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href="#Death"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Death </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Death-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Methodology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Methodology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Methodology </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Methodology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Inspirations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Inspirations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Inspirations </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Inspirations-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Inspirations subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Inspirations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Comte" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Comte"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Comte </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Comte-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Realism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Realism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Realism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Realism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Judaism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Judaism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 Judaism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Judaism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Durkheim_and_theory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Durkheim_and_theory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Durkheim and theory </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Durkheim_and_theory-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Durkheim and theory subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Durkheim_and_theory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Establishing_sociology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Establishing_sociology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Establishing sociology </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Establishing_sociology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Social_facts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Social_facts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 Social facts </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Social_facts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Society,_collective_consciousness,_and_culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Society,_collective_consciousness,_and_culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3 Society, collective consciousness, and culture </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Society,_collective_consciousness,_and_culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Collective_consciousness" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Collective_consciousness"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3.1 Collective consciousness </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Collective_consciousness-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3.2 Culture </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Social_pathology_and_crime" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Social_pathology_and_crime"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.4 Social pathology and crime </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Social_pathology_and_crime-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Deviance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Deviance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.4.1 Deviance </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Deviance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Suicide" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Suicide"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.4.2 Suicide </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Suicide-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Religion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Religion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.5 Religion </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Religion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sociology_of_knowledge" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sociology_of_knowledge"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.6 Sociology of knowledge </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sociology_of_knowledge-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Collective_representations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Collective_representations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.6.1 Collective representations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Collective_representations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Morality" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Morality"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.7 Morality </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Morality-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Influence_and_legacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Influence_and_legacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Influence and legacy </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Influence_and_legacy-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Influence and legacy subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Influence_and_legacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Durkheim_contra_Searle" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Durkheim_contra_Searle"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 Durkheim contra Searle </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Durkheim_contra_Searle-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gilbert_pro_Durkheim" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gilbert_pro_Durkheim"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2 Gilbert pro Durkheim </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gilbert_pro_Durkheim-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Selected_works" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Selected_works"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Selected works </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Selected_works-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 References </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle References subsection </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.1 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.2 Citations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.3 Bibliography </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Émile Durkheim</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 99 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-99" aria-hidden="true" > 99 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Émile Durkheim" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A5%D9%85%D9%8A%D9%84_%D8%AF%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%83%D8%A7%D9%8A%D9%85" title="إميل دوركايم – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="إميل دوركايم" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Émile Durkheim" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aragonés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Émile Durkheim" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emil_D%C3%BCrkheym" title="Emil Dürkheym – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Emil Dürkheym" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%85%DB%8C%D9%84_%D8%AF%D9%88%D8%B1%DA%A9%DB%8C%D9%85" title="امیل دورکیم – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="امیل دورکیم" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%8F%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B2_%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%AE" title="এমিল দ্যুর্কাইম – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="এমিল দ্যুর্কাইম" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bjn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bjn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emile_Durkheim" title="Emile Durkheim – Banjar" lang="bjn" hreflang="bjn" data-title="Emile Durkheim" data-language-autonym="Banjar" data-language-local-name="Banjar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Banjar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Émile Durkheim" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BC%D1%96%D0%BB%D1%8C_%D0%94%D0%B7%D1%8E%D1%80%D0%BA%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%B9%D0%BC" title="Эміль Дзюркгейм – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Эміль Дзюркгейм" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%BB_%D0%94%D1%8E%D1%80%D0%BA%D0%B5%D0%BC" title="Емил Дюркем – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Емил Дюркем" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Émile Durkheim" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Émile Durkheim" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Émile Durkheim" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Émile Durkheim" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Émile Durkheim" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Émile Durkheim" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Émile Durkheim" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Émile Durkheim" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%95%CE%BC%CE%AF%CE%BB_%CE%9D%CF%84%CE%B9%CF%81%CE%BA%CE%AD%CE%BC" title="Εμίλ Ντιρκέμ – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Εμίλ Ντιρκέμ" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-myv mw-list-item"><a href="https://myv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%BB%D1%8C_%D0%94%D1%8E%D1%80%D0%BA%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%B9%D0%BC" title="Эмиль Дюркгейм – Erzya" lang="myv" hreflang="myv" data-title="Эмиль Дюркгейм" data-language-autonym="Эрзянь" data-language-local-name="Erzya" class="interlanguage-link-target">Эрзянь</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Émile Durkheim" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Émile Durkheim" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Émile Durkheim" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%85%DB%8C%D9%84_%D8%AF%D9%88%D8%B1%DA%A9%DB%8C%D9%85" title="امیل دورکیم – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="امیل دورکیم" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Émile Durkheim" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emile_Durkheim" title="Emile Durkheim – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Emile Durkheim" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fur mw-list-item"><a href="https://fur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim – Friulian" lang="fur" hreflang="fur" data-title="Émile Durkheim" data-language-autonym="Furlan" data-language-local-name="Friulian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Furlan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Émile Durkheim" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gu mw-list-item"><a href="https://gu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AA%8F%E0%AA%AE%E0%AA%BF%E0%AA%B2_%E0%AA%A6%E0%AA%B0%E0%AB%8D%E0%AA%96%E0%AB%87%E0%AA%AE" title="એમિલ દર્ખેમ – Gujarati" lang="gu" hreflang="gu" data-title="એમિલ દર્ખેમ" data-language-autonym="ગુજરાતી" data-language-local-name="Gujarati" class="interlanguage-link-target">ગુજરાતી</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%97%90%EB%B0%80_%EB%92%A4%EB%A5%B4%EC%BC%90" title="에밀 뒤르켐 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="에밀 뒤르켐" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B7%D5%B4%D5%AB%D5%AC_%D4%B4%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D6%80%D5%AF%D5%B0%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%B4" title="Էմիլ Դյուրկհայմ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Էմիլ Դյուրկհայմ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%88%E0%A4%B2_%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%96%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AE" title="इमाईल दुर्खीम – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="इमाईल दुर्खीम" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Émile Durkheim" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Émile Durkheim" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Émile Durkheim" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Émile Durkheim" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Émile Durkheim" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Émile Durkheim" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%9E%D7%99%D7%9C_%D7%93%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%A7%D7%94%D7%99%D7%99%D7%9D" title="אמיל דורקהיים – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="אמיל דורקהיים" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Émile Durkheim" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Jawa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%8F%E0%B2%AE%E0%B3%80%E0%B2%B2%E0%B3%8D_%E0%B2%A1%E0%B2%B0%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%95%E0%B3%8D%E2%80%8D%E0%B2%B9%E0%B3%88%E0%B2%AE%E0%B3%8D" title="ಏಮೀಲ್ ಡರ್ಕ್‍ಹೈಮ್ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಏಮೀಲ್ ಡರ್ಕ್‍ಹೈಮ್" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target">ಕನ್ನಡ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%94%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98%E1%83%9A_%E1%83%93%E1%83%98%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A0%E1%83%99%E1%83%94%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98" title="ემილ დიურკემი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ემილ დიურკემი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%BB%D1%8C_%D0%94%D1%8E%D1%80%D0%BA%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%B9%D0%BC" title="Эмиль Дюркгейм – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Эмиль Дюркгейм" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim – Cornish" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="Émile Durkheim" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="Cornish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kernowek</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Émile Durkheim" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%BB%D1%8C_%D0%94%D1%8E%D1%80%D0%BA%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%B9%D0%BC" title="Эмиль Дюркгейм – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Эмиль Дюркгейм" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aemilius_Durkheim" title="Aemilius Durkheim – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Aemilius Durkheim" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Em%C4%ABls_Dirkems" title="Emīls Dirkems – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Emīls Dirkems" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Émile Durkheim" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lëtzebuergesch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Émile Durkheim" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Émile Durkheim" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%BB_%D0%94%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%BA%D0%B5%D0%BC" title="Емил Диркем – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Емил Диркем" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Émile Durkheim" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malagasy</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%8E%E0%B4%AE%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%B2%E0%B4%BF_%E0%B4%A6%E0%B5%81%E0%B5%BC%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%86%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%82" title="എമിലി ദുർക്കെയിം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="എമിലി ദുർക്കെയിം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%94%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98%E1%83%9A_%E1%83%93%E1%83%98%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A0%E1%83%99%E1%83%B0%E1%83%90%E1%83%98%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98" title="ემილ დიურკჰაიმი – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="ემილ დიურკჰაიმი" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">მარგალური</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%8A%D9%84_%D8%AF%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%83%D8%A7%D9%8A%D9%85" title="اميل دوركايم – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="اميل دوركايم" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Émile Durkheim" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-min mw-list-item"><a href="https://min.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim – Minangkabau" lang="min" hreflang="min" data-title="Émile Durkheim" data-language-autonym="Minangkabau" data-language-local-name="Minangkabau" class="interlanguage-link-target">Minangkabau</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%BB%D1%8C_%D0%94%D1%8E%D1%80%D0%BA%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%B9%D0%BC" title="Эмиль Дюркгейм – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Эмиль Дюркгейм" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Émile Durkheim" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%A8%E3%83%9F%E3%83%BC%E3%83%AB%E3%83%BB%E3%83%87%E3%83%A5%E3%83%AB%E3%82%B1%E3%83%BC%E3%83%A0" title="エミール・デュルケーム – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="エミール・デュルケーム" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Émile Durkheim" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Émile Durkheim" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Émile Durkheim" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Émile Durkheim" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%8F%E0%A8%AE%E0%A9%80%E0%A8%B2_%E0%A8%A6%E0%A9%81%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%96%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%AE" title="ਏਮੀਲ ਦੁਰਖਿਮ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਏਮੀਲ ਦੁਰਖਿਮ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%8A%D9%84_%D8%AF%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%AE%D9%8A%D9%85" title="اميل دورخيم – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="اميل دورخيم" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Émile Durkheim" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Piemontèis</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Émile Durkheim" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Émile Durkheim" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Émile Durkheim" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D1%8E%D1%80%D0%BA%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%B9%D0%BC,_%D0%AD%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%BB%D1%8C" title="Дюркгейм, Эмиль – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Дюркгейм, Эмиль" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa mw-list-item"><a href="https://sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%8F%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B2_%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%96%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AE" title="एमील डर्खीम – Sanskrit" lang="sa" hreflang="sa" data-title="एमील डर्खीम" data-language-autonym="संस्कृतम्" data-language-local-name="Sanskrit" class="interlanguage-link-target">संस्कृतम्</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Émile Durkheim" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target">Scots</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emil_Dyrkhemi" title="Emil Dyrkhemi – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Emil Dyrkhemi" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%91%E0%B6%B8%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%BD%E0%B7%8A_%E0%B6%A9%E0%B7%94%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%8A%E0%B6%9A%E0%B6%BA%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%B8%E0%B7%8A" title="එමිල් ඩුර්කයිම් – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="එමිල් ඩුර්කයිම්" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target">සිංහල</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Émile Durkheim" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Émile Durkheim" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Émile Durkheim" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A6%DB%8E%D9%85%DB%8C%D9%84_%D8%AF%D9%88%D8%B1%DA%A9%D8%A7%DB%8C%D9%85" title="ئێمیل دورکایم – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="ئێمیل دورکایم" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%BB_%D0%94%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%BA%D0%B5%D0%BC" title="Емил Диркем – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Емил Диркем" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Émile Durkheim" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Émile Durkheim" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Émile Durkheim" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%8E%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%87%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%87%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D" title="எமில் டேர்க்கேம் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="எமில் டேர்க்கேம்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-shi mw-list-item"><a href="https://shi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imil_Durkaym" title="Imil Durkaym – Tachelhit" lang="shi" hreflang="shi" data-title="Imil Durkaym" data-language-autonym="Taclḥit" data-language-local-name="Tachelhit" class="interlanguage-link-target">Taclḥit</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%8E%E0%B0%AE%E0%B1%88%E0%B0%B2%E0%B1%8D_%E0%B0%A6%E0%B1%81%E0%B0%B0%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%95%E0%B1%8D_%E0%B0%B9%E0%B1%88%E0%B0%82" title="ఎమైల్ దుర్క్ హైం – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="ఎమైల్ దుర్క్ హైం" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target">తెలుగు</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%B5%E0%B8%A5_%E0%B8%94%E0%B8%B9%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%8C%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%A1%E0%B9%8C" title="เอมีล ดูร์กายม์ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="เอมีล ดูร์กายม์" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Émile Durkheim" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%BC%D1%96%D0%BB%D1%8C_%D0%94%D1%8E%D1%80%D0%BA%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%BC" title="Еміль Дюркгайм – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Еміль Дюркгайм" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Émile Durkheim" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vo mw-list-item"><a href="https://vo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim – Volapük" lang="vo" hreflang="vo" data-title="Émile Durkheim" data-language-autonym="Volapük" data-language-local-name="Volapük" class="interlanguage-link-target">Volapük</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Émile Durkheim" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target">Winaray</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%9F%83%E7%B1%B3%E5%B0%94%C2%B7%E6%B6%82%E5%B0%94%E5%B9%B2" title="埃米尔·涂尔干 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" 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Dorheims" data-language-autonym="Žemaitėška" data-language-local-name="Samogitian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Žemaitėška</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%9F%83%E7%B1%B3%E5%B0%94%C2%B7%E6%B6%82%E5%B0%94%E5%B9%B2" title="埃米尔·涂尔干 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="埃米尔·涂尔干" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q15948#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul 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Click here for more information." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/19px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/29px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/39px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">French sociologist (1858–1916)</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Durkheim" redirects here. For the spa town in Germany, see <a href="/wiki/Bad_D%C3%BCrkheim" title="Bad Dürkheim">Bad Dürkheim</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox biography vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:125%;"><div class="fn">Émile Durkheim</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><a href="/wiki/File:%C3%89mile_Durkheim.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/%C3%89mile_Durkheim.jpg/220px-%C3%89mile_Durkheim.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="299" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/%C3%89mile_Durkheim.jpg/330px-%C3%89mile_Durkheim.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/%C3%89mile_Durkheim.jpg/440px-%C3%89mile_Durkheim.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1059" data-file-height="1440" /></a><div class="infobox-caption">Durkheim prior to 1918</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Born</th><td class="infobox-data"><div style="display:inline" class="nickname">David Émile Durkheim</div> (1858-04-15)15 April 1858 <div style="display:inline" class="birthplace"><a href="/wiki/%C3%89pinal" title="Épinal">Épinal</a>, France</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Died</th><td class="infobox-data">15 November 1917(1917-11-15) (aged 59) <div style="display:inline" class="deathplace"><a href="/wiki/Paris" title="Paris">Paris</a>, France</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Alma mater</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/%C3%89cole_normale_sup%C3%A9rieure_(Paris)" title="École normale supérieure (Paris)">École normale supérieure</a> <a href="/wiki/Humboldt_University_of_Berlin" title="Humboldt University of Berlin">Friedrich Wilhelms University</a> <a href="/wiki/University_of_Leipzig" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Leipzig">University of Leipzig</a> <a href="/wiki/University_of_Marburg" title="University of Marburg">University of Marburg</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Known for</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Social_fact" title="Social fact">Social fact</a> <a href="/wiki/Sacred%E2%80%93profane_dichotomy" class="mw-redirect" title="Sacred–profane dichotomy">Sacred–profane dichotomy</a> <a href="/wiki/Collective_consciousness" title="Collective consciousness">Collective consciousness</a> <a href="/wiki/Social_integration" title="Social integration">Social integration</a> <a href="/wiki/Anomie" title="Anomie">Anomie</a> <a href="/wiki/Collective_effervescence" title="Collective effervescence">Collective effervescence</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546">Scientific career</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Fields</th><td class="infobox-data category"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">Philosophy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">sociology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Education" title="Education">education</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anthropology" title="Anthropology">anthropology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Religious_studies" title="Religious studies">religious studies</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Institutions</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/University_of_Paris" title="University of Paris">University of Paris</a> <a href="/wiki/Universit%C3%A9_de_Bordeaux" class="mw-redirect" title="Université de Bordeaux">University of Bordeaux</a></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr></tbody></table> David Émile Durkheim (<a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/ˈdɜːrkhaɪm/</a>;<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1177148991">.mw-parser-output .IPA-label-small{font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .references .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .infobox .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .navbox .IPA-label-small{font-size:100%}</style>French: <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/French" title="Help:IPA/French">[emil dyʁkɛm]</a> or <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/French" title="Help:IPA/French">[dyʁkajm]</a>; 15 April 1858 – 15 November 1917) was a French <a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">sociologist</a>. Durkheim formally established the academic discipline of sociology and is commonly cited as one of the principal architects of modern <a href="/wiki/Social_science" title="Social science">social science</a>, along with both <a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Karl Marx</a> and <a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Max Weber</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Calhoun2002-107-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a> Much of Durkheim's work was concerned with how societies can maintain their <a href="/wiki/Social_integration" title="Social integration">integrity and coherence</a> in <a href="/wiki/Modernity" title="Modernity">modernity</a>, an era in which traditional social and <a href="/wiki/Religious" class="mw-redirect" title="Religious">religious</a> ties are much less universal, and in which new social <a href="/wiki/Institution" title="Institution">institutions</a> have come into being. Durkheim's conception of the scientific study of society laid the groundwork for modern sociology, and he used such scientific tools as <a href="/wiki/Statistics" title="Statistics">statistics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Survey_(human_research)" title="Survey (human research)">surveys</a>, and historical observation in his analysis of suicides in Catholic and Protestant groups. Durkheim's first major sociological work was De la division du travail social (1893; <a href="/wiki/The_Division_of_Labour_in_Society" title="The Division of Labour in Society">The Division of Labour in Society</a>), followed in 1895 by Les Règles de la méthode sociologique (<a href="/wiki/The_Rules_of_Sociological_Method" title="The Rules of Sociological Method">The Rules of Sociological Method</a>). Also in 1895 Durkheim set up the first European department of sociology and became France's first professor of sociology.<a href="#cite_note-Allan_104-4">[4]</a> Durkheim's seminal monograph, <a href="/wiki/Suicide_(Durkheim_book)" title="Suicide (Durkheim book)">Le Suicide</a> (1897), a study of <a href="/wiki/Suicide" title="Suicide">suicide</a> rates in Catholic and Protestant populations, pioneered modern <a href="/wiki/Social_research" title="Social research">social research</a>, serving to distinguish social science from <a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">psychology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">political philosophy</a>. In 1898, he established the journal <a href="/wiki/L%27Ann%C3%A9e_sociologique" title="L'Année sociologique">L'Année sociologique</a>. Les formes élémentaires de la vie religieuse (1912; <a href="/wiki/The_Elementary_Forms_of_the_Religious_Life" title="The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life">The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life</a>) presented a <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Theory of religion">theory of religion</a>, comparing the social and cultural lives of aboriginal and modern societies. Durkheim was preoccupied with the acceptance of sociology as a legitimate <a href="/wiki/Science" title="Science">science</a>. Refining the <a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">positivism</a> originally set forth by <a href="/wiki/Auguste_Comte" title="Auguste Comte">Auguste Comte</a> (1798-1857), he promoted what could be considered as a form of <a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">epistemological</a> <a href="/wiki/Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">realism</a>, as well as the use of the <a href="/wiki/Hypothetico-deductive_model" title="Hypothetico-deductive model">hypothetico-deductive model</a> in social science. For Durkheim, sociology was the science of institutions, understanding the term in its broader meaning as the "beliefs and modes of behaviour instituted by the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Social_collectivity&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Social collectivity (page does not exist)">collectivity</a>,"<a href="#cite_note-:0-5">[5]</a> with its aim being to discover structural <a href="/wiki/Social_fact" title="Social fact">social facts</a>. As such, Durkheim was a major proponent of <a href="/wiki/Structural_functionalism" title="Structural functionalism">structural functionalism</a>, a foundational perspective in both sociology and <a href="/wiki/Anthropology" title="Anthropology">anthropology</a>. In his view, social science should be purely <a href="/wiki/Holism" title="Holism">holistic</a><a href="#cite_note-6">[i]</a> in the sense that sociology should study phenomena attributed to society at large, rather than being limited to the study of specific actions of individuals. He remained a dominant force in French intellectual life until his death in 1917, presenting numerous lectures and publishing works on a variety of topics, including the <a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_knowledge" title="Sociology of knowledge">sociology of knowledge</a>, <a href="/wiki/Morality" title="Morality">morality</a>, <a href="/wiki/Social_stratification" title="Social stratification">social stratification</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_religion" title="Sociology of religion">religion</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_law" title="Sociology of law">law</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_education" title="Sociology of education">education</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Deviance_(sociology)" title="Deviance (sociology)">deviance</a>. Some terms that he coined, such as "<a href="/wiki/Collective_consciousness" title="Collective consciousness">collective consciousness</a>", are now also used by laypeople.<a href="#cite_note-7">[6]</a> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_life_and_education">Early life and education</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%C3%89mile_Durkheim&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Early life and education">edit</a>]</div> David Émile Durkheim was born 15 April 1858 in <a href="/wiki/%C3%89pinal" title="Épinal">Épinal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lorraine" title="Lorraine">Lorraine</a>, <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a>, to Mélanie (Isidor) and Moïse Durkheim,<a href="#cite_note-8">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-9">[8]</a> coming into a long lineage of devout <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_France" title="History of the Jews in France">French Jews</a>. As his father, grandfather, and great-grandfather had all been <a href="/wiki/Rabbi" title="Rabbi">rabbis</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Poggi_1-10">[9]</a>: 1  young Durkheim began his education in a <a href="/wiki/Yeshiva" title="Yeshiva">rabbinical school</a>. However at an early age he switched schools, deciding not to follow in his family's footsteps.<a href="#cite_note-Calhoun2002-103-11">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-Poggi_1-10">[9]</a>: 1  In fact Durkheim led a completely secular life, whereby much of his work was dedicated to demonstrating that religious phenomena stemmed from social rather than divine factors. Nevertheless Durkheim did not sever ties with his family nor with the Jewish community.<a href="#cite_note-Poggi_1-10">[9]</a>: 1  In fact many of his most prominent collaborators and students were Jewish, some even being blood relatives. For instance <a href="/wiki/Marcel_Mauss" title="Marcel Mauss">Marcel Mauss</a>, a notable social anthropologist of the prewar era, was his nephew.<a href="#cite_note-Calhoun2002-107-2">[2]</a> A precocious student, Durkheim entered the <a href="/wiki/%C3%89cole_normale_sup%C3%A9rieure_(Paris)" title="École normale supérieure (Paris)">École normale supérieure</a> (ENS) in 1879, at his third attempt.<a href="#cite_note-Calhoun2002-103-11">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-Poggi_1-10">[9]</a>: 2  The entering class that year was one of the most brilliant of the nineteenth century, as many of his classmates, such as <a href="/wiki/Jean_Jaur%C3%A8s" title="Jean Jaurès">Jean Jaurès</a> and <a href="/wiki/Henri_Bergson" title="Henri Bergson">Henri Bergson</a>, went on to become major figures in France's intellectual history as well. At the ENS, Durkheim studied under the direction of <a href="/wiki/Numa_Denis_Fustel_de_Coulanges" title="Numa Denis Fustel de Coulanges">Numa Denis Fustel de Coulanges</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Classics" title="Classics">classicist</a> with a social-scientific outlook, and wrote his Latin <a href="/wiki/Dissertation" class="mw-redirect" title="Dissertation">dissertation</a> on <a href="/wiki/Montesquieu" title="Montesquieu">Montesquieu</a>.<a href="#cite_note-12">[11]</a> At the same time, he read <a href="/wiki/Auguste_Comte" title="Auguste Comte">Auguste Comte</a> and <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Spencer" title="Herbert Spencer">Herbert Spencer</a>, whereby Durkheim became interested in a scientific approach to society early on in his career.<a href="#cite_note-Calhoun2002-103-11">[10]</a> This meant the first of many conflicts with the <a href="/wiki/Education_in_France" title="Education in France">French academic system</a>, which had no <a href="/wiki/Social_science" title="Social science">social science</a> curriculum at the time. Durkheim found <a href="/wiki/Humanities" title="Humanities">humanistic studies</a> uninteresting, turning his attention from <a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">psychology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophy</a> to <a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">ethics</a> and, eventually, <a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">sociology</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Calhoun2002-103-11">[10]</a> He obtained his <a href="/wiki/Agr%C3%A9gation" title="Agrégation">agrégation</a> in philosophy in 1882, though finishing next to last in his graduating class owing to serious illness the year before.<a href="#cite_note-13">[12]</a> The opportunity for Durkheim to receive a major academic appointment in Paris was inhibited by his approach to society. From 1882 to 1887 he taught philosophy at several provincial schools.<a href="#cite_note-Calhoun2002-104-14">[13]</a> In the 1885-6 school year he visited Germany, where he travelled and studied sociology at the universities of <a href="/wiki/University_of_Marburg" title="University of Marburg">Marburg</a>, <a href="/wiki/Humboldt_University_of_Berlin" title="Humboldt University of Berlin">Berlin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Leipzig_University" title="Leipzig University">Leipzig</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Calhoun2002-104-14">[13]</a> As Durkheim indicated in several essays, it was in Leipzig that he learned to appreciate the value of <a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">empiricism</a> and its language of concrete, complex things, in sharp contrast to the more abstract, clear and simple ideas of the <a href="/wiki/Cartesianism" title="Cartesianism">Cartesian method</a>.<a href="#cite_note-15">[14]</a> By 1886, as part of his doctoral dissertation, he had completed the draft of his The Division of Labour in Society, and was working towards establishing the new science of sociology.<a href="#cite_note-Calhoun2002-104-14">[13]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Academic_career">Academic career</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%C3%89mile_Durkheim&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Academic career">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Emile_Durkheim,_Le_Socialisme_maitrier.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Emile_Durkheim%2C_Le_Socialisme_maitrier.jpg/220px-Emile_Durkheim%2C_Le_Socialisme_maitrier.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="316" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Emile_Durkheim%2C_Le_Socialisme_maitrier.jpg/330px-Emile_Durkheim%2C_Le_Socialisme_maitrier.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Emile_Durkheim%2C_Le_Socialisme_maitrier.jpg/440px-Emile_Durkheim%2C_Le_Socialisme_maitrier.jpg 2x" data-file-width="446" data-file-height="640" /></a><figcaption>A collection of Durkheim's courses on the origins of socialism (1896), edited and published by his nephew, <a href="/wiki/Marcel_Mauss" title="Marcel Mauss">Marcel Mauss</a>, in 1928</figcaption></figure> Durkheim's period in Germany resulted in the publication of numerous articles on German social science and philosophy; Durkheim was particularly impressed by the work of <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Wundt" title="Wilhelm Wundt">Wilhelm Wundt</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Calhoun2002-104-14">[13]</a> Durkheim's articles gained recognition in France, and he received a teaching appointment in the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Bordeaux" title="University of Bordeaux">University of Bordeaux</a> in 1887, where he was to teach the university's first social science course.<a href="#cite_note-Calhoun2002-104-14">[13]</a> His official title was Chargé d'un Cours de Science Sociale et de Pédagogie, thus he taught both <a href="/wiki/Pedagogy" title="Pedagogy">pedagogy</a> and sociology (the latter having never been taught in France before).<a href="#cite_note-Allan_104-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-Poggi_1-10">[9]</a>: 3  The appointment of the social scientist to the mostly humanistic faculty was an important sign of changing times and the growing importance and recognition of the social sciences.<a href="#cite_note-Calhoun2002-104-14">[13]</a> From this position Durkheim helped reform the <a href="/wiki/French_school_system" class="mw-redirect" title="French school system">French school system</a>, introducing the study of social science in its curriculum. However, his controversial beliefs that religion and morality could be explained in terms purely of social interaction earned him many critics.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Also in 1887, Durkheim married <a href="/w/index.php?title=Louise_Dreyfus&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Louise Dreyfus (page does not exist)">Louise Dreyfus</a>. They had two children, Marie and André.<a href="#cite_note-Allan_104-4">[4]</a> The 1890s were a period of remarkable creative output for Durkheim.<a href="#cite_note-Calhoun2002-104-14">[13]</a> In 1893, he published <a href="/wiki/The_Division_of_Labour_in_Society" title="The Division of Labour in Society">The Division of Labour in Society</a>, his doctoral dissertation and fundamental statement of the nature of human society and <a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_society" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolution of society">its development</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Poggi_1-10">[9]</a>: x  Durkheim's interest in <a href="/wiki/Social_phenomena" class="mw-redirect" title="Social phenomena">social phenomena</a> was spurred on by politics. France's defeat in the <a href="/wiki/Franco-Prussian_War" title="Franco-Prussian War">Franco-Prussian War</a> led to the fall of the regime of <a href="/wiki/Napoleon_III" title="Napoleon III">Napoleon III</a>, which was then replaced by the <a href="/wiki/French_Third_Republic" title="French Third Republic">Third Republic</a>. This in turn resulted in a backlash against the new <a href="/wiki/Secularism" title="Secularism">secular</a> and <a href="/wiki/Republicanism" title="Republicanism">republican</a> rule, as many people considered a vigorously <a href="/wiki/Nationalistic" class="mw-redirect" title="Nationalistic">nationalistic</a> approach necessary to rejuvenate France's fading power. Durkheim, a Jew and a staunch supporter of the Third Republic with a sympathy towards socialism, was thus in the political minority, a situation that galvanized him politically. The <a href="/wiki/Dreyfus_affair" title="Dreyfus affair">Dreyfus affair</a> of 1894 only strengthened his activist stance.<a href="#cite_note-Calhoun2002-105-16">[15]</a> In 1895, he published <a href="/wiki/The_Rules_of_Sociological_Method" title="The Rules of Sociological Method">The Rules of Sociological Method</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Calhoun2002-104-14">[13]</a> a <a href="/wiki/Manifesto" title="Manifesto">manifesto</a> stating what sociology is and how it ought to be done, and founded the first European department of sociology at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Bordeaux" title="University of Bordeaux">University of Bordeaux</a>. In 1898, he founded <a href="/wiki/L%27Ann%C3%A9e_sociologique" title="L'Année sociologique">L'Année sociologique</a>, the first French social science journal.<a href="#cite_note-Calhoun2002-104-14">[13]</a> Its aim was to publish and publicize the work of what was, by then, a growing number of students and collaborators (this is also the name used to refer to the group of students who developed his sociological program). In 1897, he published <a href="/wiki/Suicide_(Durkheim_book)" title="Suicide (Durkheim book)">Suicide</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Case_study" title="Case study">case study</a> that provided an example of what a sociological <a href="/wiki/Monograph" title="Monograph">monograph</a> might look like. Durkheim was one of the pioneers of the use of <a href="/wiki/Quantitative_methods_in_criminology" title="Quantitative methods in criminology">quantitative methods in criminology</a>, which he used in his study of suicide.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] By 1902, Durkheim had finally achieved his goal of attaining a prominent position in Paris when he became the <a href="/wiki/Professorship" class="mw-redirect" title="Professorship">chair</a> of education at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Paris" title="University of Paris">Sorbonne</a>. Durkheim had aimed for the position earlier, but the Parisian faculty took longer to accept what some called "sociological imperialism" and admit social science to their curriculum.<a href="#cite_note-Calhoun2002-105-16">[15]</a> He became a full professor (specifically, Professor of the Science of Education) there in 1906, and in 1913 he was named chair in "Education and Sociology".<a href="#cite_note-Allan_104-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-Calhoun2002-105-16">[15]</a> Because <a href="/wiki/List_of_colleges_and_universities_in_France" class="mw-redirect" title="List of colleges and universities in France">French universities</a> are technically institutions for training secondary school teachers, this position gave Durkheim considerable influence—his lectures were the only ones that were mandatory for the entire student body. Durkheim had much influence over the new generation of teachers; around that time he also served as an advisor to the <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Education_(France)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ministry of Education (France)">Ministry of Education</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Allan_104-4">[4]</a> In 1912, he published his last major work, <a href="/wiki/The_Elementary_Forms_of_the_Religious_Life" title="The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life">The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Death">Death</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%C3%89mile_Durkheim&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Death">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Grave_of_%C3%89mile_Durkheim_in_Montparnasse_Cemetery.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Grave_of_%C3%89mile_Durkheim_in_Montparnasse_Cemetery.jpg/220px-Grave_of_%C3%89mile_Durkheim_in_Montparnasse_Cemetery.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Grave_of_%C3%89mile_Durkheim_in_Montparnasse_Cemetery.jpg/330px-Grave_of_%C3%89mile_Durkheim_in_Montparnasse_Cemetery.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Grave_of_%C3%89mile_Durkheim_in_Montparnasse_Cemetery.jpg/440px-Grave_of_%C3%89mile_Durkheim_in_Montparnasse_Cemetery.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3024" data-file-height="4032" /></a><figcaption>Grave of Émile Durkheim, the founder of sociology, in Montparnasse Cemetery, Paris, France.</figcaption></figure> The outbreak of <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a> was to have a tragic effect on Durkheim's life. His <a href="/wiki/Left-wing_politics" title="Left-wing politics">leftism</a> was always patriotic rather than <a href="/wiki/Internationalism_(politics)" title="Internationalism (politics)">internationalist</a>, in that he sought a secular, rational form of French life. However, the onset of the war, and the inevitable <a href="/wiki/French_nationalism" title="French nationalism">nationalist</a> <a href="/wiki/Propaganda" title="Propaganda">propaganda</a> that followed, made it difficult to sustain this already nuanced position. While Durkheim actively worked to support his country in the war, his reluctance to give in to simplistic nationalist fervor (combined with his Jewish background) made him a natural target of the now-ascendant <a href="/wiki/Politics_of_France#The_Right" title="Politics of France">French Right</a>. Even more seriously, the generations of students that Durkheim had trained were now being drafted to serve in the army, many of them perishing in the trenches.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Finally, Durkheim's own son, André, died on the war front in December 1915—a loss from which Durkheim never recovered.<a href="#cite_note-Calhoun2002-105-16">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-Allan_105-17">[16]</a> Emotionally devastated, Durkheim collapsed of a <a href="/wiki/Stroke" title="Stroke">stroke</a> in Paris two years later, on 15 November 1917.<a href="#cite_note-Allan_105-17">[16]</a> He was buried at the <a href="/wiki/Montparnasse_Cemetery" title="Montparnasse Cemetery">Montparnasse Cemetery</a> in Paris.<a href="#cite_note-Pickering-18">[17]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Methodology">Methodology</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%C3%89mile_Durkheim&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Methodology">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Rules_of_the_Sociological_Method.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/The_Rules_of_the_Sociological_Method.jpg/220px-The_Rules_of_the_Sociological_Method.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="350" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/The_Rules_of_the_Sociological_Method.jpg/330px-The_Rules_of_the_Sociological_Method.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/The_Rules_of_the_Sociological_Method.jpg/440px-The_Rules_of_the_Sociological_Method.jpg 2x" data-file-width="939" data-file-height="1494" /></a><figcaption>Cover of the French edition of <a href="/wiki/The_Rules_of_Sociological_Method" title="The Rules of Sociological Method">The Rules of Sociological Method</a> (1919)</figcaption></figure> In <a href="/wiki/The_Rules_of_Sociological_Method" title="The Rules of Sociological Method">The Rules of Sociological Method</a> (1895), Durkheim expressed his desire to establish a <a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">method</a> that would guarantee sociology's truly scientific character. One of the questions raised concerns the <a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(science)" title="Objectivity (science)">objectivity</a> of the sociologist: how may one study an object that, from the very beginning, conditions and relates to the observer? According to Durkheim, <a href="/wiki/Observation" title="Observation">observation</a> must be as impartial and impersonal as possible, even though a "perfectly objective observation" in this sense may never be attained. A social fact must always be studied according to its <a href="/wiki/Relativism" title="Relativism">relation</a> with other social facts, never according to the individual who studies it. Sociology should therefore privilege <a href="/wiki/Comparative_method" title="Comparative method">comparison</a> rather than the study of singular independent facts.<a href="#cite_note-19">[ii]</a> Durkheim sought to create one of the first rigorous scientific approaches to social phenomena. Along with <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Spencer" title="Herbert Spencer">Herbert Spencer</a>, he was one of the first people to explain the existence and quality of different parts of a society through referencing what function they served in maintaining the <a href="/wiki/Quotidian" title="Quotidian">quotidian</a> (i.e. by how they make society "work"). He also agreed with Spencer's <a href="/wiki/Organicism" title="Organicism">organic analogy</a>, comparing society to a living organism.<a href="#cite_note-Calhoun2002-104-14">[13]</a> As a result, his work is sometimes seen as a precursor to <a href="/wiki/Structural_functionalism" title="Structural functionalism">functionalism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Calhoun2002-103-11">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-20">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-21">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-22">[20]</a> Durkheim also insisted that society was <a href="/wiki/Holism" title="Holism">more than the sum of its parts</a>.<a href="#cite_note-23">[iii]</a><a href="#cite_note-24">[21]</a> Unlike his contemporaries <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_T%C3%B6nnies" title="Ferdinand Tönnies">Ferdinand Tönnies</a> and <a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Max Weber</a>, he did not focus on what motivates individuals' actions (an approach associated with <a href="/wiki/Methodological_individualism" title="Methodological individualism">methodological individualism</a>), but rather on the study of <a href="/wiki/Social_fact" title="Social fact">social facts</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Inspirations">Inspirations</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%C3%89mile_Durkheim&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Inspirations">edit</a>]</div> During his university studies at the ENS, Durkheim was influenced by two <a href="/wiki/Neo-Kantianism" title="Neo-Kantianism">neo-Kantian</a> scholars: <a href="/wiki/Charles_Renouvier" title="Charles Renouvier">Charles Renouvier</a> and <a href="/wiki/%C3%89mile_Boutroux" title="Émile Boutroux">Émile Boutroux</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Calhoun2002-103-11">[10]</a> The principles Durkheim absorbed from them included <a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">rationalism</a>, scientific study of morality, anti-<a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">utilitarianism</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Secular_education" title="Secular education">secular education</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Calhoun2002-104-14">[13]</a> His methodology was influenced by <a href="/wiki/Numa_Denis_Fustel_de_Coulanges" title="Numa Denis Fustel de Coulanges">Numa Denis Fustel de Coulanges</a>, a supporter of the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">scientific method</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Calhoun2002-104-14">[13]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Comte">Comte</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%C3%89mile_Durkheim&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Comte">edit</a>]</div> A fundamental influence on Durkheim's thought was the <a href="/wiki/Sociological_positivism" class="mw-redirect" title="Sociological positivism">sociological positivism</a> of <a href="/wiki/Auguste_Comte" title="Auguste Comte">Auguste Comte</a>, who effectively sought to extend and apply the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">scientific method</a> found in the <a href="/wiki/Natural_science" title="Natural science">natural sciences</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Social_science" title="Social science">social sciences</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Calhoun2002-104-14">[13]</a> According to Comte, a true social science should stress empirical facts, as well as <a href="/wiki/Inductive_reasoning" title="Inductive reasoning">induce</a> general <a href="/wiki/Scientific_law" title="Scientific law">scientific laws</a> from the relationship among these facts. There were many points on which Durkheim agreed with the positivist thesis: <ul><li>First, he accepted that the study of society was to be founded on an examination of facts.</li> <li>Second, like Comte, he acknowledged that the only valid guide to objective knowledge was the scientific method.</li> <li>Third, he agreed with Comte that the social sciences could become scientific only when they were stripped of their <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">metaphysical</a> abstractions.<a href="#cite_note-Calhoun2002-104-14">[13]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Realism">Realism</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%C3%89mile_Durkheim&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Realism">edit</a>]</div> A second influence on Durkheim's view of society beyond Comte's positivism was the <a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">epistemological</a> outlook called social <a href="/wiki/Scientific_realism" title="Scientific realism">realism</a>. Although he never explicitly espoused it, Durkheim adopted a realist perspective in order to demonstrate the existence of social realities outside the individual and to show that these realities existed in the form of the objective relations of society.<a href="#cite_note-Morrison_152-25">[22]</a> As an epistemology of science, realism can be defined as a perspective that takes as its central point of departure the view that external social realities exist in the outer world and that these realities are independent of the <a href="/wiki/Subjectivity" class="mw-redirect" title="Subjectivity">individual's perception</a> of them. This view opposes other predominant philosophical perspectives such as <a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">empiricism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">positivism</a>. Empiricists, like <a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a>, had argued that all realities in the outside world are products of human sense perception, thus all realities are merely perceived: they do not exist independently of our perceptions, and have no causal power in themselves.<a href="#cite_note-Morrison_152-25">[22]</a> Comte's positivism went a step further by claiming that scientific laws could be deduced from empirical observations. Going beyond this, Durkheim claimed that sociology would not only discover "apparent" laws, but would be able to discover the inherent nature of society. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Judaism">Judaism</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%C3%89mile_Durkheim&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Judaism">edit</a>]</div> Scholars also debate the exact influence of Jewish thought on Durkheim's work. The answer remains uncertain; some scholars have argued that Durkheim's thought is a form of <a href="/wiki/Jewish_culture" title="Jewish culture">secularized Jewish thought</a>,<a href="#cite_note-26">[iv]</a><a href="#cite_note-27">[23]</a> while others argue that proving the existence of a direct influence of Jewish thought on Durkheim's achievements is difficult or impossible.<a href="#cite_note-28">[24]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Durkheim_and_theory">Durkheim and theory</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%C3%89mile_Durkheim&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Durkheim and theory">edit</a>]</div> Throughout his career, Durkheim was concerned primarily with three goals. First, to establish sociology as a new academic discipline.<a href="#cite_note-Calhoun2002-105-16">[15]</a> Second, to analyse how societies could maintain their integrity and coherence in the modern era, when things such as shared religious and ethnic background could no longer be assumed. To that end he wrote much about the effect of laws, religion, education and similar forces on society and <a href="/wiki/Social_integration" title="Social integration">social integration</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Calhoun2002-105-16">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-Allan_102-29">[25]</a> Lastly, Durkheim was concerned with the practical implications of <a href="/wiki/Scientific_knowledge" class="mw-redirect" title="Scientific knowledge">scientific knowledge</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Calhoun2002-105-16">[15]</a> The importance of social integration is expressed throughout Durkheim's work:<a href="#cite_note-30">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-31">[27]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">For if society lacks the unity that derives from the fact that the relationships between its parts are exactly regulated, that unity resulting from the harmonious articulation of its various functions assured by effective discipline and if, in addition, society lacks the unity based upon the commitment of men's wills to a common objective, then it is no more than a pile of sand that the least jolt or the slightest puff will suffice to scatter.<div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Moral Education (1925)</cite></div></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Establishing_sociology">Establishing sociology</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%C3%89mile_Durkheim&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Establishing sociology">edit</a>]</div> Durkheim authored some of the most programmatic statements on what sociology is and how it should be practiced.<a href="#cite_note-Calhoun2002-103-11">[10]</a> His concern was to establish sociology as a science.<a href="#cite_note-32">[28]</a> Arguing for a place for sociology among other sciences, he wrote, "sociology is, then, not an auxiliary of any other science; it is itself a distinct and autonomous science."<a href="#cite_note-33">[29]</a> To give sociology a place in the academic world and to ensure that it is a legitimate science, it must have an object that is clear and distinct from philosophy or psychology, and its own <a href="/wiki/Methodology" title="Methodology">methodology</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Calhoun2002-105-16">[15]</a> He argued that "there is in every society a certain group of phenomena which may be differentiated from those studied by the other natural sciences."<a href="#cite_note-AppelrouthEdles2007-34">[30]</a>: 95  In the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Tarde-Durkheim_debate&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tarde-Durkheim debate (page does not exist)">Tarde-Durkheim debate</a> of 1903, the "anthropological view" of <a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Tarde" title="Gabriel Tarde">Gabriel Tarde</a> was ridiculed and hastily dismissed.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] A fundamental aim of sociology is to discover structural "<a href="/wiki/Social_fact" title="Social fact">social facts</a>".<a href="#cite_note-Calhoun2002-105-16">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-socialfact-35">[31]</a>: 13  The establishment of sociology as an independent, recognized academic discipline is among Durkheim's largest and most lasting legacies.<a href="#cite_note-Calhoun2002-107-2">[2]</a> Within sociology, his work has significantly influenced structuralism or <a href="/wiki/Structural_functionalism" title="Structural functionalism">structural functionalism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Calhoun2002-107-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-Allan_103-36">[32]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Social_facts">Social facts</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%C3%89mile_Durkheim&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Social facts">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Social_fact" title="Social fact">Social fact</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">A social fact is every way of acting, fixed or not, capable of exercising on the individual an external constraint; or again, every way of acting which is general throughout a given society, while at the same time existing in its own right independent of its individual manifestations.<div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>The Rules of Sociological Method<a href="#cite_note-socialfact-35">[31]</a></cite></div></blockquote> Durkheim's work revolved around the study of social facts, a term he coined to describe phenomena that have an existence in and of themselves, are not bound to the actions of individuals, but have a coercive influence upon them.<a href="#cite_note-37">[33]</a> Durkheim argued that social facts have, <a href="/wiki/Sui_generis" title="Sui generis">sui generis</a>, an independent existence greater and more objective than the actions of the individuals that compose society.<a href="#cite_note-Allan_106-38">[34]</a> Only such social facts can explain the observed social phenomena.<a href="#cite_note-Calhoun2002-103-11">[10]</a> Being exterior to the individual person, social facts may thus also exercise <a href="/wiki/Social_control" title="Social control">coercive power</a> on the various people composing society, as it can sometimes be observed in the case of formal laws and regulations, but also in situations implying the presence of informal rules, such as religious rituals or family norms.<a href="#cite_note-socialfact-35">[31]</a><a href="#cite_note-Durkheim_1994_433-39">[35]</a> Unlike the facts studied in <a href="/wiki/Natural_science" title="Natural science">natural sciences</a>, a social fact thus refers to a specific category of phenomena: "the determining cause of a social fact must be sought among the antecedent social facts and not among the states of the individual consciousness."[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Such facts are endowed with a power of coercion, by reason of which they may control individual behaviors.<a href="#cite_note-Durkheim_1994_433-39">[35]</a> According to Durkheim, these phenomena cannot be reduced to <a href="/wiki/Biology" title="Biology">biological</a> or <a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">psychological</a> grounds.<a href="#cite_note-Durkheim_1994_433-39">[35]</a> Social facts can be material (i.e. physical objects ) or immaterial (i.e. meanings, sentiments, etc.).<a href="#cite_note-Allan_106-38">[34]</a> Though the latter cannot be seen or touched, they are external and coercive, thus becoming real and gaining "<a href="/wiki/Facticity" title="Facticity">facticity</a>".<a href="#cite_note-Allan_106-38">[34]</a> Physical objects, too, can represent both material and immaterial social facts. For example, a flag is a physical social fact that is often ingrained with various immaterial social facts (e.g. its meaning and importance).<a href="#cite_note-Allan_106-38">[34]</a> Many social facts, however, have no material form.<a href="#cite_note-Allan_106-38">[34]</a> Even the most "individualistic" or "subjective" phenomena, such as love, freedom, or suicide, were regarded by Durkheim as objective social facts.<a href="#cite_note-Allan_106-38">[34]</a> Individuals composing society do not directly cause suicide: suicide, as a social fact, exists independently in society, and is caused by other social facts—such as rules governing <a href="/wiki/Behavior" title="Behavior">behavior</a> and group attachment—whether an individual likes it or not.<a href="#cite_note-Allan_106-38">[34]</a><a href="#cite_note-40">[36]</a> Whether a person "leaves" a society does not alter the fact that this society will still contain suicides. Suicide, like other immaterial social facts, exists independently of the will of an individual, cannot be eliminated, and is as influential—coercive—as physical laws like gravity.<a href="#cite_note-Allan_106-38">[34]</a> Sociology's task therefore consists of discovering the qualities and characteristics of such social facts, which can be discovered through a <a href="/wiki/Quantitative_research" title="Quantitative research">quantitative</a> or experimental approach (Durkheim extensively relied on <a href="/wiki/Social_statistics" title="Social statistics">statistics</a>).<a href="#cite_note-41">[v]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Society,_collective_consciousness,_and_culture">Society, collective consciousness, and culture</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%C3%89mile_Durkheim&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Society, collective consciousness, and culture">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Emile_Durkheim,_Division_du_travail_social_maitrier.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Emile_Durkheim%2C_Division_du_travail_social_maitrier.jpg/220px-Emile_Durkheim%2C_Division_du_travail_social_maitrier.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="363" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Emile_Durkheim%2C_Division_du_travail_social_maitrier.jpg/330px-Emile_Durkheim%2C_Division_du_travail_social_maitrier.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b0/Emile_Durkheim%2C_Division_du_travail_social_maitrier.jpg 2x" data-file-width="370" data-file-height="610" /></a><figcaption>Cover of the French edition of The Division of Labour in Society</figcaption></figure>Regarding the society itself, like <a href="/wiki/Social_institution" class="mw-redirect" title="Social institution">social institutions</a> in general, Durkheim saw it as a set of social facts.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Even more than "what society is," Durkheim was interested in answering "how is a society created" and "what holds a society together." In <a href="/wiki/The_Division_of_Labour_in_Society" title="The Division of Labour in Society">The Division of Labour in Society</a>, Durkheim attempts to answer the latter question.<a href="#cite_note-Calhoun2002-10632-42">[37]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Collective_consciousness">Collective consciousness</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%C3%89mile_Durkheim&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Collective consciousness">edit</a>]</div> Durkheim assumes that humans are inherently <a href="/wiki/Egotism" title="Egotism">egoistic</a>, while "<a href="/wiki/Collective_consciousness" title="Collective consciousness">collective consciousness</a>" (i.e. <a href="/wiki/Norm_(sociology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Norm (sociology)">norms</a>, <a href="/wiki/Belief" title="Belief">beliefs</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Value_(ethics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Value (ethics)">values</a>) forms the moral basis of the society, resulting in <a href="/wiki/Social_integration" title="Social integration">social integration</a>.<a href="#cite_note-43">[38]</a> Collective consciousness is therefore of key importance to the society; its requisite function without which the society cannot survive.<a href="#cite_note-Allan_1083-44">[39]</a> This consciousness produces the society and holds it together, while, at the same time, individuals produce collective consciousness through their interactions.<a href="#cite_note-:0-5">[5]</a> Through collective consciousness human beings become aware of one another as social beings, not just animals.<a href="#cite_note-Allan_1083-44">[39]</a><blockquote>The totality of beliefs and sentiments common to the average members of a society forms a determinate system with a life of its own. It can be termed the collective or common consciousness.<a href="#cite_note-AllanAllan2005-108-45">[40]</a></blockquote>In particular, the <a href="/wiki/Emotion" title="Emotion">emotional</a> part of the collective consciousness overrides our <a href="/wiki/Egoism" title="Egoism">egoism</a>: as we are emotionally bound to <a href="/wiki/Culture" title="Culture">culture</a>, we act socially because we recognize it is the responsible, moral way to act.<a href="#cite_note-Allan_109-46">[41]</a> A key to forming society is <a href="/wiki/Social_interaction" class="mw-redirect" title="Social interaction">social interaction</a>, and Durkheim believes that human beings, when in a group, will inevitably act in such a way that a society is formed.<a href="#cite_note-Allan_109-46">[41]</a><a href="#cite_note-47">[42]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Culture">Culture</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%C3%89mile_Durkheim&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Culture">edit</a>]</div> Groups, when interacting, create their own culture and attach powerful emotions to it, thus making <a href="/wiki/Culture" title="Culture">culture</a> another key social fact.<a href="#cite_note-Allan_110-48">[43]</a> Durkheim was one of the first scholars to consider the question of culture so intensely.<a href="#cite_note-Allan_103-36">[32]</a> Durkheim was interested in <a href="/wiki/Cultural_diversity" title="Cultural diversity">cultural diversity</a>, and how the existence of diversity nonetheless fails to destroy a society. To that, Durkheim answered that any apparent cultural diversity is overridden by a larger, common, and more generalized cultural system, and the <a href="/wiki/Law" title="Law">law</a>.<a href="#cite_note-49">[44]</a> In a <a href="/wiki/Sociocultural_evolution" title="Sociocultural evolution">socio-evolutionary</a> approach, Durkheim described the evolution of societies from <a href="/wiki/Mechanical_solidarity" class="mw-redirect" title="Mechanical solidarity">mechanical solidarity</a> to <a href="/wiki/Organic_solidarity" class="mw-redirect" title="Organic solidarity">organic solidarity</a> (one rising from mutual need).<a href="#cite_note-Allan_103-36">[32]</a><a href="#cite_note-Calhoun2002-10632-42">[37]</a><a href="#cite_note-psz500-50">[45]</a><a href="#cite_note-Allan_125-51">[46]</a> As societies become more complex, evolving from mechanical to organic solidarity, the <a href="/wiki/Division_of_labour" title="Division of labour">division of labour</a> is counteracting and replacing to collective consciousness.<a href="#cite_note-Calhoun2002-10632-42">[37]</a><a href="#cite_note-Allan_137-52">[47]</a> In the simpler societies, people are connected to others due to personal ties and traditions; in the larger, modern society they are connected due to increased reliance on others with regard to them performing their specialized tasks needed for the modern, highly complex society to survive.<a href="#cite_note-Calhoun2002-10632-42">[37]</a> In mechanical solidarity, people are self-sufficient, there is little integration, and thus there is the need for use of force and repression to keep society together.<a href="#cite_note-psz500-50">[45]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="Provided source does not appear to actually suggest that Durkheim considered societies of 'mechanical' solidarity less integrated - in fact Durkheim implies the opposite. Sztompka also does not seem to express such a view here, but this could be my reading. (July 2023)">citation needed</a>] Also, in such societies, people have much fewer options in life.<a href="#cite_note-Allan_123-53">[48]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify">clarification needed</a>] In organic solidarity, people are much more integrated and interdependent, and specialization and cooperation are extensive.<a href="#cite_note-psz500-50">[45]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Progress from mechanical to organic solidarity is based first on <a href="/wiki/Population_growth" title="Population growth">population growth</a> and increasing <a href="/wiki/Population_density" title="Population density">population density</a>, second on increasing "morality density" (development of more complex <a href="/wiki/Social_interaction" class="mw-redirect" title="Social interaction">social interactions</a>) and thirdly, on the increasing specialization in workplace.<a href="#cite_note-psz500-50">[45]</a> One of the ways mechanical and organic societies differ is the function of law: in mechanical society the law is focused on its <a href="/wiki/Punishment" title="Punishment">punitive</a> aspect, and aims to reinforce the cohesion of the community, often by making the punishment public and extreme; whereas in the organic society the law focuses on repairing the damage done and is more focused on individuals than the community.<a href="#cite_note-54">[49]</a> One of the main features of the modern, organic society is the importance, <a href="/wiki/Sacredness" title="Sacredness">sacredness</a> even, given to the concept—social fact—of the <a href="/wiki/Individual" title="Individual">individual</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Allan_132-133-55">[50]</a> The individual, rather than the collective, becomes the focus of rights and responsibilities, the center of public and private rituals holding the society together—a function once performed by the religion.<a href="#cite_note-Allan_132-133-55">[50]</a> To stress the importance of this concept, Durkheim talked of the "cult of the individual":<a href="#cite_note-:1-56">[51]</a><blockquote>Thus very far from there being the antagonism between the individual and society which is often claimed, moral individualism, the cult of the individual, is in fact the product of society itself. It is society that instituted it and made of man the god whose servant it is.</blockquote>Durkheim saw the <a href="/wiki/Population_density" title="Population density">population density</a> and <a href="/wiki/Population_growth" title="Population growth">growth</a> as key factors in the evolution of the societies and advent of <a href="/wiki/Modernity" title="Modernity">modernity</a>.<a href="#cite_note-57">[52]</a> As the number of people in a given area increase, so does the number of interactions, and the society becomes more complex.<a href="#cite_note-Allan_125-51">[46]</a> Growing <a href="/wiki/Competition" title="Competition">competition</a> between the more numerous people also leads to further division of labour.<a href="#cite_note-Allan_125-51">[46]</a> In time, the importance of the state, the law and the individual increases, while that of the religion and moral solidarity decreases.<a href="#cite_note-Allan_134-58">[53]</a> In another example of evolution of culture, Durkheim pointed to <a href="/wiki/Fashion" title="Fashion">fashion</a>, although in this case he noted a more <a href="/wiki/Social_cycle" class="mw-redirect" title="Social cycle">cyclical</a> phenomenon.<a href="#cite_note-Allan_113-59">[54]</a> According to Durkheim, fashion serves to differentiate between <a href="/wiki/Working_class" title="Working class">lower classes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Upper_class" title="Upper class">upper classes</a>, but because lower classes want to look like the upper classes, they will eventually adapt the upper class fashion, depreciating it, and forcing the upper class to adopt a new fashion.<a href="#cite_note-Allan_113-59">[54]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Social_pathology_and_crime">Social pathology and crime</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%C3%89mile_Durkheim&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Social pathology and crime">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist 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.sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><a href="/wiki/Criminology" title="Criminology">Criminology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Penology" title="Penology">penology</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image" style="padding:0.5em 1.0em 1.0em;"><a href="/wiki/File:Pentonvilleiso19.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Pentonvilleiso19.jpg/220px-Pentonvilleiso19.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Pentonvilleiso19.jpg/330px-Pentonvilleiso19.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Pentonvilleiso19.jpg/440px-Pentonvilleiso19.jpg 2x" data-file-width="797" data-file-height="525" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddf;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Theory</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-left:0.75em;padding-right:0.75em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anomie" title="Anomie">Anomie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosocial_criminology" title="Biosocial criminology">Biosocial criminology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Broken_windows_theory" title="Broken windows theory">Broken windows</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collective_efficacy" title="Collective efficacy">Collective efficacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_analysis" title="Crime analysis">Crime analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criminalization" title="Criminalization">Criminalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Differential_association" title="Differential association">Differential association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deviance_(sociology)" title="Deviance (sociology)">Deviance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expressive_function_of_law" title="Expressive function of law">Expressive function of law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labeling_theory" title="Labeling theory">Labeling theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychopathy" title="Psychopathy">Psychopathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rational_choice_theory_(criminology)" title="Rational choice theory (criminology)">Rational choice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Risk_and_actuarial_criminology" title="Risk and actuarial criminology">Risk & actuarial criminology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_control_theory" title="Social control theory">Social control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_learning_theory" title="Social learning theory">Social learning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strain_theory_(sociology)" title="Strain theory (sociology)">Strain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subcultural_theory" title="Subcultural theory">Subculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbolic_interactionism" title="Symbolic interactionism">Symbolic interactionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victimology" title="Victimology">Victimology</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddf;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Major theorists</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Émile Durkheim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Eysenck" title="Hans Eysenck">Hans Eysenck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enrico_Ferri_(criminologist)" title="Enrico Ferri (criminologist)">Enrico Ferri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michel_Foucault" title="Michel Foucault">Michel Foucault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexandre_Lacassagne" title="Alexandre Lacassagne">Alexandre Lacassagne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cesare_Lombroso" title="Cesare Lombroso">Cesare Lombroso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archibald_Reiss" title="Archibald Reiss">Archibald Reiss</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddf;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Types of <a href="/wiki/Crime" title="Crime">crime</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li>Against <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crimes_against_humanity" title="Crimes against humanity">Humanity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Offence_against_the_person" title="Offence against the person">Person</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Offence_against_the_state" class="mw-redirect" title="Offence against the state">State</a></li></ul></li> <li>Class <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blue-collar_crime" title="Blue-collar crime">Blue-collar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White-collar_crime" title="White-collar crime">White-collar</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_case" title="Cold case">Cold case</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Perfect_crime" title="Perfect crime">Perfect</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporate_crime" title="Corporate crime">Corporate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hate_crime" title="Hate crime">Hate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_criminal_law" title="International criminal law">International</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juvenile_delinquency" title="Juvenile delinquency">Juvenile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organized_crime" title="Organized crime">Organized</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_crime" title="Political crime">Political</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public-order_crime" title="Public-order crime">Public-order</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_crime" title="State crime">State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State-corporate_crime" title="State-corporate crime">State-corporate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transnational_crime" title="Transnational crime">Transnational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victimless_crime" title="Victimless crime">Victimless</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_crime" title="War crime">War</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddf;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Methods</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_historical_research" title="Comparative historical research">Comparative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Offender_profiling" title="Offender profiling">Profiling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">Critical theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnography" title="Ethnography">Ethnography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uniform_Crime_Reports" title="Uniform Crime Reports">Uniform Crime Reports</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_mapping" title="Crime mapping">Crime mapping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_statistics" title="Crime statistics">Crime statistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivist_school" class="mw-redirect" title="Positivist school">Positivist school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qualitative_research" title="Qualitative research">Qualitative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantitative_research" title="Quantitative research">Quantitative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bureau_of_Justice_Statistics" title="Bureau of Justice Statistics">BJS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Incident-Based_Reporting_System" title="National Incident-Based Reporting System">NIBRS</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddf;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Penology" title="Penology">Penology</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.15em;padding-bottom:0.6em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Denunciation_(penology)" title="Denunciation (penology)">Denunciation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deterrence_(penology)" title="Deterrence (penology)">Deterrence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incapacitation_(penology)" title="Incapacitation (penology)">Incapacitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trial" title="Trial">Trial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prison" title="Prison">Prison</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prison_abolition_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Prison abolition movement">abolition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_prison" title="Open prison">open</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prison_reform" title="Prison reform">reform</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prisoner" title="Prisoner">Prisoner</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prisoner_abuse" title="Prisoner abuse">Prisoner abuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prisoners%27_rights" title="Prisoners' rights">Prisoners' rights</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rehabilitation_(penology)" title="Rehabilitation (penology)">Rehabilitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recidivism" title="Recidivism">Recidivism</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#e9e9ff;font-weight:normal;padding-bottom:0.2em;"> <a href="/wiki/Justice" title="Justice">Justice</a> in penology</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.15em;padding-bottom:0.6em;;padding-bottom:0;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Participatory_justice" title="Participatory justice">Participatory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restorative_justice" title="Restorative justice">Restorative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transformative_justice" title="Transformative justice">Transformative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retributive_justice" title="Retributive justice">Retributive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justice#Utilitarian_justice" title="Justice">Utilitarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solitary_confinement" title="Solitary confinement">Solitary confinement</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddf;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Schools</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anarchist_criminology" title="Anarchist criminology">Anarchist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_school_(sociology)" title="Chicago school (sociology)">Chicago</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_school_(criminology)" title="Classical school (criminology)">Classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_criminology" title="Conflict criminology">Conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_criminology" title="Critical criminology">Critical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_criminology" title="Environmental criminology">Environmental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_school_of_criminology" title="Feminist school of criminology">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integrative_criminology" title="Integrative criminology">Integrative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_school_of_criminology" title="Italian school of criminology">Italian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxist_criminology" title="Marxist criminology">Marxist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-classical_school_(criminology)" title="Neo-classical school (criminology)">Neo-classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivist_school" class="mw-redirect" title="Positivist school">Positivist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postmodernist_school" class="mw-redirect" title="Postmodernist school">Postmodernist</a></li> <li>Realism <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Left_realism" title="Left realism">Left</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_realism" title="Right realism">Right</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddf;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Subfields</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Society_of_Criminology" title="American Society of Criminology">American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthropological_criminology" title="Anthropological criminology">Anthropological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosocial_criminology" title="Biosocial criminology">Biosocial criminology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_criminology" title="Conflict criminology">Conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criminology" title="Criminology">Criminology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_criminology" title="Critical criminology">Critical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_criminology" title="Cultural criminology">Culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cybercrime" title="Cybercrime"> Cyber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demography" title="Demography">Demography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Development_theory" title="Development theory">Development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_criminology" title="Environmental criminology">Environmental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experimental_criminology" title="Experimental criminology">Experimental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organizational_theory" title="Organizational theory">Organizational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_crime" title="Political crime">Political</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_criminology" title="Public criminology">Public</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radical_criminology" title="Radical criminology">Radical criminology</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddf;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Browse</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_criminology_articles" title="Index of criminology articles">Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Criminology_journals" title="Category:Criminology journals">Journals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Criminology_organizations" title="Category:Criminology organizations">Organizations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_criminologists" title="List of criminologists">People</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Criminology_and_penology" title="Template:Criminology and penology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Criminology_and_penology" title="Template talk:Criminology and penology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Criminology_and_penology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Criminology and penology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> As the society, Durkheim noted there are several possible <a href="/wiki/Pathology" title="Pathology">pathologies</a> that could lead to a breakdown of <a href="/wiki/Social_integration" title="Social integration">social integration</a> and disintegration of the society: the two most important ones are <a href="/wiki/Anomie" title="Anomie">anomie</a> and forced division of labour; lesser ones include the lack of coordination and suicide.<a href="#cite_note-60">[55]</a> To Durkheim, anomie refers to a lack of social norms; where too rapid of population growth reduces the amount of interaction between various groups, which in turn leads to a breakdown of understanding (i.e. norms, values, etc.).<a href="#cite_note-61">[56]</a> Forced division of labour, on the other hand, refers to a situation in which those who hold power, driven by their desire for <a href="/wiki/Profit_(economics)" title="Profit (economics)">profit</a> (<a href="/wiki/Greed" title="Greed">greed</a>), results in people doing work that they are unsuited for.<a href="#cite_note-Allan_129-62">[57]</a> Such people are unhappy, and their desire to change the system can destabilize the society.<a href="#cite_note-Allan_129-62">[57]</a> Durkheim's views on crime were a departure from conventional notions. He believed that crime is "bound up with the fundamental conditions of all <a href="/wiki/Social_relation" title="Social relation">social life</a>" and serves a social function.<a href="#cite_note-AppelrouthEdles2007-34">[30]</a>: 101  He states that crime implies "not only that the way remains open to necessary changes but that in certain cases it directly prepares these changes."<a href="#cite_note-AppelrouthEdles2007-34">[30]</a>: 101  Examining the <a href="/wiki/Trial_of_Socrates" title="Trial of Socrates">trial of Socrates</a>, he argues that "his crime, namely, the independence of his thought, rendered a service not only to humanity but to his country" as "it served to prepare a new morality and faith that the Athenians needed."<a href="#cite_note-AppelrouthEdles2007-34">[30]</a>: 101  As such, his crime "was a useful prelude to reforms."<a href="#cite_note-AppelrouthEdles2007-34">[30]</a>: 102  In this sense, he saw crime as being able to release certain social tensions and so have a cleansing or purging effect in society.<a href="#cite_note-AppelrouthEdles2007-34">[30]</a>: 101  <blockquote> The authority which the moral conscience enjoys must not be excessive; otherwise, no-one would dare to criticize it, and it would too easily congeal into an immutable form. To make progress, individual originality must be able to express itself…[even] the originality of the criminal…shall also be possible. </blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Deviance">Deviance</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%C3%89mile_Durkheim&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Deviance">edit</a>]</div> Durkheim thought <a href="/wiki/Deviance_(sociology)#Deviance" title="Deviance (sociology)">deviance</a> to be an essential component of a functional society.<a href="#cite_note-Textbook-63">[58]</a> He believed that deviance had three possible effects on society:<a href="#cite_note-Textbook-63">[58]</a><a href="#cite_note-64">[59]</a> <ol><li>Deviance challenges the perspective and thoughts of the general population, leading to social change by pointing out a flaw in society.</li> <li>Deviant acts may support existing social norms and beliefs by evoking the population to discipline the actors.</li> <li>Reactions to deviant activity could increase camaraderie and social support among the population affected by the activity.</li></ol> Durkheim's thoughts on deviance contributed to <a href="/wiki/Strain_theory_(sociology)#Merton's_theory" title="Strain theory (sociology)">Robert Merton's Strain Theory</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Textbook-63">[58]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Suicide">Suicide</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%C3%89mile_Durkheim&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Suicide">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Suicide_(Durkheim_book)" title="Suicide (Durkheim book)">Suicide (Durkheim book)</a></div> In Suicide (1897), Durkheim explores the differing suicide rates among <a href="/wiki/Protestantism" title="Protestantism">Protestants</a> and Catholics, arguing that stronger <a href="/wiki/Social_control" title="Social control">social control</a> among Catholics results in lower suicide rates. According to Durkheim, Catholic society has normal levels of <a href="/wiki/Social_integration" title="Social integration">integration</a> while Protestant society has low levels. Overall, Durkheim treated <a href="/wiki/Suicide" title="Suicide">suicide</a> as a <a href="/wiki/Social_fact" title="Social fact">social fact</a>, explaining variations in its rate on a macro level, considering society-scale phenomena such as lack of connections between people (group attachment) and lack of regulations of behavior, rather than individuals' feelings and motivations.<a href="#cite_note-Calhoun2002-10632-42">[37]</a><a href="#cite_note-65">[60]</a> Durkheim believed there was more to suicide than extremely personal individual life circumstances such as loss of a job, divorce, or bankruptcy. Instead, Durkheim explained suicide as a symptom of collective social deviance, like alcoholism or homicide.<a href="#cite_note-:3-66">[61]</a> He created a <a href="/wiki/Normative_statement" class="mw-redirect" title="Normative statement">normative theory</a> of suicide focusing on the conditions of group life. Proposing four different types of suicide, which include <a href="/wiki/Egoism" title="Egoism">egoistic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Altruism" title="Altruism">altruistic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anomie" title="Anomie">anomic</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Fatalism" title="Fatalism">fatalistic</a>, Durkheim began his theory by plotting social regulation on the x-axis of his chart, and social integration on the y-axis:<a href="#cite_note-:3-66">[61]</a> <ul><li>Egoistic suicide corresponds to a low level of social integration. When one is not well integrated into a social group it can lead to a feeling that they have not made a difference in anyone's lives.</li> <li>Altruistic suicide corresponds to too much social integration. This occurs when a group dominates the life of an individual to a degree where they feel meaningless to society.</li> <li>Anomic suicide occurs when one has an insufficient amount of social regulation. This stems from the sociological term anomie, meaning a sense of aimlessness or despair that arises from the inability to reasonably expect life to be predictable.</li> <li>Fatalistic suicide results from too much social regulation. An example of this would be when one follows the same routine day after day. This leads to a belief that there is nothing good to look forward to. Durkheim suggested this was the most popular form of suicide for prisoners.</li></ul> This study has been extensively discussed by later scholars and several major criticisms have emerged. First, Durkheim took most of his data from earlier researchers, notably <a href="/wiki/Adolph_Wagner" title="Adolph Wagner">Adolph Wagner</a> and <a href="/wiki/Henry_Morselli" title="Henry Morselli">Henry Morselli</a>,<a href="#cite_note-67">[62]</a> who were much more careful in generalizing from their own data. Second, later researchers found that the Protestant–Catholic differences in suicide seemed to be limited to <a href="/wiki/German-speaking_Europe" class="mw-redirect" title="German-speaking Europe">German-speaking Europe</a> and thus may have always been the <a href="/wiki/Spurious_relationship" title="Spurious relationship">spurious reflection</a> of other factors.<a href="#cite_note-68">[63]</a> Durkheim's study of suicide has been criticized as an example of the <a href="/wiki/Fallacy" title="Fallacy">logical error</a> termed the <a href="/wiki/Ecological_fallacy" title="Ecological fallacy">ecological fallacy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-69">[64]</a><a href="#cite_note-70">[65]</a> However, diverging views have contested whether Durkheim's work really contained an ecological fallacy.<a href="#cite_note-71">[66]</a> More recent authors such as Berk (2006) have also questioned the <a href="/wiki/Structure_and_agency" title="Structure and agency">micro–macro relations</a> underlying Durkheim's work.<a href="#cite_note-72">[67]</a> Some, such as <a href="/wiki/Alex_Inkeles" title="Alex Inkeles">Inkeles</a> (1959),<a href="#cite_note-73">[68]</a> Johnson (1965),<a href="#cite_note-74">[69]</a> and Gibbs (1968),<a href="#cite_note-75">[70]</a> have claimed that Durkheim's only intent was to explain suicide sociologically within a <a href="/wiki/Holism" title="Holism">holistic</a> perspective, emphasizing that "he intended his theory to explain variation among <a href="/wiki/Social_environment" title="Social environment">social environments</a> in the incidence of suicide, not the suicides of particular individuals."<a href="#cite_note-76">[71]</a> Despite its limitations, Durkheim's work on suicide has influenced proponents of <a href="/wiki/Control_theory_(sociology)" title="Control theory (sociology)">control theory</a>, and is often mentioned as a classic sociological study. The book pioneered modern <a href="/wiki/Social_research" title="Social research">social research</a> and served to distinguish social science from <a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">psychology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">political philosophy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Poggi_1-10">[9]</a>: ch.1  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Religion">Religion</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%C3%89mile_Durkheim&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Religion">edit</a>]</div> In <a href="/wiki/The_Elementary_Forms_of_the_Religious_Life" title="The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life">The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life</a> (1912), Durkheim's first purpose was to identify the social origin and function of religion as he felt that religion was a source of camaraderie and solidarity.<a href="#cite_note-Calhoun2002-10632-42">[37]</a> His second purpose was to identify links between certain religions in different cultures, finding a common denominator. He wanted to understand the empirical, social aspect of religion that is common to all religions and goes beyond the concepts of <a href="/wiki/Spirituality" title="Spirituality">spirituality</a> and <a href="/wiki/God" title="God">God</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Allan_1152-77">[72]</a> Durkheim defined religion as:<a href="#cite_note-78">[73]</a> <blockquote>"a unified system of beliefs and practices relative to sacred things, i.e., things set apart and forbidden—beliefs and practices which unite in one single <a href="/wiki/Moral_community" class="mw-redirect" title="Moral community">moral community</a> called a <a href="/wiki/Church_body" class="mw-redirect" title="Church body">Church</a>, all those who adhere to them."</blockquote>In this definition, Durkheim avoids references to <a href="/wiki/Supernatural" title="Supernatural">supernatural</a> or God.<a href="#cite_note-Allan_115-79">[74]</a> Durkheim rejected earlier definitions by Tylor that religion was "belief in supernatural beings," finding that primitive societies such as the Australian aborigines (following the ethnologies of Spencer and Gillen, largely discredited later) did not divide reality into "natural" vs. "supernatural" realms, but rather into realms of the "sacred" and the "profane," which were not moral categories, since both could include what was good or evil.<a href="#cite_note-80">[75]</a> Durkheim argues we are left with the following three concepts:<a href="#cite_note-81">[76]</a> <ul><li>The <a href="/wiki/Sacred" class="mw-redirect" title="Sacred">sacred</a>: ideas and sentiments kindled by the spectacle of society and which inspire awe, spiritual devotion or respect;</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Belief" title="Belief">beliefs</a> & <a href="/wiki/Ritual" title="Ritual">practices</a>: creating an emotional state of <a href="/wiki/Collective_effervescence" title="Collective effervescence">collective effervescence</a>, investing symbols with sacred importance;</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Moral_community" class="mw-redirect" title="Moral community">moral community</a>: a group of people sharing a common moral philosophy.</li></ul> Out of those three concepts, Durkheim focused on the sacred,<a href="#cite_note-Allan_116-82">[77]</a><a href="#cite_note-83">[78]</a> noting that it is at the very core of a religion:<a href="#cite_note-:2-84">[79]</a>: 322 <blockquote>They are only collective forces <a href="/wiki/Hypostasis_(philosophy_and_religion)" title="Hypostasis (philosophy and religion)">hypostasized</a>, that is to say, moral forces; they are made up of the ideas and sentiments awakened in us by the spectacle of society, and not of sensations coming from the physical world.<a href="#cite_note-85">[vi]</a></blockquote>Durkheim saw religion as the most fundamental <a href="/wiki/Social_institution" class="mw-redirect" title="Social institution">social institution</a> of humankind, and one that gave rise to other social forms.<a href="#cite_note-86">[80]</a> It was religion that gave humanity the strongest sense of <a href="/wiki/Collective_consciousness" title="Collective consciousness">collective consciousness</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Allan_114-87">[81]</a> Durkheim saw religion as a force that emerged in the early <a href="/wiki/Hunter-gatherer" title="Hunter-gatherer">hunter-gatherer</a> societies, as the emotions collective effervescence run high in the growing groups, forcing them to act in a new ways, and giving them a sense of some hidden force driving them.<a href="#cite_note-Allan_137-52">[47]</a> Over time, as emotions became symbolized and interactions ritualized, religion became more organized, giving a rise to the division between the sacred and the profane.<a href="#cite_note-Allan_137-52">[47]</a> However, Durkheim also believed that <a href="/wiki/Religion" title="Religion">religion</a> was becoming less important, as it was being gradually superseded by <a href="/wiki/Science" title="Science">science</a> and the cult of an individual.<a href="#cite_note-Allan_132-133-55">[50]</a><a href="#cite_note-Allan_112-88">[82]</a><blockquote>Thus there is something eternal in religion which is destined to survive all the particular symbols in which religious thought has successively enveloped itself.<a href="#cite_note-:2-84">[79]</a>: 427 </blockquote>However, even if the religion was losing its importance for Durkheim, it still laid the foundation of modern society and the interactions that governed it.<a href="#cite_note-Allan_114-87">[81]</a> And despite the advent of alternative forces, Durkheim argued that no replacement for the force of religion had yet been created. He expressed his doubt about modernity, seeing the modern times as "a period of transition and moral mediocrity."<a href="#cite_note-Allan_134-58">[53]</a> Durkheim also argued that our primary categories for understanding the world have their origins in religion.<a href="#cite_note-Allan_113-59">[54]</a> It is religion, Durkheim writes, that gave rise to most if not all other social constructs, including the larger society.<a href="#cite_note-Allan_114-87">[81]</a> Durkheim argued that categories are produced by the society, and thus are collective creations.<a href="#cite_note-Calhoun2002-10632-42">[37]</a> Thus as people create societies, they also create categories, but at the same time, they do so unconsciously, and the categories are prior to any individual's experience.<a href="#cite_note-Calhoun2002-10632-42">[37]</a> In this way Durkheim attempted to bridge the divide between seeing <a href="/wiki/Category_of_being" class="mw-redirect" title="Category of being">categories</a> as constructed out of human experience and as logically prior to that experience.<a href="#cite_note-Calhoun2002-10632-42">[37]</a><a href="#cite_note-89">[83]</a> Our understanding of the world is shaped by <a href="/wiki/Social_fact" title="Social fact">social facts</a>; for example the notion of <a href="/wiki/Time" title="Time">time</a> is defined by being measured through a <a href="/wiki/Calendar" title="Calendar">calendar</a>, which in turn was created to allow us to keep track of our social gatherings and rituals; those in turn on their most basic level originated from religion.<a href="#cite_note-Allan_114-87">[81]</a> In the end, even the most logical and rational pursuit of science can trace its origins to religion.<a href="#cite_note-Allan_114-87">[81]</a> Durkheim states that, "Religion gave birth to all that is essential in the society."<a href="#cite_note-Allan_114-87">[81]</a> In his work, Durkheim focused on <a href="/wiki/Totem" title="Totem">totemism</a>, the religion of the <a href="/wiki/Aboriginal_Australians" title="Aboriginal Australians">Aboriginal Australians</a> and <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Native Americans</a>. Durkheim saw this religion as the most ancient religion, and focused on it as he believed its simplicity would ease the discussion of the essential elements of religion.<a href="#cite_note-Calhoun2002-10632-42">[37]</a><a href="#cite_note-Allan_115-79">[74]</a> As such, he wrote:<a href="#cite_note-:2-84">[79]</a>: 220 <blockquote>Now the totem is the flag of the clan. It is therefore natural that the impressions aroused by the clan in individual minds—impressions of dependence and of increased vitality—should fix themselves to the idea of the totem rather than that of the clan: for the clan is too complex a reality to be represented clearly in all its complex unity by such rudimentary intelligences.</blockquote>Durkheim's work on religion was criticized on both empirical and theoretical grounds by specialists in the field. The most important critique came from Durkheim's contemporary, <a href="/wiki/Arnold_van_Gennep" title="Arnold van Gennep">Arnold van Gennep</a>, an expert on religion and ritual, and also on Australian belief systems. Van Gennep argued that Durkheim's views of primitive peoples and simple societies were "entirely erroneous". Van Gennep further argued that Durkheim demonstrated a lack of critical stance towards his sources, collected by traders and priests, naively accepting their veracity, and that Durkheim interpreted freely from dubious data. At the conceptual level, van Gennep pointed out Durkheim's tendency to press ethnography into a prefabricated theoretical scheme.<a href="#cite_note-90">[84]</a> Despite such critiques, Durkheim's work on religion has been widely praised for its theoretical insight and whose arguments and propositions, according to Robert Alun Jones, "have stimulated the interest and excitement of several generations of sociologists irrespective of theoretical 'school' or field of specialization."<a href="#cite_note-91">[85]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sociology_of_knowledge">Sociology of knowledge</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%C3%89mile_Durkheim&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Sociology of knowledge">edit</a>]</div> While Durkheim's work deals with a number of subjects, including suicide, <a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_the_family" title="Sociology of the family">the family</a>, <a href="/wiki/Social_structure" title="Social structure">social structures</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Institution" title="Institution">social institutions</a>, a large part of his work deals with the <a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_knowledge" title="Sociology of knowledge">sociology of knowledge</a>. While publishing short articles on the subject earlier in his career,<a href="#cite_note-92">[vii]</a> Durkheim's definitive statement concerning the sociology of knowledge comes in his 1912 magnum opus, <a href="/wiki/The_Elementary_Forms_of_Religious_Life" class="mw-redirect" title="The Elementary Forms of Religious Life">The Elementary Forms of Religious Life</a>. This book has as its goal not only the elucidation of the social origins and function of religion, but also the social origins and impact of society on language and logical thought. Durkheim worked largely out of a Kantian framework and sought to understand how the concepts and categories of logical thought could arise out of social life. He argued, for example, that the categories of space and time were not <a href="/wiki/A_priori_and_a_posteriori" title="A priori and a posteriori">a priori</a>. Rather, the category of space depends on a society's social grouping and geographical use of space, and a group's social rhythm that determines our understanding of time.<a href="#cite_note-93">[86]</a> In this Durkheim sought to combine elements of <a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">rationalism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">empiricism</a>, arguing that certain aspects of logical thought common to all humans did exist, but that they were products of collective life (thus contradicting the <a href="/wiki/Tabula_rasa" title="Tabula rasa">tabula rasa</a> empiricist understanding whereby categories are acquired by individual experience alone), and that they were not universal <a href="/wiki/A_priori_and_a_posteriori" title="A priori and a posteriori">a prioris</a> (as <a href="/wiki/Kant" class="mw-redirect" title="Kant">Kant</a> argued) since the content of the categories differed from society to society.<a href="#cite_note-94">[viii]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Collective_representations">Collective representations</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%C3%89mile_Durkheim&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Collective representations">edit</a>]</div> Another key elements to Durkheim's theory of knowledge outlined in Elementary Forms is the concept of représentations collectives ("<a href="/wiki/Collective_representations" title="Collective representations">collective representations</a>"). Représentations collectives are the symbols and images that come to represent the ideas, beliefs, and values elaborated by a collectivity and are not reducible to individual constituents. They can include words, slogans, ideas, or any number of material items that can serve as a symbol, such as a cross, a rock, a temple, a feather etc. As Durkheim elaborates, représentations collectives are created through intense social interaction and are products of collective activity. As such, these representations have the particular, and somewhat contradictory, aspect that they exist externally to the individual—since they are created and controlled not by the individual but by society as a whole—yet, simultaneously within each individual of the society, by virtue of that individual's participation within society.<a href="#cite_note-Durkheim,_Emile_1964-95">[87]</a> Arguably the most important "représentations collectives" is <a href="/wiki/Language" title="Language">language</a>, which according to Durkheim is a product of collective action. And because language is a collective action, language contains within it a history of accumulated knowledge and experience that no individual would be capable of creating on their own:<a href="#cite_note-:2-84">[79]</a>: 435 <blockquote>If concepts were only general ideas, they would not enrich knowledge a great deal, for, as we have already pointed out, the general contains nothing more than the particular. But if before all else they are collective representations, they add to that which we can learn by our own personal experience all that wisdom and science which the group has accumulated in the course of centuries. Thinking by concepts, is not merely seeing reality on its most general side, but it is projecting a light upon the sensation which illuminates it, penetrates it and transforms it.</blockquote>As such, language, as a social product, literally structures and shapes our experience of reality. This discursive approach to language and society was developed by later French philosophers, such as <a href="/wiki/Michel_Foucault" title="Michel Foucault">Michel Foucault</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Morality">Morality</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%C3%89mile_Durkheim&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Morality">edit</a>]</div> <blockquote class="quote-frame pullquote" style="font-size: 95%; padding: 0.5em 2em; background-color: var( --background-color-neutral-subtle, #f8f9fa ); color: var( --color-base, black ); border: 1px solid #aaa; display:table; float:right; width:240px;"><div style="padding: 0.6em 1em;">How many times, indeed, it [crime] is only an anticipation of future morality - a step toward what will be! <cite style="display: block; text-align: right;"> — Émile Durkheim, <a href="/wiki/The_Division_of_Labour_in_Society#DivisionofLabourinSociety" title="The Division of Labour in Society">Division of Labour in Society</a><a href="#cite_note-96">[88]</a></cite></div></blockquote> Durkheim defines morality as "a system of rules for conduct".<a href="#cite_note-97">[89]</a> His analysis of morality is influenced by <a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a> and his notion of duty. While Durkheim was influenced by Kant, he was critical of aspects of the latter's moral theory and developed his own positions. Durkheim agrees with Kant that within morality, there is an element of obligation, "a moral authority which, by manifesting itself in certain precepts particularly important to it, confers upon [moral rules] an obligatory character."<a href="#cite_note-:1-56">[51]</a>: 38  Morality tells us how to act from a position of superiority. There exists a certain, pre-established moral norm to which we must conform. It is through this view that Durkheim makes a first critique of Kant in saying that moral duties originate in society, and are not to be found in some universal moral concept such as the <a href="/wiki/Categorical_imperative" title="Categorical imperative">categorical imperative</a>. Durkheim also argues that morality is characterized not just by this obligation, but is also something that is desired by the individual. The individual believes that by adhering to morality, they are serving the common <a href="/wiki/Summum_bonum" title="Summum bonum">Good</a>, and for this reason, the individual submits voluntarily to the moral commandment.<a href="#cite_note-:1-56">[51]</a>: 54  However, in order to accomplish its aims, morality must be legitimate in the eyes of those to whom it speaks. As Durkheim argues, this moral authority is primarily to be located in religion, which is why in any religion one finds a code of morality. For Durkheim, it is only society that has the resources, the respect, and the power to cultivate within an individual both the obligatory and the desirous aspects of morality.<a href="#cite_note-:1-56">[51]</a>: 73  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Influence_and_legacy">Influence and legacy</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%C3%89mile_Durkheim&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Influence and legacy">edit</a>]</div> Durkheim has had an important impact on the development of anthropology and sociology as disciplines. The establishment of sociology as an independent, recognized academic discipline, in particular, is among Durkheim's largest and most lasting legacies.<a href="#cite_note-Calhoun2002-107-2">[2]</a> Within sociology, his work has significantly influenced structuralism, or <a href="/wiki/Structural_functionalism" title="Structural functionalism">structural functionalism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Calhoun2002-107-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-Allan_103-36">[32]</a> Scholars inspired by Durkheim include <a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Haidt" title="Jonathan Haidt">Jonathan Haidt</a>, <a href="/wiki/Marcel_Mauss" title="Marcel Mauss">Marcel Mauss</a>, <a href="/wiki/Maurice_Halbwachs" title="Maurice Halbwachs">Maurice Halbwachs</a>, <a href="/wiki/C%C3%A9lestin_Bougl%C3%A9" title="Célestin Bouglé">Célestin Bouglé</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gustave_Belot" title="Gustave Belot">Gustave Belot</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Radcliffe-Brown" title="Alfred Radcliffe-Brown">Alfred Radcliffe-Brown</a>, <a href="/wiki/Talcott_Parsons" title="Talcott Parsons">Talcott Parsons</a>, <a href="/wiki/Robert_K._Merton" title="Robert K. Merton">Robert K. Merton</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jean_Piaget" title="Jean Piaget">Jean Piaget</a>, <a href="/wiki/Claude_L%C3%A9vi-Strauss" title="Claude Lévi-Strauss">Claude Lévi-Strauss</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_de_Saussure" title="Ferdinand de Saussure">Ferdinand de Saussure</a>, <a href="/wiki/Michel_Foucault" title="Michel Foucault">Michel Foucault</a>, <a href="/wiki/Clifford_Geertz" title="Clifford Geertz">Clifford Geertz</a>, <a href="/wiki/Peter_L._Berger" title="Peter L. Berger">Peter Berger</a>, social reformer Patrick Hunout, and others.<a href="#cite_note-Calhoun2002-107-2">[2]</a> More recently, Durkheim has influenced sociologists such as <a href="/wiki/Steven_Lukes" title="Steven Lukes">Steven Lukes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Robert_N._Bellah" title="Robert N. Bellah">Robert N. Bellah</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Bourdieu" title="Pierre Bourdieu">Pierre Bourdieu</a>. His description of <a href="/wiki/Collective_consciousness" title="Collective consciousness">collective consciousness</a> also influenced <a href="/wiki/Ziya_G%C3%B6kalp" title="Ziya Gökalp">Ziya Gökalp</a>, the founder of Turkish sociology<a href="#cite_note-Turkay_Salim_Nefes-98">[90]</a> who replaced Durkheim's concept of society with nation.<a href="#cite_note-Kieser-99">[91]</a> An ideologue who provided the intellectual justification for the Ottoman Empire's <a href="/wiki/Wars_of_aggression" class="mw-redirect" title="Wars of aggression">wars of aggression</a> and massive <a href="/wiki/Demographic_engineering" title="Demographic engineering">demographic engineering</a>—including the <a href="/wiki/Armenian_genocide" title="Armenian genocide">Armenian genocide</a>—he could be considered to pervert Durkheim's ideas.<a href="#cite_note-Kieser-99">[91]</a><a href="#cite_note-100">[92]</a> <a href="/wiki/Randall_Collins" title="Randall Collins">Randall Collins</a> has developed a theory of what he calls interaction ritual chains, a synthesis of Durkheim's work on religion with that of <a href="/wiki/Erving_Goffman" title="Erving Goffman">Erving Goffman</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Microsociology" title="Microsociology">micro-sociology</a>. Goffman himself was also influenced by Durkheim in his development of the interaction order. Outside of sociology, Durkheim has influenced philosophers, including <a href="/wiki/Henri_Bergson" title="Henri Bergson">Henri Bergson</a> and <a href="/wiki/Emmanuel_Levinas" title="Emmanuel Levinas">Emmanuel Levinas</a>, and his ideas can be identified, inexplicitly, in the work of certain <a href="/wiki/Structuralism" title="Structuralism">structuralist</a> theorists of the 1960s, such as <a href="/wiki/Alain_Badiou" title="Alain Badiou">Alain Badiou</a>, <a href="/wiki/Louis_Althusser" title="Louis Althusser">Louis Althusser</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Michel_Foucault" title="Michel Foucault">Michel Foucault</a>.<a href="#cite_note-101">[ix]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Durkheim_contra_Searle">Durkheim contra Searle</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%C3%89mile_Durkheim&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Durkheim contra Searle">edit</a>]</div> Much of Durkheim's work remains unacknowledged in philosophy, despite its direct relevance. As proof, one can look to <a href="/wiki/John_Searle" title="John Searle">John Searle</a>, whose book, The Construction of Social Reality, elaborates a theory of social facts and collective representations that Searle believed to be a landmark work that would bridge the gap between <a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">analytic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Continental_philosophy" title="Continental philosophy">continental philosophy</a>. <a href="/wiki/Neil_Gross" title="Neil Gross">Neil Gross</a>, however, demonstrates how Searle's views on society are more or less a reconstitution of Durkheim's theories of social facts, social institutions, collective representations, and the like. Searle's ideas are thus open to the same criticisms as Durkheim's.<a href="#cite_note-102">[93]</a> Searle responded by arguing that Durkheim's work was worse than he had originally believed, and, admitting that he had not read much of Durkheim's work: "Because Durkheim's account seemed so impoverished I did not read any further in his work."<a href="#cite_note-103">[94]</a> <a href="/wiki/Steven_Lukes" title="Steven Lukes">Stephen Lukes</a>, however, responded to Searle's reply to Gross, refuting, point by point, the allegations that Searle makes against Durkheim, essentially upholding the argument of Gross, that Searle's work bears great resemblance to that of Durkheim. Lukes attributes Searle's miscomprehension of Durkheim's work to the fact that Searle, quite simply, never read Durkheim.<a href="#cite_note-104">[95]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Gilbert_pro_Durkheim">Gilbert pro Durkheim</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%C3%89mile_Durkheim&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Gilbert pro Durkheim">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Margaret_Gilbert" title="Margaret Gilbert">Margaret Gilbert</a>, a contemporary British philosopher of social phenomena, has offered a close, sympathetic reading of Durkheim's discussion of social facts in the first chapter and the prefaces of <a href="/wiki/The_Rules_of_Sociological_Method" title="The Rules of Sociological Method">The Rules of Sociological Method</a>. In her 1989 book, On Social Facts—the title of which may represent an homage to Durkheim, alluding to his "faits sociaux"—Gilbert argues that some of his statements that may seem to be philosophically untenable are important and fruitful.<a href="#cite_note-105">[96]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Selected_works">Selected works</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%C3%89mile_Durkheim&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Selected works">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>"Montesquieu's contributions to the formation of social science" (1892)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Division_of_Labour_in_Society" title="The Division of Labour in Society">The Division of Labour in Society</a> (1893)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Rules_of_Sociological_Method" title="The Rules of Sociological Method">The Rules of Sociological Method</a> (1895)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suicide_(Durkheim_book)" title="Suicide (Durkheim book)">Suicide</a> (1897)</li> <li>The Prohibition of Incest and its Origins (1897), in <a href="/wiki/L%27Ann%C3%A9e_Sociologique" class="mw-redirect" title="L'Année Sociologique">L'Année Sociologique</a> 1:1–70</li> <li>Sociology and its Scientific Domain (1900), translation of an Italian text entitled "La sociologia e il suo dominio scientifico"</li> <li>Primitive Classification (1903), in collaboration with <a href="/wiki/Marcel_Mauss" title="Marcel Mauss">Marcel Mauss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Elementary_Forms_of_Religious_Life" class="mw-redirect" title="The Elementary Forms of Religious Life">The Elementary Forms of Religious Life</a> (1912)<a href="#cite_note-:2-84">[79]</a><a href="#cite_note-Durkheim,_Emile_19642-106">[97]</a></li> <li>Who Wanted War? (1914), in collaboration with <a href="/wiki/Ernest_Denis" title="Ernest Denis">Ernest Denis</a></li> <li>Germany Above All (1915)</li></ul> Published posthumously<a href="#cite_note-107">[98]</a><a href="#cite_note-Thompson2012-108">[99]</a> <ul><li>Education and Sociology (1922)</li> <li>Sociology and Philosophy (1924)</li> <li>Moral Education (1925)</li> <li>Socialism (1928)</li> <li>Pragmatism and Sociology (1955)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%C3%89mile_Durkheim&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Notes">Notes</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%C3%89mile_Durkheim&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-roman"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-6"><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a> "The first and most fundamental rule is: Consider social facts as things." (Durkheim 1895:14). </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCollins1975">Collins (1975)</a>, p. 539: "Durkheim was the first to seriously use the comparative method correctly in the scientific sense." </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a> Durkheim (1960/1892), p. 9: "Science cannot describe individuals, but only types. If human societies cannot be classified, they must remain inaccessible to scientific description." </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMeštrović1993">Meštrović (1993)</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lqGUxDs3K_UC&pg=PA37">p. 37</a>: "While Durkheim did not become a Rabbi, he may have transformed his father's philosophical and moral concerns into something new, his version of sociology." </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHassard1995">Hassard (1995)</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=EjI6Rd-NreYC&dq=Durkheim+suicide+sociological+positivism&pg=PA15">p. 15</a>: "Suicide…is indeed the paradigm case of Durkheim's positivism: it remains the exemplar of the sociological application of statistics." </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a> Durkheim 1915, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/41360/41360-h/41360-h.htm#Page_322">p. 322</a>: "They are not homogeneous with the visible things among which we place them. They may well take from these things the outward and material forms in which they are represented, but they owe none of their efficacy to them. They are not united by external bonds to the different supports upon which they alight; they have no roots there; according to an expression we have already used and which serves best for characterizing them, they are added to them. So there are no objects which are predestined to receive them, to the exclusion of all others; even the most insignificant and vulgar may do so; accidental circumstances decide which are the chosen ones." </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a> For example, the essay De quelques formes primitives de classification (1902), written with <a href="/wiki/Marcel_Mauss" title="Marcel Mauss">Marcel Mauss</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a> See Durkheim (1912) p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/41360/41360-h/41360-h.htm#Page_14">14–17</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/41360/41360-h/41360-h.htm#Page_19">19–22</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBourdieuPasseron1967">Bourdieu & Passeron (1967)</a>, pp. 167–68: "For, speaking more generally, all the social sciences now live in the house of Durkheimism, unbeknownst to them, as it were, because they walked into it backwards." </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%C3%89mile_Durkheim&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Citations">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 25em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dictionary.com/browse/durkheim">"Durkheim"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Random_House_Webster%27s_Unabridged_Dictionary" title="Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary">Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-Calhoun2002-107-2">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Calhoun2002-107_2-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Calhoun2002-107_2-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Calhoun2002-107_2-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Calhoun2002-107_2-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Calhoun2002-107_2-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Calhoun2002-107_2-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Calhoun2002-107_2-6">g</a> <a href="#CITEREFCalhoun2002">Calhoun (2002)</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6mq-H3EcUx8C&pg=PA107">p. 107</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> Kim, Sung Ho (2007). "Max Weber". <a href="/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a> (21 September 2022 entry) <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/weber/">http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/weber/</a> (Retrieved 21 June 2024) - "[...] Weber is known as a principal architect of modern social science along with Karl Marx and Emil[sic] Durkheim." </li> <li id="cite_note-Allan_104-4">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Allan_104_4-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Allan_104_4-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Allan_104_4-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Allan_104_4-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Allan_104_4-4">e</a> <a href="#CITEREFAllan2005">Allan (2005)</a>, p. 104 </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-5">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_5-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_5-1">b</a> Durkheim, Émile. 1982 [1901]. "Preface to the Second Edition". Pp. 34–47 in <a href="/wiki/The_Rules_of_Sociological_Method" title="The Rules of Sociological Method">The Rules of Sociological Method and Selected Texts on Sociology and its Method</a>, edited by <a href="/wiki/Steven_Lukes" title="Steven Lukes">S. Lukes</a>, translated by W. D. Halls. New York: The Free Press. <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-02-907940-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-02-907940-9">978-0-02-907940-9</a>. p. 45. </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a> Durkheim, Emile. 1993 [1893]. <a href="/wiki/The_Division_of_Labour_in_Society" title="The Division of Labour in Society">The Division of Labour in Society</a>, translated by G. Simpson. New York: <a href="/wiki/Free_Press_(publisher)" title="Free Press (publisher)">The Free Press</a>. p. ix. </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a> Jones, Robert Alun. 1986. "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://durkheim.uchicago.edu/Biography.html">Emile Durkheim: His Life and Work (1858-1917)</a>." Pp. 12–23 in Emile Durkheim: An Introduction to Four Major Works. Beverly Hills, CA: <a href="/wiki/SAGE_Publishing" class="mw-redirect" title="SAGE Publishing">SAGE Publications</a>. – via The Durkheim Pages, <a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago" title="University of Chicago">University of Chicago</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a> Tiryakian, Edward A. For Durkheim: Essays in Historical and Cultural Sociology. London: <a href="/wiki/Ashgate_Publishing" title="Ashgate Publishing">Ashgate Publishing</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780754671558" title="Special:BookSources/9780754671558">9780754671558</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Z61mk-BEEQ0C&pg=PA21">p. 21</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-Poggi_1-10">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Poggi_1_10-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Poggi_1_10-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Poggi_1_10-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Poggi_1_10-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Poggi_1_10-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Poggi_1_10-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Poggi_1_10-6">g</a> Poggi, Gianfranco. 2000. Durkheim. Oxford: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-878087-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-878087-8">978-0-19-878087-8</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-Calhoun2002-103-11">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Calhoun2002-103_11-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Calhoun2002-103_11-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Calhoun2002-103_11-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Calhoun2002-103_11-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Calhoun2002-103_11-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Calhoun2002-103_11-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Calhoun2002-103_11-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Calhoun2002-103_11-7">h</a> <a href="#CITEREFCalhoun2002">Calhoun (2002)</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6mq-H3EcUx8C&pg=PA103">p. 103</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBottomoreNisbet1978">Bottomore & Nisbet (1978)</a>, p. 8 </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLukes1985">Lukes (1985)</a>, p. 64 </li> <li id="cite_note-Calhoun2002-104-14">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Calhoun2002-104_14-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Calhoun2002-104_14-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Calhoun2002-104_14-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Calhoun2002-104_14-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Calhoun2002-104_14-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Calhoun2002-104_14-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Calhoun2002-104_14-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Calhoun2002-104_14-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Calhoun2002-104_14-8">i</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Calhoun2002-104_14-9">j</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Calhoun2002-104_14-10">k</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Calhoun2002-104_14-11">l</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Calhoun2002-104_14-12">m</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Calhoun2002-104_14-13">n</a> <a href="#CITEREFCalhoun2002">Calhoun (2002)</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6mq-H3EcUx8C&pg=PA104">p. 104</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFJonesSpiro1995">Jones & Spiro (1995)</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vM5MgiPPlgcC&pg=PA148">p. 149</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Calhoun2002-105-16">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Calhoun2002-105_16-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Calhoun2002-105_16-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Calhoun2002-105_16-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Calhoun2002-105_16-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Calhoun2002-105_16-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Calhoun2002-105_16-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Calhoun2002-105_16-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Calhoun2002-105_16-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Calhoun2002-105_16-8">i</a> <a href="#CITEREFCalhoun2002">Calhoun (2002)</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6mq-H3EcUx8C&pg=PA105">p. 105</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Allan_105-17">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Allan_105_17-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Allan_105_17-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFAllan2005">Allan (2005)</a>, p. 105 </li> <li id="cite_note-Pickering-18"><a href="#cite_ref-Pickering_18-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPickering2012">Pickering (2012)</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gUl5F0uLrkUC&dq=%C3%89mile+Durkheim+Cimeti%C3%A8re+de+Montparnasse&pg=PA11">p. 11</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHayward1960a">Hayward (1960a)</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHayward1960b">Hayward (1960b)</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFThompson2002">Thompson (2002)</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a> Durkheim, Émile. 1960 [1892]. "Montesquieu's Contribution to the Rise of Social Science." In Montesquieu and Rousseau: Forerunners of Sociology, translated by <a href="/wiki/Ralph_Manheim" title="Ralph Manheim">R. Manheim</a>. Ann Arbor: <a href="/wiki/University_of_Michigan_Press" title="University of Michigan Press">University of Michigan Press</a>. p. 9. </li> <li id="cite_note-Morrison_152-25">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Morrison_152_25-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Morrison_152_25-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMorrison2006">Morrison (2006)</a>, p. 152 </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFStrenski1997">Strenski (1997)</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=nyneB7F0m0sC">pp. 1–2</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPickering2001">Pickering (2001)</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=amP-MyZAL-cC">p. 79</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Allan_102-29"><a href="#cite_ref-Allan_102_29-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAllan2005">Allan (2005)</a>, p. 102 </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAllan2005">Allan (2005)</a>, p. 136 </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a> Durkheim, Emile. 2011 [1925]. Moral Education, translated by E. K. Wilson and H. Schnurer. Mineola, NY: <a href="/wiki/Dover_Publications" title="Dover Publications">Dover Publications</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780486424989" title="Special:BookSources/9780486424989">9780486424989</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=JJooAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA102">p. 102</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPopolo2011">Popolo (2011)</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vMALg_p5zHsC&pg=PA97">pp. 97–</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBrintonNee2001">Brinton & Nee (2001)</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=71e_jsQpzg0C&pg=PR11">pp. 11–</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-AppelrouthEdles2007-34">^ <a href="#cite_ref-AppelrouthEdles2007_34-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-AppelrouthEdles2007_34-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-AppelrouthEdles2007_34-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-AppelrouthEdles2007_34-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-AppelrouthEdles2007_34-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-AppelrouthEdles2007_34-5">f</a> <a href="#CITEREFDurkheim2007">Durkheim, Émile. 2007 [1895]</a>. "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=EUQT47IqVdgC&pg=PA101">The Rules of Sociological Method</a>." Pp. 95–102 in <a href="//archive.org/details/classicalcontemp0000appe/page/95" class="extiw" title="iarchive:classicalcontemp0000appe/page/95">Classical and Contemporary Sociological Theory: Text and Readings</a>, edited by S. Appelrouth and L. D. Edles. Thousand Oaks, CA: <a href="/wiki/SAGE_Publishing" class="mw-redirect" title="SAGE Publishing">Pine Forge Press</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7619-2793-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7619-2793-8">978-0-7619-2793-8</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-socialfact-35">^ <a href="#cite_ref-socialfact_35-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-socialfact_35-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-socialfact_35-2">c</a> Durkheim, Émile. 1938 [1895]. <a href="/wiki/The_Rules_of_Sociological_Method" title="The Rules of Sociological Method">The Rules of Sociological Method</a>, translated by S. A. Solovay and J. H. Mueller, edited by G. E. G. 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"Social facts." Pp. 433–40 in Readings in the Philosophy of Social Science, edited by M. Martin and <a href="/wiki/Lee_C._McIntyre" class="mw-redirect" title="Lee C. McIntyre">L. C. McIntyre</a>. 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New York: The Free Press. pp. 34–47. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-02-907940-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-02-907940-9"><bdi>978-0-02-907940-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Preface+to+the+second+edition&rft.btitle=The+Rules+of+Sociological+Method+and+Selected+Texts+on+Sociology+and+its+Method&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=34-47&rft.pub=The+Free+Press&rft.date=1982&rft.isbn=978-0-02-907940-9&rft.aulast=Durkheim&rft.aufirst=%C3%89mile&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3A%C3%89mile+Durkheim" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDurkheim1994" class="citation book cs1">Durkheim, Émile (1994). "Social facts". In Martin, Michael; McIntyre, Lee C. (eds.). Readings in the Philosophy of Social Science. Boston, MA: MIT Press. pp. 433–440. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-262-13296-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-262-13296-1"><bdi>978-0-262-13296-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Social+facts&rft.btitle=Readings+in+the+Philosophy+of+Social+Science&rft.place=Boston%2C+MA&rft.pages=433-440&rft.pub=MIT+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-262-13296-1&rft.aulast=Durkheim&rft.aufirst=%C3%89mile&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3A%C3%89mile+Durkheim" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDurkheim2007" class="citation book cs1">Durkheim, Émile (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=EUQT47IqVdgC&pg=PA101">"The rules of sociological method (1895)"</a>. In Appelrouth, Scott; Edles, Laura Desfor (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/classicalcontemp0000appe/page/95">Classical and Contemporary Sociological Theory: Text and Readings</a>. Thousand Oaks, CA: Pine Forge Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/classicalcontemp0000appe/page/95">95–102</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7619-2793-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7619-2793-8"><bdi>978-0-7619-2793-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+rules+of+sociological+method+%281895%29&rft.btitle=Classical+and+Contemporary+Sociological+Theory%3A+Text+and+Readings&rft.place=Thousand+Oaks%2C+CA&rft.pages=95-102&rft.pub=Pine+Forge+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-7619-2793-8&rft.aulast=Durkheim&rft.aufirst=%C3%89mile&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DEUQT47IqVdgC%26pg%3DPA101&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3A%C3%89mile+Durkheim" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDurkheim2009" class="citation book cs1">Durkheim, Émile (2009) [1953]. Sociology and philosophy. Routledge Revivals. Translated by D. F. Pocock, with an introduction by J. G. Peristiany. Taylor & Francis. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-55770-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-55770-2"><bdi>978-0-415-55770-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sociology+and+philosophy&rft.series=Routledge+Revivals&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-415-55770-2&rft.aulast=Durkheim&rft.aufirst=%C3%89mile&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3A%C3%89mile+Durkheim" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGibbsMartin1958" class="citation journal cs1">Gibbs, Jack P.; Martin, Walter T. (1958). "A theory of status integration and its relationship to suicide". <a href="/wiki/American_Sociological_Review" title="American Sociological Review">American Sociological Review</a>. 23 (2): 140–147. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2088997">10.2307/2088997</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2088997">2088997</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Sociological+Review&rft.atitle=A+theory+of+status+integration+and+its+relationship+to+suicide&rft.volume=23&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=140-147&rft.date=1958&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2088997&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2088997%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Gibbs&rft.aufirst=Jack+P.&rft.au=Martin%2C+Walter+T.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3A%C3%89mile+Durkheim" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGross2006" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Neil_Gross" title="Neil Gross">Gross, Neil</a> (2006). 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Anthropological Theory. 6 (1): 45–56. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1463499606061734">10.1177/1463499606061734</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144798682">144798682</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Anthropological+Theory&rft.atitle=Comment+on+Searle&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=45-56&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F1463499606061734&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A144798682%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Gross&rft.aufirst=Neil&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3A%C3%89mile+Durkheim" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHassard1995" class="citation book cs1">Hassard, John (1995). 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(1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/culturesofcomput00susa">"Contextualization, cognitive flexibility, and hypertext: the convergence of interpretive theory, cognitive psychology, and advanced information technologies"</a>. In Susan Leigh Star (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/culturesofcomput00susa">The Cultures of Computing</a>. Sociological Review Monographs. Wiley-Blackwell. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-631-19282-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-631-19282-4"><bdi>978-0-631-19282-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Contextualization%2C+cognitive+flexibility%2C+and+hypertext%3A+the+convergence+of+interpretive+theory%2C+cognitive+psychology%2C+and+advanced+information+technologies&rft.btitle=The+Cultures+of+Computing&rft.series=Sociological+Review+Monographs&rft.pub=Wiley-Blackwell&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-631-19282-4&rft.aulast=Jones&rft.aufirst=Robert+Alun&rft.au=Spiro%2C+Rand+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fculturesofcomput00susa&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3A%C3%89mile+Durkheim" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLukes1985" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Steven_Lukes" title="Steven Lukes">Lukes, Steven</a> (1985). <a href="/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim:_His_Life_and_Work" class="mw-redirect" title="Émile Durkheim: His Life and Work">Emile Durkheim: His Life and Work, a Historical and Critical Study</a>. 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Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8476-7867-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8476-7867-9"><bdi>978-0-8476-7867-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%C3%89mile+Durkheim+and+the+Reformation+of+Sociology&rft.place=Lanham%2C+MD&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0-8476-7867-9&rft.aulast=Me%C5%A1trovi%C4%87&rft.aufirst=Stjepan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3A%C3%89mile+Durkheim" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMorrison2006" class="citation book cs1">Morrison, Ken (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/marxdurkheimwebe0000morr">Marx, Durkheim, Weber: Formations of Modern Social Thought</a> (2nd ed.). 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Znak. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-83-240-0218-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-83-240-0218-4"><bdi>978-83-240-0218-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Socjologia&rft.pub=Znak&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-83-240-0218-4&rft.aulast=Sztompka&rft.aufirst=Piotr&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3A%C3%89mile+Durkheim" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThomassen2012" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Bjorn_Thomassen" class="mw-redirect" title="Bjorn Thomassen">Thomassen, Bjørn</a> (2012). "Émile Durkheim between Gabriel Tarde and Arnold van Gennep: founding moments of sociology and anthropology". Social Anthropology. 20 (3): 231–249. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1469-8676.2012.00204.x">10.1111/j.1469-8676.2012.00204.x</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Social+Anthropology&rft.atitle=%C3%89mile+Durkheim+between+Gabriel+Tarde+and+Arnold+van+Gennep%3A+founding+moments+of+sociology+and+anthropology&rft.volume=20&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=231-249&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1469-8676.2012.00204.x&rft.aulast=Thomassen&rft.aufirst=Bj%C3%B8rn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3A%C3%89mile+Durkheim" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThompson2002" class="citation book cs1">Thompson, Kenneth (2002). Émile Durkheim (2nd ed.). Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-28530-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-28530-8"><bdi>978-0-415-28530-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%C3%89mile+Durkheim&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-415-28530-8&rft.aulast=Thompson&rft.aufirst=Kenneth&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3A%C3%89mile+Durkheim" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFvan_PoppelDay1996" class="citation journal cs1">van Poppel, Frans; Day, Lincoln H. (1996). "AtTest of Durkheim's theory of suicide – without committing the "ecological fallacy"". American Sociological Review. 61 (3): 500–507. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2096361">10.2307/2096361</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2096361">2096361</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Sociological+Review&rft.atitle=AtTest+of+Durkheim%27s+theory+of+suicide+%E2%80%93+without+committing+the+%22ecological+fallacy%22&rft.volume=61&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=500-507&rft.date=1996&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2096361&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2096361%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=van+Poppel&rft.aufirst=Frans&rft.au=Day%2C+Lincoln+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3A%C3%89mile+Durkheim" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%C3%89mile_Durkheim&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 40em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Robert_N._Bellah" title="Robert N. Bellah">Bellah, Robert N.</a> (ed.) (1973). Emile Durkheim: On Morality and Society, Selected Writings. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-17336-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-17336-8">978-0-226-17336-8</a>).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Cotterrell" title="Roger Cotterrell">Cotterrell, Roger</a> (1999). Emile Durkheim: Law in a Moral Domain. Edinburgh University Press / Stanford University Press (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8047-3808-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-8047-3808-4">0-8047-3808-4</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-3808-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-3808-8">978-0-8047-3808-8</a>).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Cotterrell" title="Roger Cotterrell">Cotterrell, Roger</a> (ed.) (2010). Emile Durkheim: Justice, Morality and Politics. Ashgate (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7546-2711-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7546-2711-1">978-0-7546-2711-1</a>).</li> <li>Douglas, Jack D. (1973). The Social Meanings of Suicide. Princeton University Press (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-02812-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-02812-5">978-0-691-02812-5</a>).</li> <li>Eitzen, Stanley D. and Maxine Baca Zinn (1997). Social Problems (11th ed.). Needham Heights, MA: Allyn and Bacon (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-205-54796-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-205-54796-6">0-205-54796-6</a>).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthony_Giddens" title="Anthony Giddens">Giddens, Anthony</a> (ed.) (1972). Emile Durkheim: Selected Writings. London: Cambridge University Press (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-09712-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-09712-6">0-521-09712-6</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-09712-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-09712-3">978-0-521-09712-3</a>).</li> <li>Giddens, Anthony (ed.) (1986). Durkheim on Politics and the State. Cambridge: Polity Press (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7456-0131-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-7456-0131-6">0-7456-0131-6</a>).</li> <li>Henslin, James M. (1996). Essentials of Sociology: A Down-to-Earth Approach. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn and Bacon (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-205-17480-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-205-17480-9">0-205-17480-9</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-205-17480-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-205-17480-5">978-0-205-17480-5</a>).</li> <li>Jones, Susan Stedman (2001). Durkheim Reconsidered. Polity (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7456-1616-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-7456-1616-X">0-7456-1616-X</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7456-1616-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7456-1616-2">978-0-7456-1616-2</a>).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Lemert" title="Charles Lemert">Lemert, Charles</a> (2006). Durkheim's Ghosts: Cultural Logics and Social Things. Cambridge University Press (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-84266-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-84266-2">0-521-84266-2</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-84266-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-84266-2">978-0-521-84266-2</a>).</li> <li>Leroux, Robert, Histoire et sociologie en France. De l'histoire-science à la sociologie durkheimienne, Paris, Presses Universitaires de France, 1998.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Lockwood_(sociologist)" title="David Lockwood (sociologist)">Lockwood, David</a> (1992). Solidarity and Schism: "The Problem of Disorder" in Durkheimian and Marxist Sociology. Oxford: Clarendon Press (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-827717-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-827717-2">0-19-827717-2</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-827717-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-827717-0">978-0-19-827717-0</a>).</li> <li>Macionis, John J. (1991). Sociology (3rd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-13-820358-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-13-820358-X">0-13-820358-X</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOsipova1989" class="citation book cs1">Osipova, Elena (1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110514104128/http://su-ltd.mylivepage.ru/file/2715/6547_Kon_History_of_Classical_Sociology.zip">"Emile Durkheim's Sociology"</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Igor_Kon" title="Igor Kon">Igor Kon</a> (ed.). A History of Classical Sociology. Translated by H. Campbell Creighton. <a href="/wiki/Moscow" title="Moscow">Moscow</a>: <a href="/wiki/Progress_Publishers" title="Progress Publishers">Progress Publishers</a>. pp. 206–254. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://su-ltd.mylivepage.ru/file/2715/6547_Kon_History_of_Classical_Sociology.zip">the original</a> (DOC, DjVu) on 14 May 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Emile+Durkheim%27s+Sociology&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Classical+Sociology&rft.place=Moscow&rft.pages=206-254&rft.pub=Progress+Publishers&rft.date=1989&rft.aulast=Osipova&rft.aufirst=Elena&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsu-ltd.mylivepage.ru%2Ffile%2F2715%2F6547_Kon_History_of_Classical_Sociology.zip&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3A%C3%89mile+Durkheim" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Pickering, W. S. F. (2000). Durkheim and Representations, Routledge (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-19090-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-19090-8">0-415-19090-8</a>).</li> <li>Pickering, W. S. F. (ed.) (1979). Durkheim: Essays on Morals and Education, Routledge & Kegan Paul (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7100-0321-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-7100-0321-8">0-7100-0321-8</a>).</li> <li>Pickering, W. S. F. (ed.) (1975). Durkheim on Religion, Routledge & Kegan Paul (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7100-8108-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-7100-8108-1">0-7100-8108-1</a>).</li> <li>Siegel, Larry J (2007). Criminology: Theories, Patterns, and Typologies (7th ed.) Wadsworth/Thomson Learning (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-495-00572-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-495-00572-X">0-495-00572-X</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-495-00572-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-495-00572-8">978-0-495-00572-8</a>).</li> <li>Tekiner, Deniz (2002). "German Idealist Foundations of Durkheim's Sociology and Teleology of Knowledge", Theory and Science, III, 1, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://theoryandscience.icaap.org/content/vol003.001/tekiner.html">Online publication</a>.</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%C3%89mile_Durkheim&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:The_Wikipedia_Library" title="Wikipedia:The Wikipedia Library">Library resources</a> about Émile Durkheim <hr /></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Emile+Durkheim">Resources in your library</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Emile+Durkheim&library=0CHOOSE0">Resources in other libraries</a></li> </ul></div></div> <div class="side-box-abovebelow">By Émile Durkheim <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?at=wp&au=Emile+Durkheim">Resources in your library</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?at=wp&au=Emile+Durkheim&library=0CHOOSE0">Resources in other libraries</a></li></ul> </div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1250146164">.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-abovebelow{padding:0.75em 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-abovebelow>b{display:block}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-text>ul{border-top:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.75em 0;width:217px;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-text>ul>li{min-height:31px}.mw-parser-output .sister-logo{display:inline-block;width:31px;line-height:31px;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .sister-link{display:inline-block;margin-left:4px;width:182px;vertical-align:middle}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div role="navigation" aria-labelledby="sister-projects" class="side-box metadata side-box-right sister-box sistersitebox plainlinks"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> Émile Durkheim at Wikipedia's <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikimedia_sister_projects" title="Wikipedia:Wikimedia sister projects">sister projects</a></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/20px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/40px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:%C3%89mile_Durkheim" class="extiw" title="c:Category:Émile Durkheim">Media</a> from Commons</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/23px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/35px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/46px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" class="extiw" title="q:Émile Durkheim">Quotations</a> from Wikiquote</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/26px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="26" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/39px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/51px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Author:%C3%89mile_Durkheim" class="extiw" title="s:Author:Émile Durkheim">Texts</a> from Wikisource</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/27px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="22" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/41px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/54px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="626" data-file-height="512" /><a href="https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Special:Search/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" class="extiw" title="v:Special:Search/Émile Durkheim">Resources</a> from Wikiversity</li></ul></div></div> </div> <ul><li>Resources related to research : <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.berose.fr/">BEROSE - International Encyclopaedia of the Histories of Anthropology</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.berose.fr/rubrique800.html?lang=en">"Durkheim, Émile (1858-1917)"</a>, Paris, 2015. (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/search?fq=x0:jrnl&q=n2:2648-2770">2648-2770</a>)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/author/40654">Works by Emile Durkheim</a> at <a href="/wiki/Project_Gutenberg" title="Project Gutenberg">Project Gutenberg</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/search.php?query=%28%28%28%22Émile%22%20OR%20Emile%29%20AND%20%28%22Durkheim%22%20OR%20Durkheim%29%29%20OR%20%28%221858-1917%22%20AND%20Durkheim%29%29%20AND%20%28-mediatype:software%29">Works by or about Émile Durkheim</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Internet_Archive" title="Internet Archive">Internet Archive</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://librivox.org/author/16373">Works by Émile Durkheim</a> at <a href="/wiki/LibriVox" title="LibriVox">LibriVox</a> (public domain audiobooks) <img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Speaker_Icon.svg/15px-Speaker_Icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Speaker_Icon.svg/23px-Speaker_Icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Speaker_Icon.svg/30px-Speaker_Icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="500" /></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120818023107/http://www.hei-hep.com/">L'Ecoles des Hautes Etudes Internationales et Poltiques HEI-HEP</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://durkheim.uchicago.edu/">The Durkheim pages (University of Chicago)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://digitaldurkheim.hypotheses.org/">DD – Digital Durkheim</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://socserv.mcmaster.ca/econ/ugcm/3ll3/durkheim/index.html">Bibliography on Durkheim (McMaster University)</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171020012350/http://socserv.mcmaster.ca/econ/ugcm/3ll3/durkheim/index.html">Archived</a> 20 October 2017 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.unc.edu/~elliott/durkheim.html">Annotated bibliography on Durkheim and Religion (University of North Carolina)</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121009144958/http://www.unc.edu/~elliott/durkheim.html">Archived</a> 9 October 2012 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170613203101/http://www.bolenderinitiatives.com/sociology/emile-durkheim-1858-1917">Review material for studying Émile Durkheim</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181020094005/http://imm.ehess.fr/">Institut Marcel Mauss à l'EHESS</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/durkheim">"Émile Durkheim"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Internet_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=%C3%89mile+Durkheim&rft.btitle=Internet+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iep.utm.edu%2Fdurkheim&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3A%C3%89mile+Durkheim" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output 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href="/wiki/Template_talk:%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Template talk:Émile Durkheim"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Émile Durkheim"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Émile_Durkheim" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Émile Durkheim</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Books</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Division_of_Labour_in_Society" title="The Division of Labour in Society">The Division of Labour in Society</a> (1893)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Rules_of_Sociological_Method" title="The Rules of Sociological Method">The Rules of Sociological Method</a> (1895)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suicide_(Durkheim_book)" title="Suicide (Durkheim book)">Suicide</a> (1897)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Elementary_Forms_of_the_Religious_Life" title="The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life">The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life</a> (1912)</li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="4" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Emile_Durkheim.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Emile_Durkheim.jpg/80px-Emile_Durkheim.jpg" decoding="async" width="80" height="113" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Emile_Durkheim.jpg/120px-Emile_Durkheim.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Emile_Durkheim.jpg/160px-Emile_Durkheim.jpg 2x" data-file-width="229" data-file-height="324" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Founded</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sociology#Foundations_of_the_academic_discipline" title="Sociology">Academic sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L%27Ann%C3%A9e_Sociologique" class="mw-redirect" title="L'Année Sociologique">L'Année Sociologique</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Conceptualized and defined</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Social_integration" title="Social integration">Social integration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collective_consciousness" title="Collective consciousness">Collective consciousness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mechanical_and_organic_solidarity" title="Mechanical and organic solidarity">Mechanical and organic solidarity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_fact" title="Social fact">Social fact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_knowledge" title="Sociology of knowledge">Sociology of knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacred%E2%80%93profane_dichotomy" class="mw-redirect" title="Sacred–profane dichotomy">Sacred–profane dichotomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantitative_methods_in_criminology" title="Quantitative methods in criminology">Quantitative methods in criminology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_research" title="Social research">Statistical social research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collective_effervescence" title="Collective effervescence">Collective effervescence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anomie" title="Anomie">Anomie</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Totemism#Durkheim_to_Radcliffe-Brown" class="mw-redirect" title="Totemism">Totemism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_sociology" title="History of sociology">History of sociology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Jurisprudence" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Jurisprudence" title="Template:Jurisprudence"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Jurisprudence" title="Template talk:Jurisprudence"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Jurisprudence" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Jurisprudence"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Jurisprudence" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Jurisprudence" title="Jurisprudence">Jurisprudence</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_philosophy_of_law_articles" title="Index of philosophy of law articles">Index</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Legal_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Legal theory">Legal theory</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constitutionalism" title="Constitutionalism">Constitutionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_legal_studies" title="Critical legal studies">Critical legal studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_law" title="Comparative law">Comparative law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_and_economics" title="Law and economics">Economic analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_norms" class="mw-redirect" title="Legal norms">Legal norms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_legal_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="International legal theory">International legal theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_history" title="Legal history">Legal history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophy of law">Philosophy of law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_law" title="Sociology of law">Sociology of law</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophers_of_law" title="Category:Philosophers of law">Philosophers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Alexy" title="Robert Alexy">Alexy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Austin_(legal_philosopher)" title="John Austin (legal philosopher)">Austin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Bastiat" title="Frédéric Bastiat">Bastiat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cesare_Beccaria" title="Cesare Beccaria">Beccaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Bentham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Blackstone" title="William Blackstone">Blackstone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norberto_Bobbio" title="Norberto Bobbio">Bobbio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Bork" title="Robert Bork">Bork</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bartosz_Bro%C5%BCek" title="Bartosz Brożek">Brożek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_N._Cardozo" title="Benjamin N. Cardozo">Cardozo</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Durkheim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Dworkin" title="Ronald Dworkin">Dworkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugen_Ehrlich" title="Eugen Ehrlich">Ehrlich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Finnis" title="John Finnis">Finnis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lon_L._Fuller" title="Lon L. Fuller">Fuller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugo_Grotius" title="Hugo Grotius">Grotius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georges_Gurvitch" title="Georges Gurvitch">Gurvitch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Habermas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Ludwig_von_Haller" title="Karl Ludwig von Haller">Haller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Han_Fei" title="Han Fei">Han</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H._L._A._Hart" title="H. L. A. Hart">Hart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Hegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Hobbes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axel_H%C3%A4gerstr%C3%B6m" title="Axel Hägerström">Hägerström</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Jellinek" title="Georg Jellinek">Jellinek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_von_Jhering" title="Rudolf von Jhering">Jhering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Kelsen" title="Hans Kelsen">Kelsen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bruno_Leoni" title="Bruno Leoni">Leoni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Llewellyn" title="Karl Llewellyn">Llewellyn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niklas_Luhmann" title="Niklas Luhmann">Luhmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_de_Maistre" title="Joseph de Maistre">Maistre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Marx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montesquieu" title="Montesquieu">Montesquieu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_M%C3%BCller" title="Adam Müller">Müller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martha_Nussbaum" title="Martha Nussbaum">Nussbaum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Olivecrona" title="Karl Olivecrona">Olivecrona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evgeny_Pashukanis" title="Evgeny Pashukanis">Pashukanis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cha%C3%AFm_Perelman" title="Chaïm Perelman">Perelman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leon_Petra%C5%BCycki" title="Leon Petrażycki">Petrażycki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Posner" title="Richard Posner">Posner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roscoe_Pound" title="Roscoe Pound">Pound</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_von_Pufendorf" title="Samuel von Pufendorf">Pufendorf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gustav_Radbruch" title="Gustav Radbruch">Radbruch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">Rawls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Raz" title="Joseph Raz">Raz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adolf_Reinach" title="Adolf Reinach">Reinach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Renner" title="Karl Renner">Renner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alf_Ross" title="Alf Ross">Ross</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rumi" title="Rumi">Rumi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Carl_von_Savigny" title="Friedrich Carl von Savigny">Savigny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Mucius_Scaevola_Pontifex" title="Quintus Mucius Scaevola Pontifex">Scaevola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Schmitt" title="Carl Schmitt">Schmitt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shang_Yang" title="Shang Yang">Shang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_Su%C3%A1rez" title="Francisco Suárez">Suárez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Julius_Stahl" title="Friedrich Julius Stahl">Stahl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roberto_Mangabeira_Unger" title="Roberto Mangabeira Unger">Unger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eric_Voegelin" title="Eric Voegelin">Voegelin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Walzer" title="Michael Walzer">Walzer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Weber</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Books_about_jurisprudence" title="Category:Books about jurisprudence">Works</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Laws_(dialogue)" title="Laws (dialogue)">Laws</a> (c. 355 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treatise_on_Law" title="Treatise on Law">Treatise on Law</a> (c. 1270)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Spirit_of_Law" title="The Spirit of Law">The Spirit of Law</a> (1748)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elements_of_the_Philosophy_of_Right" title="Elements of the Philosophy of Right">Elements of the Philosophy of Right</a> (1820)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pure_Theory_of_Law" title="Pure Theory of Law">Pure Theory of Law</a> (1934)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Concept_of_Law" title="The Concept of Law">The Concept of Law</a> (1961)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_Law_and_Natural_Rights" title="Natural Law and Natural Rights">Natural Law and Natural Rights</a> (1980)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law%27s_Empire" title="Law's Empire">Law's Empire</a> (1986)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Theories_of_law" title="Category:Theories of law">Theories</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_jurisprudence" title="Analytical jurisprudence">Analytical jurisprudence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deontological_ethics" class="mw-redirect" title="Deontological ethics">Deontological ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy,_theology,_and_fundamental_theory_of_Catholic_canon_law" title="Philosophy, theology, and fundamental theory of Catholic canon law">Fundamental theory of Catholic canon law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_historical_school" title="German historical school">German historical school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interpretivism_(legal)" title="Interpretivism (legal)">Interpretivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_moralism" title="Legal moralism">Legal moralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_positivism" title="Legal positivism">Legal positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_realism" title="Legal realism">Legal realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legalism_(Chinese_philosophy)" title="Legalism (Chinese philosophy)">Legalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarian_theories_of_law" title="Libertarian theories of law">Libertarian theories of law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paternalism" title="Paternalism">Paternalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">Utilitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtue_jurisprudence" title="Virtue jurisprudence">Virtue jurisprudence</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dharma" title="Dharma">Dharma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fa_(concept)" class="mw-redirect" title="Fa (concept)">Fa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judicial_interpretation" title="Judicial interpretation">Judicial interpretation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justice" title="Justice">Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_without_the_state" title="Law without the state">Law without the state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_country_legal_systems" class="mw-redirect" title="List of country legal systems">Legal system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Li_(Neo-Confucianism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Li (Neo-Confucianism)">Li</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Question_of_law" title="Question of law">Question of law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rational-legal_authority" title="Rational-legal authority">Rational-legal authority</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Usul_al-Fiqh" class="mw-redirect" title="Usul al-Fiqh">Usul al-Fiqh</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophy_of_law" title="Category:Philosophy of law">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" 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rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Social_philosophy" title="Template:Social philosophy"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Social_philosophy" title="Template talk:Social philosophy"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Social_philosophy" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Social philosophy"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Social_philosophy" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Social_philosophy" title="Social philosophy">Social philosophy</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agency_(philosophy)" title="Agency (philosophy)">Agency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anomie" title="Anomie">Anomie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convention_(norm)" title="Convention (norm)">Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmopolitanism" title="Cosmopolitanism">Cosmopolitanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Customary_law" title="Customary law">Customs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_heritage" title="Cultural heritage">Cultural heritage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culturalism" title="Culturalism">Culturalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Interculturalism" title="Interculturalism">Inter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monoculturalism" title="Monoculturalism">Mono</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiculturalism" title="Multiculturalism">Multi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture" title="Culture">Culture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Counterculture" title="Counterculture">Counter</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Familialism" title="Familialism">Familialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History" title="History">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Honour" title="Honour">Honour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_nature" title="Human nature">Human nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Identity_(social_science)" title="Identity (social science)">Identity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Identity_formation" title="Identity formation">Formation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ideology" title="Ideology">Ideology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institution" title="Institution">Institutions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invisible_hand" title="Invisible hand">Invisible hand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loyalty" title="Loyalty">Loyalty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernity" title="Modernity">Modernity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morality" title="Morality">Morality</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Public_morality" title="Public morality">Public</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mores" title="Mores">Mores</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_character" title="National character">National character</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reification_(Marxism)" title="Reification (Marxism)">Reification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ressentiment" title="Ressentiment">Ressentiment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rights" title="Rights">Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sittlichkeit" title="Sittlichkeit">Sittlichkeit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_alienation" title="Social alienation">Social alienation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_norm" title="Social norm">Social norms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spontaneous_order" title="Spontaneous order">Spontaneous order</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stewardship" title="Stewardship">Stewardship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tradition" title="Tradition">Traditions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Value_(ethics_and_social_sciences)" title="Value (ethics and social sciences)">Values</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Family_values" title="Family values">Family</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volksgeist" class="mw-redirect" title="Volksgeist">Volksgeist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Worldview" title="Worldview">Worldview</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Schools</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Budapest_School" title="Budapest School">Budapest School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_social_teaching" title="Catholic social teaching">Catholic social teaching</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Distributism" title="Distributism">Distributism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">Communitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Social_conservatism" title="Social conservatism">Social</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frankfurt_School" title="Frankfurt School">Frankfurt School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personalism" title="Personalism">Personalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Philosophers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ancient</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lactantius" title="Lactantius">Lactantius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laozi" title="Laozi">Laozi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mencius" title="Mencius">Mencius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mozi" title="Mozi">Mozi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origen" title="Origen">Origen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philo" title="Philo">Philo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutarch" title="Plutarch">Plutarch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polybius" title="Polybius">Polybius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tertullian" title="Tertullian">Tertullian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thucydides" title="Thucydides">Thucydides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xunzi_(philosopher)" title="Xunzi (philosopher)">Xunzi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Medieval</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Farabi" title="Al-Farabi">Alpharabius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avempace" title="Avempace">Avempace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonardo_Bruni" title="Leonardo Bruni">Bruni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dante_Alighieri" title="Dante Alighieri">Dante</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Gelasius_I" title="Pope Gelasius I">Gelasius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Khaldun" title="Ibn Khaldun">Ibn Khaldun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maimonides" title="Maimonides">Maimonides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photios_I_of_Constantinople" title="Photios I of Constantinople">Photios</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gemistos_Plethon" title="Gemistos Plethon">Plethon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Tufayl" title="Ibn Tufayl">Ibn Tufayl</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Early modern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Calvin" title="John Calvin">Calvin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erasmus" title="Erasmus">Erasmus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francesco_Guicciardini" title="Francesco Guicciardini">Guicciardini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">Locke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Luther</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Milton" title="John Milton">Milton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michel_de_Montaigne" title="Michel de Montaigne">Montaigne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_M%C3%BCntzer" title="Thomas Müntzer">Müntzer</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">18th and 19th centuries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Matthew_Arnold" title="Matthew Arnold">Arnold</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Bentham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_de_Bonald" title="Louis de Bonald">Bonald</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Burke" title="Edmund Burke">Burke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Carlyle" title="Thomas Carlyle">Carlyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auguste_Comte" title="Auguste Comte">Comte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Condorcet" title="Marquis de Condorcet">Condorcet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Waldo_Emerson" title="Ralph Waldo Emerson">Emerson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Engels" title="Friedrich Engels">Engels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottlieb_Fichte" title="Johann Gottlieb Fichte">Fichte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Fourier" title="Charles Fourier">Fourier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Franklin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Hegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claude_Adrien_Helv%C3%A9tius" title="Claude Adrien Helvétius">Helvétius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_Herder" title="Johann Gottfried Herder">Herder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Jefferson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Kierkegaard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gustave_Le_Bon" title="Gustave Le Bon">Le Bon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Guillaume_Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_le_Play" title="Pierre Guillaume Frédéric le Play">Le Play</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Marx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">Mill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzsche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Owen" title="Robert Owen">Owen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Renan" title="Ernest Renan">Renan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Rousseau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Josiah_Royce" title="Josiah Royce">Royce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Ruskin" title="John Ruskin">Ruskin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Spencer" title="Herbert Spencer">Spencer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germaine_de_Sta%C3%ABl" title="Germaine de Staël">de Staël</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Stirner" title="Max Stirner">Stirner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippolyte_Taine" title="Hippolyte Taine">Taine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_David_Thoreau" title="Henry David Thoreau">Thoreau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexis_de_Tocqueville" title="Alexis de Tocqueville">Tocqueville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giambattista_Vico" title="Giambattista Vico">Vico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swami_Vivekananda" title="Swami Vivekananda">Vivekananda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">20th and 21st centuries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theodor_W._Adorno" title="Theodor W. Adorno">Adorno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giorgio_Agamben" title="Giorgio Agamben">Agamben</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hannah_Arendt" title="Hannah Arendt">Arendt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raymond_Aron" title="Raymond Aron">Aron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alain_Badiou" title="Alain Badiou">Badiou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Baudrillard" title="Jean Baudrillard">Baudrillard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zygmunt_Bauman" title="Zygmunt Bauman">Bauman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alain_de_Benoist" title="Alain de Benoist">Benoist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaiah_Berlin" title="Isaiah Berlin">Berlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judith_Butler" title="Judith Butler">Butler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Camus" title="Albert Camus">Camus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simone_de_Beauvoir" title="Simone de Beauvoir">de Beauvoir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guy_Debord" title="Guy Debord">Debord</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilles_Deleuze" title="Gilles Deleuze">Deleuze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Dewey" title="John Dewey">Dewey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois">Du Bois</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Durkheim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umberto_Eco" title="Umberto Eco">Eco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Evola" title="Julius Evola">Evola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michel_Foucault" title="Michel Foucault">Foucault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erich_Fromm" title="Erich Fromm">Fromm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi" title="Mahatma Gandhi">Gandhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arnold_Gehlen" title="Arnold Gehlen">Gehlen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Gentile" title="Giovanni Gentile">Gentile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Gramsci" title="Antonio Gramsci">Gramsci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Gu%C3%A9non" title="René Guénon">Guénon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Habermas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byung-Chul_Han" title="Byung-Chul Han">Han</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Heidegger" title="Martin Heidegger">Heidegger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans-Hermann_Hoppe" title="Hans-Hermann Hoppe">Hoppe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luce_Irigaray" title="Luce Irigaray">Irigaray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russell_Kirk" title="Russell Kirk">Kirk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leszek_Ko%C5%82akowski" title="Leszek Kołakowski">Kołakowski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Kropotkin" title="Peter Kropotkin">Kropotkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nick_Land" title="Nick Land">Land</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Lasch" title="Christopher Lasch">Lasch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alasdair_MacIntyre" title="Alasdair MacIntyre">MacIntyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Marcuse" title="Herbert Marcuse">Marcuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Maritain" title="Jacques Maritain">Maritain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Negri" title="Antonio Negri">Negri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reinhold_Niebuhr" title="Reinhold Niebuhr">Niebuhr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martha_Nussbaum" title="Martha Nussbaum">Nussbaum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Oakeshott" title="Michael Oakeshott">Oakeshott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Ortega_y_Gasset" title="José Ortega y Gasset">Ortega</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vilfredo_Pareto" title="Vilfredo Pareto">Pareto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Polanyi" title="Karl Polanyi">Polanyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarvepalli_Radhakrishnan" title="Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan">Radhakrishnan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_R%C3%B6pke" title="Wilhelm Röpke">Röpke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Santayana" title="George Santayana">Santayana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Scruton" title="Roger Scruton">Scruton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali_Shariati" title="Ali Shariati">Shariati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Simmel" title="Georg Simmel">Simmel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B._F._Skinner" title="B. F. Skinner">Skinner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Werner_Sombart" title="Werner Sombart">Sombart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Sowell" title="Thomas Sowell">Sowell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oswald_Spengler" title="Oswald Spengler">Spengler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Taylor_(philosopher)" title="Charles Taylor (philosopher)">Taylor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eric_Voegelin" title="Eric Voegelin">Voegelin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Walzer" title="Michael Walzer">Walzer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Weber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simone_Weil" title="Simone Weil">Weil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Howard_Zinn" title="Howard Zinn">Zinn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavoj_%C5%BDi%C5%BEek" title="Slavoj Žižek">Žižek</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/De_Officiis" title="De Officiis">De Officiis</a> (44 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oration_on_the_Dignity_of_Man" title="Oration on the Dignity of Man">Oration on the Dignity of Man</a> (1486)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_Vindication_of_Natural_Society" title="A Vindication of Natural Society">A Vindication of Natural Society</a> (1756)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy_in_America" title="Democracy in America">Democracy in America</a> (1835–1840)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civilization_and_Its_Discontents" title="Civilization and Its Discontents">Civilization and Its Discontents</a> (1930)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Work_of_Art_in_the_Age_of_Mechanical_Reproduction" title="The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction">The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction</a> (1935)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Second_Sex" title="The Second Sex">The Second Sex</a> (1949)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/One-Dimensional_Man" title="One-Dimensional Man">One-Dimensional Man</a> (1964)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Society_of_the_Spectacle" title="The Society of the Spectacle">The Society of the Spectacle</a> (1967)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality" title="The History of Sexuality">The History of Sexuality</a> (1976)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Culture_of_Narcissism" title="The Culture of Narcissism">The Culture of Narcissism</a> (1979)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_Conflict_of_Visions" title="A Conflict of Visions">A Conflict of Visions</a> (1987)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Closing_of_the_American_Mind" title="The Closing of the American Mind">The Closing of the American Mind</a> (1987)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_Trouble" title="Gender Trouble">Gender Trouble</a> (1990)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Malaise_of_Modernity" title="The Malaise of Modernity">The Malaise of Modernity</a> (1991)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intellectuals_and_Society" title="Intellectuals and Society">Intellectuals and Society</a> (2010)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agnotology" title="Agnotology">Agnotology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axiology" class="mw-redirect" title="Axiology">Axiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">Critical theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_critic" title="Cultural critic">Cultural criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_pessimism" title="Cultural pessimism">Cultural pessimism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historism" title="Historism">Historism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historicism" title="Historicism">Historicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanities" title="Humanities">Humanities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_culture" title="Philosophy of culture">Philosophy of culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_education" title="Philosophy of education">Philosophy of education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_history" title="Philosophy of history">Philosophy of history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">Political philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_criticism" title="Social criticism">Social criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_science" title="Social science">Social science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_theory" title="Social theory">Social theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">Sociology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Social_philosophy" title="Category:Social philosophy">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1130092004">.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-bordered{padding:0 2em;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;justify-content:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-unbordered{padding:0 1.7em;margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{margin:0 1em 0 0.5em;flex:0 0 auto;min-height:24px}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;flex:0 1 auto;padding:0.15em 0;column-gap:1em;align-items:baseline;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content-related{margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-item{display:inline-block;margin:0.15em 0.2em;min-height:24px;line-height:24px}@media screen and (max-width:768px){.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;flex-flow:column wrap;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{text-align:center;flex:0;padding-left:0.5em;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;align-items:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;align-items:center;flex:0;column-gap:1em;border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;margin:0 auto;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content-related{border-top:none;margin:0;list-style:none}}.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.sister-bar{margin-top:-1px}</style><div class="portal-bar noprint metadata noviewer portal-bar-bordered" role="navigation" aria-label="Portals"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents/Portals" title="Wikipedia:Contents/Portals">Portals</a>:<ul class="portal-bar-content"><li class="portal-bar-item"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/69/P_vip.svg/19px-P_vip.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/69/P_vip.svg/28px-P_vip.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/69/P_vip.svg/37px-P_vip.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1911" data-file-height="1944" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Biography" title="Portal:Biography">Biography</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/21px-Flag_of_France.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/32px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/42px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:France" title="Portal:France">France</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><a href="/wiki/File:Social_sciences.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Social_sciences.svg/21px-Social_sciences.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="18" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Social_sciences.svg/32px-Social_sciences.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Social_sciences.svg/42px-Social_sciences.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="139" data-file-height="122" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Society" title="Portal:Society">Society</a></li></ul></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output 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href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q15948#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://isni.org/isni/0000000121339861">ISNI</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/56609141">VIAF</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.worldcat.org/fast/28702/">FAST</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.oclc.org/worldcat/entity/E39PBJfCD3r34HjBF94qyHKGHC">WorldCat</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/118528297">Germany</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/n78092050">United States</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11901387t">France</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11901387t">BnF data</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" 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