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class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Relationship_with_James_and_pragmatism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Relationship with James and pragmatism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Relationship_with_James_and_pragmatism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Lectures_on_change" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lectures_on_change"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5</span> <span>Lectures on change</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lectures_on_change-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Later_years" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Later_years"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.6</span> <span>Later years</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Later_years-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Debate_with_Albert_Einstein" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Debate_with_Albert_Einstein"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.7</span> <span>Debate with Albert Einstein</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Debate_with_Albert_Einstein-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Later_years_and_death" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Later_years_and_death"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.8</span> <span>Later years and death</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Later_years_and_death-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Philosophy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Philosophy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Philosophy</span> </div> </a> <button 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href="#Intuitionism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Intuitionism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Intuitionism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Élan_vital" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Élan_vital"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span><i>Élan vital</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Élan_vital-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Laughter" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Laughter"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Laughter</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Laughter-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reception" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reception"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Reception</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Reception-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Reception subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Reception-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Comparison_to_Indian_philosophies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Comparison_to_Indian_philosophies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Comparison to Indian philosophies</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Comparison_to_Indian_philosophies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-External_links-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle External links subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Works_online" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Works_online"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Works online</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Works_online-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Henri Bergson</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 95 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-95" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">95 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri_Bergson" title="Henri Bergson – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Henri Bergson" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%87%D9%86%D8%B1%D9%8A_%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%AC%D8%B3%D9%88%D9%86" title="هنري برجسون – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="هنري برجسون" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri_Bergson" title="Henri Bergson – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Henri Bergson" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri_Bergson" title="Henri Bergson – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Henri Bergson" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-awa mw-list-item"><a href="https://awa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%86%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF_%E0%A4%AC%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%82" title="आन्रि बर्गसां – Awadhi" lang="awa" hreflang="awa" data-title="आन्रि बर्गसां" data-language-autonym="अवधी" data-language-local-name="Awadhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>अवधी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anri_Berqson" title="Anri Berqson – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Anri Berqson" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%85%E0%A6%81%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BF_%E0%A6%AC%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%97%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%A8" title="অঁরি বের্গসন – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="অঁরি বের্গসন" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bjn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bjn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri_Bergson" title="Henri Bergson – Banjar" lang="bjn" hreflang="bjn" data-title="Henri Bergson" data-language-autonym="Banjar" data-language-local-name="Banjar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Banjar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri_Bergson" title="Henri Bergson – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Henri Bergson" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D1%80%D1%8B_%D0%91%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B3%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Анры Бергсон – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Анры Бергсон" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D1%80%D1%8B_%D0%91%D1%8D%D1%80%D0%B3%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Анры Бэргсон – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Анры Бэргсон" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D1%80%D0%B8_%D0%91%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B3%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Анри Бергсон – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Анри Бергсон" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri_Bergson" title="Henri Bergson – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Henri Bergson" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri_Bergson" title="Henri Bergson – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Henri Bergson" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri_Bergson" title="Henri Bergson – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Henri Bergson" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri_Bergson" title="Henri Bergson – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Henri Bergson" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri_Bergson" title="Henri Bergson – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Henri Bergson" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri_Bergson" title="Henri Bergson – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Henri Bergson" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri_Bergson" title="Henri Bergson – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Henri Bergson" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%91%CE%BD%CF%81%CE%AF_%CE%9C%CF%80%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%B3%CE%BA%CF%83%CF%8C%CE%BD" title="Ανρί Μπεργκσόν – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ανρί Μπεργκσόν" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri_Bergson" title="Henri Bergson – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Henri Bergson" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri_Bergson" title="Henri Bergson – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Henri Bergson" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri_Bergson" title="Henri Bergson – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Henri Bergson" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A2%D9%86%D8%B1%DB%8C_%D8%A8%D8%B1%DA%AF%D8%B3%D9%88%D9%86" title="آنری برگسون – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="آنری برگسون" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri_Bergson" title="Henri Bergson – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Henri Bergson" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri_Bergson" title="Henri Bergson – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Henri Bergson" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri_Bergson" title="Henri Bergson – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Henri Bergson" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gàidhlig</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri_Bergson" title="Henri Bergson – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Henri Bergson" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak mw-list-item"><a href="https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri_Bergson" title="Henri Bergson – Hakka Chinese" lang="hak" hreflang="hak" data-title="Henri Bergson" data-language-autonym="客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî" data-language-local-name="Hakka Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%95%99%EB%A6%AC_%EB%B2%A0%EB%A5%B4%EA%B7%B8%EC%86%90" title="앙리 베르그손 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="앙리 베르그손" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B1%D5%B6%D6%80%D5%AB_%D4%B2%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%A3%D5%BD%D5%B8%D5%B6" title="Անրի Բերգսոն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Անրի Բերգսոն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%86%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF_%E0%A4%AC%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%82" title="आन्रि बर्गसां – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="आन्रि बर्गसां" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri_Bergson" title="Henri Bergson – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Henri Bergson" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri_Bergson" title="Henri Bergson – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Henri Bergson" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri_Bergson" title="Henri Bergson – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="Henri Bergson" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="Iloko" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ilokano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri_Bergson" title="Henri Bergson – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Henri Bergson" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri_Bergson" title="Henri Bergson – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Henri Bergson" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri_Bergson" title="Henri Bergson – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Henri Bergson" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%A0%D7%A8%D7%99_%D7%91%D7%A8%D7%92%D7%A1%D7%95%D7%9F" title="אנרי ברגסון – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="אנרי ברגסון" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri_Bergson" title="Henri Bergson – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Henri Bergson" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%B9%E0%B3%86%E0%B2%A8%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B0%E0%B2%BF_%E0%B2%AC%E0%B2%B0%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%97%E0%B3%8D%E2%80%8D%E0%B2%B8%E0%B2%A8%E0%B3%8D" title="ಹೆನ್ರಿ ಬರ್ಗ್‍ಸನ್ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಹೆನ್ರಿ ಬರ್ಗ್‍ಸನ್" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98_%E1%83%91%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%92%E1%83%A1%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98" title="ანრი ბერგსონი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ანრი ბერგსონი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D1%80%D0%B8_%D0%91%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B3%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Анри Бергсон – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Анри Бергсон" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri_Bergson" title="Henri Bergson – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Henri Bergson" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-avk mw-list-item"><a href="https://avk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri_Bergson" title="Henri Bergson – Kotava" lang="avk" hreflang="avk" data-title="Henri Bergson" data-language-autonym="Kotava" data-language-local-name="Kotava" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kotava</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri_Bergson" title="Henri Bergson – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Henri Bergson" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D1%80%D0%B8_%D0%91%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B3%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Анри Бергсон – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Анри Бергсон" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henricus_Bergson" title="Henricus Bergson – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Henricus Bergson" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anr%C4%AB_Bergsons" title="Anrī Bergsons – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Anrī Bergsons" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri_Bergson" title="Henri Bergson – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Henri Bergson" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri_Bergson" title="Henri Bergson – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Henri Bergson" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D1%80%D0%B8_%D0%91%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B3%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Анри Бергсон – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Анри Бергсон" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri_Bergson" title="Henri Bergson – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Henri Bergson" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B9%E0%B5%86%E0%B5%BB%E0%B4%B1%E0%B4%BF_%E0%B4%AC%E0%B5%87%E0%B5%BC%E0%B4%97%E0%B5%8D%E2%80%8C%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%BA" title="ഹെൻറി ബേർഗ്‌സൺ – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ഹെൻറി ബേർഗ്‌സൺ" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%87%D9%86%D8%B1%D9%89_%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%AC%D8%B3%D9%88%D9%86" title="هنرى برجسون – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="هنرى برجسون" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%87%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B1%DB%8C_%D8%A8%D8%B1%DA%AF%D8%B3%D9%88%D9%86" title="هانری برگسون – Mazanderani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="هانری برگسون" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="Mazanderani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مازِرونی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri_Bergson" title="Henri Bergson – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Henri Bergson" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri_Bergson" title="Henri Bergson – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Henri Bergson" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%A2%E3%83%B3%E3%83%AA%E3%83%BB%E3%83%99%E3%83%AB%E3%82%AF%E3%82%BD%E3%83%B3" title="アンリ・ベルクソン – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="アンリ・ベルクソン" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri_Bergson" title="Henri Bergson – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Henri Bergson" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri_Bergson" title="Henri Bergson – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Henri Bergson" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri_Bergson" title="Henri Bergson – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Henri Bergson" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri_Bergson" title="Henri Bergson – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Henri Bergson" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%86%E0%A8%A8%E0%A8%B0%E0%A9%80_%E0%A8%AC%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%97%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%82" title="ਆਨਰੀ ਬਰਗਸਾਂ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਆਨਰੀ ਬਰਗਸਾਂ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DB%81%D9%86%D8%B1%DB%8C_%D8%A8%D8%B1%DA%AF%D8%B3%D8%A7%DA%BA" title="ہنری برگساں – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="ہنری برگساں" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%87%D9%86%D8%B1%D9%8A_%D8%A8%D8%B1%DA%AB%D8%B3%D9%88%D9%86" title="هنري برګسون – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="هنري برګسون" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri_Bergson" title="Henri Bergson – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Henri Bergson" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Piemontèis</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri_Bergson" title="Henri Bergson – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Henri Bergson" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri_Bergson" title="Henri Bergson – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Henri Bergson" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri_Bergson" title="Henri Bergson – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Henri Bergson" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B3%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BD,_%D0%90%D0%BD%D1%80%D0%B8" title="Бергсон, Анри – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Бергсон, Анри" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri_Bergson" title="Henri Bergson – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Henri Bergson" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri_Bergson" title="Henri Bergson – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Henri Bergson" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri_Bergson" title="Henri Bergson – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Henri Bergson" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri_Bergson" title="Henri Bergson – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Henri Bergson" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri_Bergson" title="Henri Bergson – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Henri Bergson" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%BE%DB%8E%D9%86%D8%B1%DB%8C_%D8%A8%DB%8E%D8%B1%DA%AF%D8%B3%DB%86%D9%86" title="ھێنری بێرگسۆن – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="ھێنری بێرگسۆن" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D1%80%D0%B8_%D0%91%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B3%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Анри Бергсон – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Анри Бергсон" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri_Bergson" title="Henri Bergson – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Henri Bergson" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri_Bergson" title="Henri Bergson – Finnish" lang="fi" 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searchaux" style="display:none">French philosopher (1859–1941)</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Bergson" redirects here. For the surname, see <a href="/wiki/Bergson_(surname)" title="Bergson (surname)">Bergson (surname)</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox biography vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:125%;"><div class="fn">Henri Bergson</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Henri_Bergson_02.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Henri_Bergson_02.jpg/220px-Henri_Bergson_02.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="280" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Henri_Bergson_02.jpg/330px-Henri_Bergson_02.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Henri_Bergson_02.jpg/440px-Henri_Bergson_02.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3760" data-file-height="4793" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">Bergson in 1927</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Born</th><td class="infobox-data"><div style="display:inline" class="nickname">Henri-Louis Bergson</div><br /><span style="display:none">(<span class="bday">1859-10-18</span>)</span>18 October 1859<br /><div style="display:inline" class="birthplace">Paris, <a href="/wiki/Second_French_Empire" title="Second French Empire">Second French Empire</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Died</th><td class="infobox-data">4 January 1941<span style="display:none">(1941-01-04)</span> (aged 81)<br /><div style="display:inline" class="deathplace">Paris, <a href="/wiki/German_military_administration_in_occupied_France_during_World_War_II" title="German military administration in occupied France during World War II">German-occupied France</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Alma mater</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89cole_Normale_Sup%C3%A9rieure" class="mw-redirect" title="École Normale Supérieure">École Normale Supérieure</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Paris" title="University of Paris">University of Paris</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><span style="white-space:nowrap;">Notable work</span></th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Time_and_Free_Will" title="Time and Free Will">Time and Free Will</a></i> (1889)</li><li><i><a href="/wiki/Matter_and_Memory" title="Matter and Memory">Matter and Memory</a></i> (1896)</li><li><i><a href="/wiki/Creative_Evolution_(book)" title="Creative Evolution (book)">Creative Evolution</a></i> (1907)</li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Spouse</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1151524712">.mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin2px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-2px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin3px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-3px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-display-ws{display:inline;white-space:nowrap}</style> <div class="marriage-display-ws"><div style="display:inline-block;line-height:normal;">Louise Neuberger</div> <div style="display:inline-block;"></div>(<abbr title="married">m.</abbr> 1891)<wbr /></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Awards</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="Nobel Prize in Literature">Nobel Prize in Literature</a> (1927)</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Era</th><td class="infobox-data category"><a href="/wiki/20th-century_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="20th-century philosophy">20th-century philosophy</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Region</th><td class="infobox-data category"><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western philosophy</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/List_of_schools_of_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="List of schools of philosophy">School</a></th><td class="infobox-data category"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Continental_philosophy" title="Continental philosophy">Continental philosophy</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/French_spiritualism" class="mw-redirect" title="French spiritualism">French spiritualism</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_life" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophy of life">philosophy of life</a><sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li><li><a href="/wiki/Process_philosophy" title="Process philosophy">process philosophy</a><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Institutions</th><td class="infobox-data org"><a href="/wiki/Coll%C3%A8ge_de_France" title="Collège de France">Collège de France</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Main interests</div></th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">epistemology</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_language" title="Philosophy of language">philosophy of language</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mathematics" title="Philosophy of mathematics">philosophy of mathematics</a></li><li>studies of <a href="/wiki/Immediate_experience" class="mw-redirect" title="Immediate experience">immediate experience</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr class="note"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Notable ideas</div></th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Duration_(philosophy)" title="Duration (philosophy)">Duration</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Intuition_(Bergson)" title="Intuition (Bergson)">intuition</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Affect_(philosophy)" title="Affect (philosophy)">affection</a></li><li><i><a href="/wiki/%C3%89lan_vital" title="Élan vital">élan vital</a></i></li><li><a href="/wiki/Immediate_data_of_consciousness" class="mw-redirect" title="Immediate data of consciousness">immediate data of consciousness</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Open_society" title="Open society">open society</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header">Signature</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><span class="infobox-signature skin-invert" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Signature_of_Henri_Bergson.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Signature_of_Henri_Bergson.svg/150px-Signature_of_Henri_Bergson.svg.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="68" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Signature_of_Henri_Bergson.svg/225px-Signature_of_Henri_Bergson.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Signature_of_Henri_Bergson.svg/300px-Signature_of_Henri_Bergson.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="252" data-file-height="115" /></a></span></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Henri-Louis Bergson</b> (<span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'b' in 'buy'">b</span><span title="/ɜːr/: 'ur' in 'fur'">ɜːr</span><span title="/ɡ/: 'g' in 'guy'">ɡ</span><span title="'s' in 'sigh'">s</span><span title="/ən/: 'on' in 'button'">ən</span></span>,<span class="wrap"> </span><span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="'b' in 'buy'">b</span><span title="/ɛər/: 'are' in 'bare'">ɛər</span><span title="/ɡ/: 'g' in 'guy'">ɡ</span></span>-/</a></span></span>;<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1177148991">.mw-parser-output .IPA-label-small{font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .references .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .infobox .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .navbox .IPA-label-small{font-size:100%}</style><span class="IPA-label IPA-label-small">French:</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="fr-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/French" title="Help:IPA/French">[bɛʁksɔn]</a></span>; 18 October 1859 – 4 January 1941) was a French philosopher<sup id="cite_ref-Gelber_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gelber-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Dynner_2008_104–105_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dynner_2008_104–105-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-britannica.com_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-britannica.com-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Z_ziemi_polskiej_do_Nobla_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Z_ziemi_polskiej_do_Nobla-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-dziedzictwo.polska.pl_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dziedzictwo.polska.pl-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> who was influential in the traditions of <a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">analytic philosophy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Continental_philosophy" title="Continental philosophy">continental philosophy</a>, especially during the first half of the 20th century until the <a href="/wiki/Second_World_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Second World War">Second World War</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but also after 1966 when <a href="/wiki/Gilles_Deleuze" title="Gilles Deleuze">Gilles Deleuze</a> published <i>Le Bergsonisme</i>. Bergson is known for his arguments that processes of <a href="/wiki/Immediate_experience" class="mw-redirect" title="Immediate experience">immediate experience</a> and <a href="/wiki/Intuition_(knowledge)" class="mw-redirect" title="Intuition (knowledge)">intuition</a> are more significant than abstract <a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">rationalism</a> and science for understanding reality. </p><p>Bergson was awarded the 1927 <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="Nobel Prize in Literature">Nobel Prize in Literature</a> "in recognition of his rich and vitalizing ideas and the brilliant skill with which they have been presented".<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1930, France awarded him its highest honour, the <a href="/wiki/Grand-Croix_de_la_Legion_d%27honneur" class="mw-redirect" title="Grand-Croix de la Legion d'honneur">Grand-Croix de la Legion d'honneur</a>. Bergson's great popularity created a controversy in France, where his views were seen as opposing the <a href="/wiki/Secularism_in_France" title="Secularism in France">secular</a> and scientific attitude adopted by the <a href="/wiki/French_Third_Republic" title="French Third Republic">Republic</a>'s officials.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability"><span title="Quotation needed from source to verify. (October 2023)">need quotation to verify</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Biography">Biography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Henri_Bergson&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Biography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Overview">Overview</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Henri_Bergson&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Overview"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Bergson lived the quiet life of a French professor, marked by the publication of his four principal works: </p> <ol><li>in 1889, <i><a href="/wiki/Time_and_Free_Will" title="Time and Free Will">Time and Free Will</a></i> (<i>Essai sur les données immédiates de la conscience</i>)</li> <li>in 1896, <i><a href="/wiki/Matter_and_Memory" title="Matter and Memory">Matter and Memory</a></i> (<i>Matière et mémoire</i>)</li> <li>in 1907, <i><a href="/wiki/Creative_Evolution_(book)" title="Creative Evolution (book)">Creative Evolution</a></i> (<i>L'Évolution créatrice</i>)</li> <li>in 1932, <i>The Two Sources of Morality and Religion</i> (<i>Les deux sources de la morale et de la religion</i>)</li></ol> <p>In 1900, the <a href="/wiki/Coll%C3%A8ge_de_France" title="Collège de France">Collège de France</a> appointed Bergson Chair of Greek and Roman Philosophy, which he remained until 1904. He then replaced <a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Tarde" title="Gabriel Tarde">Gabriel Tarde</a> as the Chair of Modern Philosophy until 1920. The public attended his open courses in large numbers.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_years">Early years</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Henri_Bergson&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Early years"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Bergson was born in the Rue Lamartine in Paris, not far from the <a href="/wiki/Palais_Garnier" title="Palais Garnier">Palais Garnier</a> (the old Paris opera house) in 1859. His father, the composer and pianist <a href="/wiki/Micha%C5%82_Bergson" title="Michał Bergson">Michał Bergson</a>, was of <a href="/wiki/Polish-Jewish" class="mw-redirect" title="Polish-Jewish">Polish-Jewish</a> background (originally bearing the name <i>Bereksohn</i>). His great-grandmother, <a href="/wiki/Temerl_Bergson" title="Temerl Bergson">Temerl Bergson</a>, was a well-known patroness and benefactor of Polish Jewry, especially those associated with the <a href="/wiki/Hasidic_Judaism" title="Hasidic Judaism">Hasidic</a> movement.<sup id="cite_ref-Gelber_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gelber-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Dynner_2008_104–105_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dynner_2008_104–105-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His mother, Katherine Levison, daughter of a Yorkshire doctor, was from an <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_England" title="History of the Jews in England">English-Jewish</a> and <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Ireland" title="History of the Jews in Ireland">Irish-Jewish</a> background. The Bereksohns were a famous Jewish entrepreneurial family<sup id="cite_ref-britannica.com_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-britannica.com-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> of Polish descent. Henri Bergson's great-great-grandfather, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Szmul_Zbytkower&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Szmul Zbytkower (page does not exist)">Szmul Jakubowicz Sonnenberg called Zbytkower</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Szmul_Zbytkower" class="extiw" title="pl:Szmul Zbytkower">pl</a>]</span>, was a prominent banker and a protégé of <a href="/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_II_Augustus" class="mw-redirect" title="Stanisław II Augustus">Stanisław II Augustus</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Z_ziemi_polskiej_do_Nobla_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Z_ziemi_polskiej_do_Nobla-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-dziedzictwo.polska.pl_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dziedzictwo.polska.pl-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> king of Poland from 1764 to 1795. </p><p>Bergson's family lived in London for a few years after his birth, and he obtained an early familiarity with the English language from his mother. Before he was nine, his parents settled in France, and Henri became a naturalized French citizen. </p><p>Bergson married Louise Neuberger, a cousin of <a href="/wiki/Marcel_Proust" title="Marcel Proust">Marcel Proust</a>, in 1891. (Proust served as <a href="/wiki/Groomsman#best_man" title="Groomsman">best man</a> at the wedding.)<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Henri and Louise Bergson had a daughter, Jeanne, born deaf in 1896. Bergson's sister, Mina Bergson (also known as <a href="/wiki/Moina_Mathers" title="Moina Mathers">Moina Mathers</a>), married the English <a href="/wiki/Occult" title="Occult">occult</a> author <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Liddell_MacGregor_Mathers" title="Samuel Liddell MacGregor Mathers">Samuel Liddell MacGregor Mathers</a>, a founder of the <a href="/wiki/Hermetic_Order_of_the_Golden_Dawn" title="Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn">Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn</a>, and the couple later relocated to Paris. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Education_and_career">Education and career</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Henri_Bergson&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Education and career"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bergson1889Diss2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Bergson1889Diss2.jpg/200px-Bergson1889Diss2.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="317" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Bergson1889Diss2.jpg/300px-Bergson1889Diss2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Bergson1889Diss2.jpg/400px-Bergson1889Diss2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="550" data-file-height="873" /></a><figcaption><i>Essai sur les données immédiates de la conscience</i> (Dissertation, 1889)</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bergson1889Diss1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Bergson1889Diss1.jpg/200px-Bergson1889Diss1.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="317" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Bergson1889Diss1.jpg/300px-Bergson1889Diss1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Bergson1889Diss1.jpg/400px-Bergson1889Diss1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="556" data-file-height="881" /></a><figcaption><i>Quid Aristoteles de loco senserit</i> (Dissertation, 1889)</figcaption></figure> <p>Bergson attended the Lycée Fontanes (known as the <a href="/wiki/Lyc%C3%A9e_Condorcet" title="Lycée Condorcet">Lycée Condorcet</a> 1870–1874 and 1883–present) in Paris from 1868 to 1878. He had previously received a Jewish religious education,<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but lost his faith between the ages of 14 and 16. According to Hude (1990), this moral crisis is tied to his discovery of the theory of <a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">evolution</a>, according to which humanity shares a common ancestry with modern <a href="/wiki/Primate" title="Primate">primates</a>, a process construed as needing no creative deity.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>At the lycée, Bergson won a prize for his scientific work and another, in 1877, when he was 18, for the solution of a mathematical problem. His solution was published the next year in <i><a href="/wiki/Nouvelles_Annales_de_Math%C3%A9matiques" title="Nouvelles Annales de Mathématiques">Nouvelles Annales de Mathématiques</a>.</i><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was his first published work. After some hesitation about whether to pursue the sciences or the <a href="/wiki/Humanities" title="Humanities">humanities</a>, he decided on the latter, to his teachers' dismay.<sup id="cite_ref-Fagot-Largeau_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fagot-Largeau-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When he was 19, he entered the <a href="/wiki/%C3%89cole_Normale_Sup%C3%A9rieure" class="mw-redirect" title="École Normale Supérieure">École Normale Supérieure</a> (during this period, he read <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Spencer" title="Herbert Spencer">Herbert Spencer</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-Fagot-Largeau_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fagot-Largeau-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He obtained there the degree of <i><a href="/wiki/Licence_%C3%A8s_lettres" class="mw-redirect" title="Licence ès lettres">licence ès lettres</a></i>, and then an <i><a href="/wiki/Agr%C3%A9gation" title="Agrégation">agrégation de philosophie</a></i> in 1881 from the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Paris" title="University of Paris">University of Paris</a>. </p><p>The same year, he received a teaching appointment at the lycée in <a href="/wiki/Angers" title="Angers">Angers</a>, the ancient capital of <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Anjou" title="Duchy of Anjou">Anjou</a>. Two years later he settled at the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Lyc%C3%A9e_Blaise-Pascal_(Clermont-Ferrand)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lycée Blaise-Pascal (Clermont-Ferrand) (page does not exist)">Lycée Blaise-Pascal (Clermont-Ferrand)</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lyc%C3%A9e_Blaise-Pascal_(Clermont-Ferrand)" class="extiw" title="fr:Lycée Blaise-Pascal (Clermont-Ferrand)">fr</a>]</span> in <a href="/wiki/Clermont-Ferrand" title="Clermont-Ferrand">Clermont-Ferrand</a>, capital of the <a href="/wiki/Puy-de-D%C3%B4me" title="Puy-de-Dôme">Puy-de-Dôme</a> <a href="/wiki/D%C3%A9partement" class="mw-redirect" title="Département">département</a>. </p><p>The year after his arrival at Clermont-Ferrand, Bergson displayed his ability in the humanities by the publication of an edition of extracts from <a href="/wiki/Lucretius" title="Lucretius">Lucretius</a>, with a critical study of <i>De Rerum Natura</i>, issued as <i>Extraits de Lucrèce</i>, and of Lucretius's <a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">materialist</a> <a href="/wiki/Cosmology" title="Cosmology">cosmology</a> (1884), repeated editions of which attest to its value in promoting Classics among French youth. While teaching and lecturing in this part of his country (the <a href="/wiki/Auvergne_(province)" class="mw-redirect" title="Auvergne (province)">Auvergne</a> region), Bergson found time for private study and original work. He crafted his dissertation, <i>Time and Free Will</i>, which was submitted, along with a short <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> thesis on <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> (<i>Quid Aristoteles de loco senserit</i>, "On the Concept of Place in Aristotle") for his doctoral degree, which was awarded by the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Paris" title="University of Paris">University of Paris</a> in 1889. The work was published in the same year by <a href="/wiki/F%C3%A9lix_Alcan" title="Félix Alcan">Félix Alcan</a>. He also gave courses in Clermont-Ferrand on the <a href="/wiki/Pre-Socratic_Philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Pre-Socratic Philosophy">Pre-Socratics</a>, in particular <a href="/wiki/Heraclitus" title="Heraclitus">Heraclitus</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Fagot-Largeau_17-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fagot-Largeau-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Bergson dedicated <i>Time and Free Will</i> to <a href="/wiki/Jules_Lachelier" title="Jules Lachelier">Jules Lachelier</a> (1832–1918), then <a href="/wiki/Minister_of_National_Education_(France)" class="mw-redirect" title="Minister of National Education (France)">public education minister</a>, a disciple of <a href="/wiki/F%C3%A9lix_Ravaisson" title="Félix Ravaisson">Félix Ravaisson</a> and the author of <i>On the Founding of <a href="/wiki/Inductive_reasoning" title="Inductive reasoning">Induction</a></i> (<i>Du fondement de l'induction</i>, 1871). Lachelier endeavoured "to substitute everywhere force for inertia, life for death, and liberty for fatalism". According to <a href="/wiki/Louis_de_Broglie" title="Louis de Broglie">Louis de Broglie</a>, <i>Time and Free Will</i> "antedates by forty years the ideas of <a href="/wiki/Niels_Bohr" title="Niels Bohr">Niels Bohr</a> and <a href="/wiki/Werner_Heisenberg" title="Werner Heisenberg">Werner Heisenberg</a> on the physical interpretation of wave mechanics."<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Bergson settled again in Paris in 1888,<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and after teaching for some months at the <a href="/wiki/Municipal_college" title="Municipal college">municipal college</a>, known as the <i>College Rollin</i>, he received an appointment at the <a href="/wiki/Lyc%C3%A9e_Henri-Quatre" class="mw-redirect" title="Lycée Henri-Quatre">Lycée Henri-Quatre</a>, where he remained for eight years. There, he read <a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Darwin</a> and gave a course on his theories.<sup id="cite_ref-Fagot-Largeau_17-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fagot-Largeau-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although Bergson had previously endorsed <a href="/wiki/Lamarckism" title="Lamarckism">Lamarckism</a> and its theory of the <a href="/wiki/Inheritance_of_acquired_characters" class="mw-redirect" title="Inheritance of acquired characters">heritability of acquired characteristics</a>, he came to prefer Darwin's hypothesis of gradual variation, which were more compatible with his continual vision of life.<sup id="cite_ref-Fagot-Largeau_17-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fagot-Largeau-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1896, Bergson published his second major work, <i>Matter and Memory</i>. This rather difficult work investigates the function of the brain and undertakes an analysis of perception and memory, leading up to a careful consideration of the relationship of body and mind. Bergson spent years of research in preparation for each of his three large works. This is especially obvious in <i>Matter and Memory</i>, which shows thorough acquaintance with the extensive pathological investigations carried out during the period. </p><p>In 1898, Bergson became <i><a href="/wiki/Ma%C3%AEtre_de_conf%C3%A9rences" class="mw-redirect" title="Maître de conférences">maître de conférences</a></i> at his alma mater, École Normale Supérieure, and later that year was promoted to a professorship. The year 1900 saw him installed as a professor at the <a href="/wiki/Coll%C3%A8ge_de_France" title="Collège de France">Collège de France</a>, where he accepted the Chair of <a href="/wiki/Greek_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Greek philosophy">Greek and Roman Philosophy</a> in succession to <a href="/w/index.php?title=Charles_L%C3%A9v%C3%AAque&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Charles Lévêque (page does not exist)">Charles Lévêque</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_L%C3%A9v%C3%AAque" class="extiw" title="fr:Charles Lévêque">fr</a>]</span>. </p><p>At the first <a href="/wiki/International_Congress_of_Philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="International Congress of Philosophy">International Congress of Philosophy</a>, held in Paris during the first five days of August 1900, Bergson read a short paper, "Psychological Origins of the Belief in the Law of Causality" (<i>Sur les origines psychologiques de notre croyance à la loi de causalité</i>). In 1900, <a href="/wiki/Felix_Alcan" class="mw-redirect" title="Felix Alcan">Felix Alcan</a> published a work that had previously appeared in the <i><a href="/wiki/Revue_de_Paris" title="Revue de Paris">Revue de Paris</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Laughter_(book)" title="Laughter (book)">Laughter</a></i> (<i>Le rire</i>), one of the most important of Bergson's minor works. This essay on the meaning of comedy stemmed from a lecture he had given in his early days in Auvergne. The study of it is essential to an understanding of Bergson's views of life, especially its passages dealing with the place of the artistic in life. The paper's main thesis is that laughter is a corrective evolved to make social life possible for human beings. People laugh at those who fail to adapt to society's demands of society if it seems their failure is akin to an inflexible mechanism. Comic authors have exploited this human tendency to laugh in various ways, and what is common to them is the idea that the comic consists in "something mechanical encrusted on the living".<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1901, the <a href="/wiki/Acad%C3%A9mie_des_sciences_morales_et_politiques" class="mw-redirect" title="Académie des sciences morales et politiques">Académie des sciences morales et politiques</a> elected Bergson as a member. In 1903 he contributed to the <i><a href="/wiki/Revue_de_m%C3%A9taphysique_et_de_morale" title="Revue de métaphysique et de morale">Revue de métaphysique et de morale</a></i> an essay, <i><a href="/wiki/Introduction_to_Metaphysics_(Bergson)" class="mw-redirect" title="Introduction to Metaphysics (Bergson)">Introduction to Metaphysics</a></i> (<i>Introduction à la metaphysique</i>), which is useful as a preface to the study of his three large books. He detailed in this essay his philosophical program, realized in the <i>Creative Evolution</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Fagot-Largeau_17-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fagot-Largeau-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On the death of <a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Tarde" title="Gabriel Tarde">Gabriel Tarde</a>, the sociologist and philosopher, in 1904, Bergson succeeded him as Chair of Modern Philosophy. From 4 to 8 September of that year, he visited <a href="/wiki/Geneva" title="Geneva">Geneva</a>, attending the Second International Congress of Philosophy, when he lectured on <i>The Mind and Thought: A Philosophical Illusion</i> (Le cerveau et la pensée : une illusion philosophique). An illness prevented his visiting Germany to attend the Third Congress held at <a href="/wiki/Heidelberg" title="Heidelberg">Heidelberg</a>. In these years, Bergson strongly influenced <a href="/wiki/Jacques_Maritain" title="Jacques Maritain">Jacques Maritain</a>, perhaps even saving Maritain and his wife Raïssa from suicide.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Bergson's third major work, <i>Creative Evolution</i>, the most widely known and most discussed of his books, appeared in 1907. Pierre Imbart de la Tour remarked that <i>Creative Evolution</i> was a milestone of a new direction in thought.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By 1918, <a href="/wiki/Alcan" title="Alcan">Alcan</a>, the publisher, had issued 21 editions, making an average of two editions <i>per annum</i> for ten years. Following the appearance of this book, Bergson's popularity increased enormously, not only in academic circles but among the general public. </p><p>At that time, Bergson had already extensively studied biology, including the theory of <a href="/wiki/Fecundation" class="mw-redirect" title="Fecundation">fecundation</a> (as shown in the first chapter of the <i>Creative Evolution</i>), which had only recently emerged, ca. 1885 – no small feat for a philosopher specializing in the <a href="/wiki/History_of_philosophy" title="History of philosophy">history of philosophy</a>, in particular Greek and Roman philosophy.<sup id="cite_ref-Fagot-Largeau_17-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fagot-Largeau-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He also most certainly had read, apart from Darwin, <a href="/wiki/Haeckel" class="mw-redirect" title="Haeckel">Haeckel</a>, from whom he retained his idea of a unity of life and of the ecological solidarity between all living beings,<sup id="cite_ref-Fagot-Largeau_17-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fagot-Largeau-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as well as <a href="/wiki/Hugo_de_Vries" title="Hugo de Vries">Hugo de Vries</a>, from whom he quoted his <a href="/wiki/Mutation_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Mutation theory">mutation theory</a> of evolution (which he opposed, preferring Darwin's gradualism).<sup id="cite_ref-Fagot-Largeau_17-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fagot-Largeau-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He also quoted <a href="/wiki/Charles-%C3%89douard_Brown-S%C3%A9quard" title="Charles-Édouard Brown-Séquard">Charles-Édouard Brown-Séquard</a>, the successor of <a href="/wiki/Claude_Bernard" title="Claude Bernard">Claude Bernard</a> at the Chair of Experimental Medicine in the Collège de France. </p><p>Bergson served as a juror with <a href="/wiki/Florence_Meyer_Blumenthal" title="Florence Meyer Blumenthal">Florence Meyer Blumenthal</a> in awarding the <a href="/wiki/Prix_Blumenthal" title="Prix Blumenthal">Prix Blumenthal</a>, a grant given between 1919 and 1954 to painters, sculptors, decorators, engravers, writers, and musicians.<sup id="cite_ref-FMBlumenthal_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FMBlumenthal-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Relationship_with_James_and_pragmatism">Relationship with James and pragmatism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Henri_Bergson&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Relationship with James and pragmatism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Bergson travelled to London in 1908 and met there with <a href="/wiki/William_James" title="William James">William James</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University" title="Harvard University">Harvard University</a> philosopher who was Bergson's senior by 17 years, and who was instrumental in calling Bergson's work to the attention of the Anglo-American public. The two became great friends. James's impression of Bergson is given in his Letters under the date of 4 October 1908: </p> <blockquote><p>So modest and unpretending a man but such a genius intellectually! I have the strongest suspicions that the tendency which he has brought to a focus, will end by prevailing, and that the present epoch will be a sort of turning point in the history of philosophy.</p></blockquote> <p>As early as 1880, James had contributed an article in French to the periodical <i>La Critique philosophique</i>, of Renouvier and Pillon, titled <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Le_Sentiment_de_l%27Effort&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Le Sentiment de l'Effort (page does not exist)">Le Sentiment de l'Effort</a></i>. Four years later, a couple of articles by him appeared in the journal <i>Mind</i>: "What is an Emotion?" and "On some Omissions of Introspective Psychology". Bergson quoted the first two of these in <i>Time and Free Will</i>. In 1890–91 appeared the two volumes of James's monumental work <i><a href="/wiki/The_Principles_of_Psychology" title="The Principles of Psychology">The Principles of Psychology</a></i>, in which he refers to a pathological phenomenon Bergson observed. Some writers<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch"><span title="The material near this tag possibly uses too-vague attribution or weasel words. (March 2024)">who?</span></a></i>]</sup>, taking merely these dates into consideration and overlooking that James's investigations had been proceeding since 1870 (registered from time to time by various articles that culminated in <i>The Principles</i>), have mistakenly dated Bergson's ideas as earlier than James's. </p><p>William James hailed Bergson as an ally. In 1903, he wrote: </p> <blockquote><p>I have been re-reading Bergson's books, and nothing that I have read for years has so excited and stimulated my thoughts. I am sure that his philosophy has a great future; it breaks through old frameworks and brings things to a solution from which new crystallizations can be reached.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>The most noteworthy tributes James paid to Bergson come in the <a href="/wiki/Hibbert_Lectures" title="Hibbert Lectures">Hibbert Lectures</a> (A Pluralistic Universe), which James gave at <a href="/wiki/Manchester_College,_Oxford" class="mw-redirect" title="Manchester College, Oxford">Manchester College, Oxford</a>, shortly after meeting Bergson in London. He remarks on the encouragement he gained from Bergson's thought, and refers to his confidence in being "able to lean on Bergson's authority". </p><p>Bergson's influence had led James "to renounce the intellectualist method and the current notion that logic is an adequate measure of what can or cannot be". It had induced him, he continued, "to give up logic, squarely and irrevocably" as a method, for he found that "reality, life, experience, concreteness, immediacy, use what word you will, exceeds our logic, overflows, and surrounds it". </p><p>These remarks, which appeared in James's book <i>A Pluralistic Universe</i> in 1909, impelled many English and American readers to investigate Bergson's philosophy, but no English translations of Bergson's major work had yet appeared. James encouraged and assisted <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Mitchell_(physician)" title="Arthur Mitchell (physician)">Arthur Mitchell</a> in preparing an English translation of <i>Creative Evolution</i>. In August 1910, James died. It was his intention, had he lived to see the translation finished, to introduce it to the English reading public by a prefatory note of appreciation. The next year, the translation was completed and still greater interest in Bergson and his work ensued. By coincidence, in that same year (1911), Bergson wrote a 16-page preface, <i>Truth and Reality</i>, to the French translation of James's book <i>Pragmatism</i>. In it, he expressed sympathetic appreciation of James's work, together with certain important reservations. </p><p>From 5 to 11 April, Bergson attended the Fourth International Congress of Philosophy held at <a href="/wiki/Bologna" title="Bologna">Bologna</a>, in Italy, where he gave an address on "Philosophical Intuition". In response to invitations he visited England in May of that year and on several subsequent occasions. These visits were well received. His speeches offered new perspectives and elucidated many passages in his three major works: <i>Time and Free Will</i>, <i>Matter and Memory</i>, and <i>Creative Evolution</i>. Although necessarily brief statements, they developed and enriched the ideas in his books and clarified for English audiences the fundamental principles of his philosophy. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Lectures_on_change">Lectures on change</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Henri_Bergson&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Lectures on change"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In May 1911, Bergson gave two lectures, <i>The Perception of Change</i> (<i>La perception du changement</i>), at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Oxford" title="University of Oxford">University of Oxford</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Clarendon_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="Clarendon Press">Clarendon Press</a> published these in French in the same year.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His talks were concise and lucid, leading students and the general reader to his other, longer writings. Oxford later conferred on him the degree of <a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Science" title="Doctor of Science">Doctor of Science</a>. </p><p>Two days later he delivered the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Huxley_Lecture&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Huxley Lecture (page does not exist)">Huxley Lecture</a> at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Birmingham" title="University of Birmingham">University of Birmingham</a>, taking for his subject <i>Life and Consciousness</i>. This subsequently appeared in <i><a href="/wiki/The_Hibbert_Journal" title="The Hibbert Journal">The Hibbert Journal</a></i> (October 1911), and, revised, is the first essay in the collected volume <i>Mind-Energy</i> (<i>L'Énergie spirituelle</i>). In October he again travelled to England, where he had an enthusiastic reception, and delivered at <a href="/wiki/University_College_London" title="University College London">University College London</a> four lectures on <i>La Nature de l'Âme</i> (The Nature of the Soul). </p><p>In 1913, Bergson visited the United States of America at the invitation of <a href="/wiki/Columbia_University" title="Columbia University">Columbia University</a> and lectured in several American cities, where very large audiences welcomed him. In February, at Columbia, he lectured both in French and English, taking as his subjects <i>Spirituality and Freedom</i> and <i>The Method of Philosophy</i>. Being again in England in May of that year, he accepted the presidency of the British <a href="/wiki/Society_for_Psychical_Research" title="Society for Psychical Research">Society for Psychical Research</a>, and delivered to it an address, <i>Phantoms of Life and Psychic Research</i> (Fantômes des vivants et recherche psychique). </p><p>Meanwhile, his popularity increased, and translations of his work began to appear in a number of languages: <a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a>, <a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a>, <a href="/wiki/Italian_language" title="Italian language">Italian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Danish_language" title="Danish language">Danish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Swedish_language" title="Swedish language">Swedish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hungarian_language" title="Hungarian language">Hungarian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Polish_language" title="Polish language">Polish</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Russian_language" title="Russian language">Russian</a>. In 1914 Bergson's countrymen honoured him by his election as a member of the <a href="/wiki/Acad%C3%A9mie_fran%C3%A7aise" class="mw-redirect" title="Académie française">Académie française</a>. He was also made President of the Académie des sciences morales et politiques and became Officier de la <a href="/wiki/L%C3%A9gion_d%27honneur" class="mw-redirect" title="Légion d'honneur">Légion d'honneur</a> and Officier de l'Instruction publique. </p><p>Bergson found disciples of many types. In France movements such as <a href="/w/index.php?title=Neo-Catholicism_(France)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Neo-Catholicism (France) (page does not exist)">neo-Catholicism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Modernism_(Roman_Catholicism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Modernism (Roman Catholicism)">Modernism</a> on the one hand and <a href="/wiki/Syndicalism" title="Syndicalism">syndicalism</a> on the other endeavoured to absorb and appropriate for their own ends some of his central ideas. The continental organ of socialist and syndicalist theory, <i><a href="/wiki/Le_Mouvement_socialiste" title="Le Mouvement socialiste">Le Mouvement socialiste</a></i>,<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> portrayed the realism of <a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Karl Marx</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pierre-Joseph_Proudhon" title="Pierre-Joseph Proudhon">Pierre-Joseph Proudhon</a> as hostile to all forms of intellectualism, and argued, therefore, that supporters of Marxist socialism should welcome a philosophy such as Bergson's.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2009)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Other writers, in their eagerness, claimed that the thought of the holder of the Chair of Philosophy at the Collège de France and the aims of the <i><a href="/wiki/Conf%C3%A9d%C3%A9ration_G%C3%A9n%C3%A9rale_du_Travail" class="mw-redirect" title="Confédération Générale du Travail">Confédération Générale du Travail</a></i> and the <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Workers_of_the_World" title="Industrial Workers of the World">Industrial Workers of the World</a> were in essential agreement. </p><p>While social revolutionaries endeavoured to make the most out of Bergson, many religious leaders, particularly the more liberal-minded theologians of all creeds, e.g., the Modernists and Neo-Catholic Party in his own country, showed a keen interest in his writings, and many of them found encouragement and stimulus in his work. The <a href="/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Church" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Catholic Church">Roman Catholic Church</a>, however, banned Bergson's three books on the charge of <a href="/wiki/Pantheism" title="Pantheism">pantheism</a> (that is, of conceiving of God as immanent to his Creation and of being himself created in the process of the Creation).<sup id="cite_ref-Fagot-Largeau_17-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fagot-Largeau-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They were placed on the <a href="/wiki/Index_Librorum_Prohibitorum" title="Index Librorum Prohibitorum">Index of prohibited books</a> (Decree of 1 June 1914). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Later_years">Later years</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Henri_Bergson&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Later years"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1917_Henri_Bergson_and_daughter_Jeanne_Bergson.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/1917_Henri_Bergson_and_daughter_Jeanne_Bergson.jpg/220px-1917_Henri_Bergson_and_daughter_Jeanne_Bergson.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/1917_Henri_Bergson_and_daughter_Jeanne_Bergson.jpg/330px-1917_Henri_Bergson_and_daughter_Jeanne_Bergson.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/1917_Henri_Bergson_and_daughter_Jeanne_Bergson.jpg/440px-1917_Henri_Bergson_and_daughter_Jeanne_Bergson.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1296" data-file-height="1728" /></a><figcaption>Bergson with his daughter, Jeanne, in 1917. <a href="/wiki/Autochrome_Lumi%C3%A8re" title="Autochrome Lumière">Autochrome</a> by <a href="/wiki/The_Archives_of_the_Planet" title="The Archives of the Planet">Auguste Léon</a></figcaption></figure> <p>In 1914, the Scottish universities arranged for Bergson to give the famous <a href="/wiki/Gifford_Lectures" title="Gifford Lectures">Gifford Lectures</a>, planning one course for the spring and another for the autumn. Bergson delivered the first course, consisting of 11 lectures, under the title <i>The Problem of Personality</i>, at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Edinburgh" title="University of Edinburgh">University of Edinburgh</a> in the spring of that year. The course of lectures planned for the autumn months had to be abandoned because of the outbreak of war. </p><p>Bergson was not silent during the conflict, and gave some inspiring addresses. As early as 4 November 1914, he wrote an article, "Wearing and Nonwearing Forces" (<i>La force qui s'use et celle qui ne s'use pas</i>), that appeared in a periodical of the <i><a href="/wiki/Poilu" title="Poilu">poilus</a></i>, <i>Le Bulletin des Armées de la République Française</i>. A presidential address, "The Meaning of the War", was delivered in December 1914 to the Académie des sciences morales et politiques. </p><p>Bergson contributed also to the publication arranged by <i><a href="/wiki/The_Daily_Telegraph" title="The Daily Telegraph">The Daily Telegraph</a></i> in honour of King <a href="/wiki/Albert_I_of_Belgium" title="Albert I of Belgium">Albert I of Belgium</a>, <i>King Albert's Book</i> (Christmas, 1914).<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1915, he was succeeded in the office of President of the <i>Académie des sciences morales et politiques</i> by <a href="/wiki/Alexandre_Ribot" title="Alexandre Ribot">Alexandre Ribot</a>, and then delivered a discourse on "The Evolution of German Imperialism". Meanwhile, he found time to issue at the Minister of Public Instruction's request a brief summary of French philosophy. Bergson did a large amount of traveling and lecturing in America during the war. He participated in the negotiations that led to the <a href="/wiki/World_War_I#Entry_of_the_United_States" title="World War I">entry of the United States</a> into the war. He was there when the French Mission under <a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Viviani" title="René Viviani">René Viviani</a> paid a visit in April and May 1917 after America's entry into the conflict. Viviani's book <i>La Mission française en Amérique</i> (1917) has a preface by Bergson. </p><p>Early in 1918, the <i><a href="/wiki/Acad%C3%A9mie_fran%C3%A7aise" class="mw-redirect" title="Académie française">Académie française</a></i> received Bergson officially when he took his seat among "The Select Forty" as successor to <a href="/wiki/Emile_Ollivier" class="mw-redirect" title="Emile Ollivier">Emile Ollivier</a> (the author of the historical work <i>L'Empire libéral</i>). A session was held in January in his honour at which he delivered an address on Ollivier. In the war, Bergson saw the conflict of Mind and Matter, or rather of Life and Mechanism; and thus showed his philosophy's central idea in action. </p><p>As many of Bergson's contributions to French periodicals remained relatively inaccessible, he had them published in two volumes. The first of these was being planned when war broke out. The conclusion of strife was marked by the appearance of a delayed volume in 1919. It bears the title <i>Spiritual Energy: Essays and Lectures</i> (reprinted as <i>Mind-Energy</i> – <i>L'Énergie spirituelle : essais et conférences</i>). The advocate of Bergson's philosophy in England, <a href="/wiki/Wildon_Carr" class="mw-redirect" title="Wildon Carr">Wildon Carr</a>, prepared an English translation under the title <i>Mind-Energy</i>. The volume opens with the Huxley Memorial Lecture of 1911, "Life and Consciousness", in a revised and developed form under the title "Consciousness and Life". Signs of Bergson's growing interest in social ethics and in the idea of a future life of personal survival are manifested. The lecture before the Society for Psychical Research is included, as is also the one given in France, <i>L'Âme et le Corps</i>, which contains the substance of the four London lectures on the Soul. The seventh and last article is a reprint of Bergson's famous lecture to the Congress of Philosophy at Geneva in 1904, <i>The Psycho-Physiological Paralogism</i> (Le paralogisme psycho-physiologique), which now appears as <i>Le cerveau et la pensée : une illusion philosophique</i>. Other articles are on the False Recognition, on Dreams, and Intellectual Effort. The volume is a most welcome production and serves to bring together what Bergson wrote on the concept of mental force, and on his view of "tension" and "detension" as applied to the relation of matter and mind. </p><p>In June 1920, the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Cambridge" title="University of Cambridge">University of Cambridge</a> honoured him with the degree of <a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Letters" title="Doctor of Letters">Doctor of Letters</a>. In order that he might devote his full-time to the great new work he was preparing on ethics, religion, and sociology, the Collège de France relieved Bergson of the duties attached to the Chair of Modern Philosophy there. He retained the chair, but no longer delivered lectures, his place being taken by his disciple, the mathematician and philosopher <a href="/wiki/%C3%89douard_Le_Roy" title="Édouard Le Roy">Édouard Le Roy</a>, who supported a <a href="/wiki/Conventionalism" title="Conventionalism">conventionalist</a> stance on the <a href="/wiki/Foundations_of_mathematics" title="Foundations of mathematics">foundations of mathematics</a>, which was adopted by Bergson.<sup id="cite_ref-TheCreativeEvolution_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TheCreativeEvolution-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Le Roy, who also succeeded to Bergson at the <i>Académie française</i> and was a fervent Catholic, extended to <a href="/wiki/Revelation" title="Revelation">revealed truth</a> his conventionalism, leading him to privilege faith, heart and sentiment to <a href="/wiki/Dogma" title="Dogma">dogmas</a>, speculative theology and abstract reasoning. Like Bergson's, his writings were placed on the Index by the Vatican. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Debate_with_Albert_Einstein">Debate with Albert Einstein</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Henri_Bergson&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Debate with Albert Einstein"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1922, Bergson's book <i>Durée et simultanéité, à propos de la théorie d'Einstein</i> (<i>Duration and Simultaneity: Bergson and the Einsteinian Universe</i>) was published.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Earlier that year, <a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Albert Einstein</a> had come to the French Society of Philosophy and briefly replied to a short speech made by Bergson.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It has been alleged that Bergson's knowledge of physics was insufficient and that the book did not follow up contemporary developments on physics.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch"><span title="The material near this tag may use weasel words or too-vague attribution. (September 2021)">by whom?</span></a></i>]</sup> On the other hand, in "Einstein and the Crisis of Reason", a leading French philosopher, <a href="/wiki/Maurice_Merleau-Ponty" title="Maurice Merleau-Ponty">Maurice Merleau-Ponty</a>, accused Einstein of failing to grasp Bergson's argument. This argument, Merleau-Ponty says, which concerns not the physics of special relativity but its philosophical foundations, addresses paradoxes caused by popular interpretations and misconceptions about the theory, including Einstein's own.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>Duration and Simultaneity</i> was not published in the 1951 <i>Edition du Centenaire</i> in French, which contained all of his other works, and was only published later in a work gathering different essays, titled <i>Mélanges</i>. This work took advantage of Bergson's experience at the <a href="/wiki/League_of_Nations" title="League of Nations">League of Nations</a>, where he presided from 1920 to 1925 over the <a href="/wiki/International_Committee_on_Intellectual_Cooperation" title="International Committee on Intellectual Cooperation">International Committee on Intellectual Cooperation</a> (the ancestor of <a href="/wiki/UNESCO" title="UNESCO">UNESCO</a>, and which included Einstein and <a href="/wiki/Marie_Curie" title="Marie Curie">Marie Curie</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Later_years_and_death">Later years and death</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Henri_Bergson&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Later years and death"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>While living with his wife and daughter in a modest house in a quiet street near the <a href="/wiki/Porte_d%27Auteuil_(Paris_M%C3%A9tro)" class="mw-redirect" title="Porte d'Auteuil (Paris Métro)">Porte d'Auteuil</a> in Paris, Bergson won the <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_for_Literature" class="mw-redirect" title="Nobel Prize for Literature">Nobel Prize for Literature</a> in 1927 for <i>The Creative Evolution</i>. Because of serious <a href="/wiki/Rheumatology" title="Rheumatology">rheumatic ailments</a>, he could not travel to Stockholm, and sent instead a text subsequently published in <i>La Pensée et le mouvant</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Fagot-Largeau_17-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fagot-Largeau-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He was elected a foreign honorary member of the <a href="/wiki/American_Academy_of_Arts_and_Sciences" title="American Academy of Arts and Sciences">American Academy of Arts and Sciences</a> in 1928.<sup id="cite_ref-AAAS_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AAAS-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After his retirement from the Collège de France, Bergson began to fade into obscurity: he suffered from a degenerative illness (rheumatism, which left him half paralyzed<sup id="cite_ref-Fagot-Largeau_17-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fagot-Largeau-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>). He completed his new work, <i>The Two Sources of Morality and Religion</i>, which extended his philosophical theories to the realms of morality, religion, and art, in 1932. It was respectfully received by the public and the philosophical community, but by that time Bergson's days as a philosophical luminary were past. He was, however, able to reiterate his core beliefs near the end of his life, by renouncing all the posts and honours previously awarded him rather than accept exemption from the <a href="/wiki/Vichy_anti-Jewish_legislation" title="Vichy anti-Jewish legislation">antisemitic laws</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Vichy_France" title="Vichy France">Vichy</a> government. </p><p>Bergson inclined to convert to Catholicism, writing in his will on 7 February 1937: "My thinking has always brought me nearer to Catholicism, in which I saw the perfect complement to Judaism."<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Though wishing to convert to Catholicism, as stated in his will, he did not do so in view of the travails inflicted on the Jewish people by the rise of <a href="/wiki/Nazism" title="Nazism">Nazism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Antisemitism" title="Antisemitism">antisemitism</a> in Europe in the 1930s; he did not want to appear to want to leave the persecuted. After the fall of France in 1940, Jews in occupied France were required to register at police stations. When completing his police form, Bergson made the following entry: "Academic. Philosopher. Nobel Prize winner. Jew."<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was the position of the Archbishop of Paris, <a href="/wiki/Emmanuel_C%C3%A9lestin_Suhard" title="Emmanuel Célestin Suhard">Emmanuel Célestin Suhard</a>, that the public revelation of Bergson's conversion was too dangerous at the time, when the city was occupied by the Nazis, to both the Church and the Jewish population.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On 3 January 1941, Bergson died in occupied Paris of bronchitis.<sup id="cite_ref-TuckerWood1999_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TuckerWood1999-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A Roman Catholic priest said prayers at his funeral per his request. Bergson is buried in the Cimetière de Garches, <a href="/wiki/Hauts-de-Seine" title="Hauts-de-Seine">Hauts-de-Seine</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Philosophy">Philosophy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Henri_Bergson&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Philosophy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Bergson rejected what he saw as the overly mechanistic predominant view of causality (as expressed in reductionism). He argued that free will must be allowed to unfold in an autonomous and unpredictable fashion. While Kant saw free will as something beyond time and space and therefore ultimately a matter of faith, Bergson attempted to redefine the modern conceptions of time, space, and causality in his concept of <a href="/wiki/Duration_(philosophy)" title="Duration (philosophy)">Duration</a>, making room for a tangible marriage of free will with causality. Seeing Duration as a mobile and fluid concept, Bergson argued that one cannot understand Duration through "immobile" analysis, but only through experiential, first-person <a href="/wiki/Intuition_(Bergson)" title="Intuition (Bergson)">intuition</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Creativity">Creativity</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Henri_Bergson&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Creativity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Bergson considers the appearance of novelty as a result of pure undetermined creation, instead of as the predetermined result of mechanistic forces. His philosophy emphasizes pure mobility, unforeseeable novelty, creativity and freedom; thus one can characterize his system as a <a href="/wiki/Process_philosophy" title="Process philosophy">process philosophy</a>. It touches upon such topics as time and identity, <a href="/wiki/Free_will" title="Free will">free will</a>, perception, change, memory, consciousness, language, the <a href="/wiki/Foundation_of_mathematics" class="mw-redirect" title="Foundation of mathematics">foundation of mathematics</a> and the limits of reason.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Criticizing <a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a>'s theory of knowledge exposed in the <i><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_Pure_Reason" title="Critique of Pure Reason">Critique of Pure Reason</a></i> and his conception of truth – which he compares to <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a>'s conception of truth as its symmetrical inversion (order of nature/order of thought) – Bergson attempted to redefine the relations between science and metaphysics, intelligence and <a href="/wiki/Intuition_(Bergson)" title="Intuition (Bergson)">intuition</a>, and insisted on the necessity of increasing thought's possibility through the use of intuition, which, according to him, alone approached a knowledge of the absolute and of real life, understood as pure <a href="/wiki/Duration_(philosophy)" title="Duration (philosophy)">duration</a>. Because of his (relative) criticism of intelligence, he makes frequent use of images and metaphors in his writings in order to avoid the use of <a href="/wiki/Concept" title="Concept">concepts</a>, which (he considers) fail to touch the whole of reality, being only a sort of abstract net thrown on things. For instance, he says in <i>The Creative Evolution</i> (chap. III) that thought in itself would never have thought it possible for the human being to swim, as it cannot deduce swimming from walking. For swimming to be possible, man must throw himself in water, and only then can thought to consider swimming as possible. Intelligence, for Bergson, is a practical faculty rather than a pure speculative faculty, a product of evolution used by man to survive. If metaphysics is to avoid "false problems", it should not extend the abstract concepts of intelligence to pure speculation, but rather use intuition.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><i>The Creative Evolution</i> in particular attempted to think through the continuous creation of life, and explicitly pitted itself against <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Spencer" title="Herbert Spencer">Herbert Spencer</a>'s evolutionary philosophy. Spencer had attempted to transpose <a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</a>'s theory of <a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">evolution</a> in philosophy and to construct a <a href="/wiki/Cosmology" title="Cosmology">cosmology</a> based on this theory (Spencer also coined the expression "<a href="/wiki/Survival_of_the_fittest" title="Survival of the fittest">survival of the fittest</a>"). Bergson disputed what he saw as Spencer's mechanistic philosophy.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Bergson's <i><a href="/wiki/Lebensphilosophie" title="Lebensphilosophie">Lebensphilosophie</a></i> (<a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_life" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophy of life">philosophy of life</a>) can be seen as a response to the <a href="/wiki/Mechanism_(philosophy)" title="Mechanism (philosophy)">mechanistic philosophies</a> of his time,<sup id="cite_ref-Creative_Mind_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Creative_Mind-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but also to the failure of <a href="/wiki/Finalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Finalism">finalism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Fagot-Largeau_17-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fagot-Largeau-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Indeed, he considers that finalism is unable to explain "duration" and the "continuous creation of life", as it only explains life as the progressive development of an initially determined program – a notion which remains, for example, in the expression of a "<a href="/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">genetic</a> program";<sup id="cite_ref-Fagot-Largeau_17-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fagot-Largeau-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> such a description of finalism was adopted, for instance, by <a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Leibniz</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Fagot-Largeau_17-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fagot-Largeau-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Bergson regards planning for the future as impossible since time itself unravels unforeseen possibilities. Indeed, one can always explain a historical event retrospectively by its conditions of possibility. But, in the introduction to the <i>Pensée et le mouvant</i>, he explains that such an event retrospectively created its causes, taking the example of the creation of a work of art, for example a symphony: it was impossible to predict a future symphony as if the composer knew what symphony would be best and wrote it. In his words, the effect created its cause. Henceforth, he attempted to find a third way between mechanism and finalism through the notion of an original impulse, the <i>élan vital</i>, in life, which disperses itself through evolution into contradictory tendencies (he substituted for the finalist notion of a <a href="/wiki/Teleological" class="mw-redirect" title="Teleological">teleological</a> aim the notion of an original impulse). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Duration">Duration</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Henri_Bergson&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Duration"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Duration_(philosophy)" title="Duration (philosophy)">Duration (philosophy)</a></div> <p>The foundation of Henri Bergson's philosophy, his theory of <a href="/wiki/Duration_(philosophy)" title="Duration (philosophy)">Duration</a>, he discovered when trying to improve what he saw as the inadequacies of <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Spencer" title="Herbert Spencer">Herbert Spencer</a>'s philosophy.<sup id="cite_ref-Creative_Mind_44-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Creative_Mind-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Bergson introduced Duration as a theory of time and <a href="/wiki/Consciousness" title="Consciousness">consciousness</a> in his doctoral thesis <i>Time and Free Will: An Essay on the Immediate Data of Consciousness</i> as a response to another of his influences: <a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Stanford_Kant_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stanford_Kant-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Kant believed that free will could only exist outside of time and space, indeed the only non-determined aspect of private existence in the universe, separate from water cycles, mathematics and mortality. However, it could therefore not be ascertained whether or not it exists, and that it is nothing but a pragmatic faith.<sup id="cite_ref-Stanford_Kant_45-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stanford_Kant-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Bergson responded that Kant, along with many other philosophers, had confused time with its spatial representation.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In reality, Bergson argued, Duration is unextended yet heterogeneous, and so its parts cannot be juxtaposed as a succession of distinct parts, with one causing the other. Based on this he concluded that determinism is an impossibility and free will pure mobility, which is what Bergson identified as being the Duration.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For Bergson, reality is composed of change.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Intuitionism">Intuitionism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Henri_Bergson&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Intuitionism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Intuition_(Bergson)" title="Intuition (Bergson)">Intuition (Bergson)</a></div> <p>Duration, as defined by Bergson, then is a unity and a multiplicity, but, being mobile, it cannot be grasped through immobile concepts. Bergson hence argues that one can grasp it only through his method of <a href="/wiki/Intuition_(Bergson)" title="Intuition (Bergson)">intuition</a>. Two images from Henri Bergson's <i>An Introduction to Metaphysics</i> may help one to grasp Bergson's term intuition, the limits of concepts, and the ability of intuition to grasp the absolute. The first image is that of a city. Analysis, or the creation of concepts through the divisions of points of view, can only ever offer a model of the city through a construction of photographs taken from every possible point of view, yet it can never produce the dimensional value of walking in the city itself. One can only grasp this through intuition; likewise the experience of reading a line of <a href="/wiki/Homer" title="Homer">Homer</a>. One may translate the line and pile commentary upon commentary, but this commentary too shall never grasp the simple dimensional value of experiencing the poem in its originality itself. The method of intuition, then, is that of getting back to the things themselves.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Élan_vital"><span id=".C3.89lan_vital"></span><i>Élan vital</i></h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Henri_Bergson&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Élan vital"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/%C3%89lan_vital" title="Élan vital">Élan vital</a></div> <p><i>Élan vital</i> ranks as Bergson's third essential concept, after Duration and intuition. An idea with the goal of explaining evolution, the <i>élan vital</i> first appeared in 1907's <i>Creative Evolution</i>. Bergson portrays <i>élan vital</i> as a kind of vital impetus which explains evolution in a less mechanical and more lively manner, as well as accounting for the creative impulse of mankind. This concept led several authors to characterize Bergson as a supporter of <a href="/wiki/Vitalism" title="Vitalism">vitalism</a>—although he criticized it explicitly in <i>The Creative Evolution</i>, as he thought, against <a href="/wiki/Hans_Adolf_Eduard_Driesch" class="mw-redirect" title="Hans Adolf Eduard Driesch">Driesch</a> and <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Reinke" title="Johannes Reinke">Johannes Reinke</a> (whom he cited) that there is neither "purely internal finality nor clearly cut individuality in nature":<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <blockquote><p>Hereby lies the stumbling block of vitalist theories ... It is thus in vain that one pretends to reduce finality to the individuality of the living being. If there is finality in the world of life, it encompasses the whole of life in one indivisible embrace.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Laughter">Laughter</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Henri_Bergson&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Laughter"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In <i><a href="/wiki/Laughter:_An_Essay_on_the_Meaning_of_the_Comic" class="mw-redirect" title="Laughter: An Essay on the Meaning of the Comic">Laughter: An Essay on the Meaning of the Comic</a></i>, Bergson develops a theory not of laughter itself but of how laughter can be provoked (see his objection to Delage, published in the 23rd edition of the essay).<sup id="cite_ref-Fagot-Largeau_17-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fagot-Largeau-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He describes the process of laughter (refusing to give a conceptual definition which would not approach its reality<sup id="cite_ref-Fagot-Largeau_17-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fagot-Largeau-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>), used in particular by comics and <a href="/wiki/Clown" title="Clown">clowns</a>, as caricature of the mechanistic nature of humans (habits, automatic acts, etc.), one of the two tendencies of life (degradation towards inert matter and mechanism, and continual creation of new forms).<sup id="cite_ref-Fagot-Largeau_17-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fagot-Largeau-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, Bergson warns that laughter's criterion of what should be laughed at is not a moral criterion and that it can in fact cause serious damage to a person's <a href="/wiki/Self-esteem" title="Self-esteem">self-esteem</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This essay made his opposition to the <a href="/wiki/Cartesianism" title="Cartesianism">Cartesian</a> theory of the animal-machine obvious. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Reception">Reception</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Henri_Bergson&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Reception"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>From his first publications, Bergson's philosophy attracted strong criticism from different quarters, although he also became very popular and durably influenced <a href="/wiki/French_philosophy" title="French philosophy">French philosophy</a>. The mathematician <a href="/wiki/%C3%89douard_Le_Roy" title="Édouard Le Roy">Édouard Le Roy</a> became Bergson's main disciple. Nonetheless, Suzanne Guerlac has argued that his institutional position at the Collège de France, delivering lectures to a general audience, may have retarded the systematic reception of his thought: "Bergson achieved enormous popular success in this context, often due to the emotional appeal of his ideas. But he did not have the equivalent of graduate students who might have become rigorous interpreters of his thought. Thus Bergson's philosophy—in principle open and nonsystematic—was easily borrowed piecemeal and altered by enthusiastic admirers".<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to a 2024 article in <a href="/wiki/Daily_Nous" title="Daily Nous">Daily Nous</a>, in 1910, Bergson was the most cited philosopher in English academic journals. He was cited more than philosopher Aristotle, Kant, and Hegel.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Alfred_North_Whitehead" title="Alfred North Whitehead">Alfred North Whitehead</a> acknowledged Bergson's influence on his <a href="/wiki/Process_philosophy" title="Process philosophy">process philosophy</a> in his 1929 <i><a href="/wiki/Process_and_Reality" title="Process and Reality">Process and Reality</a>.</i><sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, <a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a>, Whitehead's collaborator on <i><a href="/wiki/Principia_Mathematica" title="Principia Mathematica">Principia Mathematica</a></i>, was not so entranced by Bergson's philosophy. Although acknowledging Bergson's literary skills, Russell saw Bergson's arguments at best as persuasive or emotive speculation but not at all as any worthwhile example of sound reasoning or philosophical insight.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">epistemologist</a> <a href="/wiki/Gaston_Bachelard" title="Gaston Bachelard">Gaston Bachelard</a> explicitly alluded to him in the last pages of his 1938 book <i>The Formation of the Scientific Mind</i>. Others influenced by Bergson include <a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Jank%C3%A9l%C3%A9vitch" title="Vladimir Jankélévitch">Vladimir Jankélévitch</a>, who wrote a book on him in 1931,<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Teilhard_de_Chardin" title="Pierre Teilhard de Chardin">Pierre Teilhard de Chardin</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Gilles_Deleuze" title="Gilles Deleuze">Gilles Deleuze</a> who wrote <i>Le bergsonisme</i> in 1966.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Greek philosopher <a href="/wiki/Helle_Lambridis" class="mw-redirect" title="Helle Lambridis">Helle Lambridis</a> developed an interest in Bergson early in her career, and after two publications in 1929 - a book that introduced Bergson's work to the Greek audience and a translation into Greek of Bergson's book <i>L'Énergie spirituelle</i> (1919) - the second part of her <i>Introduction to Philosophy</i> I & II (1965) included his philosophical work on the concept of 'time', although this part (II) was not published until 2004.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Bergson also influenced the <a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">phenomenology</a> of <a href="/wiki/Maurice_Merleau-Ponty" title="Maurice Merleau-Ponty">Maurice Merleau-Ponty</a> and <a href="/wiki/Emmanuel_Levinas" title="Emmanuel Levinas">Emmanuel Levinas</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> although Merleau-Ponty had reservations about Bergson's philosophy.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Greek author <a href="/wiki/Nikos_Kazantzakis" title="Nikos Kazantzakis">Nikos Kazantzakis</a> studied under Bergson in Paris and his writing and philosophy were profoundly influenced as a result.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Many writers of the early 20th century criticized Bergson's <a href="/wiki/Intuitionism" title="Intuitionism">intuitionism</a>, indeterminism, <a href="/wiki/Psychologism" title="Psychologism">psychologism</a> and interpretation of the scientific impulse. Those who explicitly criticized Bergson, either in published articles or in letters, included <a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a><sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/George_Santayana" title="George Santayana">George Santayana</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/G._E._Moore" title="G. E. Moore">G. E. Moore</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Ludwig Wittgenstein</a>, <a href="/wiki/Martin_Heidegger" title="Martin Heidegger">Martin Heidegger</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Julien_Benda" title="Julien Benda">Julien Benda</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/T._S._Eliot" title="T. S. Eliot">T. S. Eliot</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wyndham_Lewis" title="Wyndham Lewis">Wyndham Lewis</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Wallace_Stevens" title="Wallace Stevens">Wallace Stevens</a> (though Stevens also praised him in his work "The Necessary Angel"),<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Paul_Val%C3%A9ry" title="Paul Valéry">Paul Valéry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Gide" title="André Gide">André Gide</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jean_Piaget" title="Jean Piaget">Jean Piaget</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Marxist philosophers <a href="/wiki/Theodor_W._Adorno" title="Theodor W. Adorno">Theodor W. Adorno</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Lucio_Colletti" title="Lucio Colletti">Lucio Colletti</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Jean-Paul_Sartre" title="Jean-Paul Sartre">Jean-Paul Sartre</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Georges_Politzer" title="Georges Politzer">Georges Politzer</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as well as <a href="/wiki/Maurice_Blanchot" title="Maurice Blanchot">Maurice Blanchot</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> American philosophers such as <a href="/wiki/Irving_Babbitt" title="Irving Babbitt">Irving Babbitt</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Lovejoy" class="mw-redirect" title="Arthur Lovejoy">Arthur Lovejoy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Josiah_Royce" title="Josiah Royce">Josiah Royce</a>, <a href="/wiki/New_realism_(philosophy)" title="New realism (philosophy)">The New Realists</a> (<a href="/wiki/Ralph_B._Perry" class="mw-redirect" title="Ralph B. Perry">Ralph B. Perry</a>, <a href="/wiki/E._B._Holt" class="mw-redirect" title="E. B. Holt">E. B. Holt</a>, and <a href="/wiki/William_Pepperell_Montague" title="William Pepperell Montague">William Pepperell Montague</a>), The Critical Realists (Durant Drake, <a href="/wiki/Roy_W._Sellars" class="mw-redirect" title="Roy W. Sellars">Roy W. Sellars</a>, C. A. Strong, and A. K. Rogers), <a href="/wiki/Daniel-Henry_Kahnweiler" title="Daniel-Henry Kahnweiler">Daniel-Henry Kahnweiler</a>, <a href="/wiki/Roger_Fry" title="Roger Fry">Roger Fry</a> (see his letters), <a href="/wiki/Julian_Huxley" title="Julian Huxley">Julian Huxley</a> (in <i><a href="/wiki/Evolution:_The_Modern_Synthesis" title="Evolution: The Modern Synthesis">Evolution: The Modern Synthesis</a></i>) and <a href="/wiki/Virginia_Woolf" title="Virginia Woolf">Virginia Woolf</a> (for the latter, see <a href="/wiki/Ann_Banfield" title="Ann Banfield">Ann Banfield</a>, <i>The Phantom Table</i>).<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2010)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Church" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Catholic Church">Vatican</a> accused Bergson of <a href="/wiki/Pantheism" title="Pantheism">pantheism</a>, while others have characterized his philosophy as a <a href="/wiki/Emergent_materialism" title="Emergent materialism">materialist emergentism</a> – <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Alexander" title="Samuel Alexander">Samuel Alexander</a> and <a href="/wiki/C._Lloyd_Morgan" title="C. Lloyd Morgan">C. Lloyd Morgan</a> explicitly claimed Bergson as their forebear.<sup id="cite_ref-Fagot-Largeau_17-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fagot-Largeau-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Henri Hude (1990, II, p. 142), who supports himself on the whole of Bergson's works as well as his now published courses, accusing him of pantheism is a "counter-sense". Hude alleges that a <a href="/wiki/Mysticism" title="Mysticism">mystical experience</a>, roughly outlined at the end of <i>Les Deux sources de la morale et de la religion</i>, is the inner principle of his whole philosophy, although this has been contested by other commentators. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Charles_Sanders_Peirce" title="Charles Sanders Peirce">Charles Sanders Peirce</a> took strong exception to those who associated him with Bergson. In response to a letter comparing their work, Peirce wrote, "a man who seeks to further science can hardly commit a greater sin than to use the terms of his science without anxious care to use them with strict accuracy; it is not very gratifying to my feelings to be classed along with a Bergson who seems to be doing his utmost to muddle all distinctions."<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Peirce also comments on Bergson in respect to a proposed book on his semiotics (which he never wrote) saying: "I feel confident the book would make a serious impression much deeper and surer than Bergson's, which I find quite too vague."<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Gilles Deleuze, however, saw much in common between Bergson's philosophy and that of Peirce - exploring the many connections between them in <i><a href="/wiki/Cinema_1:_The_Movement_Image" title="Cinema 1: The Movement Image">Cinema 1: The Movement Image</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Cinema_2:_The_Time-Image" title="Cinema 2: The Time-Image">Cinema 2: The Time-Image</a></i>. As the Deleuze scholar David Deamer writes: Deleuze sets about "aligning Bergson's sensory-motor schema [from <i>Matter and Memory</i>] with the semiosis of Charles Sanders Peirce from <i>Pragmatism and Pragmaticism</i> (1903).<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/William_James" title="William James">William James</a>'s students resisted the assimilation of his work to that of Bergson. See, for example, <a href="/wiki/Horace_Kallen" title="Horace Kallen">Horace Kallen</a>'s book on the subject <i>James and Bergson</i>. As <a href="/wiki/Jean_Wahl" title="Jean Wahl">Jean Wahl</a> described the "ultimate disagreement" between James and Bergson in his <i>System of Metaphysics</i>: "for James, the consideration of action is necessary for the definition of truth, according to Bergson, action ... must be kept from our mind if we want to see the truth"<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (September 2010)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup>. Gide even went so far as to say that future historians will overestimate Bergson's influence on art and philosophy just because he was the self-appointed spokesman for "the spirit of the age". </p><p>As early as the 1890s, Santayana attacked certain key concepts in Bergson's philosophy, above all his view of the new and the indeterminate: </p> <blockquote><p>"the possibility of a new and unaccountable fact appearing at any time," he writes in his book on <a href="/wiki/Hermann_Lotze" title="Hermann Lotze">Hermann Lotze</a>, "does not practically affect the method of investigation; ... the only thing given up is the hope that these hypotheses may ever be adequate to the reality and cover the process of nature without leaving a remainder. This is no great renunciation; for that consummation of science ... is by no one really expected."</p></blockquote> <p>According to Santayana and Russell, Bergson projected false claims onto the aspirations of scientific method, claims which Bergson needed to make in order to justify his prior moral commitment to freedom. Russell takes particular exception to Bergson's understanding of number in chapter two of <i>Time and Free Will</i>. According to Russell, Bergson uses an outmoded spatial metaphor ("extended images") to describe the nature of mathematics as well as <a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">logic</a> in general. "Bergson only succeeds in making his theory of number plausible by confusing a particular collection with the number of its terms, and this again with number in general", writes Russell (see <i>The Philosophy of Bergson</i><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (September 2010)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup> and <i>A History of Western Philosophy <sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></i> ). </p><p><a href="/w/index.php?title=Suzanne_Guerlac&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Suzanne Guerlac (page does not exist)">Suzanne Guerlac</a> has argued that the more recent resurgence of scholarly interest in Bergson is related to the growing influence of his follower <a href="/wiki/Deleuze" class="mw-redirect" title="Deleuze">Deleuze</a> within <a href="/wiki/Continental_philosophy" title="Continental philosophy">continental philosophy</a>: "If there is a return to Bergson today, then, it is largely due to Gilles Deleuze whose own work has etched the contours of the New Bergson. This is not only because Deleuze wrote about Bergson; it is also because Deleuze's own thought is deeply engaged with that of his predecessor, even when Bergson is not explicitly mentioned."<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Leonard_Lawlor" title="Leonard Lawlor">Leonard Lawlor</a> and Valentine Moulard agree with Guerlac that "the recent revitalization of Bergsonism ... is almost entirely due to Deleuze." They explain that Bergson's concept of multiplicity "is at the very heart of Deleuze's thought, and <a href="/wiki/Duration_(philosophy)" title="Duration (philosophy)">duration</a> is the model for all of Deleuze's 'becomings.' The other aspect that attracted Deleuze, which is indeed connected to the first, is Bergson's criticism of the concept of negation in <i>Creative Evolution</i> ... Thus Bergson became a resource in the criticism of the <a href="/wiki/Hegel" class="mw-redirect" title="Hegel">Hegelian</a> <a href="/wiki/Dialectic#Hegelian_dialectic" title="Dialectic">dialectic</a>, the negative."<sup id="cite_ref-LawlorMoulard2011_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LawlorMoulard2011-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is this aspect that <a href="/w/index.php?title=Mark_Sinclair_(philosopher)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mark Sinclair (philosopher) (page does not exist)">Mark Sinclair</a> focuses upon in <i>Bergson</i> (2020). He writes that despite the philosopher and his philosophy being very popular during the early years of the twentieth century, his ideas had been critiqued and then rejected first by <a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">phenomenology</a>, then by <a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">existentialism</a>, and finally by <a href="/wiki/Post-structuralism" title="Post-structuralism">post-structuralism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As Sinclair goes on to explain, over series of publications including <i>Bergsonism</i> (1966) and <i><a href="/wiki/Difference_and_Repetition" title="Difference and Repetition">Difference and Repetition</a></i> (1968), Deleuze championed Bergson as a thinker of "difference that precedes any sense of negation".<sup id="cite_ref-Mark_Sinclair_2020,_pp._270_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mark_Sinclair_2020,_pp._270-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In this way, "Deleuze's interpretation served to keep the flame of Bergson's philosophy alive and it has been a key motivation for the renewed scholarly attention to it."<sup id="cite_ref-Mark_Sinclair_2020,_pp._270_83-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mark_Sinclair_2020,_pp._270-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Ilya_Prigogine" title="Ilya Prigogine">Ilya Prigogine</a> acknowledged Bergson's influence at his Nobel Prize reception lecture: "Since my adolescence, I have read many philosophical texts, and I still remember the spell <i>L'Évolution créatrice</i> cast on me. More specifically, I felt that some essential message was embedded, still to be made explicit, in Bergson's remark: 'The more deeply we study the nature of time, the better we understand that duration means invention, creation of forms, continuous elaboration of the absolutely new.'"<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Japanese philosopher Yasushi Hirai from Fukuoka University has led a collaborative and interdisciplinary project since 2007, bringing together Eastern and Western philosophers and scientists to discuss and promote Bergson's work.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This has influenced the development of specific artificial neural networks which incorporate features inspired by Bergson's philosophy of memory.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In <i><a href="/wiki/The_Matter_with_Things" title="The Matter with Things">The Matter with Things</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/Iain_McGilchrist" title="Iain McGilchrist">Iain McGilchrist</a> extensively cites Bergson. "'Bergson arrived', according to philosopher Peter Gunter, 'at insights closely resembling those of quantum physics.' Only Bergson got there first."<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Comparison_to_Indian_philosophies">Comparison to Indian philosophies</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Henri_Bergson&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Comparison to Indian philosophies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Several <a href="/wiki/Hindu" class="mw-redirect" title="Hindu">Hindu</a> authors have found parallels to Hindu philosophy in Bergson's thought. The integrative evolutionism of <a href="/wiki/Sri_Aurobindo" title="Sri Aurobindo">Sri Aurobindo</a>, an Indian philosopher from the early 20th century, has many similarities to Bergson's philosophy. Whether this represents a direct influence of Bergson is disputed, although Aurobindo was familiar with many Western philosophers.<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> K Narayanaswami Aiyer, a member of the <a href="/wiki/Theosophical_Society" title="Theosophical Society">Theosophical Society</a>, published a pamphlet titled "Professor Bergson and the Hindu Vedanta", where he argued that Bergson's ideas on matter, consciousness, and evolution were in agreement with Vedantic and Puranic explanations.<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nalini Kanta Brahma, Marie Tudor Garland and Hope Fitz are other authors who have comparatively evaluated Hindu and Bergsonian philosophies, especially in relation to intuition, consciousness and evolution.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Henri_Bergson&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Bergson, H.; <i>The Philosophy of Poetry: The Genius of Lucretius</i> (<i>La Philosophie de la Poesie: le Génie de Lucrèce</i>, 1884), Philosophical Library 1959: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4976-7566-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4976-7566-7">978-1-4976-7566-7</a></li> <li>Bergson, H.; <i><a href="/wiki/Time_and_Free_Will" title="Time and Free Will">Time and Free Will: An Essay on the Immediate Data of Consciousness</a></i> (<i>Essai sur les données immédiates de la conscience</i>, 1889). Allen & Unwin 1910, Dover Publications 2001: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-486-41767-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-486-41767-0">0-486-41767-0</a> – Bergson's doctoral dissertation.</li> <li>Bergson, H.; <i><a href="/wiki/Matter_and_Memory" title="Matter and Memory">Matter and Memory</a></i> (<i>Matière et mémoire</i>, 1896). Swan Sonnenschein 1911, Zone Books 1990: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-942299-05-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-942299-05-1">0-942299-05-1</a>, Dover Publications 2004: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-486-43415-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-486-43415-X">0-486-43415-X</a>.</li> <li>Bergson, H.; <i><a href="/wiki/Laughter_(book)" title="Laughter (book)">Laughter: An Essay on the Meaning of the Comic</a></i> (<i>Le rire</i>, 1900). Green Integer 1998: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-892295-02-4" title="Special:BookSources/1-892295-02-4">1-892295-02-4</a>, Dover Publications 2005: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-486-44380-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-486-44380-9">0-486-44380-9</a>.</li> <li>Bergson, H.; <i><a href="/wiki/Creative_Evolution_(book)" title="Creative Evolution (book)">Creative Evolution</a></i> (<i>L'Évolution créatrice</i>, 1907). Henry Holt and Company 1911, University Press of America 1983: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8191-3553-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-8191-3553-4">0-8191-3553-4</a>, Dover Publications 1998: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-486-40036-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-486-40036-0">0-486-40036-0</a>, Kessinger Publishing 2003: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7661-4732-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-7661-4732-0">0-7661-4732-0</a>, Cosimo 2005: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-59605-309-7" title="Special:BookSources/1-59605-309-7">1-59605-309-7</a>.</li> <li>Bergson, H.; <i>Mind-energy</i> (<i>L'Énergie spirituelle, 1919</i>). McMillan 1920. – a collection of essays and lectures. On <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/mindenergylectur00berguoft#page/n5/mode/2up">Archive.org</a>.</li> <li>Bergson, H.; <i>Duration and Simultaneity: Bergson and the Einsteinian Universe</i> (<i>Durée et simultanéité</i>, 1922). Clinamen Press Ltd 1999. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-903083-01-X" title="Special:BookSources/1-903083-01-X">1-903083-01-X</a>.</li> <li>Bergson, H.; <i>The Two Sources of Morality and Religion</i> (<i>Les Deux Sources de la Morale et de la Religion</i>, 1932). University of Notre Dame Press 1977. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-268-01835-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-268-01835-9">0-268-01835-9</a>. On <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/twosourcesofmora033499mbp#page/n1/mode/2up">Archive.org</a>.</li> <li>Bergson, H.; <i>The Creative Mind: An Introduction to Metaphysics</i> (<i>La Pensée et le mouvant</i>, 1934). Citadel Press 1946: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8065-2326-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-8065-2326-3">0-8065-2326-3</a> – essay collection, sequel to <i>Mind-Energy</i>, including 1903's "An Introduction to Metaphysics."</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Henri_Bergson&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_biology" title="Philosophy of biology">Philosophy of biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intuition_(Bergson)" title="Intuition (Bergson)">Intuition (Bergson)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duration_(philosophy)" title="Duration (philosophy)">Duration (philosophy)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Jewish_Nobel_laureates" title="List of Jewish Nobel laureates">List of Jewish Nobel laureates</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Henri_Bergson&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">John Ó Maoilearca, Beth Lord (eds.), <i>The Continuum Companion to Continental Philosophy</i>, Bloomsbury Academic, 2009, p. 204.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/process-philosophy/">"Process Philosophy"</a>. <i>Process Philosophy (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)</i>. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Process+Philosophy&rft.btitle=Process+Philosophy+%28Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy%29&rft.pub=Metaphysics+Research+Lab%2C+Stanford+University&rft.date=2022&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fprocess-philosophy%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHenri+Bergson" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dictionary.com/browse/poisson">"Poisson"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Collins_English_Dictionary" title="Collins English Dictionary">Collins English Dictionary</a></i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gelber-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Gelber_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gelber_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGelber2007" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Gelber, Nathan Michael (1 January 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150329105853/http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G2-2587502673.html">"Bergson"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclopaedia_Judaica" title="Encyclopaedia Judaica">Encyclopaedia Judaica</a></i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G2-2587502673.html">the original</a> on 29 March 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 December</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Bergson&rft.btitle=Encyclopaedia+Judaica&rft.date=2007-01-01&rft.aulast=Gelber&rft.aufirst=Nathan+Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.highbeam.com%2Fdoc%2F1G2-2587502673.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHenri+Bergson" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Dynner_2008_104–105-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Dynner_2008_104–105_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dynner_2008_104–105_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDynner2008" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Glenn_Dynner" title="Glenn Dynner">Dynner, Glenn</a> (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jVtp3s8CtScC&pg=PA102"><i>Men of Silk: The Hasidic Conquest of Polish Jewish Society</i></a>. Oxford University Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">104–</span>105. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0195382655" title="Special:BookSources/978-0195382655"><bdi>978-0195382655</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Men+of+Silk%3A+The+Hasidic+Conquest+of+Polish+Jewish+Society&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E104-%3C%2Fspan%3E105&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0195382655&rft.aulast=Dynner&rft.aufirst=Glenn&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DjVtp3s8CtScC%26pg%3DPA102&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHenri+Bergson" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-britannica.com-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-britannica.com_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-britannica.com_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Henri Bergson. 2014. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Retrieved 13 August 2014, from <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/61856/Henri-Bergson">https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/61856/Henri-Bergson</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Z_ziemi_polskiej_do_Nobla-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Z_ziemi_polskiej_do_Nobla_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Z_ziemi_polskiej_do_Nobla_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wprost.pl/ar/140524/Z-ziemi-polskiej-do-Nobla/?O=140524&pg=2">"Z ziemi polskiej do Nobla"</a> [From the Polish lands to the Nobel Prize]. <i>Wprost</i> (in Polish). Warsaw: Agencja Wydawniczo-Reklamowa Wprost. 4 January 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 May</span> 2010</span>. <q>Polskie korzenie ma Henri Bergson, jeden z najwybitniejszych pisarzy, fizyk i filozof francuski żydowskiego pochodzenia. Jego ojcem był Michał Bergson z Warszawy, prawnuk Szmula Jakubowicza Sonnenberga, zwanego Zbytkowerem (1756–1801), żydowskiego kupca i bankiera. [Translation: Henri Bergson, one of the greatest French writers, physicists and philosophers of Jewish ancestry, had Polish roots. His father was Michael Bergson from Warsaw, the great-grandson of Szmul Jakubowicz Sonnenberg – known as Zbytkower – (1756–1801), a Jewish merchant and banker.]</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Wprost&rft.atitle=Z+ziemi+polskiej+do+Nobla&rft.date=2008-01-04&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wprost.pl%2Far%2F140524%2FZ-ziemi-polskiej-do-Nobla%2F%3FO%3D140524%26pg%3D2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHenri+Bergson" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-dziedzictwo.polska.pl-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-dziedzictwo.polska.pl_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-dziedzictwo.polska.pl_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dziedzictwo.polska.pl/katalog/skarb,Testament_starozakonnego_Berka_Szmula_Sonnenberga_z_1818_roku,gid,261356,cid,3312.htm?body=desc">Testament starozakonnego Berka Szmula Sonnenberga z 1818 roku</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110928215838/http://dziedzictwo.polska.pl/katalog/skarb%2CTestament_starozakonnego_Berka_Szmula_Sonnenberga_z_1818_roku%2Cgid%2C261356%2Ccid%2C3312.htm?body=desc">Archived</a> 28 September 2011 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Merquior, J. G. (1987). Foucault (Fontana Modern Masters series), University of California Press, p.11. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-520-06062-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-520-06062-8">0-520-06062-8</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/literature/laureates/1927/">"The Nobel prize in Literature"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 November</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Nobel+prize+in+Literature&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnobelprize.org%2Fnobel_prizes%2Fliterature%2Flaureates%2F1927%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHenri+Bergson" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Robert C. Grogin, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LybXAAAAMAAJ"><i>The Bergsonian Controversy in France, 1900–1914</i></a>, Univ of Calgary Press (May 1988), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0919813305" title="Special:BookSources/0919813305">0919813305</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://antilogicalism.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/07/matter-and-memory.pdf">"Matter and memory"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>antilogicalism.com</i>. July 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 April</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=antilogicalism.com&rft.atitle=Matter+and+memory&rft.date=2017-07&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fantilogicalism.com%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2017%2F07%2Fmatter-and-memory.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHenri+Bergson" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Suzanne Guerlac, <i>Thinking in Time: An Introduction to Henri Bergson</i>, Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 2007, p. 9.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lawlor, Leonard and Moulard Leonard, Valentine, "Henri Bergson", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Summer 2016 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), URL = <<a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2016/entries/bergson/">https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2016/entries/bergson/</a>></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Henri Hude, <i>Bergson</i>, Paris, Editions Universitaires, 1990, 2 volumes, quoted by Anne Fagot-Largeau in her <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.college-de-france.fr/default/EN/all/phi_sci/cours_3.jsp">21 December 2006 course</a> at the College of France</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGeronoTerquemLaisantBricard1878" class="citation journal cs1">Gerono, Camille Christopher; Terquem, Oiry; Laisant, Charles-Ange; Bricard, Raoul; Boulanger, Auguste (1878). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=S3c_AQAAIAAJ&pg=PA268">"Nouvelles Annales de Mathématiques"</a>. 2 (17). Paris: 268<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 March</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Nouvelles+Annales+de+Math%C3%A9matiques&rft.issue=17&rft.pages=268&rft.date=1878&rft.aulast=Gerono&rft.aufirst=Camille+Christopher&rft.au=Terquem%2C+Oiry&rft.au=Laisant%2C+Charles-Ange&rft.au=Bricard%2C+Raoul&rft.au=Boulanger%2C+Auguste&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DS3c_AQAAIAAJ%26pg%3DPA268&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHenri+Bergson" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_journal" title="Template:Cite journal">cite journal</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment">Cite journal requires <code class="cs1-code">|journal=</code> (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#missing_periodical" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Fagot-Largeau-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Fagot-Largeau_17-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fagot-Largeau_17-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fagot-Largeau_17-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fagot-Largeau_17-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fagot-Largeau_17-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fagot-Largeau_17-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fagot-Largeau_17-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fagot-Largeau_17-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fagot-Largeau_17-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fagot-Largeau_17-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fagot-Largeau_17-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fagot-Largeau_17-11"><sup><i><b>l</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fagot-Largeau_17-12"><sup><i><b>m</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fagot-Largeau_17-13"><sup><i><b>n</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fagot-Largeau_17-14"><sup><i><b>o</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fagot-Largeau_17-15"><sup><i><b>p</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fagot-Largeau_17-16"><sup><i><b>q</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fagot-Largeau_17-17"><sup><i><b>r</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fagot-Largeau_17-18"><sup><i><b>s</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anne_Fagot-Largeau&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Anne Fagot-Largeau (page does not exist)">Anne Fagot-Largeau</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.college-de-france.fr/default/EN/all/phi_sci/p1184676830986.htm">21 December 2006 course</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090206183341/http://www.college-de-france.fr/default/EN/all/phi_sci/p1184676830986.htm">Archived</a> 6 February 2009 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> at the <a href="/wiki/College_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="College of France">College of France</a> (audio file of the course)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Louis_de_Broglie" title="Louis de Broglie">Louis de Broglie</a>, (1969[1947]) <i>The concept of contemporary physics and Bergson’s Ideas on Time and Motion</i>, in Bergson and the evolution of physics, Pete A.Y. Gunter (Ed. and trans.) Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, p47.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Henri Bergson: Key Writings</i>, ed. Keith Ansell Pearson and John Mullarkey. London: Continuum, 2002, p. ix.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">p. 39</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Seth Benedict Graham <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://etd.library.pitt.edu/ETD/available/etd-11032003-192424/unrestricted/grahamsethb_etd2003.pdf">A CULTURAL ANALYSIS OF THE RUSSO-SOVIET ANEKDOT</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130116083634/http://etd.library.pitt.edu/ETD/available/etd-11032003-192424/unrestricted/grahamsethb_etd2003.pdf">Archived</a> 16 January 2013 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></i>, 2003, p. 2</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plto.stanford.edu/entries/maritain">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Jacques Maritain</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged July 2024">permanent dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://undpress.nd.edu/9780268021528/bergsonian-philosophy-and-thomism">"Bergsonian Philosophy and Thomism"</a>. <i>Notre Dame University Press</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 July</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Notre+Dame+University+Press&rft.atitle=Bergsonian+Philosophy+and+Thomism&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fundpress.nd.edu%2F9780268021528%2Fbergsonian-philosophy-and-thomism&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHenri+Bergson" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGunn2005" class="citation book cs1">Gunn, John Alexander (2005). <i>Bergson and His Philosophy</i> (Fac-sim ed.). S.L.: Kessinger. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4191-0968-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4191-0968-3"><bdi>978-1-4191-0968-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Bergson+and+His+Philosophy&rft.place=S.L.&rft.edition=Fac-sim&rft.pub=Kessinger&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-1-4191-0968-3&rft.aulast=Gunn&rft.aufirst=John+Alexander&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHenri+Bergson" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FMBlumenthal-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FMBlumenthal_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://jwa.org/encyclopedia/article/blumenthal-florence-meyer">"Florence Meyer Blumenthal"</a>. Jewish Women's Archive, Michele Siegel.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Florence+Meyer+Blumenthal&rft.pub=Jewish+Women%27s+Archive%2C+Michele+Siegel&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjwa.org%2Fencyclopedia%2Farticle%2Fblumenthal-florence-meyer&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHenri+Bergson" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ibiblio.org/HTMLTexts/John_Alexander_Gunn/Bergson_And_His_Philosophy/chapter1.html">Bergson and his philosophy</a> Chapter 1: Life of Bergson</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBergson1911" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Bergson, Henri (1911). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/perceptionchange00berguoft"><i>La perception du changement; conférences faites à l'Université d'Oxford les 26 et 27 mai 1911</i></a> [<i>The perception of change: lectures delivered at the University of Oxford on 26 and 27 May 1911</i>] (in French). Oxford: Clarendon. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/perceptionchange00berguoft/page/n40">37</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=La+perception+du+changement%3B+conf%C3%A9rences+faites+%C3%A0+l%27Universit%C3%A9+d%27Oxford+les+26+et+27+mai+1911&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=37&rft.pub=Clarendon&rft.date=1911&rft.aulast=Bergson&rft.aufirst=Henri&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fperceptionchange00berguoft&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHenri+Bergson" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReberioux1964" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Madeleine_Reb%C3%A9rioux" title="Madeleine Rebérioux">Reberioux, M.</a> (January–March 1964). "La gauche socialiste française: <i>La Guerre Sociale</i> et <i>Le Mouvement Socialiste</i> face au problème colonial" [French right-wing socialism: <i>La Guerre Sociale</i> and <i>Le Mouvement Socialiste</i> in the face of the colonial problem]. <i>Le Mouvement Social</i> (in French) (46). Editions l'Atelier/Association Le Mouvement Social: <span class="nowrap">91–</span>103. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3777267">10.2307/3777267</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3777267">3777267</a>. <q>... deux organes, d'ailleurs si dissembables, ou s'exprime l'extrême-gauche du courant socialiste français: le <i>Mouvement socialiste</i> d'Hubert Lagardelle et la <i>Guerre sociale</i> de Gustave Hervé. Jeune publications – le <i>Mouvement socialiste</i> est fondé en janvier 1899, la <i>Guerre sociale</i> en décembre 1906 –, dirigées par de jeunes équipes qui faisaient profession de rejeter le chauvinisme, d'être attentives au nouveau et de ne pas reculer devant les prises de position les plus véhémentes, ...</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Le+Mouvement+Social&rft.atitle=La+gauche+socialiste+fran%C3%A7aise%3A+La+Guerre+Sociale+et+Le+Mouvement+Socialiste+face+au+probl%C3%A8me+colonial&rft.issue=46&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E91-%3C%2Fspan%3E103&rft.date=1964-01%2F1964-03&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F3777267&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3777267%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Reberioux&rft.aufirst=M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHenri+Bergson" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/kingalbertsbookt00lond"><i>King Albert's book: a tribute to the Belgian king and people from representative men and women throughout the world</i></a>. London. 1914. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/kingalbertsbookt00lond/page/187">187</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=King+Albert%27s+book%3A+a+tribute+to+the+Belgian+king+and+people+from+representative+men+and+women+throughout+the+world&rft.place=London&rft.pages=187&rft.date=1914&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fkingalbertsbookt00lond&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHenri+Bergson" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">|work=</code> ignored (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#periodical_ignored" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment">CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-TheCreativeEvolution-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-TheCreativeEvolution_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See Chapter III of <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/creativeevolu1st00berguoft#page/n7/mode/2up"><i>The Creative Evolution</i></a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Jimena_Canales" title="Jimena Canales">Canales J.</a>, <i>The Physicist and the Philosopher: Einstein, Bergson and the Debate That Changed Our Understanding of Time</i>, Princeton, Princeton Press, 2015.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Minutes of the meeting:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://s3.archive-host.com/membres/up/784571560/GrandesConfPhiloSciences/philosc13_einstein_1922.pdf">Séance du 6 Avril 1922</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Signs, Maurice Merleau-Ponty, trans. Richard C. McCleary, Northwestern Univ. Press, 1964.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">On the relation between Einstein and Bergson in this committee, see <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jimenacanales.org/pdf-files/canales-Einstein,%20Bergson%20and%20the%20Experiment%20that%20Failed.pdf"><i>Einstein, Bergson and the Experiment that Failed: Intellectual Cooperation at the League of Nations</i></a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160304081431/http://www.jimenacanales.org/pdf-files/canales-Einstein,%20Bergson%20and%20the%20Experiment%20that%20Failed.pdf">Archived</a> 4 March 2016 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. On the involvement of Bergson (and Einstein) in the Committee in general, see <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrandjean2018" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Grandjean, Martin (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://tel.archives-ouvertes.fr/tel-01853903/document"><i>Les réseaux de la coopération intellectuelle. La Société des Nations comme actrice des échanges scientifiques et culturels dans l'entre-deux-guerres</i></a> [<i>The Networks of Intellectual Cooperation. The League of Nations as an Actor of the Scientific and Cultural Exchanges in the Inter-War Period</i>] (in French). Lausanne: Université de Lausanne.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Les+r%C3%A9seaux+de+la+coop%C3%A9ration+intellectuelle.+La+Soci%C3%A9t%C3%A9+des+Nations+comme+actrice+des+%C3%A9changes+scientifiques+et+culturels+dans+l%27entre-deux-guerres&rft.place=Lausanne&rft.pub=Universit%C3%A9+de+Lausanne&rft.date=2018&rft.aulast=Grandjean&rft.aufirst=Martin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftel.archives-ouvertes.fr%2Ftel-01853903%2Fdocument&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHenri+Bergson" class="Z3988"></span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-AAAS-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-AAAS_35-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.amacad.org/publications/BookofMembers/ChapterB.pdf">"Book of Members, 1780–2010: Chapter B"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. American Academy of Arts and Sciences<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 June</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Book+of+Members%2C+1780%E2%80%932010%3A+Chapter+B&rft.pub=American+Academy+of+Arts+and+Sciences&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.amacad.org%2Fpublications%2FBookofMembers%2FChapterB.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHenri+Bergson" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Quoted in: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZolli2008" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Israel_Zolli" title="Israel Zolli">Zolli, Eugenio</a> (2008) [1954]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=bq_Qp53ksMAC&pg=PA81"><i>Before the Dawn</i></a>. Ignatius Press. p. 89. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-58617-287-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-58617-287-9"><bdi>978-1-58617-287-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Before+the+Dawn&rft.pages=89&rft.pub=Ignatius+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1-58617-287-9&rft.aulast=Zolli&rft.aufirst=Eugenio&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dbq_Qp53ksMAC%26pg%3DPA81&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHenri+Bergson" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gilbert, Martin. The Second World War: A Complete History (p. 129). Rosetta Books. Kindle Edition.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catholicism.org/forgotten-converts.html">Forgotten Converts, Gary Potter, 2006.</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-TuckerWood1999-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-TuckerWood1999_39-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSpencer_TuckerLaura_Matysek_WoodJustin_D._Murphy1999" class="citation book cs1">Spencer Tucker; Laura Matysek Wood; Justin D. Murphy (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gv3GEyB19wIC&pg=PA124"><i>The European Powers in the First World War: An Encyclopedia</i></a>. Taylor & Francis. p. 124. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8153-3351-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8153-3351-7"><bdi>978-0-8153-3351-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+European+Powers+in+the+First+World+War%3A+An+Encyclopedia&rft.pages=124&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-8153-3351-7&rft.au=Spencer+Tucker&rft.au=Laura+Matysek+Wood&rft.au=Justin+D.+Murphy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dgv3GEyB19wIC%26pg%3DPA124&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHenri+Bergson" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLawlorMoulard_Leonard2016" class="citation cs2">Lawlor, Leonard; Moulard Leonard, Valentine (2016), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2016/entries/bergson/">"Henri Bergson"</a>, in Zalta, Edward N. (ed.), <i>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i> (Summer 2016 ed.), Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 December</span> 2019</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Henri+Bergson&rft.btitle=The+Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.edition=Summer+2016&rft.pub=Metaphysics+Research+Lab%2C+Stanford+University&rft.date=2016&rft.aulast=Lawlor&rft.aufirst=Leonard&rft.au=Moulard+Leonard%2C+Valentine&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Farchives%2Fsum2016%2Fentries%2Fbergson%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHenri+Bergson" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bergson explores these topics in <i>Time and Free Will: An Essay on the Immediate Data of Consciousness</i>, in <i>Matter and Memory</i>, in <i>Creative Evolution</i>, and in <i>The Creative Mind: An Introduction to Metaphysics</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Elie During, <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ciepfc.rhapsodyk.net/article.php3?id_article=63">« Fantômes de problèmes »</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080428142556/http://ciepfc.rhapsodyk.net/article.php3?id_article=63">Archived</a> 28 April 2008 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></i>, published by the <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Centre_International_d%27Etudes_de_la_Philosophie_Fran%C3%A7aise_Contemporaine&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Centre International d'Etudes de la Philosophie Française Contemporaine (page does not exist)">Centre International d'Etudes de la Philosophie Française Contemporaine</a></i> (short version first published in <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Le_magazine_litt%C3%A9raire&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Le magazine littéraire (page does not exist)">Le magazine littéraire</a></i>, n°386, April 2000 (issue dedicated to Bergson)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>The Creative Mind: An Introduction to Metaphysics</i>, pages 11 to 14</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Creative_Mind-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Creative_Mind_44-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Creative_Mind_44-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Henri Bergson, <i>The Creative Mind: An Introduction to Metaphysics</i>, pages 11 to 13.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Stanford_Kant-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Stanford_Kant_45-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stanford_Kant_45-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/bergson/"><i>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i></a>, "Henri Bergson": "'Time and Free Will' has to be seen as an attack on Kant, for whom freedom belongs to a realm outside of space and time."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Henri Bergson, <i>Time and Free Will: An Essay on the Immediate Data of Consciousness</i>, Author's Preface.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/bergson/"><i>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i></a>, "Henri Bergson": "For Bergson – and perhaps this is his greatest insight – freedom is mobility."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLovasz2021" class="citation book cs1">Lovasz, Adam (2021). <i>Updating Bergson</i>. Lanham: Lexington Books. p. 65. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-7936-4081-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-7936-4081-9"><bdi>978-1-7936-4081-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Updating+Bergson&rft.place=Lanham&rft.pages=65&rft.pub=Lexington+Books&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=978-1-7936-4081-9&rft.aulast=Lovasz&rft.aufirst=Adam&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHenri+Bergson" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Henri Bergson, <i>The Creative Mind: An Introduction to Metaphysics</i>, pages 160 to 161. For a Whiteheadian use of Bergsonian intuition, see <a href="/wiki/Michel_Weber" title="Michel Weber">Michel Weber</a>'s <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/279953/Whiteheads_Pancreativism._The_Basics">Whitehead’s Pancreativism. The Basics</a></i>. Foreword by <a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Rescher" title="Nicholas Rescher">Nicholas Rescher</a>, Frankfurt / Paris, Ontos Verlag, 2006.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>L'Évolution créatrice</i>, pp. 42–44; pp. 226–227</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>L'Évolution créatrice</i>, pp. 42–43</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.timoroso.com/philosophy/writings/sketches/2006-04-09-henri-bergsons-theory-of-laughter">Henri Bergson's theory of laughter</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090514072652/http://www.timoroso.com/philosophy/writings/sketches/2006-04-09-henri-bergsons-theory-of-laughter">Archived</a> 14 May 2009 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. A brief summary.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Suzanne Guerlac, <i>Thinking in Time: An Introduction to Henri Bergson</i>, Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2006, p. 10</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWeinberg2024" class="citation web cs1">Weinberg, Justin (20 November 2024). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dailynous.com/2024/11/20/a-new-tool-to-track-and-analyze-philosophers-mentions-guest-post">"A New Tool to Track and Analyze Philosophers' Mentions"</a>. <i>Daily Nous</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 November</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Daily+Nous&rft.atitle=A+New+Tool+to+Track+and+Analyze+Philosophers%27+Mentions&rft.date=2024-11-20&rft.aulast=Weinberg&rft.aufirst=Justin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdailynous.com%2F2024%2F11%2F20%2Fa-new-tool-to-track-and-analyze-philosophers-mentions-guest-post&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHenri+Bergson" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cf. Ronny Desmet and <a href="/wiki/Michel_Weber" title="Michel Weber">Michel Weber</a> (edited by), <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/279940/Whitehead._The_Algebra_of_Metaphysics">Whitehead. The Algebra of Metaphysics. Applied Process Metaphysics Summer Institute Memorandum</a></i>, Louvain-la-Neuve, Éditions Chromatika, 2010 & <a href="/wiki/Michel_Weber" title="Michel Weber">Michel Weber</a>, <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/279953/Whiteheads_Pancreativism._The_Basics">Whitehead’s Pancreativism. The Basics</a></i>. Foreword by Nicholas Rescher, Frankfurt / Paris, ontos verlag, 2006.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Russell, B.; "The Philosophy of Bergson," The Monist 1912 vol. 22 pp. 321–347</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">entitled <i>Henri Bergson</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">transl. 1988.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLambridis2004" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-script">Lambridis, Helle (2004). <i>Introduction to Philosophy</i> <bdi lang="el">Εισαγωγή στη Φιλοσοφία</bdi>. Athens: Academy of Athens. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9604040480" title="Special:BookSources/9604040480"><bdi>9604040480</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+Philosophy+%CE%95%CE%B9%CF%83%CE%B1%CE%B3%CF%89%CE%B3%CE%AE+%CF%83%CF%84%CE%B7+%CE%A6%CE%B9%CE%BB%CE%BF%CF%83%CE%BF%CF%86%CE%AF%CE%B1&rft.place=Athens&rft.pub=Academy+of+Athens&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=9604040480&rft.aulast=Lambridis&rft.aufirst=Helle&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHenri+Bergson" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKarapanou2017" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-script">Karapanou, Anna, ed. (2017). <i>In Memory of Helle Lambridis</i> <bdi lang="el">Έλλη Λαμπρίδη: αφιέρωμα στη μνήμη της</bdi>. Athens: Hellenic Parliament Foundation. p. 55. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9786185154189" title="Special:BookSources/9786185154189"><bdi>9786185154189</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=In+Memory+of+Helle+Lambridis+%CE%88%CE%BB%CE%BB%CE%B7+%CE%9B%CE%B1%CE%BC%CF%80%CF%81%CE%AF%CE%B4%CE%B7%3A+%CE%B1%CF%86%CE%B9%CE%AD%CF%81%CF%89%CE%BC%CE%B1+%CF%83%CF%84%CE%B7+%CE%BC%CE%BD%CE%AE%CE%BC%CE%B7+%CF%84%CE%B7%CF%82&rft.place=Athens&rft.pages=55&rft.pub=Hellenic+Parliament+Foundation&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=9786185154189&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHenri+Bergson" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Dermot Moran, <i>Introduction to Phenomenology</i>, 2000, pp. 322 and 393.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMerleau-Ponty2001" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Maurice_Merleau-Ponty" title="Maurice Merleau-Ponty">Merleau-Ponty, Maurice</a> (2001). Bjelland, Andrew G.; Burke, Patrick (eds.). <span class="id-lock-limited" title="Free access subject to limited trial, subscription normally required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/incarnatesubject00merl"><i>The incarnate subject : Malebranche, Biran, and Bergson on the union of body and soul</i></a></span>. preface by Jacques Taminiaux; translation by Paul B. Milan. Amherst, N.Y.: Humanity Books. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/incarnatesubject00merl/page/n152">152</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-57392-915-8" title="Special:BookSources/1-57392-915-8"><bdi>1-57392-915-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+incarnate+subject+%3A+Malebranche%2C+Biran%2C+and+Bergson+on+the+union+of+body+and+soul&rft.place=Amherst%2C+N.Y.&rft.pages=152&rft.pub=Humanity+Books&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=1-57392-915-8&rft.aulast=Merleau-Ponty&rft.aufirst=Maurice&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fincarnatesubject00merl&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHenri+Bergson" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Peter Bien, <i>Three Generations of Greek Writers</i>, Published by Efstathiadis Group, Athens, 1983</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">see his short book <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRussell1977" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Russell, Bertrand</a> (1977). <i>The philosophy of Bergson</i>. Folcroft, Pa.: Folcroft Library Editions. p. 36. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8414-7371-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-8414-7371-4"><bdi>0-8414-7371-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+philosophy+of+Bergson&rft.place=Folcroft%2C+Pa.&rft.pages=36&rft.pub=Folcroft+Library+Editions&rft.date=1977&rft.isbn=0-8414-7371-4&rft.aulast=Russell&rft.aufirst=Bertrand&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHenri+Bergson" class="Z3988"></span>on the subject).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">see his study on the author in "Winds of Doctrine"</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">see <i>Being and Time,</i> esp. sections 5, 10, and 82.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">see his two books on the subject</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wyndham Lewis, <i>Time and Western Man</i> (1927), ed. Paul Edwards, Santa Rosa, CA: Black Sparrow, 1993.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"The Irrational Element in Poetry." 1936. <i>Opus Posthumous</i>. 1957. Ed. Milton J. Bates. New York: Random House, 1990.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">see his book <i>Insights and Illusions of Philosophy 1972</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">see "Against Epistemology"</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">see "Hegel and Marxism"</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">see his early book <i>Imagination</i> – although Sartre also appropriated himself Bergsonian thesis on novelty as pure creation – see <i>Situations I</i> Gallimard 1947, p. 314</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">see the latter's two books on the subject: <i>Le Bergsonisme, une Mystification Philosophique</i> and <i>La fin d'une parade philosophique: le Bergsonisme</i> both of which had a tremendous effect on French <a href="/wiki/Existential_phenomenology" title="Existential phenomenology">existential phenomenology</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">see <i>Bergson and Symbolism</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPerry1935" class="citation book cs1">Perry, Ralph Barton (1935). <i>The thought and character of William James, as revealed in unpublished correspondence and notes, together with his published writings</i>. Boston, Little, Brown, and company.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+thought+and+character+of+William+James%2C+as+revealed+in+unpublished+correspondence+and+notes%2C+together+with+his+published+writings&rft.pub=Boston%2C+Little%2C+Brown%2C+and+company&rft.date=1935&rft.aulast=Perry&rft.aufirst=Ralph+Barton&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHenri+Bergson" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Charles Sanders Peirce, <i>Collected Papers of Charles Sanders Peirce: Volume VII & VIII</i>, Cambridge, Massachusetts: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1966, p. 428.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDeamer2014" class="citation book cs1">Deamer, David (2014). <i>Deleuze, Japanese Cinema, and the Atom Bomb: The Spectre of Impossibility</i>. Bloomsbury. p. 27. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781441145895" title="Special:BookSources/9781441145895"><bdi>9781441145895</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Deleuze%2C+Japanese+Cinema%2C+and+the+Atom+Bomb%3A+The+Spectre+of+Impossibility&rft.pages=27&rft.pub=Bloomsbury&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=9781441145895&rft.aulast=Deamer&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHenri+Bergson" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRussell1945" class="citation book cs1">Russell, Bertrand (1945). <i>A History of Western Philosophy</i>. Rockefeller Center, 630 Fifth Avenue, NY, NY 10020: Simon and Schuster. p. 802.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Western+Philosophy&rft.place=Rockefeller+Center%2C+630+Fifth+Avenue%2C+NY%2C+NY+10020&rft.pages=802&rft.pub=Simon+and+Schuster&rft.date=1945&rft.aulast=Russell&rft.aufirst=Bertrand&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHenri+Bergson" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location" title="Category:CS1 maint: location">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Suzanne Guerlac, <i>Thinking in Time: An Introduction to Henri Bergson</i>, Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2006, p. 175.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-LawlorMoulard2011-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-LawlorMoulard2011_81-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeonard_Lawlor_and_Valentine_Moulard2011" class="citation cs2">Leonard Lawlor and Valentine Moulard (12 July 2011) [18 May 2004], <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/bergson/#7">"The revitalization of Bergsonism"</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/bergson/"><i>Henri Bergson</i></a>, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 August</span> 2012</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+revitalization+of+Bergsonism&rft.btitle=Henri+Bergson&rft.pub=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.date=2011-07-12&rft.au=Leonard+Lawlor+and+Valentine+Moulard&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fbergson%2F%237&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHenri+Bergson" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mark Sinclair, <i>Bergson</i>, New York: Routledge, 2020, pp. 256-269.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Mark_Sinclair_2020,_pp._270-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Mark_Sinclair_2020,_pp._270_83-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mark_Sinclair_2020,_pp._270_83-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Mark Sinclair, <i>Bergson</i>, New York: Routledge, 2020, pp. 270.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/chemistry/1977/prigogine/biographical/">"The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1977"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Nobel+Prize+in+Chemistry+1977&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nobelprize.org%2Fprizes%2Fchemistry%2F1977%2Fprigogine%2Fbiographical%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHenri+Bergson" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://matterandmemory.jimdofree.com/">"Project Bergson in Japan"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Project+Bergson+in+Japan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmatterandmemory.jimdofree.com%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHenri+Bergson" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/328474302">"Burns, Benureau, Tani (2018) A Bergson-Inspired Adaptive Time Constant for the Multiple Timescales Recurrent Neural Network Model. JNNS"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Burns%2C+Benureau%2C+Tani+%282018%29+A+Bergson-Inspired+Adaptive+Time+Constant+for+the+Multiple+Timescales+Recurrent+Neural+Network+Model.+JNNS&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F328474302&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHenri+Bergson" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200509004753/http://jnns.org/conference/2018/JNNS2018_Technical_Programs.pdf">"Proceedings of the 28th Annual Conference of the Japanese Neural Network Society (October 2018)"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://jnns.org/conference/2018/JNNS2018_Technical_Programs.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 9 May 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 February</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Proceedings+of+the+28th+Annual+Conference+of+the+Japanese+Neural+Network+Society+%28October+2018%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjnns.org%2Fconference%2F2018%2FJNNS2018_Technical_Programs.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHenri+Bergson" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcGilchrist2021" class="citation book cs1">McGilchrist, Iain (2021). "Chapter 24". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://channelmcgilchrist.com/the-matter-with-things/"><i>The Matter with Things: Our Brains, Our Delusions, and the Unmaking of the World</i></a> (Kindle ed.). Perspectiva Press. p. 78 of 98. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1914568060" title="Special:BookSources/978-1914568060"><bdi>978-1914568060</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+24&rft.btitle=The+Matter+with+Things%3A+Our+Brains%2C+Our+Delusions%2C+and+the+Unmaking+of+the+World&rft.pages=78+of+98&rft.edition=Kindle&rft.pub=Perspectiva+Press&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=978-1914568060&rft.aulast=McGilchrist&rft.aufirst=Iain&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fchannelmcgilchrist.com%2Fthe-matter-with-things%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHenri+Bergson" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">K Mackenzie Brown. "Hindu perspectives on evolution: Darwin, Dharma, and Design". Routledge, Jan 2012. Page 164-166</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">KN Aiyer. "Professor Bergson and the Hindu Vedanta". Vasanta Press. 1910. Pages 36 – 37.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Marie Tudor Garland. "Hindu Mind Training". Longmans, Green and Company, 1917. Page 20.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Nalini Kanta Brahma. "Philosophy of Hindu Sadhana". PHI Learning Private Ltd 2008.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hope K Fitz. "Intuition: Its nature and uses in human experience." Motilal Banarsidass publishers 2000. Pages 22–30.</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Henri_Bergson&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Keith_Ansell-Pearson" title="Keith Ansell-Pearson">Ansell-Pearson, Keith</a>. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tZjc0gUec18C">Philosophy and the Adventure of the Virtual: Bergson and the Time of Life</a></i>. London: Routledge, 2002.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keith_Ansell-Pearson" title="Keith Ansell-Pearson">Ansell-Pearson, Keith.</a> <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bloomsbury.com/uk/bergson-9781350043947/">Bergson. Thinking Beyond the Human Condition.</a></i> London: Bloomsbury, 2018.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaston_Bachelard" title="Gaston Bachelard">Bachelard, Gaston</a>. <i>The Dialectic of Duration</i>. Trans. Mary Mcallester Jones. Manchester: Clinamen Press, 2000.</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Giuseppe_Bianco&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Giuseppe Bianco (page does not exist)">Bianco, Giuseppe</a>. <i>Après Bergson. Portrait de groupe avec philosophe</i>. Paris, PUF, 2015.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jimena_Canales" title="Jimena Canales">Canales, Jimena</a>. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/physicistphiloso0000cana">The Physicist and the Philosopher: Einstein, Bergson and the Debate That Changed Our Understanding of Time</a></i>. Princeton, Princeton Press, 2015.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilles_Deleuze" title="Gilles Deleuze">Deleuze, Gilles</a>. <i>Bergsonism</i>. Trans. <a href="/wiki/Hugh_Tomlinson" title="Hugh Tomlinson">Hugh Tomlinson</a> and Barbara Habberjam. New York: Zone Books, 1988.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilles_Deleuze" title="Gilles Deleuze">Deleuze, Gilles</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Cinema_1:_The_Movement_Image" title="Cinema 1: The Movement Image">Cinema 1: The Movement-Image</a></i>. Trans. Hugh Tomlinson and Barbara Habberjam. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1986.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilles_Deleuze" title="Gilles Deleuze">Deleuze, Gilles</a>. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=WKGsHmlEfYkC">Cinema 2: The Time-Image</a></i>. Trans. Hugh Tomlinson and Robert Galeta. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1989.</li> <li>Fradet, Pierre-Alexandre, <i>Derrida-Bergson. Sur l'immédiateté</i>, <a href="/wiki/%C3%89ditions_Hermann" title="Éditions Hermann">Hermann</a>, Paris, coll. "Hermann Philosophie", 2014. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-7056-8831-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-7056-8831-8">978-2-7056-8831-8</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Grosz" title="Elizabeth Grosz">Grosz, Elizabeth</a>. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=feR5UWpCA5cC&q=The+Nick+of+Time%3A+Politics%2C+Evolution%2C+and+the+Untimely">The Nick of Time: Politics, Evolution, and the Untimely</a></i>. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2004.</li> <li>Guerlac, Suzanne. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=OYW2zfEA4TgC">Thinking in Time: An Introduction to Henri Bergson</a></i>. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2006.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Horkheimer" title="Max Horkheimer">Horkheimer, Max</a>. "On Bergson's Metaphysics of Time." Trans. Peter Thomas, revised by Stewart Martin. <i>Radical Philosophy</i> 131 (2005) 9–19.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_James" title="William James">James, William</a>. "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uW8YT0pFw4gC&pg=PA91">Bergson and his Critique of Intellectualism</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged August 2024">permanent dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup>." In <i>A Pluralistic Universe</i>. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press, 1996. 223–74.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonard_Lawlor" title="Leonard Lawlor">Lawlor, Leonard</a>. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=H0Mxlqc5W6wC&pg=PR1">The Challenge of Bergsonism: Phenomenology, Ontology, Ethics</a></i>. London: Continuum Press, 2003.</li> <li>Lovasz, Adam. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://rowman.com/ISBN/9781793640819/Updating-Bergson-A-Philosophy-of-the-Enduring-Present">Updating Bergson. A Philosophy of the Enduring Present</a></i>. Lanham: Lexington Books, 2021.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurice_Merleau-Ponty" title="Maurice Merleau-Ponty">Merleau-Ponty, Maurice</a>. "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9bt0KCx2eZkC&pg=PA9">Bergson</a>." In <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9bt0KCx2eZkC">In Praise of Philosophy and Other Essays</a></i>. Trans. John O'Neill. Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press, 1963. 9–32.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurice_Merleau-Ponty" title="Maurice Merleau-Ponty">Merleau-Ponty, Maurice</a>. "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Qj-iZurbei4C&pg=PA182">Bergson in the Making</a>." In <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Qj-iZurbei4C">Signs</a></i>. Trans. Richard McCleary. Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press, 1964. 182–91.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Mullarkey" title="John Mullarkey">Mullarkey, John</a>. <i>Bergson and Philosophy.</i> Edinburgh University Press, 1999.</li> <li>Mullarkey, John, ed. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=adgCLfgRX2UC&q=The+New+Bergson">The New Bergson</a></i>. Manchester and New York: Manchester University Press, 1999.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Russell, Bertrand</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/philosophyofberg00russ#page/n3/mode/2up">"The Philosophy of Bergson"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Monist" title="The Monist">The Monist</a></i> 22 (1912): 321–47.</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mark_Sinclair_(philosopher)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mark Sinclair (philosopher) (page does not exist)">Sinclair, Mark</a>. <i>Bergson</i>, New York: Routledge, 2020.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Henri_Bergson&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; 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A brief summary.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131113160947/http://www.ciepfc.fr/spip.php?article56">« 'A History of Problems' : Bergson and the French Epistemological Tradition », by Elie During</a></li> <li>Gontarski, Stanley E.: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/article/bergson_henri/">Bergson, Henri</a>, in: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/home.html/">1914-1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War</a>.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160305122427/http://webshells.com/spantrans/bergson.html">M. C. Sanchez Rey « The Bergsonian Philosophy of the Intelligence »</a> translation</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://purl.org/pressemappe20/folder/pe/001547">Newspaper clippings about Henri Bergson</a> in the <a href="/wiki/20th_Century_Press_Archives" title="20th Century Press Archives">20th Century Press Archives</a> of the <a href="/wiki/German_National_Library_of_Economics" title="German National Library of Economics">ZBW</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q42156#P4293" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nobel.bh.org.il/en/persona/Henri-Bergson/">Henri Bergson</a>, Nobel Luminaries - Jewish Nobel Prize Winners, on the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bh.org.il/">Beit Hatfutsot-The Museum of the Jewish People</a> Website.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nobelprize.org/laureate/600">Henri Bergson</a> on Nobelprize.org <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q42156#P8024" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://noblib.internet-box.ch/NLEW.php?authorid=27">List of Works</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Works_online">Works online</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Henri_Bergson&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Works online"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/author/1462">Works by Henri Bergson</a> at <a href="/wiki/Project_Gutenberg" title="Project Gutenberg">Project Gutenberg</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/search.php?query=%28%28subject%3A%22Bergson%2C%20Henri%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22Henri%20Bergson%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Bergson%2C%20Henri%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Henri%20Bergson%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Bergson%2C%20H%2E%22%20OR%20title%3A%22Henri%20Bergson%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Bergson%2C%20Henri%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Henri%20Bergson%22%29%20OR%20%28%221859-1941%22%20AND%20Bergson%29%29%20AND%20%28-mediatype:software%29">Works by or about Henri Bergson</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Internet_Archive" title="Internet Archive">Internet Archive</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://librivox.org/author/4730">Works by Henri Bergson</a> at <a href="/wiki/LibriVox" title="LibriVox">LibriVox</a> (public domain audiobooks) <span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Speaker_Icon.svg/15px-Speaker_Icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Speaker_Icon.svg/23px-Speaker_Icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Speaker_Icon.svg/30px-Speaker_Icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="500" /></span></span> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q42156#P1899" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openlibrary.org/authors/OL18539A">Works by Henri Bergson</a> at <a href="/wiki/Open_Library" title="Open Library">Open Library</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090513043046/http://www.laphilosophie.fr/livres-de-Bergson-texte-integral.html">Works by Henri Bergson in French</a> at <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.laphilosophie.fr/">"La Philosophie"</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://classiques.uqac.ca/classiques/bergson_henri/bergson_henri.html">Complete works in French on the "Classiques des sciences sociales" website</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://classiques.uqac.ca/classiques/bergson_henri/evolution_creatrice/evolution_creatrice.html"><i>L'Évolution créatrice</i></a> (in the original French, 1907) <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060423033749/http://spartan.ac.brocku.ca/~lward/Bergson/Bergson_1911a/Bergson_1911_toc.html">1911 English translation</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (archived 23 April 2006) of <i>Creative Evolution</i> (<a href="/wiki/HTML" title="HTML">HTML</a>)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/creativeevolutio00berguoft">Multiple formats</a> at <a href="/wiki/Internet_Archive" title="Internet Archive">Internet Archive</a></li></ul></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060424080648/http://spartan.ac.brocku.ca/~lward/Bergson/Bergson_1910/Bergson_1910_toc.html">1910 English translation of <i>Time and Free Will</i></a> at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (archived 24 April 2006) (HTML) <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/timeandfreewilla00berguoft">Multiple formats</a> at Internet Archive</li></ul></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060424080926/http://spartan.ac.brocku.ca/~lward/Bergson/Bergson_1911b/Bergson_1911_toc.html">1911 English translation of <i>Matter and Memory</i></a> at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (archived 24 April 2006) (HTML) <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/matterandmemory00berguoft">Multiple formats</a> at Internet Archive</li></ul></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output 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id="Continental_philosophy154" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Continental_philosophy" title="Continental philosophy">Continental philosophy</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Philosophers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theodor_W._Adorno" title="Theodor W. Adorno">Adorno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giorgio_Agamben" title="Giorgio Agamben">Agamben</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Althusser" title="Louis Althusser">Althusser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hannah_Arendt" title="Hannah Arendt">Arendt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raymond_Aron" title="Raymond Aron">Aron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaston_Bachelard" title="Gaston Bachelard">Bachelard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alain_Badiou" title="Alain Badiou">Badiou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roland_Barthes" title="Roland Barthes">Barthes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georges_Bataille" title="Georges Bataille">Bataille</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Baudrillard" title="Jean Baudrillard">Baudrillard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zygmunt_Bauman" title="Zygmunt Bauman">Bauman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Benjamin" title="Walter Benjamin">Benjamin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simone_de_Beauvoir" title="Simone de Beauvoir">de Beauvoir</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Bergson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurice_Blanchot" title="Maurice Blanchot">Blanchot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Bourdieu" title="Pierre Bourdieu">Bourdieu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Buber" title="Martin Buber">Buber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judith_Butler" title="Judith Butler">Butler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Camus" title="Albert Camus">Camus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Cassirer" title="Ernst Cassirer">Cassirer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornelius_Castoriadis" title="Cornelius Castoriadis">Castoriadis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emil_Cioran" title="Emil Cioran">Cioran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H%C3%A9l%C3%A8ne_Cixous" title="Hélène Cixous">Cixous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benedetto_Croce" title="Benedetto Croce">Croce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_de_Man" title="Paul de Man">de Man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guy_Debord" title="Guy Debord">Debord</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilles_Deleuze" title="Gilles Deleuze">Deleuze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Derrida" title="Jacques Derrida">Derrida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Dilthey" title="Wilhelm Dilthey">Dilthey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umberto_Eco" title="Umberto Eco">Eco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terry_Eagleton" title="Terry Eagleton">Eagleton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Engels" title="Friedrich Engels">Engels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frantz_Fanon" title="Frantz Fanon">Fanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottlieb_Fichte" title="Johann Gottlieb Fichte">Fichte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_Fisher" title="Mark Fisher">Fisher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michel_Foucault" title="Michel Foucault">Foucault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans-Georg_Gadamer" title="Hans-Georg Gadamer">Gadamer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Gentile" title="Giovanni Gentile">Gentile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/F%C3%A9lix_Guattari" title="Félix Guattari">Guattari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Gramsci" title="Antonio Gramsci">Gramsci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Habermas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Hegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Heidegger" title="Martin Heidegger">Heidegger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Husserl" title="Edmund Husserl">Husserl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Ingarden" title="Roman Ingarden">Ingarden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luce_Irigaray" title="Luce Irigaray">Irigaray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fredric_Jameson" title="Fredric Jameson">Jameson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Jaspers" title="Karl Jaspers">Jaspers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Kierkegaard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexandre_Koj%C3%A8ve" title="Alexandre Kojève">Kojève</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexandre_Koyr%C3%A9" title="Alexandre Koyré">Koyré</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leszek_Ko%C5%82akowski" title="Leszek Kołakowski">Kołakowski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julia_Kristeva" title="Julia Kristeva">Kristeva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Lacan" title="Jacques Lacan">Lacan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bruno_Latour" title="Bruno Latour">Latour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henri_Lefebvre" title="Henri Lefebvre">Lefebvre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claude_L%C3%A9vi-Strauss" title="Claude Lévi-Strauss">Lévi-Strauss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emmanuel_Levinas" title="Emmanuel Levinas">Levinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niklas_Luhmann" title="Niklas Luhmann">Luhmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gy%C3%B6rgy_Luk%C3%A1cs" title="György Lukács">Lukács</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Fran%C3%A7ois_Lyotard" title="Jean-François Lyotard">Lyotard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Marcel" title="Gabriel Marcel">Marcel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Marcuse" title="Herbert Marcuse">Marcuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Marx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurice_Merleau-Ponty" title="Maurice Merleau-Ponty">Merleau-Ponty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Luc_Nancy" title="Jean-Luc Nancy">Nancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Negri" title="Antonio Negri">Negri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzsche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Ortega_y_Gasset" title="José Ortega y Gasset">Ortega y Gasset</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Ranci%C3%A8re" title="Jacques Rancière">Rancière</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Ric%C5%93ur" title="Paul Ricœur">Ricœur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Said" title="Edward Said">Said</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Paul_Sartre" title="Jean-Paul Sartre">Sartre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Wilhelm_Joseph_Schelling" title="Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling">Schelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Schmitt" title="Carl Schmitt">Schmitt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Schopenhauer" title="Arthur Schopenhauer">Schopenhauer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michel_Serres" title="Michel Serres">Serres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Sloterdijk" title="Peter Sloterdijk">Sloterdijk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oswald_Spengler" title="Oswald Spengler">Spengler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edith_Stein" title="Edith Stein">Stein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leo_Strauss" title="Leo Strauss">Strauss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Weber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simone_Weil" title="Simone Weil">Weil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raymond_Williams" title="Raymond Williams">Williams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavoj_%C5%BDi%C5%BEek" title="Slavoj Žižek">Žižek</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Theories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Absurdism" title="Absurdism">Absurdism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">Critical theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deconstruction" title="Deconstruction">Deconstruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frankfurt_School" title="Frankfurt School">Frankfurt School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_idealism" title="German idealism">German idealism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hegelianism" class="mw-redirect" title="Hegelianism">Hegelianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermeneutics" title="Hermeneutics">Hermeneutics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Marxism" title="Western Marxism">Western</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freudo-Marxism" title="Freudo-Marxism">Freudo-</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Kantianism" title="Neo-Kantianism">Neo-Kantianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-philosophy" title="Non-philosophy">Non-philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-representational_theory" title="Non-representational theory">Non-representational theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_pessimism" title="Philosophical pessimism">Philosophical pessimism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postmodern_philosophy" title="Postmodern philosophy">Postmodernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-structuralism" title="Post-structuralism">Post-structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychoanalysis" title="Psychoanalysis">Psychoanalysis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Psychoanalytic_theory" title="Psychoanalytic theory">Psychoanalytic theory</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanticism" title="Romanticism">Romanticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speculative_realism" title="Speculative realism">Speculative realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism" title="Structuralism">Structuralism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alterity" title="Alterity">Alterity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Always_already" title="Always already">Always already</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angst" title="Angst">Angst</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apollonian_and_Dionysian" title="Apollonian and Dionysian">Apollonian and Dionysian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Authenticity_(philosophy)" title="Authenticity (philosophy)">Authenticity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Being_in_itself" title="Being in itself">Being in itself</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Binary_oppositions" class="mw-redirect" title="Binary oppositions">Binary oppositions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boredom" title="Boredom">Boredom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Class_struggle" class="mw-redirect" title="Class struggle">Class struggle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critique" title="Critique">Critique</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Immanent_critique" title="Immanent critique">Immanent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ideological_criticism" title="Ideological criticism">Ideological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postcritique" title="Postcritique">Postcritique</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dasein" title="Dasein">Dasein</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_of_God" class="mw-redirect" title="Death of God">Death of God</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_drive" title="Death drive">Death drive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diff%C3%A9rance" title="Différance">Différance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Difference_(philosophy)" title="Difference (philosophy)">Difference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existence_precedes_essence" title="Existence precedes essence">Existence precedes essence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existential_crisis" title="Existential crisis">Existential crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Facticity" title="Facticity">Facticity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaze" title="Gaze">Gaze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genealogy_(philosophy)" title="Genealogy (philosophy)">Genealogy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habitus_(sociology)" title="Habitus (sociology)">Habitus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hauntology" title="Hauntology">Hauntology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_materialism" title="Historical materialism">Historical materialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ideology" title="Ideology">Ideology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interpellation_(philosophy)" title="Interpellation (philosophy)">Interpellation (philosophy)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intersubjectivity" title="Intersubjectivity">Intersubjectivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leap_of_faith" title="Leap of faith">Leap of faith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Master%E2%80%93slave_dialectic" class="mw-redirect" title="Master–slave dialectic">Master–slave dialectic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Master%E2%80%93slave_morality" title="Master–slave morality">Master–slave morality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oedipus_complex" title="Oedipus complex">Oedipus complex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ontic" class="mw-redirect" title="Ontic">Ontic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ontopoetics" title="Ontopoetics">Ontopoetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Other_(philosophy)" title="Other (philosophy)">Other</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_(social_and_political)" title="Power (social and political)">Power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ressentiment" title="Ressentiment">Ressentiment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-deception" title="Self-deception">Self-deception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Totalitarianism" title="Totalitarianism">Totalitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trace_(deconstruction)" title="Trace (deconstruction)">Trace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transvaluation_of_values" title="Transvaluation of values">Transvaluation of values</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Violence#Philosophical_perspectives" title="Violence">Violence § Philosophical perspectives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wertkritik" class="mw-redirect" title="Wertkritik">Wertkritik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Will_to_power" title="Will to power">Will to power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermeneutics_of_suspicion" title="Hermeneutics of suspicion">Hermeneutics of suspicion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discourse" title="Discourse">Discourse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Linguistic theory">Linguistic theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_determinism" title="Linguistic determinism">Linguistic determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semantics" title="Semantics">Semantics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semiotics" title="Semiotics">Semiotics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_studies" title="Media studies">Media studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Film_theory" title="Film theory">Film theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_turn" title="Linguistic turn">Linguistic turn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postcolonialism" title="Postcolonialism">Postcolonialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_language" title="Philosophy of language">Philosophy of language</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Continental_philosophy" title="Category:Continental philosophy">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_continental_philosophy_articles" title="Index of continental philosophy articles">Index</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Metaphysics343" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Metaphysics" title="Template:Metaphysics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Metaphysics" title="Template talk:Metaphysics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Metaphysics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Metaphysics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Metaphysics343" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Theories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abstract_object_theory" title="Abstract object theory">Abstract object theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Action_theory_(philosophy)" title="Action theory (philosophy)">Action theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-realism" title="Anti-realism">Anti-realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism" title="Mind–body dualism">Dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enactivism" title="Enactivism">Enactivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Essentialism" title="Essentialism">Essentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_will" title="Free will">Free will</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism_(metaphysics)" title="Libertarianism (metaphysics)">Libertarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberty" title="Liberty">Liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">Materialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meaning_of_life" title="Meaning of life">Meaning of life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nihilism" title="Nihilism">Nihilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenalism" title="Phenomenalism">Phenomenalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">Realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physicalism" title="Physicalism">Physicalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relativism" title="Relativism">Relativism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_realism" title="Scientific realism">Scientific realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solipsism" title="Solipsism">Solipsism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spiritualism_(philosophy)" title="Spiritualism (philosophy)">Spiritualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subjectivism" title="Subjectivism">Subjectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Substance_theory" title="Substance theory">Substance theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_forms" title="Theory of forms">Theory of forms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Truthmaker_theory" title="Truthmaker theory">Truthmaker theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Type_theory" title="Type theory">Type theory</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abstract_and_concrete" title="Abstract and concrete">Abstract object</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anima_mundi" title="Anima mundi">Anima mundi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category_of_being" class="mw-redirect" title="Category of being">Category of being</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Causality" title="Causality">Causality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Causal_closure" title="Causal closure">Causal closure</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Cogito,_ergo_sum" title="Cogito, ergo sum">Cogito, ergo sum</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concept" title="Concept">Concept</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Embodied_cognition" title="Embodied cognition">Embodied cognition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entity" title="Entity">Entity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Essence" title="Essence">Essence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existence" title="Existence">Existence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experience" title="Experience">Experience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypostatic_abstraction" title="Hypostatic abstraction">Hypostatic abstraction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idea" title="Idea">Idea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Identity_(philosophy)" title="Identity (philosophy)">Identity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information" title="Information">Information</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Data" title="Data">Data</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insight" title="Insight">Insight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intelligence" title="Intelligence">Intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intention" title="Intention">Intention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_modality" class="mw-redirect" title="Linguistic modality">Linguistic modality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_matter" title="Philosophy of matter">Matter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meaning_(existential)" title="Meaning (existential)">Meaning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mental_representation" title="Mental representation">Mental representation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind" title="Mind">Mind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Motion" title="Motion">Motion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature_(philosophy)" title="Nature (philosophy)">Nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysical_necessity" title="Metaphysical necessity">Necessity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Object_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Object (philosophy)">Object</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">Ontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pattern" title="Pattern">Pattern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perception" title="Perception">Perception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physical_object" title="Physical object">Physical object</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principle" title="Principle">Principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Property_(philosophy)" title="Property (philosophy)">Property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qualia" title="Qualia">Qualia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quality_(philosophy)" title="Quality (philosophy)">Quality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reality" title="Reality">Reality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relations_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Relations (philosophy)">Relation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self" title="Self">Self</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soul" title="Soul">Soul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subject_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Subject (philosophy)">Subject</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Substantial_form" title="Substantial form">Substantial form</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thought" title="Thought">Thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time" title="Time">Time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Truth" title="Truth">Truth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Type%E2%80%93token_distinction" title="Type–token distinction">Type–token distinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_(metaphysics)" title="Universal (metaphysics)">Universal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unobservable" title="Unobservable">Unobservable</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Value_(ethics)" title="Value (ethics)">Value</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Index_of_metaphysics_articles" title="Index of metaphysics articles">more ...</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_metaphysicians" title="List of metaphysicians">Metaphysicians</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Parmenides" title="Parmenides">Parmenides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucretius" title="Lucretius">Lucretius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proclus" title="Proclus">Proclus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plotinus" title="Plotinus">Plotinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Avicenna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duns_Scotus" title="Duns Scotus">Scotus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_Su%C3%A1rez" title="Francisco Suárez">Suárez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">Descartes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Spinoza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">Locke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicolas_Malebranche" title="Nicolas Malebranche">Malebranche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Newton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Leibniz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_Wolff_(philosopher)" title="Christian Wolff (philosopher)">Wolff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Reid" title="Thomas Reid">Reid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Berkeley" title="George Berkeley">Berkeley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Hegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Schopenhauer" title="Arthur Schopenhauer">Schopenhauer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Bolzano" title="Bernard Bolzano">Bolzano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Kierkegaard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermann_Lotze" title="Hermann Lotze">Lotze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Sanders_Peirce" title="Charles Sanders Peirce">Peirce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzsche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexius_Meinong" title="Alexius Meinong">Meinong</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Bergson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_North_Whitehead" title="Alfred North Whitehead">Whitehead</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G._E._Moore" title="G. E. Moore">Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R._G._Collingwood" title="R. G. Collingwood">Collingwood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Wittgenstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Heidegger" title="Martin Heidegger">Heidegger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Carnap" title="Rudolf Carnap">Carnap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_Ryle" title="Gilbert Ryle">Ryle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Paul_Sartre" title="Jean-Paul Sartre">Sartre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willard_Van_Orman_Quine" title="Willard Van Orman Quine">Quine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_Davidson_(philosopher)" title="Donald Davidson (philosopher)">Davidson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P._F._Strawson" title="P. F. Strawson">Strawson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G._E._M._Anscombe" title="G. E. M. Anscombe">Anscombe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilles_Deleuze" title="Gilles Deleuze">Deleuze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Dummett" title="Michael Dummett">Dummett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Malet_Armstrong" title="David Malet Armstrong">Armstrong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hilary_Putnam" title="Hilary Putnam">Putnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alvin_Plantinga" title="Alvin Plantinga">Plantinga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saul_Kripke" title="Saul Kripke">Kripke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Lewis_(philosopher)" title="David Lewis (philosopher)">Lewis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Baudrillard" title="Jean Baudrillard">Baudrillard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Derek_Parfit" title="Derek Parfit">Parfit</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_metaphysicians" title="List of metaphysicians">more ...</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Notable works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Sophist_(dialogue)" title="Sophist (dialogue)">Sophist</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 350 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Timaeus_(dialogue)" title="Timaeus (dialogue)">Timaeus</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 350 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ny%C4%81ya_S%C5%ABtras" title="Nyāya Sūtras">Nyāya Sūtras</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 200 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/De_rerum_natura" title="De rerum natura">De rerum natura</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 80 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics_(Aristotle)" title="Metaphysics (Aristotle)">Metaphysics</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 50)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Enneads" title="Enneads">Enneads</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 270)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Daneshnameh-ye_Alai" class="mw-redirect" title="Daneshnameh-ye Alai">Daneshnameh-ye Alai</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 1000)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Meditations_on_First_Philosophy" title="Meditations on First Philosophy">Meditations on First Philosophy</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1641)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ethics_(Spinoza_book)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethics (Spinoza book)">Ethics</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1677)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/A_Treatise_Concerning_the_Principles_of_Human_Knowledge" title="A Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge">A Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1710)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Monadology" title="Monadology">Monadology</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1714)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_Pure_Reason" title="Critique of Pure Reason">Critique of Pure Reason</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1781)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Prolegomena_to_Any_Future_Metaphysics" title="Prolegomena to Any Future Metaphysics">Prolegomena to Any Future Metaphysics</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1783)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Phenomenology_of_Spirit" title="The Phenomenology of Spirit">The Phenomenology of Spirit</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1807)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_World_as_Will_and_Representation" title="The World as Will and Representation">The World as Will and Representation</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1818)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Concluding_Unscientific_Postscript_to_Philosophical_Fragments" title="Concluding Unscientific Postscript to Philosophical Fragments">Concluding Unscientific Postscript to Philosophical Fragments</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1846)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Being_and_Time" title="Being and Time">Being and Time</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1927)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Being_and_Nothingness" title="Being and Nothingness">Being and Nothingness</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1943)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Simulacra_and_Simulation" title="Simulacra and Simulation">Simulacra and Simulation</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1981)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Axiology" class="mw-redirect" title="Axiology">Axiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmology" title="Cosmology">Cosmology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_metaphysics" title="Feminist metaphysics">Feminist metaphysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interpretations_of_quantum_mechanics" title="Interpretations of quantum mechanics">Interpretations of quantum mechanics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mereology" title="Mereology">Mereology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meta_(prefix)" title="Meta (prefix)">Meta-</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">Philosophy of mind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_psychology" title="Philosophy of psychology">Philosophy of psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_self" title="Philosophy of self">Philosophy of self</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_space_and_time" title="Philosophy of space and time">Philosophy of space and time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teleology" title="Teleology">Teleology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" 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<div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Philosophy_of_language338" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Philosophy_of_language" title="Template:Philosophy of language"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Philosophy_of_language" title="Template talk:Philosophy of language"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy_of_language" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy of language"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Philosophy_of_language338" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_language" title="Philosophy of language">Philosophy of language</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><a href="/wiki/Index_of_language_articles" title="Index of language articles">Index of language articles</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophers_of_language" title="List of philosophers of language">Philosophers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gorgias" title="Gorgias">Gorgias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cratylus" title="Cratylus">Cratylus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eubulides" title="Eubulides">Eubulides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diodorus_Cronus" title="Diodorus Cronus">Diodorus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chrysippus" title="Chrysippus">Chrysippus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhuang_Zhou" title="Zhuang Zhou">Zhuangzi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xunzi_(philosopher)" title="Xunzi (philosopher)">Xunzi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Averroes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Khaldun" title="Ibn Khaldun">Ibn Khaldun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Hobbes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Wilkins" title="John Wilkins">Wilkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antoine_Arnauld" title="Antoine Arnauld">Arnauld</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claude_Lancelot" title="Claude Lancelot">Lancelot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Leibniz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Berkeley" title="George Berkeley">Berkeley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_Herder" title="Johann Gottfried Herder">Herder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_von_Humboldt" title="Wilhelm von Humboldt">von Humboldt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fritz_Mauthner" title="Fritz Mauthner">Mauthner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Ric%C5%93ur" title="Paul Ricœur">Ricœur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_de_Saussure" title="Ferdinand de Saussure">de Saussure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gottlob_Frege" title="Gottlob Frege">Frege</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franz_Boas" title="Franz Boas">Boas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Tillich" title="Paul Tillich">Tillich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Sapir" title="Edward Sapir">Sapir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonard_Bloomfield" title="Leonard Bloomfield">Bloomfield</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Bergson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lev_Vygotsky" title="Lev Vygotsky">Vygotsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Wittgenstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Carnap" title="Rudolf Carnap">Carnap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Derrida" title="Jacques Derrida">Derrida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Lee_Whorf" title="Benjamin Lee Whorf">Whorf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._L._Austin" title="J. L. Austin">Austin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noam_Chomsky" title="Noam Chomsky">Chomsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans-Georg_Gadamer" title="Hans-Georg Gadamer">Gadamer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saul_Kripke" title="Saul Kripke">Kripke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A._J._Ayer" title="A. J. Ayer">Ayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G._E._M._Anscombe" title="G. E. M. Anscombe">Anscombe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jaakko_Hintikka" title="Jaakko Hintikka">Hintikka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Dummett" title="Michael Dummett">Dummett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_Davidson_(philosopher)" title="Donald Davidson (philosopher)">Davidson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Grice" title="Paul Grice">Grice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_Ryle" title="Gilbert Ryle">Ryle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P._F._Strawson" title="P. F. Strawson">Strawson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willard_Van_Orman_Quine" title="Willard Van Orman Quine">Quine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hilary_Putnam" title="Hilary Putnam">Putnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Lewis_(philosopher)" title="David Lewis (philosopher)">Lewis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Searle" title="John Searle">Searle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Watzlawick" title="Paul Watzlawick">Watzlawick</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Theories_of_language" title="Category:Theories of language">Theories</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Causal_theory_of_reference" title="Causal theory of reference">Causal theory of reference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contrastivism" title="Contrastivism">Contrast theory of meaning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contrastivism" title="Contrastivism">Contrastivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conventionalism" title="Conventionalism">Conventionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cratylism" title="Cratylism">Cratylism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deconstruction" title="Deconstruction">Deconstruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Descriptivist_theory_of_names" title="Descriptivist theory of names">Descriptivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Direct_reference_theory" title="Direct reference theory">Direct reference theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dramatism" title="Dramatism">Dramatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dynamic_semantics" title="Dynamic semantics">Dynamic semantics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expressivism" title="Expressivism">Expressivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inquisitive_semantics" title="Inquisitive semantics">Inquisitive semantics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_determinism" title="Linguistic determinism">Linguistic determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mediated_reference_theory" title="Mediated reference theory">Mediated reference theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nominalism" title="Nominalism">Nominalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-cognitivism" title="Non-cognitivism">Non-cognitivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phallogocentrism" title="Phallogocentrism">Phallogocentrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relevance_theory" title="Relevance theory">Relevance theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semantic_externalism" title="Semantic externalism">Semantic externalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semantic_holism" title="Semantic holism">Semantic holism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Situation_semantics" title="Situation semantics">Situation semantics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism" title="Structuralism">Structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supposition_theory" title="Supposition theory">Supposition theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbiosism" title="Symbiosism">Symbiosism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theological_noncognitivism" title="Theological noncognitivism">Theological noncognitivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_descriptions" title="Theory of descriptions">Theory of descriptions</a> (<a href="/wiki/Definite_description" title="Definite description">Definite description</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_language" title="Theory of language">Theory of language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unilalianism" title="Unilalianism">Unilalianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verificationism" title="Verificationism">Verification theory</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ambiguity" title="Ambiguity">Ambiguity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cant_(language)" title="Cant (language)">Cant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Class_(philosophy)" title="Class (philosophy)">Class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concept" title="Concept">Concept</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Categorization" class="mw-redirect" title="Categorization">Categories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_resemblance" title="Family resemblance">Family resemblance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intension" title="Intension">Intension</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language" title="Language">Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_relativity" title="Linguistic relativity">Linguistic relativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logical_form" title="Logical form">Logical form</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mental_representation" title="Mental representation">Mental representation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metalanguage" title="Metalanguage">Metalanguage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modality_(natural_language)" class="mw-redirect" title="Modality (natural language)">Modality (natural language)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presupposition" title="Presupposition">Presupposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principle_of_compositionality" title="Principle of compositionality">Principle of compositionality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Property_(philosophy)" title="Property (philosophy)">Property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proposition" title="Proposition">Proposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sense_and_reference" title="Sense and reference">Sense and reference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sentence_(linguistics)" title="Sentence (linguistics)">Sentence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Set_(mathematics)" title="Set (mathematics)">Set</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sign_(semiotics)" title="Sign (semiotics)">Sign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speech_act" title="Speech act">Speech act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statement_(logic)" title="Statement (logic)">Statement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbol" title="Symbol">Symbol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Truth-bearer" title="Truth-bearer">Truth-bearer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Use%E2%80%93mention_distinction" title="Use–mention distinction">Use–mention distinction</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Index_of_philosophy_of_language_articles" title="Index of philosophy of language articles">more...</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Cratylus_(dialogue)" title="Cratylus (dialogue)">Cratylus</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(n.d.)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Port-Royal_Grammar" title="Port-Royal Grammar">Port-Royal Grammar</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1660)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/De_Arte_Combinatoria" title="De Arte Combinatoria">De Arte Combinatoria</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1666)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/An_Essay_Towards_a_Real_Character,_and_a_Philosophical_Language" title="An Essay Towards a Real Character, and a Philosophical Language">An Essay Towards a Real Character, and a Philosophical Language</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1668)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Alciphron_(book)" title="Alciphron (book)">Alciphron</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1732)</span></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/On_Denoting" title="On Denoting">On Denoting</a>" <span style="font-size:85%;">(1905)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tractatus_Logico-Philosophicus" title="Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus">Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1921)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Language,_Truth,_and_Logic" title="Language, Truth, and Logic">Language, Truth, and Logic</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1936)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Two_Dogmas_of_Empiricism" title="Two Dogmas of Empiricism">Two Dogmas of Empiricism</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1951)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_Investigations" title="Philosophical Investigations">Philosophical Investigations</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1953)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Of_Grammatology" title="Of Grammatology">Of Grammatology</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1967)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Naming_and_Necessity" title="Naming and Necessity">Naming and Necessity</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1980)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Wittgenstein_on_Rules_and_Private_Language" title="Wittgenstein on Rules and Private Language">Wittgenstein on Rules and Private Language</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1982)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Limited_Inc" title="Limited Inc">Limited Inc</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1988)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related articles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">Analytic philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_information" title="Philosophy of information">Philosophy of information</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_logic" title="Philosophical logic">Philosophical logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">Linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatics" title="Pragmatics">Pragmatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric" title="Rhetoric">Rhetoric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Names" title="School of Names">School of Names</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semantics_(natural_language)" class="mw-redirect" title="Semantics (natural language)">Semantics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Formal_semantics_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Formal semantics (linguistics)">Formal semantics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semiotics" title="Semiotics">Semiotics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophy_of_language" title="Category:Philosophy of language">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Philosophy/Language" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Philosophy/Language">Task Force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia_talk:WikiProject_Philosophy" title="Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Philosophy">Discussion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Philosophy_of_mind296" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Philosophy_of_mind" title="Template:Philosophy of mind"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Philosophy_of_mind" title="Template talk:Philosophy of mind"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy_of_mind" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy of mind"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Philosophy_of_mind296" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">Philosophy of mind</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophers_of_mind" title="Category:Philosophers of mind">Philosophers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/G._E._M._Anscombe" title="G. E. M. Anscombe">G. E. M. Anscombe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Malet_Armstrong" title="David Malet Armstrong">Armstrong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._L._Austin" title="J. L. Austin">J. L. Austin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Bain_(philosopher)" title="Alexander Bain (philosopher)">Alexander Bain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Berkeley" title="George Berkeley">George Berkeley</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Henri Bergson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ned_Block" title="Ned Block">Ned Block</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franz_Brentano" title="Franz Brentano">Franz Brentano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C._D._Broad" title="C. D. Broad">C. D. Broad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tyler_Burge" title="Tyler Burge">Tyler Burge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Chalmers" title="David Chalmers">David Chalmers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patricia_Churchland" title="Patricia Churchland">Patricia Churchland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Churchland" title="Paul Churchland">Paul Churchland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andy_Clark" title="Andy Clark">Andy Clark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dharmakirti" title="Dharmakirti">Dharmakirti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_Davidson_(philosopher)" title="Donald Davidson (philosopher)">Donald Davidson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Dennett" title="Daniel Dennett">Daniel Dennett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fred_Dretske" title="Fred Dretske">Fred Dretske</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jerry_Fodor" title="Jerry Fodor">Fodor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alvin_Goldman" title="Alvin Goldman">Goldman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Heidegger" title="Martin Heidegger">Martin Heidegger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Husserl" title="Edmund Husserl">Edmund Husserl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_James" title="William James">William James</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frank_Cameron_Jackson" title="Frank Cameron Jackson">Frank Cameron Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Lewis_(philosopher)" title="David Lewis (philosopher)">David Lewis (philosopher)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurice_Merleau-Ponty" title="Maurice Merleau-Ponty">Maurice Merleau-Ponty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marvin_Minsky" title="Marvin Minsky">Marvin Minsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Nagel" title="Thomas Nagel">Thomas Nagel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alva_No%C3%AB" title="Alva Noë">Alva Noë</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Derek_Parfit" title="Derek Parfit">Derek Parfit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hilary_Putnam" title="Hilary Putnam">Hilary Putnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Rorty" title="Richard Rorty">Richard Rorty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_Ryle" title="Gilbert Ryle">Gilbert Ryle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Searle" title="John Searle">John Searle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilfrid_Sellars" title="Wilfrid Sellars">Wilfrid Sellars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Baruch Spinoza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alan_Turing" title="Alan Turing">Alan Turing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Tye_(philosopher)" title="Michael Tye (philosopher)">Michael Tye</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vasubandhu" title="Vasubandhu">Vasubandhu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Ludwig Wittgenstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Yablo" title="Stephen Yablo">Stephen Yablo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhuang_Zhou" title="Zhuang Zhou">Zhuangzi</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophers_of_mind" title="List of philosophers of mind">more...</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Theories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behaviorism" title="Behaviorism">Behaviorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_naturalism" title="Biological naturalism">Biological naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism" title="Mind–body dualism">Dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eliminative_materialism" title="Eliminative materialism">Eliminative materialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emergent_materialism" title="Emergent materialism">Emergent materialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epiphenomenalism" title="Epiphenomenalism">Epiphenomenalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functionalism_(philosophy_of_mind)" title="Functionalism (philosophy of mind)">Functionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interactionism_(philosophy_of_mind)" title="Interactionism (philosophy of mind)">Interactionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Na%C3%AFve_realism" title="Naïve realism">Naïve realism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neurophenomenology" title="Neurophenomenology">Neurophenomenology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutral_monism" title="Neutral monism">Neutral monism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_mysterianism" title="New mysterianism">New mysterianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nondualism" title="Nondualism">Nondualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occasionalism" title="Occasionalism">Occasionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychophysical_parallelism" title="Psychophysical parallelism">Parallelism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenalism" title="Phenomenalism">Phenomenalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physicalism" title="Physicalism">Physicalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Type_physicalism" title="Type physicalism">Type physicalism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Property_dualism" title="Property dualism">Property dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mental_representation" title="Mental representation">Representational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solipsism" title="Solipsism">Solipsism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Substance_dualism" class="mw-redirect" title="Substance dualism">Substance dualism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abstract_and_concrete" title="Abstract and concrete">Abstract object</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_room" title="Chinese room">Chinese room</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creativity" title="Creativity">Creativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognition" title="Cognition">Cognition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_closure_(philosophy)" title="Cognitive closure (philosophy)">Cognitive closure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concept" title="Concept">Concept</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consciousness" title="Consciousness">Consciousness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hard_problem_of_consciousness" title="Hard problem of consciousness">Hard problem of consciousness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypostatic_abstraction" title="Hypostatic abstraction">Hypostatic abstraction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idea" title="Idea">Idea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Identity_(philosophy)" title="Identity (philosophy)">Identity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intelligence" title="Intelligence">Intelligence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Artificial_intelligence" title="Artificial intelligence">Artificial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_intelligence" title="Human intelligence">Human</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intentionality" title="Intentionality">Intentionality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Introspection" title="Introspection">Introspection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intuition" title="Intuition">Intuition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_of_thought_hypothesis" title="Language of thought hypothesis">Language of thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mental_event" title="Mental event">Mental event</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mental_image" title="Mental image">Mental image</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Mental_processes" title="Template:Mental processes">Mental process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mental_state" title="Mental state">Mental property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mental_representation" title="Mental representation">Mental representation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind" title="Mind">Mind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind%E2%80%93body_problem" title="Mind–body problem">Mind–body problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pain_(philosophy)" title="Pain (philosophy)">Pain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_other_minds" title="Problem of other minds">Problem of other minds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propositional_attitude" title="Propositional attitude">Propositional attitude</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qualia" title="Qualia">Qualia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tabula_rasa" title="Tabula rasa">Tabula rasa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Understanding" title="Understanding">Understanding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_zombie" title="Philosophical zombie">Zombie</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_artificial_intelligence" title="Philosophy of artificial intelligence">Philosophy of artificial intelligence</a> / <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_information" title="Philosophy of information">information</a> / <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_perception" title="Philosophy of perception">perception</a> / <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_self" title="Philosophy of self">self</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophy_of_mind" title="Category:Philosophy of mind">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophers_of_mind" title="Category:Philosophers of mind">Philosophers category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Philosophy" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Philosophy">Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Philosophy/Mind" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Philosophy/Mind">Task Force</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Académie_française_seat_779" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Acad%C3%A9mie_fran%C3%A7aise_Seat_7" title="Template:Académie française Seat 7"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Acad%C3%A9mie_fran%C3%A7aise_Seat_7" title="Template talk:Académie française Seat 7"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Acad%C3%A9mie_fran%C3%A7aise_Seat_7" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Académie française Seat 7"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Académie_française_seat_779" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Acad%C3%A9mie_fran%C3%A7aise" class="mw-redirect" title="Académie française">Académie française</a> <a href="/wiki/List_of_members_of_the_Acad%C3%A9mie_fran%C3%A7aise" title="List of members of the Académie française">seat 7</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Jean_Chapelain" title="Jean Chapelain">Jean Chapelain</a> (1634)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Isaac_de_Benserade" title="Isaac de Benserade">Isaac de Benserade</a> (1674)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne_Pavillon" title="Étienne Pavillon">Étienne Pavillon</a> (1691)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Fabio_Brulart_de_Sillery" title="Fabio Brulart de Sillery">Fabio Brulart de Sillery</a> (1705)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Henri-Jacques_Nompar_de_Caumont,_duc_de_La_Force" class="mw-redirect" title="Henri-Jacques Nompar de Caumont, duc de La Force">Henri-Jacques Nompar de Caumont, duc de La Force</a> (1715)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_de_Mirabaud" title="Jean-Baptiste de Mirabaud">Jean-Baptiste de Mirabaud</a> (1726)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Claude-Henri_Watelet" title="Claude-Henri Watelet">Claude-Henri Watelet</a> (1760)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Michel-Jean_Sedaine" title="Michel-Jean Sedaine">Michel-Jean Sedaine</a> (1786)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Collin_d%27Harleville" title="Collin d'Harleville">Collin d'Harleville</a> (1803)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Pierre,_comte_Daru" class="mw-redirect" title="Pierre, comte Daru">Pierre, comte Daru</a> (1806)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Alphonse_de_Lamartine" title="Alphonse de Lamartine">Alphonse de Lamartine</a> (1829)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/%C3%89mile_Ollivier" title="Émile Ollivier">Émile Ollivier</a> (1870)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Henri Bergson</a> (1914)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/%C3%89douard_Le_Roy" title="Édouard Le Roy">Édouard Le Roy</a> (1945)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Daniel-Rops" class="mw-redirect" title="Daniel-Rops">Henri Petiot (Daniel-Rops)</a> (1955)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Pierre-Henri_Simon" title="Pierre-Henri Simon">Pierre-Henri Simon</a> (1966)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Roussin" title="André Roussin">André Roussin</a> (1973)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Jacqueline_de_Romilly" title="Jacqueline de Romilly">Jacqueline de Romilly</a> (1988)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Jules_A._Hoffmann" title="Jules A. Hoffmann">Jules A. Hoffmann</a> (2012)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239334494">@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output div:not(.notheme)>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output p>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output table:not(.notheme) .tmp-color{color:inherit!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output div:not(.notheme)>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output p>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output table:not(.notheme) .tmp-color{color:inherit!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Laureates_of_the_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature168" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="Template:Nobel Prize in Literature"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="Template talk:Nobel Prize in Literature"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Nobel Prize in Literature"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Laureates_of_the_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature168" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Nobel_laureates_in_Literature" title="List of Nobel laureates in Literature">Laureates</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="Nobel Prize in Literature">Nobel Prize in Literature</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1901–1920</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1901_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1901 Nobel Prize in Literature">1901</a>: <a href="/wiki/Sully_Prudhomme" title="Sully Prudhomme">Sully Prudhomme</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1902_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1902 Nobel Prize in Literature">1902</a>: <a href="/wiki/Theodor_Mommsen" title="Theodor Mommsen">Theodor Mommsen</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1903_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1903 Nobel Prize in Literature">1903</a>: <a href="/wiki/Bj%C3%B8rnstjerne_Bj%C3%B8rnson" title="Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson">Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1904_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1904 Nobel Prize in Literature">1904</a>: <a href="/wiki/Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Mistral" title="Frédéric Mistral">Frédéric Mistral</a> / <a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Echegaray" title="José Echegaray">José Echegaray</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1905_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1905 Nobel Prize in Literature">1905</a>: <a href="/wiki/Henryk_Sienkiewicz" title="Henryk Sienkiewicz">Henryk Sienkiewicz</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1906_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1906 Nobel Prize in Literature">1906</a>: <a href="/wiki/Giosu%C3%A8_Carducci" title="Giosuè Carducci">Giosuè Carducci</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1907_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1907 Nobel Prize in Literature">1907</a>: <a href="/wiki/Rudyard_Kipling" title="Rudyard Kipling">Rudyard Kipling</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1908_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1908 Nobel Prize in Literature">1908</a>: <a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Christoph_Eucken" title="Rudolf Christoph Eucken">Rudolf Eucken</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1909_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1909 Nobel Prize in Literature">1909</a>: <a href="/wiki/Selma_Lagerl%C3%B6f" title="Selma Lagerlöf">Selma Lagerlöf</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1910_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1910 Nobel Prize in Literature">1910</a>: <a href="/wiki/Paul_Heyse" title="Paul Heyse">Paul Heyse</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1911_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1911 Nobel Prize in Literature">1911</a>: <a href="/wiki/Maurice_Maeterlinck" title="Maurice Maeterlinck">Maurice Maeterlinck</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1912_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1912 Nobel Prize in Literature">1912</a>: <a href="/wiki/Gerhart_Hauptmann" title="Gerhart Hauptmann">Gerhart Hauptmann</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1913_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1913 Nobel Prize in Literature">1913</a>: <a href="/wiki/Rabindranath_Tagore" title="Rabindranath Tagore">Rabindranath Tagore</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:darkgrey"><a href="/wiki/1914_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1914 Nobel Prize in Literature">1914</a></span></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1915_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1915 Nobel Prize in Literature">1915</a>: <a href="/wiki/Romain_Rolland" title="Romain Rolland">Romain Rolland</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1916_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1916 Nobel Prize in Literature">1916</a>: <a href="/wiki/Verner_von_Heidenstam" title="Verner von Heidenstam">Verner von Heidenstam</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1917_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1917 Nobel Prize in Literature">1917</a>: <a href="/wiki/Karl_Adolph_Gjellerup" title="Karl Adolph Gjellerup">Karl Gjellerup</a> / <a href="/wiki/Henrik_Pontoppidan" title="Henrik Pontoppidan">Henrik Pontoppidan</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:darkgrey"><a href="/wiki/1918_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1918 Nobel Prize in Literature">1918</a></span></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1919_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1919 Nobel Prize in Literature">1919</a>: <a href="/wiki/Carl_Spitteler" title="Carl Spitteler">Carl Spitteler</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1920_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1920 Nobel Prize in Literature">1920</a>: <a href="/wiki/Knut_Hamsun" title="Knut Hamsun">Knut Hamsun</a></span></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="7" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/ed/Nobel_Prize.png/80px-Nobel_Prize.png" decoding="async" width="80" height="79" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/ed/Nobel_Prize.png/120px-Nobel_Prize.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/ed/Nobel_Prize.png/160px-Nobel_Prize.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="492" /></span></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1921–1940</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1921_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1921 Nobel Prize in Literature">1921</a>: <a href="/wiki/Anatole_France" title="Anatole France">Anatole France</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1922_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1922 Nobel Prize in Literature">1922</a>: <a href="/wiki/Jacinto_Benavente" title="Jacinto Benavente">Jacinto Benavente</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1923_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1923 Nobel Prize in Literature">1923</a>: <a href="/wiki/W._B._Yeats" title="W. B. Yeats">W. B. Yeats</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1923_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1923 Nobel Prize in Literature">1924</a>: <a href="/wiki/W%C5%82adys%C5%82aw_Reymont" title="Władysław Reymont">Władysław Reymont</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1925_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1925 Nobel Prize in Literature">1925</a>: <a href="/wiki/George_Bernard_Shaw" title="George Bernard Shaw">George Bernard Shaw</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1926_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1926 Nobel Prize in Literature">1926</a>: <a href="/wiki/Grazia_Deledda" title="Grazia Deledda">Grazia Deledda</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1927_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1927 Nobel Prize in Literature">1927</a>: <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Henri Bergson</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1928_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1928 Nobel Prize in Literature">1928</a>: <a href="/wiki/Sigrid_Undset" title="Sigrid Undset">Sigrid Undset</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1929_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1929 Nobel Prize in Literature">1929</a>: <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Mann" title="Thomas Mann">Thomas Mann</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1930_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1930 Nobel Prize in Literature">1930</a>: <a href="/wiki/Sinclair_Lewis" title="Sinclair Lewis">Sinclair Lewis</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1931_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1931 Nobel Prize in Literature">1931</a>: <a href="/wiki/Erik_Axel_Karlfeldt" title="Erik Axel Karlfeldt">Erik Axel Karlfeldt</a> (<i>posthumously</i>)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1932_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1932 Nobel Prize in Literature">1932</a>: <a href="/wiki/John_Galsworthy" title="John Galsworthy">John Galsworthy</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1933_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1933 Nobel Prize in Literature">1933</a>: <a href="/wiki/Ivan_Bunin" title="Ivan Bunin">Ivan Bunin</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1934_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1934 Nobel Prize in Literature">1934</a>: <a href="/wiki/Luigi_Pirandello" title="Luigi Pirandello">Luigi Pirandello</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:darkgrey"><a href="/wiki/1935_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1935 Nobel Prize in Literature">1935</a></span></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1936_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1936 Nobel Prize in Literature">1936</a>: <a href="/wiki/Eugene_O%27Neill" title="Eugene O'Neill">Eugene O'Neill</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1937_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1937 Nobel Prize in Literature">1937</a>: <a href="/wiki/Roger_Martin_du_Gard" title="Roger Martin du Gard">Roger Martin du Gard</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1938_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1938 Nobel Prize in Literature">1938</a>: <a href="/wiki/Pearl_S._Buck" title="Pearl S. Buck">Pearl S. Buck</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1939_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1939 Nobel Prize in Literature">1939</a>: <a href="/wiki/Frans_Eemil_Sillanp%C3%A4%C3%A4" title="Frans Eemil Sillanpää">Frans Eemil Sillanpää</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:darkgrey"><a href="/wiki/1940_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1940 Nobel Prize in Literature">1940</a></span></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1941–1960</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:darkgrey"><a href="/wiki/1941_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1941 Nobel Prize in Literature">1941</a></span></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:darkgrey"><a href="/wiki/1942_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1942 Nobel Prize in Literature">1942</a></span></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:darkgrey"><a href="/wiki/1943_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1943 Nobel Prize in Literature">1943</a></span></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1944_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1944 Nobel Prize in Literature">1944</a>: <a href="/wiki/Johannes_V._Jensen" title="Johannes V. Jensen">Johannes V. Jensen</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1945_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1945 Nobel Prize in Literature">1945</a>: <a href="/wiki/Gabriela_Mistral" title="Gabriela Mistral">Gabriela Mistral</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1946_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1946 Nobel Prize in Literature">1946</a>: <a href="/wiki/Hermann_Hesse" title="Hermann Hesse">Hermann Hesse</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1947_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1947 Nobel Prize in Literature">1947</a>: <a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Gide" title="André Gide">André Gide</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1948_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1948 Nobel Prize in Literature">1948</a>: <a href="/wiki/T._S._Eliot" title="T. S. Eliot">T. S. Eliot</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1949_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1949 Nobel Prize in Literature">1949</a>: <a href="/wiki/William_Faulkner" title="William Faulkner">William Faulkner</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1950_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1950 Nobel Prize in Literature">1950</a>: <a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1951_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1951 Nobel Prize in Literature">1951</a>: <a href="/wiki/P%C3%A4r_Lagerkvist" title="Pär Lagerkvist">Pär Lagerkvist</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1952_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1952 Nobel Prize in Literature">1952</a>: <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Mauriac" title="François Mauriac">François Mauriac</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1953_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1953 Nobel Prize in Literature">1953</a>: <a href="/wiki/Winston_Churchill" title="Winston Churchill">Winston Churchill</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1954_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1954 Nobel Prize in Literature">1954</a>: <a href="/wiki/Ernest_Hemingway" title="Ernest Hemingway">Ernest Hemingway</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1955_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1955 Nobel Prize in Literature">1955</a>: <a href="/wiki/Halld%C3%B3r_Laxness" title="Halldór Laxness">Halldór Laxness</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1956_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1956 Nobel Prize in Literature">1956</a>: <a href="/wiki/Juan_Ram%C3%B3n_Jim%C3%A9nez" title="Juan Ramón Jiménez">Juan Ramón Jiménez</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1957_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1957 Nobel Prize in Literature">1957</a>: <a href="/wiki/Albert_Camus" title="Albert Camus">Albert Camus</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1958_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1958 Nobel Prize in Literature">1958</a>: <a href="/wiki/Boris_Pasternak" title="Boris Pasternak">Boris Pasternak</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1959_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1959 Nobel Prize in Literature">1959</a>: <a href="/wiki/Salvatore_Quasimodo" title="Salvatore Quasimodo">Salvatore Quasimodo</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1960_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1960 Nobel Prize in Literature">1960</a>: <a href="/wiki/Saint-John_Perse" title="Saint-John Perse">Saint-John Perse</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1961–1980</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1961_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1961 Nobel Prize in Literature">1961</a>: <a href="/wiki/Ivo_Andri%C4%87" title="Ivo Andrić">Ivo Andrić</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1962_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1962 Nobel Prize in Literature">1962</a>: <a href="/wiki/John_Steinbeck" title="John Steinbeck">John Steinbeck</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1963_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1963 Nobel Prize in Literature">1963</a>: <a href="/wiki/Giorgos_Seferis" title="Giorgos Seferis">Giorgos Seferis</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1964_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1964 Nobel Prize in Literature">1964</a>: <a href="/wiki/Jean-Paul_Sartre" title="Jean-Paul Sartre">Jean-Paul Sartre</a> (declined award)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1965_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1965 Nobel Prize in Literature">1965</a>: <a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Sholokhov" title="Mikhail Sholokhov">Mikhail Sholokhov</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1966_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1966 Nobel Prize in Literature">1966</a>: <a href="/wiki/Shmuel_Yosef_Agnon" title="Shmuel Yosef Agnon">Shmuel Yosef Agnon</a> / <a href="/wiki/Nelly_Sachs" title="Nelly Sachs">Nelly Sachs</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1967_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1967 Nobel Prize in Literature">1967</a>: <a href="/wiki/Miguel_%C3%81ngel_Asturias" title="Miguel Ángel Asturias">Miguel Ángel Asturias</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1968_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1968 Nobel Prize in Literature">1968</a>: <a href="/wiki/Yasunari_Kawabata" title="Yasunari Kawabata">Yasunari Kawabata</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1969_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1969 Nobel Prize in Literature">1969</a>: <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Beckett" title="Samuel Beckett">Samuel Beckett</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1970_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1970 Nobel Prize in Literature">1970</a>: <a href="/wiki/Aleksandr_Solzhenitsyn" title="Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn">Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1971_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1971 Nobel Prize in Literature">1971</a>: <a href="/wiki/Pablo_Neruda" title="Pablo Neruda">Pablo Neruda</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1972_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1972 Nobel Prize in Literature">1972</a>: <a href="/wiki/Heinrich_B%C3%B6ll" title="Heinrich Böll">Heinrich Böll</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1973_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1973 Nobel Prize in Literature">1973</a>: <a href="/wiki/Patrick_White" title="Patrick White">Patrick White</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1974_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1974 Nobel Prize in Literature">1974</a>: <a href="/wiki/Eyvind_Johnson" title="Eyvind Johnson">Eyvind Johnson</a> / <a href="/wiki/Harry_Martinson" title="Harry Martinson">Harry Martinson</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1975_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1975 Nobel Prize in Literature">1975</a>: <a href="/wiki/Eugenio_Montale" title="Eugenio Montale">Eugenio Montale</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1976_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1976 Nobel Prize in Literature">1976</a>: <a href="/wiki/Saul_Bellow" title="Saul Bellow">Saul Bellow</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1977_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1977 Nobel Prize in Literature">1977</a>: <a href="/wiki/Vicente_Aleixandre" title="Vicente Aleixandre">Vicente Aleixandre</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1978_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1978 Nobel Prize in Literature">1978</a>: <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Bashevis_Singer" title="Isaac Bashevis Singer">Isaac Bashevis Singer</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1979_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1979 Nobel Prize in Literature">1979</a>: <a href="/wiki/Odysseas_Elytis" title="Odysseas Elytis">Odysseas Elytis</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1980_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1980 Nobel Prize in Literature">1980</a>: <a href="/wiki/Czes%C5%82aw_Mi%C5%82osz" title="Czesław Miłosz">Czesław Miłosz</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1981–2000</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1981_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1981 Nobel Prize in Literature">1981</a>: <a href="/wiki/Elias_Canetti" title="Elias Canetti">Elias Canetti</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1982_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1982 Nobel Prize in Literature">1982</a>: <a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Garc%C3%ADa_M%C3%A1rquez" title="Gabriel García Márquez">Gabriel García Márquez</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1983_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1983 Nobel Prize in Literature">1983</a>: <a href="/wiki/William_Golding" title="William Golding">William Golding</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1984_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1984 Nobel Prize in Literature">1984</a>: <a href="/wiki/Jaroslav_Seifert" title="Jaroslav Seifert">Jaroslav Seifert</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1985_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1985 Nobel Prize in Literature">1985</a>: <a href="/wiki/Claude_Simon" title="Claude Simon">Claude Simon</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1986_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1986 Nobel Prize in Literature">1986</a>: <a href="/wiki/Wole_Soyinka" title="Wole Soyinka">Wole Soyinka</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1987_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1987 Nobel Prize in Literature">1987</a>: <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Brodsky" title="Joseph Brodsky">Joseph Brodsky</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1988_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1988 Nobel Prize in Literature">1988</a>: <a href="/wiki/Naguib_Mahfouz" title="Naguib Mahfouz">Naguib Mahfouz</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1989_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1989 Nobel Prize in Literature">1989</a>: <a href="/wiki/Camilo_Jos%C3%A9_Cela" title="Camilo José Cela">Camilo José Cela</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1990_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1990 Nobel Prize in Literature">1990</a>: <a href="/wiki/Octavio_Paz" title="Octavio Paz">Octavio Paz</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1991_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1991 Nobel Prize in Literature">1991</a>: <a href="/wiki/Nadine_Gordimer" title="Nadine Gordimer">Nadine Gordimer</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1992_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1992 Nobel Prize in Literature">1992</a>: <a href="/wiki/Derek_Walcott" title="Derek Walcott">Derek Walcott</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1993_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1993 Nobel Prize in Literature">1993</a>: <a href="/wiki/Toni_Morrison" title="Toni Morrison">Toni Morrison</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1994_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1994 Nobel Prize in Literature">1994</a>: <a href="/wiki/Kenzabur%C5%8D_%C5%8Ce" title="Kenzaburō Ōe">Kenzaburō Ōe</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1995_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1995 Nobel Prize in Literature">1995</a>: <a href="/wiki/Seamus_Heaney" title="Seamus Heaney">Seamus Heaney</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1996_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1996 Nobel Prize in Literature">1996</a>: <a href="/wiki/Wis%C5%82awa_Szymborska" title="Wisława Szymborska">Wisława Szymborska</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1997_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1997 Nobel Prize in Literature">1997</a>: <a href="/wiki/Dario_Fo" title="Dario Fo">Dario Fo</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1998_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1998 Nobel Prize in Literature">1998</a>: <a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Saramago" title="José Saramago">José Saramago</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1999_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1999 Nobel Prize in Literature">1999</a>: <a href="/wiki/G%C3%BCnter_Grass" title="Günter Grass">Günter Grass</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/2000_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="2000 Nobel Prize in Literature">2000</a>: <a href="/wiki/Gao_Xingjian" title="Gao Xingjian">Gao Xingjian</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">2001–2020</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/2001_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="2001 Nobel Prize in Literature">2001</a>: <a href="/wiki/V._S._Naipaul" title="V. S. Naipaul">V. S. Naipaul</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/2002_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="2002 Nobel Prize in Literature">2002</a>: <a href="/wiki/Imre_Kert%C3%A9sz" title="Imre Kertész">Imre Kertész</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/2003_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="2003 Nobel Prize in Literature">2003</a>: <a href="/wiki/J._M._Coetzee" title="J. M. Coetzee">J. M. Coetzee</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/2004_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="2004 Nobel Prize in Literature">2004</a>: <a href="/wiki/Elfriede_Jelinek" title="Elfriede Jelinek">Elfriede Jelinek</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/2005_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="2005 Nobel Prize in Literature">2005</a>: <a href="/wiki/Harold_Pinter" title="Harold Pinter">Harold Pinter</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/2006_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="2006 Nobel Prize in Literature">2006</a>: <a href="/wiki/Orhan_Pamuk" title="Orhan Pamuk">Orhan Pamuk</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/2007_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="2007 Nobel Prize in Literature">2007</a>: <a href="/wiki/Doris_Lessing" title="Doris Lessing">Doris Lessing</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/2008_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="2008 Nobel Prize in Literature">2008</a>: <a href="/wiki/J._M._G._Le_Cl%C3%A9zio" title="J. M. G. Le Clézio">J. M. G. Le Clézio</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/2009_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="2009 Nobel Prize in Literature">2009</a>: <a href="/wiki/Herta_M%C3%BCller" title="Herta Müller">Herta Müller</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/2010_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="2010 Nobel Prize in Literature">2010</a>: <a href="/wiki/Mario_Vargas_Llosa" title="Mario Vargas Llosa">Mario Vargas Llosa</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/2011_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="2011 Nobel Prize in Literature">2011</a>: <a href="/wiki/Tomas_Transtr%C3%B6mer" title="Tomas Tranströmer">Tomas Tranströmer</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/2012_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="2012 Nobel Prize in Literature">2012</a>: <a href="/wiki/Mo_Yan" title="Mo Yan">Mo Yan</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/2013_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="2013 Nobel Prize in Literature">2013</a>: <a href="/wiki/Alice_Munro" title="Alice Munro">Alice Munro</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/2014_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="2014 Nobel Prize in Literature">2014</a>: <a href="/wiki/Patrick_Modiano" title="Patrick Modiano">Patrick Modiano</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/2015_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="2015 Nobel Prize in Literature">2015</a>: <a href="/wiki/Svetlana_Alexievich" title="Svetlana Alexievich">Svetlana Alexievich</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/2016_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="2016 Nobel Prize in Literature">2016</a>: <a href="/wiki/Bob_Dylan" title="Bob Dylan">Bob Dylan</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/2017_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="2017 Nobel Prize in Literature">2017</a>: <a href="/wiki/Kazuo_Ishiguro" title="Kazuo Ishiguro">Kazuo Ishiguro</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/2018_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="2018 Nobel Prize in Literature">2018</a>: <a href="/wiki/Olga_Tokarczuk" title="Olga Tokarczuk">Olga Tokarczuk</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/2019_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="2019 Nobel Prize in Literature">2019</a>: <a href="/wiki/Peter_Handke" title="Peter Handke">Peter Handke</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/2020_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="2020 Nobel Prize in Literature">2020</a>: <a href="/wiki/Louise_Gl%C3%BCck" title="Louise Glück">Louise Glück</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">2021–present</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/2021_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="2021 Nobel Prize in Literature">2021</a>: <a href="/wiki/Abdulrazak_Gurnah" title="Abdulrazak Gurnah">Abdulrazak Gurnah</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/2022_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="2022 Nobel Prize in Literature">2022</a>: <a href="/wiki/Annie_Ernaux" title="Annie Ernaux">Annie Ernaux</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/2023_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="2023 Nobel Prize in Literature">2023</a>: <a href="/wiki/Jon_Fosse" title="Jon Fosse">Jon Fosse</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/2024_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="2024 Nobel Prize in Literature">2024</a>: <a href="/wiki/Han_Kang" title="Han Kang">Han Kang</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/2025_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="2025 Nobel Prize in Literature">2025</a>: <i>to be determined</i></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="1927_Nobel_Prize_laureates913" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:1927_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1927 Nobel Prize winners"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:1927_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template talk:1927 Nobel Prize winners"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:1927_Nobel_Prize_winners" 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navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Henri Bergson</a> (France)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Peace_Prize" title="Nobel Peace Prize">Peace</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_Buisson" title="Ferdinand Buisson">Ferdinand Buisson</a> (France)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Quidde" title="Ludwig Quidde">Ludwig Quidde</a> (Germany)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physics" title="Nobel Prize in Physics">Physics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Compton" title="Arthur Compton">Arthur Compton</a> (United States)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Thomson_Rees_Wilson" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles Thomson Rees Wilson">Charles Thomson Rees Wilson</a> (Great Britain)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine">Physiology or Medicine</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Wagner-Jauregg" title="Julius Wagner-Jauregg">Julius Wagner-Jauregg</a> (Austria)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <dl><dt><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Nobel_laureates" title="List of Nobel laureates">Nobel Prize recipients</a></span></dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1922_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1922 Nobel Prize winners">1922</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1923_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1923 Nobel Prize winners">1923</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1924_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1924 Nobel Prize winners">1924</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1925_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1925 Nobel Prize winners">1925</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1926_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1926 Nobel Prize winners">1926</a></dd> <dd><b>1927 </b></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1928_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1928 Nobel Prize winners">1928</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1929_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1929 Nobel Prize winners">1929</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1930_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1930 Nobel Prize winners">1930</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1931_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1931 Nobel Prize winners">1931</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1932_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1932 Nobel Prize winners">1932</a></dd></dl> 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style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/118509578">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Bergson, Henri, 1859-1941"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/n78082114">United States</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11891433v">France</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11891433v">BnF data</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00433033">Japan</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Bergson, Henri"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://opac.sbn.it/nome/CFIV010416">Italy</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nla.gov.au/anbd.aut-an35017743">Australia</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=jn19990000717&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://aleph.rsl.ru/F?func=find-b&find_code=SYS&adjacent=Y&local_base=RSL11&request=000079454&CON_LNG=ENG">Russia</a></span><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://aleph.rsl.ru/F?func=find-b&find_code=SYS&adjacent=Y&local_base=RSL11&request=000033081&CON_LNG=ENG">2</a></span></li></ul></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://catalogo.bne.es/uhtbin/authoritybrowse.cgi?action=display&authority_id=XX840151">Spain</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.bnportugal.gov.pt/aut/catbnp/13056">Portugal</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://data.bibliotheken.nl/id/thes/p068832400">Netherlands</a></span><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://data.bibliotheken.nl/id/thes/p173690912">2</a></span></li></ul></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://authority.bibsys.no/authority/rest/authorities/html/90067130">Norway</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kopkatalogs.lv/F?func=direct&local_base=lnc10&doc_number=000001737&P_CON_LNG=ENG">Latvia</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://katalog.nsk.hr/F/?func=direct&doc_number=000015995&local_base=nsk10">Croatia</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bncatalogo.cl/F?func=direct&local_base=red10&doc_number=000036517">Chile</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.nlg.gr/cgi-bin/koha/opac-authoritiesdetail.pl?authid=158294">Greece</a></span><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.nlg.gr/cgi-bin/koha/opac-authoritiesdetail.pl?authid=78152">2</a></span></li></ul></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lod.nl.go.kr/resource/KAC199602305">Korea</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://libris.kb.se/nl022rv637ljtlm">Sweden</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dbn.bn.org.pl/descriptor-details/9810599618705606">Poland</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a class="external text" href="https://wikidata-externalid-url.toolforge.org/?p=8034&url_prefix=https://opac.vatlib.it/auth/detail/&id=495/22800">Vatican</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nli.org.il/en/authorities/987007258512805171">Israel</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cantic.bnc.cat/registre/981058519963406706">Catalonia</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://opac.kbr.be/LIBRARY/doc/AUTHORITY/14206955">Belgium</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Academics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ci.nii.ac.jp/author/DA00593092?l=en">CiNii</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://zbmath.org/authors/?q=ai:bergson.henri">zbMATH</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Artists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.getty.edu/vow/ULANFullDisplay?find=&role=&nation=&subjectid=500255390">ULAN</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://musicbrainz.org/artist/2fc88afe-15b0-4a02-837a-19a58de1b68d">MusicBrainz</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.performing-arts.eu/discovery/agent/gnd_118509578">FID</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://trove.nla.gov.au/people/142953">Trove</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.deutsche-biographie.de/118509578.html?language=en">Deutsche Biographie</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.deutsche-digitale-bibliothek.de/person/gnd/118509578">DDB</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.idref.fr/027421848">IdRef</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" 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