysah">Bataysah</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al-Dahiyah_al-Umaliyah&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Al-Dahiyah al-Umaliyah (page does not exist)">al-Dahiyah al-Umaliyah</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al-Faysiyah&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Al-Faysiyah (page does not exist)">al-Faysiyah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghuzaylah" title="Ghuzaylah">Ghuzaylah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khirbet_Ghazi" title="Khirbet Ghazi">Khirbet Ghazi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khirbet_al-Hamam" title="Khirbet al-Hamam">Khirbet al-Hamam</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Khirbet_Hayek&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Khirbet Hayek (page does not exist)">Khirbet Hayek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khirbet_al-Sawda,_Homs" title="Khirbet al-Sawda, Homs">Khirbet al-Sawda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khirbet_Tin_Mahmoud" title="Khirbet Tin Mahmoud">Khirbet Tin Mahmoud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kunaysah" title="Kunaysah">Kunaysah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liftaya" title="Liftaya">Liftaya</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Marj_Bulad&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Marj Bulad (page does not exist)">Marj Bulad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marj_al-Qata" title="Marj al-Qata">Marj al-Qata</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mashahdah&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mashahdah (page does not exist)">Mashahdah</a> (Khirbet Sawda)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Mazraa,_Homs" title="Al-Mazraa, Homs">al-Mazraa</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nur,_Syria&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Nur, Syria (page does not exist)">Nur</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuwayha&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Nuwayha (page does not exist)">Nuwayha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qazhal" title="Qazhal">Qazhal</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qebbi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Qebbi (page does not exist)">Qebbi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Rabwah,_Homs" title="Al-Rabwah, Homs">al-Rabwah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ram_al-Anz" title="Ram al-Anz">Ram al-Anz</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ram_Jabal&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ram Jabal (page does not exist)">Ram Jabal</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sannun,_Syria&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sannun, Syria (page does not exist)">Sannun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shalluh" title="Shalluh">Shalluh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tarin,_Syria" title="Tarin, Syria">Tarin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tannunah" title="Tannunah">Tannunah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umm_al-%27Adam" title="Umm al-'Adam">Umm al-'Adam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umm_al-Qasab" title="Umm al-Qasab">Umm al-Qasab</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Umm_Haratayn,_Homs&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Umm Haratayn, Homs (page does not exist)">Umm Haratayn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wujuh_al-Hajar" title="Wujuh al-Hajar">Wujuh al-Hajar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Zurzuriyah" title="Al-Zurzuriyah">al-Zurzuriyah</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Zayti_al-Bahra&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Zayti al-Bahra (page does not exist)">Zayti al-Bahra</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Zawr_Baqraya&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Zawr Baqraya (page does not exist)">Zawr Baqraya</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-center: 108px">Mahin Subdistrict</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mahin,_Syria" title="Mahin, Syria">Mahin</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al-Ghunthir&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Al-Ghunthir (page does not exist)">al-Ghunthir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huwwarin" title="Huwwarin">Huwwarin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-center: 108px">Qabu Subdistrict</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Qabu,_Syria" title="Al-Qabu, Syria">Al-Qabu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autan" title="Autan">Autan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fahil" title="Fahil">Fahil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Qanaqiyah" title="Al-Qanaqiyah">al-Qanaqiyah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rabah,_Syria" title="Rabah, Syria">Rabah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sharqliyya" title="Sharqliyya">Sharqliyya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Shinyah" title="Al-Shinyah">al-Shinyah</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-center: 108px">Qaryatayn Subdistrict</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Qaryatayn" title="Al-Qaryatayn">Al-Qaryatayn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiyas" title="Tiyas">Tiyas</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-center: 108px">Riqama Subdistrict</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Riqama" title="Al-Riqama">Al-Riqama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alyat,_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Alyat, Syria">Alyat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Awar" title="Awar">Awar</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al-Aziziyah,_Riqama&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Al-Aziziyah, Riqama (page does not exist)">al-Aziziyah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dardaghan" title="Dardaghan">Dardaghan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Hamrat" title="Al-Hamrat">al-Hamrat</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jabab_al-Zayt&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jabab al-Zayt (page does not exist)">Jabab al-Zayt</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al-Madaba&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Al-Madaba (page does not exist)">al-Madaba</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al-Manzul&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Al-Manzul (page does not exist)">al-Manzul</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al-Nuzhah&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Al-Nuzhah (page does not exist)">al-Nuzhah</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al-Rawdah,_Syria&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Al-Rawdah, Syria (page does not exist)">al-Rawdah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shayrat" title="Shayrat">Shayrat</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-center: 108px">Sadad Subdistrict</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sadad,_Syria" title="Sadad, Syria">Sadad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Hafar,_Syria" title="Al-Hafar, Syria">al-Hafar</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-center: 108px">Shin Subdistrict</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shin,_Syria" title="Shin, Syria">Shin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayn_Al-Fawwar" title="Ayn Al-Fawwar">Ayn Al-Fawwar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bahhur" title="Bahhur">Bahhur</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al-Diyabiyah&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Al-Diyabiyah (page does not exist)">al-Diyabiyah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hadiyah" title="Hadiyah">Hadiyah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hasur,_Syria" title="Hasur, Syria">Hasur</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al-Jabbat&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Al-Jabbat (page does not exist)">al-Jabbat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jablaya" title="Jablaya">Jablaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juwaykat" class="mw-redirect" title="Juwaykat">Juwaykat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Mahfurah" title="Al-Mahfurah">al-Mahfurah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muranah" title="Muranah">Muranah</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Muta%27arid&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Muta'arid (page does not exist)">Muta'arid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sufr" title="Sufr">Sufr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suwayri" title="Suwayri">Suwayri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uyun_al-Wadi" class="mw-redirect" title="Uyun al-Wadi">Uyun al-Wadi</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Zaafarinah_Gharbi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Zaafarinah Gharbi (page does not exist)">Zaafarinah Gharbi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-center: 108px">Taldou Subdistrict</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Taldou" title="Taldou">Taldou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karad_Dayasinah" title="Karad Dayasinah">Karad Dayasinah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arqaya" title="Arqaya">Arqaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burj_Qa%27i" title="Burj Qa'i">Burj Qa'i</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghawr_Gharbiyah" title="Ghawr Gharbiyah">Ghawr Gharbiyah</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hadatha,_Syria&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hadatha, Syria (page does not exist)">Hadatha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harqal" title="Harqal">Harqal</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al-Hashmah&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Al-Hashmah (page does not exist)">al-Hashmah</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Haysah&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Haysah (page does not exist)">Haysah</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al-Humaymah&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Al-Humaymah (page does not exist)">al-Humaymah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jurnaya" title="Jurnaya">Jurnaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kafr_Laha" title="Kafr Laha">Kafr Laha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kafr_Ram" title="Kafr Ram">Kafr Ram</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mahnaya&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mahnaya (page does not exist)">Mahnaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maryamin,_Homs" title="Maryamin, Homs">Maryamin</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mujaydil,_Homs&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mujaydil, Homs (page does not exist)">Mujaydil</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rafin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Rafin (page does not exist)">Rafin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samalil" title="Samalil">Samalil</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sinsil&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sinsil (page does not exist)">Sinsil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tell_Dahab" title="Tell Dahab">Tell Dahab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Taybah_al-Gharbiyah" title="Al-Taybah al-Gharbiyah">al-Taybah al-Gharbiyah</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Zaybaq&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Zaybaq (page does not exist)">Zaybaq</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="6" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/File:Humus_Valili%C4%9Fi.PNG" class="mw-file-description" title="Homs Governorate within Syria"><img alt="Homs Governorate within Syria" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Humus_Valili%C4%9Fi.PNG/90px-Humus_Valili%C4%9Fi.PNG" decoding="async" width="90" height="80" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Humus_Valili%C4%9Fi.PNG/135px-Humus_Valili%C4%9Fi.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Humus_Valili%C4%9Fi.PNG/180px-Humus_Valili%C4%9Fi.PNG 2x" data-file-width="672" data-file-height="594" /></a> <a href="/wiki/File:Homs_blank_districts.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Homs Governorate"><img alt="Homs Governorate" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Homs_blank_districts.png/120px-Homs_blank_districts.png" decoding="async" width="90" height="66" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Homs_blank_districts.png/250px-Homs_blank_districts.png 1.5x" data-file-width="561" data-file-height="413" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="padding-left: 108px;"><div id="Mukharram_District20" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Al-Mukharram_District" title="Al-Mukharram District">Mukharram District</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-center: 108px">Mukharram Subdistrict</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Mukharram" title="Al-Mukharram">Al-Mukharram al-Fawqani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Hakfah_al-Janubi" title="Abu Hakfah al-Janubi">Abu Hakfah al-Janubi</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Abu_Hakfah_al-Shamali&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Abu Hakfah al-Shamali (page does not exist)">Abu Hakfah al-Shamali</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Abu_Khashabah&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Abu Khashabah (page does not exist)">Abu Khashabah</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bab_al-Hawa,_Homs&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bab al-Hawa, Homs (page does not exist)">Bab al-Hawa</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al-Batamah&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Al-Batamah (page does not exist)">al-Batamah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buwaydat_Rihaniyah" title="Buwaydat Rihaniyah">Buwaydat Rihaniyah</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Buwaydat_Salamiyah&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Buwaydat Salamiyah (page does not exist)">Buwaydat Salamiyah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Haraki" title="Al-Haraki">al-Haraki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jubb_Abbas" title="Jubb Abbas">Jubb Abbas</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al-Junaynat&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Al-Junaynat (page does not exist)">al-Junaynat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khilfah" title="Khilfah">Khilfah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Mukharram_al-Tahtani" title="Al-Mukharram al-Tahtani">al-Mukharram al-Tahtani</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nawa,_Homs&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Nawa, Homs (page does not exist)">Nawa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Sankari" title="Al-Sankari">al-Sankari</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shawkatliyah&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Shawkatliyah (page does not exist)">Shawkatliyah</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tell_al-Ghar&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tell al-Ghar (page does not exist)">Tell al-Ghar</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tell_Shinan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tell Shinan (page does not exist)">Tell Shinan</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tell_al-Ward&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tell al-Ward (page does not exist)">Tell al-Ward</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umm_al-Amad,_Al-Mukharram" title="Umm al-Amad, Al-Mukharram">Umm al-Amad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umm_Jabab" title="Umm Jabab">Umm Jabab</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Umm_al-Sarj_al-Qibli&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Umm al-Sarj al-Qibli (page does not exist)">Umm al-Sarj al-Qibli</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Umm_al-Sarj_al-Shamali&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Umm al-Sarj al-Shamali (page does not exist)">Umm al-Sarj al-Shamali</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Umm_Tuwaynah&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Umm Tuwaynah (page does not exist)">Umm Tuwaynah</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al-Uthmaniyah&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Al-Uthmaniyah (page does not exist)">al-Uthmaniyah</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-center: 108px">Jubb al-Jarrah Subdistrict</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jubb_al-Jarrah" title="Jubb al-Jarrah">Jubb al-Jarrah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Qatur" title="Abu Qatur">Abu Qatur</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aliyat_al-Alyan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Aliyat al-Alyan (page does not exist)">Aliyat al-Alyan</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Duwayr_al-Gharbiyah&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Duwayr al-Gharbiyah (page does not exist)">Duwayr al-Gharbiyah</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Duwayr_al-Sharqiyah&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Duwayr al-Sharqiyah (page does not exist)">Duwayr al-Sharqiyah</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ghuzayliyah&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ghuzayliyah (page does not exist)">Ghuzayliyah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maksar_al-Hisan" title="Maksar al-Hisan">Maksar al-Hisan</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Masaadah&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Masaadah (page does not exist)">Masaadah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Masudiyah" title="Masudiyah">Masudiyah</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mughayzil&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mughayzil (page does not exist)">Mughayzil</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Muntar_al-Abal&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Muntar al-Abal (page does not exist)">Muntar al-Abal</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mushayrifah_al-Qibliyah&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mushayrifah al-Qibliyah (page does not exist)">Mushayrifah al-Qibliyah</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rasm_Humaydah&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Rasm Humaydah (page does not exist)">Rasm Humaydah</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shiha,_Homs_Governorate&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Shiha, Homs Governorate (page does not exist)">Shiha</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Taladi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Taladi (page does not exist)">Taladi</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tall_al-Qata&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tall al-Qata (page does not exist)">Tall al-Qata</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tarfawi,_Homs&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tarfawi, Homs (page does not exist)">Tarfawi</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tawil,_Syria&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tawil, Syria (page does not exist)">Tawil</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Umm_al-Rif&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Umm al-Rif (page does not exist)">Umm al-Rif</a> (al-Rish)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Umm_Tuwaynah_al-Shamali&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Umm Tuwaynah al-Shamali (page does not exist)">Umm Tuwaynah al-Shamali</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Usmud&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Usmud (page does not exist)">Usmud</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="padding-left: 108px;"><div id="Qusayr_District20" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Al-Qusayr_District" title="Al-Qusayr District">Qusayr District</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="QusayrSubdistrict23" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: lavender;">Qusayr Subdistrict</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Qusayr,_Syria" title="Al-Qusayr, Syria">Al-Qusayr</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Abu_Juri&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Abu Juri (page does not exist)">Abu Juri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Aqrabiyah" title="Al-Aqrabiyah">al-Aqrabiyah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arjoun" title="Arjoun">Arjoun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akkum" title="Akkum">Akkum</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Baluzah&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Baluzah (page does not exist)">Baluzah</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Burhaniyah&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Burhaniyah (page does not exist)">Burhaniyah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Buwaydah_al-Sharqiyah" title="Al-Buwaydah al-Sharqiyah">al-Buwaydah al-Sharqiyah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Dabaah" title="Al-Dabaah">al-Dabaah</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dahiyat_al-Majd&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Dahiyat al-Majd (page does not exist)">Dahiyat al-Majd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daminah_al-Sharqiyah" title="Daminah al-Sharqiyah">Daminah al-Sharqiyah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daminah_al-Gharbiyah" title="Daminah al-Gharbiyah">Daminah al-Gharbiyah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dibbin" title="Dibbin">Dibbin</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Diyabiyah&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Diyabiyah (page does not exist)">Diyabiyah</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al-Fadeliyah&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Al-Fadeliyah (page does not exist)">al-Fadeliyah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Ghassaniyah" title="Al-Ghassaniyah">al-Ghassaniyah</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al-Hamam&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Al-Hamam (page does not exist)">al-Hamam</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al-Hawik&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Al-Hawik (page does not exist)">al-Hawik</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hawsh_Murshid_Sama%27an&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hawsh Murshid Sama'an (page does not exist)">Hawsh Murshid Sama'an</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hawsh_al-Sayyid_Ali" title="Hawsh al-Sayyid Ali">Hawsh al-Sayyid Ali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Houz" title="Al-Houz">al-Houz</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Husseiniya,_Syria&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Husseiniya, Syria (page does not exist)">Husseiniya</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jubaniyah&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jubaniyah (page does not exist)">Jubaniyah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jusiyah_al-Amar" title="Jusiyah al-Amar">Jusiyah al-Amar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kafr_Mousa" title="Kafr Mousa">Kafr Mousa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Masriyah" title="Al-Masriyah">al-Masriyah</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mudan,_Syria&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mudan, Syria (page does not exist)">Mudan</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al-Nahariyah&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Al-Nahariyah (page does not exist)">al-Nahariyah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Naim" title="Al-Naim">al-Naim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Nizariyah" title="Al-Nizariyah">al-Nizariyah</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al-Qurniyah&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Al-Qurniyah (page does not exist)">al-Qurniyah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rablah" title="Rablah">Rablah</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al-Sakher&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Al-Sakher (page does not exist)">al-Sakher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Sallumiyah" title="Al-Sallumiyah">al-Sallumiyah</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Samaqiyat_al-Gharbiyah&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Samaqiyat al-Gharbiyah (page does not exist)">Samaqiyat al-Gharbiyah</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Samaqiyat_al-Sharqiyah&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Samaqiyat al-Sharqiyah (page does not exist)">Samaqiyat al-Sharqiyah</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Saqrajah&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Saqrajah (page does not exist)">Saqrajah</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al-Sawadiyah&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Al-Sawadiyah (page does not exist)">al-Sawadiyah</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al-Shayahat&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Al-Shayahat (page does not exist)">al-Shayahat</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al-Shumariyah&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Al-Shumariyah (page does not exist)">al-Shumariyah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shinshar" title="Shinshar">Shinshar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tell_al-Nabi_Mando" title="Tell al-Nabi Mando">Tell al-Nabi Mando</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Wadi_Hanna&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Wadi Hanna (page does not exist)">Wadi Hanna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zira%27a" title="Zira'a">Zira'a</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zita_al-Gharbiyah" title="Zita al-Gharbiyah">Zita al-Gharbiyah</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="padding-left: 108px;"><div id="Rastan_District20" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Al-Rastan_District" title="Al-Rastan District">Rastan District</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: lavender;">Rastan Subdistrict</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Rastan" title="Al-Rastan">Al-Rastan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Hamamah" title="Abu Hamamah">Abu Hamamah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asiliyah" title="Asiliyah">Asiliyah</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ballan,_Homs&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ballan, Homs (page does not exist)">Ballan</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dalfin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Dalfin (page does not exist)">Dalfin</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al-Ghasibiyah&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Al-Ghasibiyah (page does not exist)">al-Ghasibiyah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gharnatah" title="Gharnatah">Gharnatah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Izz_al-Din,_Syria" title="Izz al-Din, Syria">Izz al-Din</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hameis&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hameis (page does not exist)">Hameis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kafr_Nan" title="Kafr Nan">Kafr Nan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kissin,_Syria" title="Kissin, Syria">Kissin</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al-Manara,_Syria&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Al-Manara, Syria (page does not exist)">al-Manara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murayj_al-Durr" title="Murayj al-Durr">Murayj al-Durr</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al-Qunaytrat&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Al-Qunaytrat (page does not exist)">al-Qunaytrat</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sulaym,_Syria&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sulaym, Syria (page does not exist)">Sulaym</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tasnin" title="Tasnin">Tasnin</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al-Waza%27iyah&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Al-Waza'iyah (page does not exist)">al-Waza'iyah</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Zamaymer&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Zamaymer (page does not exist)">Zamaymer</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: lavender;">Talbiseh Subdistrict</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Talbiseh" title="Talbiseh">Talbiseh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deir_Ful" title="Deir Ful">Deir Ful</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al-Farhaniyah&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Al-Farhaniyah (page does not exist)">al-Farhaniyah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Ghantu" title="Al-Ghantu">al-Ghantu</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al-Hashimiyah,_Homs&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Al-Hashimiyah, Homs (page does not exist)">al-Hashimiyah</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al-Makramiyah&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Al-Makramiyah (page does not exist)">al-Makramiyah</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al-Qanniyah&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Al-Qanniyah (page does not exist)">al-Qanniyah</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Saan_al-Aswad&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Saan al-Aswad (page does not exist)">Saan al-Aswad</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al-Sabil,_Homs&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Al-Sabil, Homs (page does not exist)">al-Sabil</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tell_Jayurin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tell Jayurin (page does not exist)">Tell Jayurin</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al-Thawrah,_Homs&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Al-Thawrah, Homs (page does not exist)">al-Thawrah</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Umm_Sharshuh&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Umm Sharshuh (page does not exist)">Umm Sharshuh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Zaafaraniyah" title="Al-Zaafaraniyah">al-Zaafaraniyah</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="padding-left: 108px;"><div id="Tadmur_District20" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Tadmur_District" title="Tadmur District">Tadmur District</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: lavender;">Tadmur Subdistrict</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tadmur" class="mw-redirect" title="Tadmur">Tadmur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arak,_Syria" title="Arak, Syria">Arak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Bayda,_Tadmur" title="Al-Bayda, Tadmur">al-Bayda</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al-Bi%27arat&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Al-Bi'arat (page does not exist)">al-Bi'arat</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rasm_al-Abid&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Rasm al-Abid (page does not exist)">Rasm al-Abid</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: lavender;">Sukhnah Subdistrict</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Sukhnah,_Syria" title="Al-Sukhnah, Syria">Al-Sukhnah</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Karim,_Tadmur&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Karim, Tadmur (page does not exist)">Karim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Kawm,_Homs" title="Al-Kawm, Homs">al-Kawm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Kadir,_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Kadir, Syria">al-Kadir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Taybah,_Homs_Governorate" title="Al-Taybah, Homs Governorate">al-Taybah</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al-Tuwaynat&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Al-Tuwaynat (page does not exist)">al-Tuwaynat</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="padding-left: 108px;"><div id="Talkalakh_District20" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Talkalakh_District" title="Talkalakh District">Talkalakh District</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: lavender;">Talkalakh Subdistrict</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Talkalakh" title="Talkalakh">Talkalakh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akkari,_Syria" title="Akkari, Syria">Akkari</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al-Amariyah,_Syria&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Al-Amariyah, Syria (page does not exist)">al-Amariyah</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aridah&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Aridah (page does not exist)">Aridah</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ayn_al-Sawda&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ayn al-Sawda (page does not exist)">Ayn al-Sawda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayn_al-Tineh_al-Gharbiyah" title="Ayn al-Tineh al-Gharbiyah">Ayn al-Tineh al-Gharbiyah</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al-Bahluniyah&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Al-Bahluniyah (page does not exist)">al-Bahluniyah</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Baruha&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Baruha (page does not exist)">Baruha</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bayt_Qarin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bayt Qarin (page does not exist)">Bayt Qarin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burj_al-Arab,_Syria" title="Burj al-Arab, Syria">Burj al-Arab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burj_al-Maksur" title="Burj al-Maksur">Burj al-Maksur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dabousieh" title="Dabousieh">Dabousieh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hajar_Abyad" title="Hajar Abyad">Hajar Abyad</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Halat,_Syria&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Halat, Syria (page does not exist)">Halat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hasrajiyah" title="Hasrajiyah">Hasrajiyah</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jaafariyat&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jaafariyat (page does not exist)">Jaafariyat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kafrish" title="Kafrish">Kafrish</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Khirbet_al-Jabab&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Khirbet al-Jabab (page does not exist)">Khirbet al-Jabab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Masyadah" title="Masyadah">Masyadah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naarah,_Syria" title="Naarah, Syria">Naarah</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qanuta&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Qanuta (page does not exist)">Qanuta</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qurayyat,_Syria&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Qurayyat, Syria (page does not exist)">Qurayyat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qumayrah" title="Qumayrah">Qumayrah</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al-Shabaq&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Al-Shabaq (page does not exist)">al-Shabaq</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al-Shabruniyah&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Al-Shabruniyah (page does not exist)">al-Shabruniyah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shalluh" title="Shalluh">Shalluh</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shamsiyah,_Homs&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Shamsiyah, Homs (page does not exist)">Shamsiyah</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sindiyana,_Homs&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sindiyana, Homs (page does not exist)">Sindiyana</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Samikah&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Samikah (page does not exist)">Samikah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tell_Hawsh" title="Tell Hawsh">Tell Hawsh</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tell_Sarrin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tell Sarrin (page does not exist)">Tell Sarrin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Zarah" title="Al-Zarah">al-Zarah</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Zanbiyah&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Zanbiyah (page does not exist)">Zanbiyah</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: lavender;">Hadidah Subdistrict</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hadidah" title="Hadidah">Hadidah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayn_al-Tineh_al-Sharqiyah" title="Ayn al-Tineh al-Sharqiyah">Ayn al-Tineh al-Sharqiyah</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Barudiyah&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Barudiyah (page does not exist)">Barudiyah</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bayun&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bayun (page does not exist)">Bayun</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Baznaya&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Baznaya (page does not exist)">Baznaya</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dardariyah&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Dardariyah (page does not exist)">Dardariyah</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Haratayn&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Haratayn (page does not exist)">Haratayn</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al-Malikiyah,_Homs&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Al-Malikiyah, Homs (page does not exist)">al-Malikiyah</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al-Mashrafah_al-Sharqiyah&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Al-Mashrafah al-Sharqiyah (page does not exist)">al-Mashrafah al-Sharqiyah</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Khansaa,_Syria&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Khansaa, Syria (page does not exist)">Khansaa</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Khirbet_al-Manqalah&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Khirbet al-Manqalah (page does not exist)">Khirbet al-Manqalah</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lawaybdah&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lawaybdah (page does not exist)">Lawaybdah</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Marasiyah&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Marasiyah (page does not exist)">Marasiyah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Na%27isiyah" title="Na'isiyah">Na'isiyah</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Na%27urah&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Na'urah (page does not exist)">Na'urah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qaz_al-Khass" title="Qaz al-Khass">Qaz al-Khass</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rihaniyah_(Syria)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Rihaniyah (Syria) (page does not exist)">Rihaniyah</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tell_al-Safa&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tell al-Safa (page does not exist)">Tell al-Safa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umm_al-Dawali" title="Umm al-Dawali">Umm al-Dawali</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Umm_Jamah&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Umm Jamah (page does not exist)">Umm Jamah</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: lavender;">Hawash Subdistrict</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Hawash,_Homs_Governorate" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Hawash, Homs Governorate">Al-Hawash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anaz" title="Anaz">Anaz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ain_al-Ajouz" title="Ain al-Ajouz">Ain al-Ajouz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ain_al-Ghara" title="Ain al-Ghara">Ain al-Ghara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ballat" title="Ballat">Ballat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bisas" title="Bisas">Bisas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duwair_al-Lin" title="Duwair al-Lin">Duwair al-Lin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Husn,_Homs" title="Al-Husn, Homs">al-Husn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ish_al-Shuhah" title="Ish al-Shuhah">Ish al-Shuhah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inata" title="Inata">Inata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juwaniyat" title="Juwaniyat">Juwaniyat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Mazraah" title="Al-Mazraah">al-Mazraah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mizyeneh" title="Mizyeneh">Mizyeneh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Muqaabarat" title="Al-Muqaabarat">al-Muqaabarat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muqlus" title="Muqlus">Muqlus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qal_al-Saqa" class="mw-redirect" title="Qal al-Saqa">Qal al-Saqa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Shuwayhid" title="Al-Shuwayhid">al-Shuwayhid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tallah,_Homs" title="Tallah, Homs">Tallah</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: lavender;">Nasirah Subdistrict</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Nasirah,_Syria" title="Al-Nasirah, Syria">Al-Nasirah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amar_al-Husn" title="Amar al-Husn">Amar al-Husn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ain_al-Barda" title="Ain al-Barda">Ain al-Barda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ain_al-Raheb" title="Ain al-Raheb">Ain al-Raheb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bahzinah" title="Bahzinah">Bahzinah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baydar_Rafiah" title="Baydar Rafiah">Baydar Rafiah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daghlah" title="Daghlah">Daghlah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habnamrah" title="Habnamrah">Habnamrah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jankamrah" title="Jankamrah">Jankamrah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jiwar_al-Afas" title="Jiwar al-Afas">Jiwar al-Afas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kafra,_Homs" title="Kafra, Homs">Kafra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kimah" title="Kimah">Kimah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marmarita" title="Marmarita">Marmarita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mashta_Azar" title="Mashta Azar">Mashta Azar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Mishtaya" title="Al-Mishtaya">al-Mishtaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qalatiyah" title="Qalatiyah">Qalatiyah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qurb_Ali" title="Qurb Ali">Qurb Ali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tannurin" title="Tannurin">Tannurin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zweitina" title="Zweitina">Zweitina</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="World_Heritage_Sites_in_Syria71" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:World_Heritage_Sites_in_Syria" title="Template:World Heritage Sites in Syria"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:World_Heritage_Sites_in_Syria" title="Template talk:World Heritage Sites in Syria"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:World_Heritage_Sites_in_Syria" title="Special:EditPage/Template:World Heritage Sites in Syria"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="World_Heritage_Sites_in_Syria71" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_World_Heritage_Sites_in_Syria" title="List of World Heritage Sites in Syria">World Heritage Sites in Syria</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_City_of_Aleppo" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient City of Aleppo">Ancient City</a> of <a href="/wiki/Aleppo" title="Aleppo">Aleppo</a></li> <li>Ancient City of <a href="/wiki/Bosra" title="Bosra">Bosra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_city_of_Damascus" title="Old city of Damascus">Ancient City</a> of <a href="/wiki/Damascus" title="Damascus">Damascus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dead_Cities" title="Dead Cities">Ancient Villages of Northern Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krak_des_Chevaliers" title="Krak des Chevaliers">Crac des Chevaliers</a> and <a href="/wiki/Citadel_of_Salah_Ed-Din" class="mw-redirect" title="Citadel of Salah Ed-Din">Qal’at Salah El-Din</a></li> <li>Site of <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Palmyra</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5747#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata1752" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5747#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata1752" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5747#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/316429192">VIAF</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.worldcat.org/fast/1220260/">FAST</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4044429-6">Germany</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/n85334076">United States</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11945601w">France</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11945601w">BnF data</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ge130362&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://datos.bne.es/resource/XX450734">Spain</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.nlg.gr/cgi-bin/koha/opac-authoritiesdetail.pl?authid=280125">Greece</a></li><li><a class="external text" href="https://wikidata-externalid-url.toolforge.org/?p=8034&url_prefix=https://opac.vatlib.it/auth/detail/&id=497/1419">Vatican</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nli.org.il/en/authorities/987013002777905171">Israel</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Geographic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pleiades.stoa.org/places/668331">Pleiades</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.idref.fr/027407446">IdRef</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=desktop&type=1x1&usesul3=0" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Palmyra&oldid=1282171229">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Palmyra&oldid=1282171229</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:World_Heritage_Sites_in_Syria" title="Category:World Heritage Sites in Syria">World Heritage Sites in Syria</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Palmyra" title="Category:Palmyra">Palmyra</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Former_populated_places_in_Syria" title="Category:Former populated places in Syria">Former populated places in Syria</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Hebrew_Bible_cities" title="Category:Hebrew Bible cities">Hebrew Bible cities</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Destroyed_populated_places" title="Category:Destroyed populated places">Destroyed populated places</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Levant" title="Category:Levant">Levant</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Oases_of_Syria" title="Category:Oases of Syria">Oases of Syria</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Palmyrene_Empire" title="Category:Palmyrene Empire">Palmyrene Empire</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Populated_places_disestablished_in_1932" title="Category:Populated places disestablished in 1932">Populated places disestablished in 1932</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Populated_places_established_in_the_3rd_millennium_BC" title="Category:Populated places established in the 3rd millennium BC">Populated places established in the 3rd millennium BC</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Populated_places_of_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="Category:Populated places of the Byzantine Empire">Populated places of the Byzantine Empire</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Roman_towns_and_cities_in_Syria" title="Category:Roman towns and cities in Syria">Roman towns and cities in Syria</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:World_Heritage_Sites_in_Danger" title="Category:World Heritage Sites in Danger">World Heritage Sites in Danger</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Lost_cities_and_towns" title="Category:Lost cities and towns">Lost cities and towns</a></li></ul></div><div 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Template:Lang"," 3.81% 147.641 782 Template:Main_other"," 3.41% 132.469 34 Template:Cite_web"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"2.611","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":22226717,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-logs":"anchor_id_list = table#1 {\n [\"CITEREFAddison1838\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAndo2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAndrade2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBacharach1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBall2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBall2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBarnardSaad2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBeattiePepper2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBelnapHaeri1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBen-YehoshuaBorowitzHanus2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBenzelGraffRakicWatts2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBeyer1986\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBianquis1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBielińska1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBobouRaja2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrauer1975\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrowning1979\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBryce2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBryce2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBubeník1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBurns2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBurns2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBusta2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFButcher2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFByliński1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFByliński1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCameronRössler2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCarissimo2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCarterDunstonThomas2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCaskel1966\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCasule2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCave2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChamberlain2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChapot2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCharnock1859\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFClineGraham2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCobb2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFColledge1976\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFColledge1986\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFColledgeWiesehöfer2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCooke1903\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCotterman2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCrawford1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCurry2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDarke2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDarke2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDe_Blois1976\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDe_Laborde1837\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDearden2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDignasWinter2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDirven1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDirven1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDixonSouthern2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDowney1977\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDowney1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDrijvers1976\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDrijvers1980\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDrijvers1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDrinkwater2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDubnov1968\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDupont-Sommer1970\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDąbrowa1979\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDąbrowa1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEdwell2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEhrenkreutz1972\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFElton1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEvansKevorkian2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFellmann1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFields2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFowden1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFowden2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGambino2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGates2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGawlikowski2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGawlikowski2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGawlikowski2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGibb2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGrabarHolodKnustadTrousdale1978\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGraf1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGrainger1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGrainger2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGreatrexLieu2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGreenberg2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGreene2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGuntern2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHachlili1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHall2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHallifax1695\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHalsberghe1972\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHamilton2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHaniharaSakaguchiAkazawa1978\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHanne2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHarris2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHartmann2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHartmann2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHealey1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHealey2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHijmans2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHillenbrand1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHoffmann-Salz2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHolmes2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHolt1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHolt2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHourani1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHoward2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHoyland2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHudson2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHumphreys1977\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIbn_\u0026#039;Asakir1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIbn_Arabshah1986\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIbn_Battuta1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIbn_Khaldūn1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIbn_al-Qalanisi1983\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIbn_al-ʻAdīm1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIbn_Šaddād1732\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIntagliata2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIrwin2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIsmail2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIzumi1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJeffries2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJuchniewicz2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKaizer2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKaizer2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKennedy2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKennedyRiley2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKitto1837\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLe_Strange1890\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLevick2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLimet1977\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLiverani2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLoewe1923\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLoveluck2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLuxenberg2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMacDowallTaddei1978\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMacdonald2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMackay2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMackay2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMajcherek2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMajor2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMakieh2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMakieh2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMakiehFrancis2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMakiehPerryMerriman2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMaqdisi2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMarkowski2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMatthiae2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcGirk2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcLaughlin2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMeier1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMennen2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMeyer2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMeyer2017a\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMeyer2017b\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMichalska2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMillar1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMillar2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMillar2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMoubayed2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMukherjee2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMurtonen1986\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMétral2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNeep2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFO\u0026#039;Connor1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFO\u0026#039;Connor2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPeters1911\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPetersen1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPlets2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPollard2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPotter2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPurcell1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFQaddūrī2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFQīṭāz2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRaja2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRaschke1978\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRicca2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRichardson2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRobinson1946\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRomano2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRosenthal1978\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRostovtzeff.1932\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRostovtzeff1932\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRostovtzeff1971\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSader2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSartre2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSaul2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchlumberger1939\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchmidt-Colinet1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSeland2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSeyrig1939\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSeyrig1959\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShaheen2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShaheen2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShaheenSwannLevett2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShahîd1984\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShahîd1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShahîd2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSidebothamHenseNouwens2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSivertsev2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSmith1956\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSmith_II2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSommer2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSommerSommer-Theohari2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSouthern2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSpeake1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSquires2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStoneman1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStrong1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTeixidor1979\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTeixidor2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTerpakBonfitto2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTharoorMaruf2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTomlinson2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTuck2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFUnesco2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVasudevan1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVeyne2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWaardenburg1984\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWaardenburg2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWatson2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWatson2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWheeler2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWhittow2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilliams2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWinter2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWinter2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWithnall2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWolfensohn2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWood1753\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWright2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYarshater1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYon2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYoung2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZahran2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZuchowska2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFal-AsaadChatonnetYon2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFal-Maqdissi2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFal-Ziriklī2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFal-ʻAsqalānī1969\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFal-ʻUmarī2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFvan_Koppen2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFvan_der_Toorn2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFÇelebi1834\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFÉlisséeff2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFŞafak\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"!\"] = 1,\n [\"About\"] = 1,\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Cbignore\"] = 2,\n [\"Cite EB1911\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 185,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 26,\n [\"Cite magazine\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite news\"] = 4,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 34,\n [\"Commons\"] = 1,\n [\"Convert\"] = 21,\n [\"Coord\"] = 1,\n [\"End date\"] = 1,\n [\"Featured article\"] = 1,\n [\"Free access\"] = 3,\n [\"Further\"] = 4,\n [\"Homs Governorate\"] = 1,\n [\"IPAc-en\"] = 1,\n [\"Infobox ancient site\"] = 1,\n [\"Lang\"] = 4,\n [\"Langx\"] = 2,\n [\"Large\"] = 2,\n [\"Main\"] = 1,\n [\"Multiple image\"] = 8,\n [\"Palmyra\"] = 1,\n [\"Panorama\"] = 1,\n [\"Plainlist\"] = 1,\n [\"Portal\"] = 1,\n [\"Refbegin\"] = 1,\n [\"Refend\"] = 1,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 2,\n [\"Respell\"] = 1,\n [\"Script\"] = 2,\n [\"Script/Hebrew\"] = 1,\n [\"See also\"] = 5,\n [\"Sfn\"] = 759,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Start date\"] = 1,\n [\"Strong\"] = 2,\n [\"Syria topics\"] = 1,\n [\"Use dmy dates\"] = 1,\n [\"Usurped\"] = 2,\n [\"Webarchive\"] = 1,\n [\"Wikiquote\"] = 1,\n [\"Wikisource\"] = 1,\n [\"Wikivoyage\"] = 1,\n [\"World Heritage Sites in Syria\"] = 1,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\nciteref_patterns = table#1 {\n}\n","limitreport-profile":[["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction","600","20.8"],["?","420","14.6"],["recursiveClone 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type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Palmyra","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Palmyra","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q5747","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q5747","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2002-08-08T04:07:00Z","dateModified":"2025-03-24T19:51:41Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/c\/c1\/Palmyra_03.jpg","headline":"ancient city in Homs Governorate, Syria"}</script> </body> </html>