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class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">1639 transit of Venus</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. 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Click here for more information."><img alt="This is a good article. Click here for more information." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/19px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/29px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/39px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Earliest certainly recorded transit of Venus</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Horrocks_observing_the_1639_transit_of_Venus_by_Eyre_Crowe.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Horrocks_observing_the_1639_transit_of_Venus_by_Eyre_Crowe.jpg/220px-Horrocks_observing_the_1639_transit_of_Venus_by_Eyre_Crowe.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="166" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Horrocks_observing_the_1639_transit_of_Venus_by_Eyre_Crowe.jpg/330px-Horrocks_observing_the_1639_transit_of_Venus_by_Eyre_Crowe.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Horrocks_observing_the_1639_transit_of_Venus_by_Eyre_Crowe.jpg/440px-Horrocks_observing_the_1639_transit_of_Venus_by_Eyre_Crowe.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1416" data-file-height="1068" /></a><figcaption>Romanticised Victorian painting of Jeremiah Horrocks observing the 1639 transit of Venus (<i>The Founder of English Astronomy</i> by <a href="/wiki/Eyre_Crowe_(painter)" title="Eyre Crowe (painter)">Eyre Crowe</a>, 1891)</figcaption></figure> <p>The first known observations and recording of a <a href="/wiki/Transit_of_Venus" title="Transit of Venus">transit of Venus</a> were made in 1639 by the English <a href="/wiki/Astronomer" title="Astronomer">astronomers</a> <a href="/wiki/Jeremiah_Horrocks" title="Jeremiah Horrocks">Jeremiah Horrocks</a> and his friend and correspondent <a href="/wiki/William_Crabtree" title="William Crabtree">William Crabtree</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Kollerstrom_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kollerstrom-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The pair made their observations independently on 4 December that year (24 November under the <a href="/wiki/Julian_calendar" title="Julian calendar">Julian calendar</a> then used in England); Horrocks from <a href="/wiki/Carr_House_(Bretherton,_Lancashire,_England)" class="mw-redirect" title="Carr House (Bretherton, Lancashire, England)">Carr House</a>, then in the village of <a href="/wiki/Much_Hoole" title="Much Hoole">Much Hoole</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lancashire" title="Lancashire">Lancashire</a>, and Crabtree from his home in <a href="/wiki/Broughton,_Greater_Manchester" class="mw-redirect" title="Broughton, Greater Manchester">Broughton</a>, near <a href="/wiki/Manchester" title="Manchester">Manchester</a>. </p><p>The friends, followers of the new astronomy of <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Kepler" title="Johannes Kepler">Johannes Kepler</a>, were self-taught <a href="/wiki/Theoretical_astronomy#Tools_of_theoretical_astronomy" title="Theoretical astronomy">mathematical astronomers</a> who had worked methodically to correct and improve Kepler's <a href="/wiki/Rudolphine_tables" class="mw-redirect" title="Rudolphine tables">Rudolphine tables</a> by observation and measurement. In 1639, Horrocks was the only astronomer to realise that a transit of Venus was imminent; others became aware of it only after the event when Horrocks's report of it was circulated. Although the friends both died within five years of making their observations, their ground-breaking work was influential in establishing the size of the <a href="/wiki/Solar_System" title="Solar System">Solar System</a>; for this and their other achievements Horrocks and Crabtree, along with their correspondent <a href="/wiki/William_Gascoigne_(scientist)" title="William Gascoigne (scientist)">William Gascoigne</a>, are considered to be the founding fathers of British research astronomy. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Background">Background</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=1639_transit_of_Venus&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Background"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kepler%27s_1631_notice.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Kepler%27s_1631_notice.jpg/220px-Kepler%27s_1631_notice.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="330" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Kepler%27s_1631_notice.jpg/330px-Kepler%27s_1631_notice.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bd/Kepler%27s_1631_notice.jpg 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>Kepler's <i>De raris mirisque Anni 1631 Phaenomenis</i> notice to astronomers of the impending transits of Mercury and Venus, 1631</figcaption></figure> <p>By the 17th century, two developments allowed for the <a href="/wiki/Astronomical_transit" title="Astronomical transit">transits</a> of planets across the face of the Sun to be predicted and observed: the <a href="/wiki/Telescope" title="Telescope">telescope</a> and the new astronomy of <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Kepler" title="Johannes Kepler">Johannes Kepler</a>, which assumed elliptical, rather than circular, <a href="/wiki/Orbit" title="Orbit">planetary orbits</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Kollerstrom_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kollerstrom-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1627, Kepler published his <a href="/wiki/Rudolphine_Tables" title="Rudolphine Tables">Rudolphine Tables</a>. Two years later he published extracts from the tables in his pamphlet <i>De raris mirisque Anni 1631 Phaenomenis</i> which included an <i>admonitio ad astronomos</i> (warning to astronomers) concerning a <a href="/wiki/Transit_of_Mercury" title="Transit of Mercury">transit of Mercury</a> in 1631 and transits of Venus in 1631 and 1761. The Mercury transit occurred as predicted and was observed by <a href="/wiki/Johann_Baptist_Cysat" title="Johann Baptist Cysat">Johann Baptist Cysat</a> in <a href="/wiki/Innsbruck" title="Innsbruck">Innsbruck</a>, <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Remus_Quietanus" title="Johannes Remus Quietanus">Johannes Remus Quietanus</a> in <a href="/wiki/Rouffach" title="Rouffach">Rouffach</a><sup id="cite_ref-Utrecht_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Utrecht-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Gassendi" title="Pierre Gassendi">Pierre Gassendi</a> in <a href="/wiki/Paris" title="Paris">Paris</a>, vindicating the Keplerian approach.<sup id="cite_ref-Kollerstrom_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kollerstrom-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> But their observations threw into question previous theories about the Solar System, as Mercury was shown to be much smaller than expected.<sup id="cite_ref-Marston_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Marston-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Although Kepler's calculations indicated that the 1631 transit of Venus would best be visible from the American continent, he was not fully confident of his prediction, and advised that European astronomers should be prepared to observe the event.<sup id="cite_ref-Utrecht_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Utrecht-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Gassendi and others in Europe watched for it but, as predicted, the Sun was below the horizon during the transit.<sup id="cite_ref-MCS_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MCS-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Debarbat_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Debarbat-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to modern calculations, observers in much of Italy and along the eastern Mediterranean should have been able to view the last stage of the transit, but no such observations were recorded.<sup id="cite_ref-Utrecht_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Utrecht-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Kepler had predicted a near miss for a Venus transit in 1639<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and, as the next full transit was not expected for another 121 years, Gassendi and the other astronomers concentrated their efforts in other areas.<sup id="cite_ref-Debarbat_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Debarbat-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Jeremiah_Horrocks">Jeremiah Horrocks</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=1639_transit_of_Venus&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Jeremiah Horrocks"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Jeremiah_Horrocks" title="Jeremiah Horrocks">Jeremiah Horrocks</a></div> <p>Jeremiah Horrocks (1618 – 3 January 1641)<sup id="cite_ref-Marston_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Marston-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> was born in Lower Lodge, <a href="/wiki/Toxteth" title="Toxteth">Toxteth Park</a> – now part of <a href="/wiki/Liverpool" title="Liverpool">Liverpool</a> but at that time a separate town. His father James was a <a href="/wiki/Watchmaker" title="Watchmaker">watchmaker</a>, and his mother Mary Aspinwall was from a notable Toxteth Park family.<sup id="cite_ref-Aughton_2004_115_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Aughton_2004_115-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Several members of the Aspinwall family were also in the watchmaking trade, and it is said that a watchmaker uncle first interested Jeremiah in astronomy.<sup id="cite_ref-O'Connor_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-O'Connor-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Jeremiah joined <a href="/wiki/Emmanuel_College,_Cambridge" title="Emmanuel College, Cambridge">Emmanuel College</a> on 11 May 1632 and <a href="/wiki/Matriculation" title="Matriculation">matriculated</a> as a member of the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Cambridge" title="University of Cambridge">University of Cambridge</a> on 5 July 1632 as a <a href="/wiki/Sizar" title="Sizar">sizar</a>, which meant he did not have the means to fully support himself and was given specific duties to compensate for a reduction in fees.<sup id="cite_ref-MCS_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MCS-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At Cambridge, he would have studied <a href="/wiki/The_arts" title="The arts">the arts</a>, <a href="/wiki/Classical_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Classical languages">classical languages</a>, a little <a href="/wiki/Geometry" title="Geometry">geometry</a>, and some traditional astronomy, but not the latest work by Galileo, <a href="/wiki/Tycho_Brahe" title="Tycho Brahe">Tycho Brahe</a> and Kepler. He used his spare time to teach himself the more demanding mathematical astronomy and familiarise himself with the latest thinking.<sup id="cite_ref-Marston_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Marston-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Horrocks read most of the astronomical treatises of his day, identified their weaknesses, and was suggesting new lines of research by the age of 17. In 1635, he left Cambridge without formally <a href="/wiki/Graduation" title="Graduation">graduating</a>, presumably owing to the cost of the graduation ceremony.<sup id="cite_ref-O'Connor_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-O'Connor-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After leaving Cambridge, Horrocks returned to his home in Lancashire and began collecting books and instruments in order to pursue his main interest, the study of astronomy.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the summer of 1639, he left home and moved about 18 miles (29 km) along the coast to the village of <a href="/wiki/Much_Hoole" title="Much Hoole">Much Hoole</a>. This was probably to become <a href="/wiki/Tutor" class="mw-redirect" title="Tutor">tutor</a> to the children of the Stones family, prosperous <a href="/wiki/Haberdasher" title="Haberdasher">haberdashers</a> who lived at <a href="/wiki/Carr_House_(Bretherton,_Lancashire,_England)" class="mw-redirect" title="Carr House (Bretherton, Lancashire, England)">Carr House</a>, within the <a href="/wiki/Bank_Hall" title="Bank Hall">Bank Hall</a> Estate, Bretherton.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Horrocks was the first to demonstrate that the <a href="/wiki/Moon" title="Moon">Moon</a> moved in an elliptical path around the Earth.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He also wrote a treatise on Keplerian astronomy and began to explore mathematically the properties of the force that became known as <a href="/wiki/Gravity" title="Gravity">gravity</a>. Decades later, <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a> acknowledged Horrocks's work in relation to the Moon in Newton's <i><a href="/wiki/Philosophi%C3%A6_Naturalis_Principia_Mathematica" title="Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica">Principia</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="William_Crabtree">William Crabtree</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=1639_transit_of_Venus&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: William Crabtree"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/William_Crabtree" title="William Crabtree">William Crabtree</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ivy_Cottage,_Broughton,_Salford.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Ivy_Cottage%2C_Broughton%2C_Salford.jpg/220px-Ivy_Cottage%2C_Broughton%2C_Salford.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Ivy_Cottage%2C_Broughton%2C_Salford.jpg/330px-Ivy_Cottage%2C_Broughton%2C_Salford.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Ivy_Cottage%2C_Broughton%2C_Salford.jpg/440px-Ivy_Cottage%2C_Broughton%2C_Salford.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3872" data-file-height="2592" /></a><figcaption>Ivy Cottage, Broughton: the house from which William Crabtree is thought to have made his observation of the transit</figcaption></figure> <p>William Crabtree (1610–1644) was a cloth merchant from Broughton Spout, a hamlet in the <a href="/wiki/Township" title="Township">township</a> of Broughton near <a href="/wiki/Manchester" title="Manchester">Manchester</a>, which is now part of <a href="/wiki/City_of_Salford" title="City of Salford">Salford</a>. The son of John Crabtree, a Lancashire farmer of comfortable means, and Isabel Crabtree (née Pendleton), he was educated at a grammar school in Manchester – probably the forerunner of <a href="/wiki/Manchester_Grammar_School" title="Manchester Grammar School">Manchester Grammar School</a>, which was then situated between the <a href="/wiki/Manchester_Cathedral" title="Manchester Cathedral">Collegiate Church</a> and what is now <a href="/wiki/Chetham%27s_School_of_Music" title="Chetham's School of Music">Chetham's School of Music</a>. He worked in Manchester, married into a wealthy family and in his spare time studied <a href="/wiki/Mathematics" title="Mathematics">mathematics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Astronomy" title="Astronomy">astronomy</a>. He carefully measured the movements of the planets, undertook precise astronomical calculations and rewrote the existing <a href="/wiki/Rudolphine_Tables" title="Rudolphine Tables">Rudolphine Tables</a> with improved accuracy. He maintained an active correspondence, much of it now lost, with Horrocks, two other young astronomers – <a href="/wiki/William_Gascoigne_(scientist)" title="William Gascoigne (scientist)">William Gascoigne</a> and <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Towneley" title="Christopher Towneley">Christopher Towneley</a> – and <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Foster" title="Samuel Foster">Samuel Foster</a>, Professor of astronomy at <a href="/wiki/Gresham_College" title="Gresham College">Gresham College</a>, London and <a href="/wiki/Alumnus" class="mw-redirect" title="Alumnus">alumnus</a> of Emmanuel College.<sup id="cite_ref-encyclopaedia_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-encyclopaedia-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is not known whether Horrocks and Crabtree ever met in person but from 1636 they corresponded regularly, and, because of their shared interest in the work of Johannes Kepler, referred to themselves, along with William Gascoigne, as <i>nos Keplari</i> (we Keplarians).<sup id="cite_ref-Kollerstrom_2_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kollerstrom_2-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Crabtree's observations had convinced him that, despite their errors, Kepler's Rudolphine Tables were superior to the commonly used <a href="/wiki/Philip_Van_Lansberg" class="mw-redirect" title="Philip Van Lansberg">Lansberg's tables</a>, and he became one of the first converts to Kepler's new astronomy. By 1637, he had convinced Horrocks of the superiority of the Keplerian system, and, using their own planetary observations, both men made many corrections to Kepler's tables, which Crabtree converted to decimal form.<sup id="cite_ref-encyclopaedia_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-encyclopaedia-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Transit_of_Mercury">Transit of Mercury</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=1639_transit_of_Venus&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Transit of Mercury"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>On 29 September 1638, Horrocks wrote to Crabtree about a likely forthcoming transit of Mercury on 21 October 1638 (<a href="/wiki/Old_Style_and_New_Style_dates" title="Old Style and New Style dates">Old Style</a>) which Kepler had not predicted. He explained that he intended to construct what would later be called a <a href="/wiki/Helioscope" title="Helioscope">helioscope</a> by attaching his telescope to an "oblong stick, carrying a plane surface at right angles to itself on which to receive the Sun's image", and that he would draw a circle with numerical markings on a sheet of paper on which to project the image of the Sun. In the event, no such transit took place as Mercury passed over the Sun well outside the limit for a transit, but the exercise proved to be an important dry-run for the later observation of the transit of Venus.<sup id="cite_ref-Kollerstrom_1-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kollerstrom-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In October 1639, Horrocks had calculated that transits of Venus occur not singly, but in pairs eight years apart,<sup id="cite_ref-UCLAN_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-UCLAN-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and realised that the second transit would occur in less than four weeks. He was convinced that a measurement could be made of the apparent diameter of the planet to within a fraction of a <a href="/wiki/Minute_of_arc" class="mw-redirect" title="Minute of arc">second of arc</a> when it was seen as a dull black disk on the face of the Sun, compared to an accuracy of around one minute of arc when seen in its normal position as the bright morning star close to the Sun.<sup id="cite_ref-Aughton_2004_115_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Aughton_2004_115-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He wrote to his younger brother and to Crabtree in Broughton, advising them to observe the event on Sunday, 24 November (4 December New Style).<sup id="cite_ref-Marston_3-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Marston-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To quote Horrocks: "The more accurate calculations of Rudolphi very much confirmed my expectations; and I rejoiced exceedingly in the prospect of seeing Venus".<sup id="cite_ref-Kollerstrom_1-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kollerstrom-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Observation_of_the_transit">Observation of the transit</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=1639_transit_of_Venus&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Observation of the transit"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:BrownManchesterMuralCrabtree.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/BrownManchesterMuralCrabtree.jpg/220px-BrownManchesterMuralCrabtree.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="122" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/BrownManchesterMuralCrabtree.jpg/330px-BrownManchesterMuralCrabtree.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/BrownManchesterMuralCrabtree.jpg/440px-BrownManchesterMuralCrabtree.jpg 2x" data-file-width="992" data-file-height="551" /></a><figcaption><i>Crabtree watching the transit of Venus A.D. 1639</i> by <a href="/wiki/Ford_Madox_Brown" title="Ford Madox Brown">Ford Madox Brown</a> – one of the <a href="/wiki/Manchester_Murals" class="mw-redirect" title="Manchester Murals">Manchester Murals</a>. Crabtree is depicted as an old man although he was only 29 years old when he made the observation.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Horrocks_Venus_in_sole.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Horrocks_Venus_in_sole.jpg/220px-Horrocks_Venus_in_sole.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="187" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Horrocks_Venus_in_sole.jpg/330px-Horrocks_Venus_in_sole.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Horrocks_Venus_in_sole.jpg/440px-Horrocks_Venus_in_sole.jpg 2x" data-file-width="889" data-file-height="755" /></a><figcaption>An image of the solar disk Hevelius added to his report, based on Horrocks's description of his observation. The image does not, however, give a true representation of what Horrocks would have seen.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Horrocks was concerned that the weather would be unfavourable for the transit as he believed the rare planetary conjunction would produce severe weather: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The chance of a clouded atmosphere caused me much anxiety; for Jupiter and Mercury were in conjunction with the Sun almost at the same time as Venus. This remarkable assemblage of the planets (as if they were desirous of beholding, in common with ourselves, the wonders of the heavens, and of adding to the splendour of the scene), seemed to forebode great severity of weather. Mercury, whose conjunction with the Sun is invariably attended with storm and tempest, was especially to be feared. In this apprehension I coincide with the opinion of the astrologers, because it is confirmed by experience; but in other respects I cannot help despising their more puerile vanities.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Jeremiah Horrocks, <i>Venus in sole visa</i><sup id="cite_ref-MaunderMoore_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MaunderMoore-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></div></blockquote> <p>At around midday on 23 November Horrocks darkened his room and focused the rays of sunlight coming through the window onto the paper where the image could be observed safely. At his location in Much Hoole (the latitude of which he determined to be 53° 35'), he calculated that the transit should begin at about 3:00 P.M. on Sunday the 24th, but he began his observations the previous day fearing that he might miss the event if his calculations proved to be inaccurate.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On the Sunday he began observing at sunrise, the weather was cloudy, but he first saw the tiny black shadow of Venus crossing the Sun at about 3:15 P.M., and observed for half an hour until sunset at 3:53 P.M.<sup id="cite_ref-MaunderMoore_18-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MaunderMoore-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>When the time of the observation approached, I retired to my apartment, and having closed the windows against the light, I directed my telescope, previously adjusted to a focus, through the aperture towards the Sun and received his rays at right angles upon the paper ... I watched carefully on the 24th from sunrise to nine o'clock, and from a little before ten until noon, and at one in the afternoon, being called away in the intervals by business of the highest importance which, for these ornamental pursuits, I could not with propriety neglect ... About fifteen minutes past three in the afternoon, when I was again at liberty to continue my labours, the clouds, as if by divine interposition, were entirely dispersed ... I then beheld a most agreeable spectacle, the object of my sanguine wishes, a spot of unusual magnitude and of a perfectly circular shape, which had already fully entered upon the Sun's disk on the left ... Not doubting that this was really the shadow of the planet, I immediately applied myself sedulously to observe it ... although Venus continued on the disk for several hours, she was not visible to me longer than half-an-hour, on account of [the Sun] so quickly setting ... The inclination was the only point upon which I failed to attain the utmost precision; for, owing to the rapid motion of the Sun, it was difficult to observe with certainty to a single degree ... But all the rest is sufficiently accurate, and as exact as I could desire.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Jeremiah Horrocks, <i>Venus in sole visa'</i> <sup id="cite_ref-MaunderMoore_18-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MaunderMoore-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></div></blockquote> <p>Crabtree made his observations using a similar set-up but had insufficient time to make any measurements, as it was cloudy in Broughton, and thus he only saw the transit briefly. According to Horrocks: "Rapt in contemplation he stood for some time, scarcely trusting his own senses, through excess of joy ... In a little while, the clouds again obscured the face of the Sun, so that he could observe nothing more than that Venus was certainly on the disc at the time."<sup id="cite_ref-Marston_3-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Marston-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Afterwards, he made "so rapid a sketch" of Venus as it had passed across the Sun's disc, allowing Crabtree to estimate the angular size of Venus to be 1′ 3″, accurate to within 1 second of arc of its actual size; Horrocks's estimate of 1′ 12″ was less accurate.<sup id="cite_ref-Kollerstrom_1-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kollerstrom-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Results">Results</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=1639_transit_of_Venus&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Results"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Kepler had found that the distance between the planets increased in proportion to their distance from the Sun, and this led him to assume that the universe was created with a divine harmony, and that the size of the planets would increase in the same way. He had written in 1618, "Nothing is more in concord with nature than that the order of magnitude should be the same as the order of the spheres".<sup id="cite_ref-Hughes_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hughes-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When Horrocks's measurements of Venus, coupled with some erroneous measurements by Kepler and Gassendi, seemed to confirm this, Horrocks tentatively<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> proposed a law which stated that all planets (with the exception of Mars) would be the same angular size when viewed from the Sun, this being 28 arc seconds. This meant that the assumption Kepler had made about the sizes of the planets held true, and led Horrocks to the false conclusion that the distance between each planet and the Sun was about 15,000 times its radius. Thus he estimated the average distance from the Earth to the Sun to be approximately 60 million miles (97 million km), suggesting that the Solar System was ten times larger than traditionally believed.<sup id="cite_ref-Kollerstrom_2_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kollerstrom_2-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Hughes_22-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hughes-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His figure was much lower than the 93 million miles (150 million km) that the <a href="/wiki/Astronomical_Unit" class="mw-redirect" title="Astronomical Unit">Astronomical Unit</a> is known to be today, but, despite being based on a false premise, was more accurate than any suggested up to that time. </p><p>By 1640, the Yorkshire astronomer, <a href="/wiki/William_Gascoigne_(scientist)" title="William Gascoigne (scientist)">William Gascoigne</a>, had developed a <a href="/wiki/Reticle" title="Reticle">reticle</a> and a <a href="/wiki/Micrometer_(device)" title="Micrometer (device)">micrometer</a> for his telescope, both of which would have been invaluable to Horrocks. Gascoigne showed them to Crabtree, who told Horrocks about them, and reported back to Gascoigne saying: "My friend Mr Horrox professeth, that little Touch I gave him, hath ravished his mind quite from itself, and left him in an Exstasie between Admiration and Amazement. I beseech you, Sir, slack not your Intentions for the Perfection of your begun Wonders."<sup id="cite_ref-Chapman_IAU_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chapman_IAU-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Horrocks produced several drafts of a Latin treatise <i>Venus in sole visa</i> (Venus seen on the Sun) based on his observations, which he presumably intended to publish, but he died suddenly from unknown causes on 3 January 1641, aged 22.<sup id="cite_ref-Marston_3-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Marston-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Legacy">Legacy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=1639_transit_of_Venus&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Legacy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Horrocks_window_Much_Hoole_Church.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Horrocks_window_Much_Hoole_Church.jpg/220px-Horrocks_window_Much_Hoole_Church.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Horrocks_window_Much_Hoole_Church.jpg/330px-Horrocks_window_Much_Hoole_Church.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Horrocks_window_Much_Hoole_Church.jpg/440px-Horrocks_window_Much_Hoole_Church.jpg 2x" data-file-width="540" data-file-height="720" /></a><figcaption>Memorial to Jeremiah Horrocks in St Michael's Church, Hoole. The Latin is taken from Horrocks's report of the 1639 transit and reads "Ecce gratissimum spectaculum et tot votorum materiem": "oh, most grateful spectacle, the realization of so many ardent desires".<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Some of the drafts of <i>Venus in Sole Visa</i> were kept by Crabtree, who died in 1644, three years after Horrocks. Their other correspondent, William Gascoigne, died the same year in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Marston_Moor" title="Battle of Marston Moor">Battle of Marston Moor</a>. Horrocks's papers remained with his family for a short time; some were destroyed during the <a href="/wiki/English_Civil_War" title="English Civil War">English Civil War</a>, some were taken to Ireland by a brother, Jonas, and never seen again, and others passed into the collection of <a href="/wiki/Antiquarian" title="Antiquarian">antiquarian</a> and astronomer, Christopher Towneley, where they were consulted by Jeremy Shakerley, who wrote three books on astronomy in the mid-17th century.<sup id="cite_ref-Marston_3-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Marston-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Others were destroyed in the <a href="/wiki/Great_Fire_of_London" title="Great Fire of London">Great Fire of London</a> in 1666. The manuscripts were widely circulated from the late 1650s although they remained unpublished for many years.<sup id="cite_ref-O'Connor_8-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-O'Connor-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The coronation of King Charles II took place on 23 April 1661 (3 May, New Style), the day of a Mercury transit across the Sun. Dutch astronomer <a href="/wiki/Christiaan_Huygens" title="Christiaan Huygens">Christiaan Huygens</a> attended the coronation, during which he heard about the Horrocks's manuscript, found in 1659 by <a href="/wiki/John_Worthington_(academic)" title="John Worthington (academic)">John Worthington</a> (Master of <a href="/wiki/Jesus_College,_Cambridge" title="Jesus College, Cambridge">Jesus College, Cambridge</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alumnus" class="mw-redirect" title="Alumnus">alumnus</a> of Emmanuel College, where he was a contemporary of Horrocks),<sup id="cite_ref-Marston_3-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Marston-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> together with some fragments of correspondence with Crabtree.<sup id="cite_ref-Kollerstrom_1-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kollerstrom-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Van_Roode_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Van_Roode-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Huygens knew the eminent Polish astronomer <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Hevelius" title="Johannes Hevelius">Johannes Hevelius</a>, and gave him the manuscript copy; Hevelius appended the manuscript to his report on the Mercury transit, <i>Mercurius in sole visus Gedani</i>, published in 1662.<sup id="cite_ref-Kollerstrom_1-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kollerstrom-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The publication of <i>Venus in Sole Visa</i> by Hevelius caused great consternation at the newly founded <a href="/wiki/Royal_Society" title="Royal Society">Royal Society</a> when it was realised that such an elegant and important paper by an Englishman had been neglected in his own country for so long. The mathematician <a href="/wiki/John_Wallis" title="John Wallis">John Wallis</a>, who was a friend of Horrocks at Emmanuel College, and a founder member and leading light of the society, summed up the view of its members when he wrote: </p> <blockquote> <p>I cannot help being displeased, that this valuable observation, purchasable with no money, elegantly described and prepared for the press, should have laid for two-and-twenty years, and that no-one should have been found to take charge of so fair an offspring at its father's death, to bring to light a treatise of such importance to astronomy and to preserve a work for our country's credit and for the advantage of mankind.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> </blockquote> <p>The Royal Society assumed responsibility for publication of most of the remainder of Horrocks's work as <i>Jeremiae Horroccii Opera Posthuma</i> in 1672–73.<sup id="cite_ref-O'Connor_8-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-O'Connor-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The recording of the transit is seen by many as the birth of modern astronomy in Britain.<sup id="cite_ref-Chapman_IAU_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chapman_IAU-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Flamsteed" class="mw-redirect" title="Flamsteed">John Flamsteed</a> later said he regarded Horrocks, Crabtree and Gascoigne as the founding fathers of British research astronomy and the intellectual heirs to <a href="/wiki/Galileo" class="mw-redirect" title="Galileo">Galileo</a> and Kepler.<sup id="cite_ref-Chapman_IAU_24-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chapman_IAU-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and began his three folio volume, <i>Historia Coelestis Britannica</i> (1745) by printing five pages of their letters and observations made between 1638 and 1643.<sup id="cite_ref-Chapman_IAU_24-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chapman_IAU-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Commemorations">Commemorations</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=1639_transit_of_Venus&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Commemorations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Priory_Grove.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Priory_Grove.JPG/220px-Priory_Grove.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="85" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Priory_Grove.JPG/330px-Priory_Grove.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Priory_Grove.JPG/440px-Priory_Grove.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2981" data-file-height="1146" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Broughton,_transit_of_Venus.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Broughton%2C_transit_of_Venus.jpg/220px-Broughton%2C_transit_of_Venus.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Broughton%2C_transit_of_Venus.jpg/330px-Broughton%2C_transit_of_Venus.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Broughton%2C_transit_of_Venus.jpg/440px-Broughton%2C_transit_of_Venus.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3456" data-file-height="2592" /></a><figcaption>Plaque commemorating Crabtree's observation near his home in Broughton</figcaption></figure> <p>During the 19th century there was a revival of interest in Horrocks's and Crabtree's achievement. Rev. A. B. Whatton, who translated <i>Venus in sole visa</i> from Latin, assumed that Horrocks's comment about "business of the highest importance which, for these ornamental pursuits, I could not with propriety neglect" must have referred to the duties of a curate, although it seems more probable they were his duties as tutor at the house, or perhaps his "business" was merely to attend the church.<sup id="cite_ref-Marston_3-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Marston-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The notion of the impoverished curate gained popular traction and in 1874, after much lobbying, a memorial was mounted in Westminster Abbey opposite to that of Newton which reads: </p> <blockquote> <p>In memory of Jeremiah Horrocks, Curate of Hoole in Lancashire who died on 3rd of Jan, 1641 in or near his 22nd year. </p><p>Having in so short a life detected the long inequality in the mean motion of Jupiter and Saturn discovered the orbit of the moon to be an ellipse determined the motion of the lunar apse suggested the physical cause of its revolution and of Venus which was seen by himself and his friend William Crabtree on Sunday the 24th of November (O.S.) 1639. This tablet facing the monument of Newton was raised after the lapse of more than two centuries. Dec. 9, 1874.<sup id="cite_ref-Marston_3-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Marston-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> </blockquote> <p>The Rev. Robert Brickel, Rector of St. Michael's Church, Hoole from 1848 to 1881, raised money by public subscription in Lancashire, <a href="/wiki/Oxford" title="Oxford">Oxford</a> and Cambridge to fund the creation of a new <a href="/wiki/Chancel" title="Chancel">chancel</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sanctuary#Religious_sanctuary" title="Sanctuary">sanctuary</a> to the church to be named "The Horrocks Chapel". The chancel was completed by 1824, and the sanctuary by 1858. The vestry was extended in 1998–1999, and the first window in the north wall, originally installed in 1872, has stained glass roundels commemorating the transits of Venus of 1874 and 2004. There is also a marble tablet commemorating Horrocks. The church clock, contributed by the parishioners as their commemoration of Horrocks, was installed in 1859; the sundial, installed in 1875, has a quotation from Horrocks ("Sine Sole Sileo") that translates as "Without the sun I am silent".<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1903 the artist <a href="/wiki/Ford_Madox_Brown" title="Ford Madox Brown">Ford Madox Brown</a> was commissioned to produce the murals known as <i><a href="/wiki/The_Manchester_Murals" title="The Manchester Murals">The Manchester Murals</a></i> for <a href="/wiki/Manchester_Town_Hall" title="Manchester Town Hall">Manchester Town Hall</a>. The painting entitled <i>Crabtree watching the transit of Venus AD 1639</i> is a romanticised depiction of Crabtree's observation of the event.<sup id="cite_ref-Chapman_IAU_24-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chapman_IAU-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1224211176">.mw-parser-output .quotebox{background-color:#F9F9F9;border:1px solid #aaa;box-sizing:border-box;padding:10px;font-size:88%;max-width:100%}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft{margin:.5em 1.4em .8em 0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright{margin:.5em 0 .8em 1.4em}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.centered{overflow:hidden;position:relative;margin:.5em auto .8em auto}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft span,.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright span{font-style:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox>blockquote{margin:0;padding:0;border-left:0;font-family:inherit;font-size:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-title{text-align:center;font-size:110%;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote>:first-child{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote:last-child>:last-child{margin-bottom:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:before{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" “ ";vertical-align:-45%;line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:after{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" ” ";line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .left-aligned{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .right-aligned{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .center-aligned{text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quote-title,.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quotebox-quote{display:block}.mw-parser-output .quotebox cite{display:block;font-style:normal}@media screen and (max-width:640px){.mw-parser-output .quotebox{width:100%!important;margin:0 0 .8em!important;float:none!important}}</style><div class="quotebox pullquote floatright" style="width:20em; ; color: #202122;background-color: #FFFFF0;"> <blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style=""> <p>Thy return posterity shall witness; years must roll away, but then at length the splendid sight again shall greet our distant children's eyes. <small>Jeremiah Horrocks</small> </p> </blockquote> </div> <p>On 9 June 2004, the day after <a href="/wiki/2004_transit_of_Venus" title="2004 transit of Venus">the first of a 21st-century pair of Venus transits</a> occurred as predicted by Horrocks, a commemorative street nameplate in memory of William Crabtree was unveiled at the junction of Lower Broughton Road and Priory Grove, which marks the northern boundary of Crabtree Croft.<sup id="cite_ref-Salford_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Salford-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In December 2005, a commemorative plaque was unveiled a few yards away near Ivy Cottage on Lower Broughton Road, which is thought to have been the home of Crabtree and his family at the time he was collaborating with Horrocks.<sup id="cite_ref-Salford_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Salford-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The second transit of the pair occurred on 5 and 6 June 2012, and was marked by a celebration held in the church at Much Hoole, which was streamed live worldwide on the <a href="/wiki/NASA" title="NASA">NASA</a> website.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A celebration was also held at Crabtree's former home in Broughton when NASA broadcast a re-creation of the observation at Ivy Cottage, inspired by the Ford Madox Brown mural, to millions of viewers, and projected a live video stream of the transit from Hawaii onto the side of the house.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=1639_transit_of_Venus&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">This is the account given by most sources, but Kollerstrom (2004) says that the Rudolphine tables <i>did</i> predict the 1639 Venus transit, but that Kepler had only noticed the 1631 transit while preparing the <a href="/wiki/Ephemeris" title="Ephemeris">ephemeris</a> for that year and had not realised that the tables predicted a second transit for 1639.<sup id="cite_ref-Kollerstrom_1-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kollerstrom-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> According to Van Roode (2012), Horrocks actually wrote "ad sinistram" (to the left) rather than "ad dextram", as does a letter from Nicolaus Mercator to Samuel Hartlib, quoting directly from Horrocks's own writing. Hevelius thought Horrocks was in error and changed it to "ad dextram". John Wallis also added the note "lege dextram" (read right) after "sinistram" in his <i>Opera Posthuma</i> of Horrocks. Van Roode assumes from this that both Hevelius and Wallis must have been confused about the orientation of the projected image from a Galileian telescope – which is inverted top to bottom, but not left to right. Also. the three disks of Venus are evenly spaced whereas the observations were made at intervals of 20 and 10 minutes.<sup id="cite_ref-Van_Roode_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Van_Roode-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In A.B. Whatton's translation of <i>Venus in sole Visa</i> Horrocks writes: "I found that the shadow of Venus at the aforesaid hour, namely fifteen minutes past three, had entered the Sun's disk about 620 30', certainly between 600 and 650, from the top towards the right. This was the appearance in the dark apartment; therefore out of doors beneath the open sky, according to the laws of optics, the contrary would be the case, and Venus would be below the centre of the Sun, distant 620 30' from the lower limb, or the nadir, as the Arabians term it."<sup id="cite_ref-MaunderMoore_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MaunderMoore-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For the full text of Horrocks's account of the observation see <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.venus-transit.de/1639/horrox.htm">Jeremiah Horrox: Venus in sole visa</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Horrocks wrote in <i>Venus in sole visa</i> "I do not put forward this conjecture as a certain demonstration, but as a probability".<sup id="cite_ref-Hughes_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hughes-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=1639_transit_of_Venus&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Notes_2">Notes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=1639_transit_of_Venus&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Kollerstrom-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kollerstrom_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kollerstrom_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kollerstrom_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kollerstrom_1-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kollerstrom_1-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kollerstrom_1-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kollerstrom_1-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kollerstrom_1-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kollerstrom_1-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFKollerstrom2004" class="citation web cs1">Kollerstrom, Nicholas (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dioi.org/kn/IAUVenus-Transit.pdf">"William Crabtree's Venus transit observation"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Proceedings IAU Colloquium No. 196, 2004</i>. International Astronomical Union<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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University of Central Lancashire. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.transit-of-venus.org.uk/conference/history.html">the original</a> on 15 January 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 May</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Extracted+from+course+notes+for+Great+Astronomers+in+History&rft.atitle=History+of+Jeremiah+Horrocks&rft.aulast=Marston&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.transit-of-venus.org.uk%2Fconference%2Fhistory.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3A1639+transit+of+Venus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-MCS-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-MCS_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-MCS_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFO'ConnorRobertson2004" class="citation web cs1">O'Connor, J. J.; Robertson, E. F. (June 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www-history.mcs.st-and.ac.uk/Printonly/Horrocks.html">"Jeremiah Horrocks"</a>. <i>MacTutor History of Mathematics</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 May</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=MacTutor+History+of+Mathematics&rft.atitle=Jeremiah+Horrocks&rft.date=2004-06&rft.aulast=O%27Connor&rft.aufirst=J.+J.&rft.au=Robertson%2C+E.+F.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww-history.mcs.st-and.ac.uk%2FPrintonly%2FHorrocks.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3A1639+transit+of+Venus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Debarbat-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Debarbat_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Debarbat_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDebarbat2005" class="citation conference cs1">Debarbat, Suzanne (30 June 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=69mfe9i5-soC&q=%22Venus+Transits+-+A+French+View%22">"Venus transits – A French View"</a>. <i>Transits of Venus: New Views of the Solar System and Galaxy</i>. Proceedings of the 196th International Astronomical Union Symposia and Colloquia. Cambridge University Press. pp. 41–42. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521849074" title="Special:BookSources/9780521849074"><bdi>9780521849074</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1743-9221">1743-9221</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=conference&rft.atitle=Venus+transits+%E2%80%93+A+French+View&rft.btitle=Transits+of+Venus%3A+New+Views+of+the+Solar+System+and+Galaxy&rft.pages=41-42&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2005-06-30&rft.issn=1743-9221&rft.isbn=9780521849074&rft.aulast=Debarbat&rft.aufirst=Suzanne&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D69mfe9i5-soC%26q%3D%2522Venus%2BTransits%2B-%2BA%2BFrench%2BView%2522&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3A1639+transit+of+Venus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Aughton_2004_115-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Aughton_2004_115_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Aughton_2004_115_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAughton2004">Aughton 2004</a>, p. 115</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-O'Connor-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-O'Connor_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-O'Connor_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-O'Connor_8-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-O'Connor_8-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFO'ConnorRobertson2004" class="citation web cs1">O'Connor, J. J.; Robertson, E. F. (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Horrocks.html">"Jeremiah Horrocks"</a>. <i>Biographies</i>. University of St Andrews<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 May</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Biographies&rft.atitle=Jeremiah+Horrocks&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=O%27Connor&rft.aufirst=J.+J.&rft.au=Robertson%2C+E.+F.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk%2FBiographies%2FHorrocks.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3A1639+transit+of+Venus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFACADHRS632J" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://venn.lib.cam.ac.uk/cgi-bin/search-2018.pl?sur=&suro=w&fir=&firo=c&cit=&cito=c&c=all&z=all&tex=HRS632J&sye=&eye=&col=all&maxcount=50">"Horrox, Jeremiah (HRS632J)"</a>. <i>A Cambridge Alumni Database</i>. 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.transit-of-venus.org.uk/history.htm">the original</a> on 30 July 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 May</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=History&rft.atitle=Transit+of+Venus&rft.au=Anonymous&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.transit-of-venus.org.uk%2Fhistory.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3A1639+transit+of+Venus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Van_Roode-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Van_Roode_17-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Van_Roode_17-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVan_Roode2012" class="citation web cs1">Van Roode, Steven (25 January 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120606002057/http://transitofvenus.nl/wp/2012/01/25/what-did-horrocks-really-see/">"What did Horrocks really see?"</a>. <i>The Transit of Venus Project</i>. astonomerswithoutborders.org. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 May</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Transit+of+Venus+Project&rft.atitle=What+did+Horrocks+really+see%3F&rft.date=2012-01-25&rft.aulast=Van+Roode&rft.aufirst=Steven&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ftransitofvenus.nl%2Fwp%2F2012%2F01%2F25%2Fwhat-did-horrocks-really-see%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3A1639+transit+of+Venus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-MaunderMoore-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-MaunderMoore_18-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-MaunderMoore_18-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-MaunderMoore_18-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-MaunderMoore_18-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMaunderMoore2000" class="citation book cs1">Maunder, M.; Moore, P. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 June</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Manchester+Evening+News&rft.atitle=Salford+marks+Transit+of+Venus+from+home+of+man+who+first+saw+it+in+1639+%E2%80%93+video&rft.date=2012-06-06&rft.aulast=Osuh&rft.aufirst=Chris&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmenmedia.co.uk%2Fmanchestereveningnews%2Fnews%2Fs%2F1580747_salford-marks-transit-of-venus-from-home-of-man-who-first-saw-it-in-1639---video&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3A1639+transit+of+Venus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=1639_transit_of_Venus&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAughton2004" class="citation book cs1">Aughton, Peter (2004). <i>The transit of Venus: the brief, brilliant life of Jeremiah Horrocks, father of British astronomy</i>. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-297-84721-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-297-84721-X"><bdi>0-297-84721-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+transit+of+Venus%3A+the+brief%2C+brilliant+life+of+Jeremiah+Horrocks%2C+father+of+British+astronomy&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Weidenfeld+%26+Nicolson&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=0-297-84721-X&rft.aulast=Aughton&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3A1639+transit+of+Venus" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <p><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></span> Media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:1639_Transit_of_Venus" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:1639 Transit of Venus">1639 Transit of Venus</a> at Wikimedia Commons </p> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl 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.mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Venus" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Venus" title="Template:Venus"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Venus" title="Template talk:Venus"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Venus" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Venus"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Venus" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Venus" title="Venus">Venus</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Venus" title="Outline of Venus">Outline of Venus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Geography</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arachnoid_(astrogeology)" title="Arachnoid (astrogeology)">Arachnoid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atmosphere_of_Venus" title="Atmosphere of Venus">Atmosphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_extraterrestrial_dune_fields" title="List of extraterrestrial dune fields">Dune fields</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_geological_features_on_Venus" title="List of geological features on Venus">Features</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mapping_of_Venus" title="Mapping of Venus">Mapping of Venus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Regions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Regio</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alpha_Regio" title="Alpha Regio">Alpha Regio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asteria_Regio" title="Asteria Regio">Asteria Regio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beta_Regio" title="Beta Regio">Beta Regio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ovda_Regio" title="Ovda Regio">Ovda Regio</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_terrae_on_Venus" title="List of terrae on Venus">Terrae</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aphrodite_Terra" title="Aphrodite Terra">Aphrodite Terra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ishtar_Terra" title="Ishtar Terra">Ishtar Terra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lada_Terra" title="Lada Terra">Lada Terra</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_montes_on_Venus" title="List of montes on Venus">Mountains</a><br />and<br /><a href="/wiki/Volcanism_on_Venus" title="Volcanism on Venus">volcanoes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abeona_Mons" title="Abeona Mons">Abeona Mons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akna_Montes" title="Akna Montes">Akna Montes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anala_Mons" title="Anala Mons">Anala Mons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artemis_Corona" title="Artemis Corona">Artemis Corona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ba%CA%BDhet_Corona" title="Baʽhet Corona">Baʽhet Corona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boala_Corona" class="mw-redirect" title="Boala Corona">Boala Corona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ciuacoatl_Mons" title="Ciuacoatl Mons">Ciuacoatl Mons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fand_Mons" class="mw-redirect" title="Fand Mons">Fand Mons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fotla_Corona" class="mw-redirect" title="Fotla Corona">Fotla Corona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gula_Mons" title="Gula Mons">Gula Mons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heng-o_Corona" title="Heng-o Corona">Heng-o Corona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iaso_Tholus" title="Iaso Tholus">Iaso Tholus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idunn_Mons" title="Idunn Mons">Idunn Mons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irnini_Mons" title="Irnini Mons">Irnini Mons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jaszai_Patera" title="Jaszai Patera">Jaszai Patera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maat_Mons" title="Maat Mons">Maat Mons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maxwell_Montes" title="Maxwell Montes">Maxwell Montes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nightingale_Corona" title="Nightingale Corona">Nightingale Corona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Onatah_Corona" title="Onatah Corona">Onatah Corona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ozza_Mons" title="Ozza Mons">Ozza Mons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pavlova_Corona" title="Pavlova Corona">Pavlova Corona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quetzalpetlatl_Corona" title="Quetzalpetlatl Corona">Quetzalpetlatl Corona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pancake_dome" title="Pancake dome">Pancake dome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renpet_Mons" title="Renpet Mons">Renpet Mons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacajawea_Patera" title="Sacajawea Patera">Sacajawea Patera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sachs_Patera" title="Sachs Patera">Sachs Patera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sapas_Mons" title="Sapas Mons">Sapas Mons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scalloped_margin_dome" title="Scalloped margin dome">Scalloped margin dome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siddons_Patera" class="mw-redirect" title="Siddons Patera">Siddons Patera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sif_Mons" title="Sif Mons">Sif Mons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skadi_Mons" title="Skadi Mons">Skadi Mons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theia_Mons" title="Theia Mons">Theia Mons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ushas_Mons" title="Ushas Mons">Ushas Mons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zisa_Corona" title="Zisa Corona">Zisa Corona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_coronae_on_Venus" title="List of coronae on Venus">List of coronae on Venus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_geological_features_on_Venus" title="List of geological features on Venus">Plains</a> and<br /> <a href="/wiki/List_of_geological_features_on_Venus" title="List of geological features on Venus">plateaus</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Guinevere_Planitia" title="Guinevere Planitia">Guinevere Planitia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lakshmi_Planum" title="Lakshmi Planum">Lakshmi Planum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sedna_Planitia" title="Sedna Planitia">Sedna Planitia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_geological_features_on_Venus" title="List of geological features on Venus">Canyons</a> and<br /> <a href="/wiki/List_of_geological_features_on_Venus" title="List of geological features on Venus">valleys</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aikhulu_Chasma" class="mw-redirect" title="Aikhulu Chasma">Aikhulu Chasma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artemis_Chasma" title="Artemis Chasma">Artemis Chasma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baltis_Vallis" title="Baltis Vallis">Baltis Vallis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dali_Chasma" title="Dali Chasma">Dali Chasma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Devana_Chasma" title="Devana Chasma">Devana Chasma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diana_Chasma" class="mw-redirect" title="Diana Chasma">Diana Chasma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ganis_Chasma" title="Ganis Chasma">Ganis Chasma</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_craters_on_Venus" title="List of craters on Venus">Craters</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Addams_(crater)" title="Addams (crater)">Addams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adivar_(crater)" title="Adivar (crater)">Adivar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agnesi_(crater)" title="Agnesi (crater)">Agnesi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alcott_(crater)" title="Alcott (crater)">Alcott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ariadne_(crater)" title="Ariadne (crater)">Ariadne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aurelia_(crater)" title="Aurelia (crater)">Aurelia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balch_(crater)" title="Balch (crater)">Balch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barton_(crater)" title="Barton (crater)">Barton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buck_(crater)" title="Buck (crater)">Buck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cleopatra_(crater)" title="Cleopatra (crater)">Cleopatra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cunitz_(crater)" title="Cunitz (crater)">Cunitz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danilova_(crater)" title="Danilova (crater)">Danilova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/De_Lalande_(crater)" title="De Lalande (crater)">De Lalande</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dickinson_(crater)" title="Dickinson (crater)">Dickinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goeppert-Mayer_(crater)" title="Goeppert-Mayer (crater)">Goeppert-Mayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golubkina_(crater)" title="Golubkina (crater)">Golubkina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grimke_(crater)" title="Grimke (crater)">Grimke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gregory_(Venusian_crater)" title="Gregory (Venusian crater)">Gregory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guilbert_(crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Guilbert (crater)">Guilbert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isabella_(crater)" title="Isabella (crater)">Isabella</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeanne_(crater)" title="Jeanne (crater)">Jeanne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maria_Celeste_(crater)" title="Maria Celeste (crater)">Maria Celeste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mariko_(crater)" title="Mariko (crater)">Mariko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mead_(crater)" title="Mead (crater)">Mead</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meitner_(Venusian_crater)" title="Meitner (Venusian crater)">Meitner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merit_Ptah_(crater)" title="Merit Ptah (crater)">Merit Ptah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mona_Lisa_(crater)" title="Mona Lisa (crater)">Mona Lisa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanichi" title="Nanichi">Nanichi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Riley_(crater)" title="Riley (crater)">Riley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruth_(Venusian_crater)" title="Ruth (Venusian crater)">Ruth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stefania_(crater)" title="Stefania (crater)">Stefania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wanda_(crater)" title="Wanda (crater)">Wanda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wheatley_(crater)" title="Wheatley (crater)">Wheatley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yablochkina_(crater)" title="Yablochkina (crater)">Yablochkina</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geodynamics_of_Venus" title="Geodynamics of Venus">Geodynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_Venus" title="Geology of Venus">Geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surface_features_of_Venus" title="Surface features of Venus">Surface features</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venus_snow" title="Venus snow">Venus snow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venusquake" class="mw-redirect" title="Venusquake">Venusquake</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Astronomy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aspects_of_Venus" title="Aspects of Venus">Aspects</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orbit_of_Venus" title="Orbit of Venus">Orbit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phases_of_Venus" title="Phases of Venus">Phases</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Transit_of_Venus" title="Transit of Venus">Transits</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">1639</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1761_transit_of_Venus" class="mw-redirect" title="1761 transit of Venus">1761</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1769_transit_of_Venus_observed_from_Tahiti" title="1769 transit of Venus observed from Tahiti">1769</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1874_transit_of_Venus" title="1874 transit of Venus">1874</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1882_transit_of_Venus" title="1882 transit of Venus">1882</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2004_transit_of_Venus" title="2004 transit of Venus">2004</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2012_transit_of_Venus" title="2012 transit of Venus">2012</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Asteroid" title="Asteroid">Asteroids</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Venus-crossing_minor_planets" title="List of Venus-crossing minor planets">Venus-crosser asteroids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venus_trojan" title="Venus trojan">Venus trojans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/524522_Zoozve" title="524522 Zoozve">Zoozve</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Observations_and_explorations_of_Venus" title="Observations and explorations of Venus">Exploration</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Past</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sputnik_programme" class="mw-redirect" title="Sputnik programme">Sputnik programme</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tyazhely_Sputnik" title="Tyazhely Sputnik">Sputnik 7</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venera" title="Venera">Venera</a> program <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Venera_1" title="Venera 1">Venera 1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venera_2MV-1_No.1" title="Venera 2MV-1 No.1">Sputnik 19</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venera_2MV-1_No.2" title="Venera 2MV-1 No.2">Sputnik 20</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venera_2MV-2_No.1" title="Venera 2MV-2 No.1">Sputnik 21</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kosmos_21" title="Kosmos 21">Kosmos 21</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zond_3MV-1_No.2" title="Zond 3MV-1 No.2">Venera 1964A</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kosmos_27" title="Kosmos 27">Kosmos 27</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venera_2" title="Venera 2">Venera 2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venera_3" title="Venera 3">Venera 3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kosmos_96" title="Kosmos 96">Kosmos 96</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venera_4" title="Venera 4">Venera 4</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kosmos_167" title="Kosmos 167">Kosmos 167</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venera_5" title="Venera 5">Venera 5</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venera_6" title="Venera 6">Venera 6</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venera_7" title="Venera 7">Venera 7</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venera_8" title="Venera 8">Venera 8</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kosmos_482" title="Kosmos 482">Kosmos 482</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venera_9" title="Venera 9">Venera 9</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venera_10" title="Venera 10">Venera 10</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venera_11" title="Venera 11">Venera 11</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venera_12" title="Venera 12">Venera 12</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venera_13" title="Venera 13">Venera 13</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venera_14" title="Venera 14">Venera 14</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venera_15" title="Venera 15">Venera 15</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venera_16" title="Venera 16">Venera 16</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mariner_program" title="Mariner program">Mariner program</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Mariner_1" title="Mariner 1">Mariner 1</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mariner_2" title="Mariner 2">Mariner 2</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mariner_5" title="Mariner 5">Mariner 5</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mariner_10" title="Mariner 10">Mariner 10</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zond_program" title="Zond program">Zond program</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zond_1" title="Zond 1">Zond 1</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pioneer_Venus_project" title="Pioneer Venus project">Pioneer Venus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pioneer_Venus_Orbiter" title="Pioneer Venus Orbiter">Pioneer Venus Orbiter</a> / Pioneer 12</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pioneer_Venus_Multiprobe" title="Pioneer Venus Multiprobe">Pioneer Venus Multiprobe</a> / Pioneer 13</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vega_program" title="Vega program">Vega program</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vega_1" title="Vega 1">Vega 1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vega_2" title="Vega 2">Vega 2</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Magellan_(spacecraft)" title="Magellan (spacecraft)">Magellan</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IKAROS" title="IKAROS">IKAROS</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Shin%27en_(spacecraft)" title="Shin'en (spacecraft)">Shin'en</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venus_Express" title="Venus Express">Venus Express</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Akatsuki_(spacecraft)" title="Akatsuki (spacecraft)">Akatsuki</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Gravity Assists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Galileo_(spacecraft)" title="Galileo (spacecraft)">Galileo</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Cassini%E2%80%93Huygens" title="Cassini–Huygens">Cassini–Huygens</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/MESSENGER" title="MESSENGER">MESSENGER</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/BepiColombo" title="BepiColombo">BepiColombo</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Jupiter_Icy_Moons_Explorer" title="Jupiter Icy Moons Explorer">Jupiter Icy Moons Explorer</a></i> (planned)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/MBR_Explorer" title="MBR Explorer">MBR Explorer</a></i> (planned)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Planned</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/DAVINCI" title="DAVINCI">DAVINCI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/EnVision" title="EnVision">EnVision</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/VERITAS_(spacecraft)" title="VERITAS (spacecraft)">VERITAS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venus_Orbiter_Mission" title="Venus Orbiter Mission">Venus Orbiter Mission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venus_Life_Finder" title="Venus Life Finder">Venus Life Finder</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Proposed</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/European_Venus_Explorer" title="European Venus Explorer">European Venus Explorer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venera-D" title="Venera-D">Venera-D</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venus_Atmospheric_Maneuverable_Platform" title="Venus Atmospheric Maneuverable Platform">VAMP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venus_In_Situ_Explorer" title="Venus In Situ Explorer">VISE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venus_In_Situ_Atmospheric_and_Geochemical_Explorer" title="Venus In Situ Atmospheric and Geochemical Explorer">VISAGE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venus_In_situ_Composition_Investigations" title="Venus In situ Composition Investigations">VICI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venus_Origins_Explorer" title="Venus Origins Explorer">VOX</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Proposed<br />(crewed)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Colonization_of_Venus" title="Colonization of Venus">Colonization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inspiration_Mars_Foundation" title="Inspiration Mars Foundation">Inspiration Mars</a> (flyby)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terraforming_of_Venus" title="Terraforming of Venus">Terraforming</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geological_mapping_of_Venus" class="mw-redirect" title="Geological mapping of Venus">Geological mapping of Venus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_artificial_objects_on_Venus" title="List of artificial objects on Venus">Artificial objects on Venus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cytherean" title="Cytherean">Cytherean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venus_in_culture" title="Venus in culture">In culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venus_in_fiction" title="Venus in fiction">In fiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hesperus" title="Hesperus">Hesperus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Life_on_Venus" title="Life on Venus">Life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venus_(mythology)" title="Venus (mythology)">Mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neith_(hypothetical_moon)" title="Neith (hypothetical moon)">Neith (hypothetical moon)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phosphorus_(morning_star)" title="Phosphorus (morning star)">Phosphorus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Venus" title="Category:Venus">Category</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img 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