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vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 History </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle History subsection </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Reign_of_Honorius" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reign_of_Honorius"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Reign of Honorius </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reign_of_Honorius-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Escalating_barbarian_conflicts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Escalating_barbarian_conflicts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Escalating barbarian conflicts </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Escalating_barbarian_conflicts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Internal_unrest_and_Majorian" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Internal_unrest_and_Majorian"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 Internal unrest and Majorian </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Internal_unrest_and_Majorian-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Collapse" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Collapse"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4 Collapse </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Collapse-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fall_of_the_Empire" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fall_of_the_Empire"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.5 Fall of the Empire </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fall_of_the_Empire-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Political_aftermath" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Political_aftermath"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Political aftermath </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Political_aftermath-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Political aftermath subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Political_aftermath-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Germanic_Italy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Germanic_Italy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Germanic Italy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Germanic_Italy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Imperial_reconquest" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Imperial_reconquest"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Imperial reconquest </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Imperial_reconquest-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Legacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Legacy </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Legacy-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Legacy subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Legacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Nomenclature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nomenclature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Nomenclature </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nomenclature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Attempted_restorations_of_a_Western_court" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Attempted_restorations_of_a_Western_court"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Attempted restorations of a Western court </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Attempted_restorations_of_a_Western_court-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Later_claims_to_the_Imperial_title_in_the_West" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Later_claims_to_the_Imperial_title_in_the_West"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Later claims to the Imperial title in the West </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Later_claims_to_the_Imperial_title_in_the_West-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-List_of_Western_Roman_emperors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#List_of_Western_Roman_emperors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 List of Western Roman emperors </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-List_of_Western_Roman_emperors-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle List of Western Roman emperors subsection </button> <ul id="toc-List_of_Western_Roman_emperors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Tetrarchy_(286–313)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tetrarchy_(286–313)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Tetrarchy (286–313) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tetrarchy_(286–313)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Constantinian_dynasty_(309–363)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Constantinian_dynasty_(309–363)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Constantinian dynasty (309–363) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Constantinian_dynasty_(309–363)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Non-dynastic_(363–364)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Non-dynastic_(363–364)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 Non-dynastic (363–364) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Non-dynastic_(363–364)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Valentinianic_dynasty_(364–392)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Valentinianic_dynasty_(364–392)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.4 Valentinianic dynasty (364–392) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Valentinianic_dynasty_(364–392)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Theodosian_dynasty_(392–455)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Theodosian_dynasty_(392–455)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.5 Theodosian dynasty (392–455) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Theodosian_dynasty_(392–455)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Non-dynastic_(455–480)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Non-dynastic_(455–480)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.6 Non-dynastic (455–480) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Non-dynastic_(455–480)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 References </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle References subsection </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 Citations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2 Sources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Web_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Web_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.3 Web sources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Web_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Western Roman Empire</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 95 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-95" aria-hidden="true" > 95 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wes-Romeinse_Ryk" title="Wes-Romeinse Ryk – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Wes-Romeinse Ryk" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westr%C3%B6misches_Reich" title="Weströmisches Reich – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Weströmisches Reich" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A5%D9%85%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%B7%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%BA%D8%B1%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="الإمبراطورية الرومانية الغربية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="الإمبراطورية الرومانية الغربية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperio_Romano_d%27Occident" title="Imperio Romano d'Occident – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Imperio Romano d'Occident" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aragonés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperiu_romanu_d%27Occidente" title="Imperiu romanu d'Occidente – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Imperiu romanu d'Occidente" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Q%C9%99rbi_Roma_imperiyas%C4%B1" title="Qərbi Roma imperiyası – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Qərbi Roma imperiyası" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%BA%D8%B1%D8%A8%DB%8C_%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%85_%D8%A7%DB%8C%D9%85%D9%BE%DB%8C%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%84%D9%88%D8%BA%D9%88" title="غربی روم ایمپیراتورلوغو – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="غربی روم ایمپیراتورلوغو" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%B6%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9A%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AE_%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8_%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF" title="পশ্চিম রোমান সাম্রাজ্য – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="পশ্চিম রোমান সাম্রাজ্য" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sai_L%C3%B4-m%C3%A1_T%C3%A8-kok" title="Sai Lô-má Tè-kok – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Sai Lô-má Tè-kok" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%B0%D1%85%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BD%D1%8F%D1%8F_%D0%A0%D1%8B%D0%BC%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%96%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%8B%D1%8F" title="Заходняя Рымская імперыя – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Заходняя Рымская імперыя" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%B0%D1%85%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BD%D1%8F%D1%8F_%D0%A0%D1%8B%D0%BC%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%96%D0%BC%D0%BF%D1%8D%D1%80%D1%8B%D1%8F" title="Заходняя Рымская імпэрыя – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Заходняя Рымская імпэрыя" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%A0%D0%B8%D0%BC%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Западна Римска империя – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Западна Римска империя" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zapadno_Rimsko_Carstvo" title="Zapadno Rimsko Carstvo – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Zapadno Rimsko Carstvo" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impalaeriezh_roman_ar_C%27horn%C3%B4g" title="Impalaeriezh roman ar C'hornôg – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Impalaeriezh roman ar C'hornôg" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperi_Rom%C3%A0_d%27Occident" title="Imperi Romà d'Occident – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Imperi Romà d'Occident" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kasadpang_Imperyong_Romano" title="Kasadpang Imperyong Romano – Cebuano" lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb" data-title="Kasadpang Imperyong Romano" data-language-autonym="Cebuano" data-language-local-name="Cebuano" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cebuano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Z%C3%A1pado%C5%99%C3%ADmsk%C3%A1_%C5%99%C3%AD%C5%A1e" title="Západořímská říše – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Západořímská říše" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vestromerske_rige" title="Vestromerske rige – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Vestromerske rige" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westr%C3%B6misches_Reich" title="Weströmisches Reich – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Weströmisches Reich" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%A4%C3%A4ne-Rooma_keisririik" title="Lääne-Rooma keisririik – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Lääne-Rooma keisririik" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%94%CF%85%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE_%CE%A1%CF%89%CE%BC%CE%B1%CF%8A%CE%BA%CE%AE_%CE%91%CF%85%CF%84%CE%BF%CE%BA%CF%81%CE%B1%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%81%CE%AF%CE%B1" title="Δυτική Ρωμαϊκή Αυτοκρατορία – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Δυτική Ρωμαϊκή Αυτοκρατορία" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperio_romano_de_Occidente" title="Imperio romano de Occidente – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Imperio romano de Occidente" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Okcident-Romia_Imperio" title="Okcident-Romia Imperio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Okcident-Romia Imperio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mendebaldeko_Erromatar_Inperioa" title="Mendebaldeko Erromatar Inperioa – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Mendebaldeko Erromatar Inperioa" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%BE%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%B1%DB%8C_%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%85_%D8%BA%D8%B1%D8%A8%DB%8C" title="امپراتوری روم غربی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="امپراتوری روم غربی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empire_romain_d%27Occident" title="Empire romain d'Occident – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Empire romain d'Occident" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westromeinske_Ryk" title="Westromeinske Ryk – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Westromeinske Ryk" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperio_Romano_de_Occidente" title="Imperio Romano de Occidente – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Imperio Romano de Occidente" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%84%9C%EB%A1%9C%EB%A7%88_%EC%A0%9C%EA%B5%AD" title="서로마 제국 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="서로마 제국" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B1%D6%80%D6%87%D5%B4%D5%BF%D5%B5%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%80%D5%BC%D5%B8%D5%B4%D5%A5%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%BD%D6%80%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Արևմտյան Հռոմեական կայսրություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Արևմտյան Հռոմեական կայսրություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF" title="पश्चिमी रोमन साम्राज्य – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="पश्चिमी रोमन साम्राज्य" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zapadno_Rimsko_Carstvo" title="Zapadno Rimsko Carstvo – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Zapadno Rimsko Carstvo" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kekaisaran_Romawi_Barat" title="Kekaisaran Romawi Barat – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Kekaisaran Romawi Barat" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperio_roman_de_occidente" title="Imperio roman de occidente – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Imperio roman de occidente" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vestr%C3%B3mverska_keisarad%C3%A6mi%C3%B0" title="Vestrómverska keisaradæmið – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Vestrómverska keisaradæmið" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impero_romano_d%27Occidente" title="Impero romano d'Occidente – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Impero romano d'Occidente" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%90%D7%99%D7%9E%D7%A4%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%94_%D7%94%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%9E%D7%99%D7%AA_%D7%94%D7%9E%D7%A2%D7%A8%D7%91%D7%99%D7%AA" title="האימפריה הרומית המערבית – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="האימפריה הרומית המערבית" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kekaisaran_Romawi_Kulon" title="Kekaisaran Romawi Kulon – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Kekaisaran Romawi Kulon" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Jawa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%93%E1%83%90%E1%83%A1%E1%83%90%E1%83%95%E1%83%9A%E1%83%94%E1%83%97_%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%98%E1%83%9B%E1%83%9E%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="დასავლეთ რომის იმპერია – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="დასავლეთ რომის იმპერია" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dola_la_Roma_Magharibi" title="Dola la Roma Magharibi – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Dola la Roma Magharibi" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%8Emperatoriya_Rom%C3%AA_ya_Rojava" title="Împeratoriya Romê ya Rojava – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Împeratoriya Romê ya Rojava" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperium_Romanum_Occidentale" title="Imperium Romanum Occidentale – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Imperium Romanum Occidentale" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rietumromas_imp%C4%93rija" title="Rietumromas impērija – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Rietumromas impērija" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vakar%C5%B3_Romos_imperija" title="Vakarų Romos imperija – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Vakarų Romos imperija" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impero_Roman_Ueste" title="Impero Roman Ueste – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Impero Roman Ueste" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingua Franca Nova</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imper_Roman_d%27Ocident" title="Imper Roman d'Ocident – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Imper Roman d'Ocident" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lombard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nyugatr%C3%B3mai_Birodalom" title="Nyugatrómai Birodalom – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Nyugatrómai Birodalom" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%BE_%D0%A0%D0%B8%D0%BC%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE_%D0%A6%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE" title="Западно Римско Царство – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Западно Римско Царство" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%91%E1%83%9F%E1%83%90%E1%83%93%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98_%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98%E1%83%A8_%E1%83%98%E1%83%9B%E1%83%9E%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="ბჟადალი რომიშ იმპერია – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="ბჟადალი რომიშ იმპერია" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">მარგალური</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%B7%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%8A%D9%87_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A%D9%87_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%BA%D8%B1%D8%A8%D9%8A%D9%87" title="الامبراطوريه الرومانيه الغربيه – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="الامبراطوريه الرومانيه الغربيه" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empayar_Rom_Barat" title="Empayar Rom Barat – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Empayar Rom Barat" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/West-Romeinse_Rijk" title="West-Romeinse Rijk – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="West-Romeinse Rijk" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF" title="पश्चिमी रोमन साम्राज्य – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="पश्चिमी रोमन साम्राज्य" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF" title="पश्चिमी रोमन साम्राज्य – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="पश्चिमी रोमन साम्राज्य" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाल भाषा</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%A5%BF%E3%83%AD%E3%83%BC%E3%83%9E%E5%B8%9D%E5%9B%BD" title="西ローマ帝国 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="西ローマ帝国" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waastr%C3%B6%C3%B6msk_Rik" title="Waaströömsk Rik – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Waaströömsk Rik" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nordfriisk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vestromerriket" title="Vestromerriket – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Vestromerriket" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vestromarriket" title="Vestromarriket – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Vestromarriket" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emp%C3%A8ri_Roman_d%27Occident" title="Empèri Roman d'Occident – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Empèri Roman d'Occident" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%AA%E0%A9%B1%E0%A8%9B%E0%A8%AE%E0%A9%80_%E0%A8%B0%E0%A9%8B%E0%A8%AE%E0%A8%A8_%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%AE%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%9C" title="ਪੱਛਮੀ ਰੋਮਨ ਸਾਮਰਾਜ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਪੱਛਮੀ ਰੋਮਨ ਸਾਮਰਾਜ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%BA%D8%B1%D8%A8%DB%8C_%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%85%DB%8C_%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%B7%D9%86%D8%AA" title="مغربی رومی سلطنت – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="مغربی رومی سلطنت" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D9%88%DB%90%D8%AF%DB%90%DA%81%D9%87_%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%85%D9%8A_%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%A7%DA%A9%D9%8A" title="لوېدېځه رومي سترواکي – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="لوېدېځه رومي سترواکي" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pcd mw-list-item"><a href="https://pcd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impire_Romain_au_Coutchant" title="Impire Romain au Coutchant – Picard" lang="pcd" hreflang="pcd" data-title="Impire Romain au Coutchant" data-language-autonym="Picard" data-language-local-name="Picard" class="interlanguage-link-target">Picard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westr%C3%B6%C3%B6msch_Riek" title="Weströömsch Riek – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Weströömsch Riek" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Plattdüütsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cesarstwo_zachodniorzymskie" title="Cesarstwo zachodniorzymskie – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Cesarstwo zachodniorzymskie" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imp%C3%A9rio_Romano_do_Ocidente" title="Império Romano do Ocidente – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Império Romano do Ocidente" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperiul_Roman_de_Apus" title="Imperiul Roman de Apus – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Imperiul Roman de Apus" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%A0%D0%B8%D0%BC%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Западная Римская империя – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Западная Римская империя" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-skr mw-list-item"><a href="https://skr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%BA%D8%B1%D8%A8%DB%8C_%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%85%DB%8C_%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%B7%D9%86%D8%AA" title="مغربی رومی سلطنت – Saraiki" lang="skr" hreflang="skr" data-title="مغربی رومی سلطنت" data-language-autonym="سرائیکی" data-language-local-name="Saraiki" class="interlanguage-link-target">سرائیکی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imp%C3%A8riu_romanu_de_Otzidente" title="Impèriu romanu de Otzidente – Sardinian" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Impèriu romanu de Otzidente" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="Sardinian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sardu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wastren_Roman_Empire" title="Wastren Roman Empire – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Wastren Roman Empire" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target">Scots</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perandoria_Romake_Per%C3%ABndimore" title="Perandoria Romake Perëndimore – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Perandoria Romake Perëndimore" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Western Roman Empire" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Z%C3%A1pador%C3%ADmska_r%C3%AD%C5%A1a" title="Západorímska ríša – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Západorímska ríša" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zahodno_Rimsko_cesarstvo" title="Zahodno Rimsko cesarstvo – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Zahodno Rimsko cesarstvo" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A6%DB%8C%D9%85%D9%BE%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AA%DB%86%D8%B1%DB%8C%DB%95%D8%AA%DB%8C%DB%8C_%DA%95%DB%86%D9%85%DB%8C%DB%8C_%DA%95%DB%86%DA%98%D8%A7%D9%88%D8%A7" title="ئیمپراتۆریەتیی ڕۆمیی ڕۆژاوا – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="ئیمپراتۆریەتیی ڕۆمیی ڕۆژاوا" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%BE_%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BC%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE_%D1%86%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE" title="Западно римско царство – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Западно римско царство" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zapadno_Rimsko_Carstvo" title="Zapadno Rimsko Carstvo – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Zapadno Rimsko Carstvo" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%A4nsi-Rooman_valtakunta" title="Länsi-Rooman valtakunta – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Länsi-Rooman valtakunta" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%A4stromerska_riket" title="Västromerska riket – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Västromerska riket" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kanlurang_Imperyong_Romano" title="Kanlurang Imperyong Romano – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Kanlurang Imperyong Romano" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%87%E0%AE%B1%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%81_%E0%AE%89%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8B%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%87%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%81" title="மேற்கு உரோமைப் பேரரசு – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="மேற்கு உரோமைப் பேரரசு" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%88%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%94%E0%B8%B4%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%B0%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%81" title="จักรวรรดิโรมันตะวันตก – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="จักรวรรดิโรมันตะวันตก" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bat%C4%B1_Roma_%C4%B0mparatorlu%C4%9Fu" title="Batı Roma İmparatorluğu – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Batı Roma İmparatorluğu" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%B0%D1%85%D1%96%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%A0%D0%B8%D0%BC%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D1%96%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Західна Римська імперія – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Західна Римська імперія" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%BA%D8%B1%D8%A8%DB%8C_%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%85%DB%8C_%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%B7%D9%86%D8%AA" title="مغربی رومی سلطنت – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="مغربی رومی سلطنت" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inpero_roman_de_Osidente" title="Inpero roman de Osidente – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Inpero roman de Osidente" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venetian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vèneto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%90%E1%BA%BF_qu%E1%BB%91c_T%C3%A2y_La_M%C3%A3" title="Đế quốc Tây La Mã – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Đế quốc Tây La Mã" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical mw-list-item"><a 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Click here for more information." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/19px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/29px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/39px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Western half of the Roman Empire</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Western Empire" redirects here. For the Frankish state, see <a href="/wiki/Carolingian_Empire" title="Carolingian Empire">Carolingian Empire</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output 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.ib-country-largest,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-lang{font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-ethnic,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-religion,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-sovereignty{font-weight:normal;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fake-li{text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fake-li2{text-indent:0.5em;margin-left:1em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-website{line-height:11pt}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-map-caption3{position:relative;top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn{text-align:left;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn-num{margin-left:1em}</style><table class="infobox ib-country vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above adr"><div class="fn org country-name">Western Roman Empire</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader">395–476/480<a href="#endnote_lifespan">a</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><a href="/wiki/File:Western_Roman_Empire_-_400_AD.png" class="mw-file-description" title="The Western Roman Empire in AD 400"><img alt="The Western Roman Empire in AD 400" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Western_Roman_Empire_-_400_AD.png/250px-Western_Roman_Empire_-_400_AD.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="177" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Western_Roman_Empire_-_400_AD.png/375px-Western_Roman_Empire_-_400_AD.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Western_Roman_Empire_-_400_AD.png/500px-Western_Roman_Empire_-_400_AD.png 2x" data-file-width="7000" data-file-height="4949" /></a><div class="ib-country-map-caption">The Western Roman Empire in AD 400</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Status</th><td class="infobox-data">Western administrative division of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a><a href="#endnote_lifespan">a</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Capital</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Mediolanum" title="Mediolanum">Mediolanum</a> (395–401)<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChristie1991236-1">[1]</a> <a href="/wiki/Ravenna" title="Ravenna">Ravenna</a> (401–403, 408–450, 457–461, 475–476) <a href="/wiki/Rome" title="Rome">Rome</a> (403–408, 450–457, 461–475)<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGillett2001-2">[2]</a> <a href="/wiki/Salona" title="Salona">Salona</a>/<a href="/wiki/Spalatum" class="mw-redirect" title="Spalatum">Spalatum</a><a href="#endnote_cap2">c</a> (475–480)</td></tr><tr class="mergedtoprow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Official languages</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Latin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin language">Latin</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Common languages</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Vulgar_Latin" title="Vulgar Latin">Vulgar Latin</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Languages_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Languages of the Roman Empire">regional languages</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Religion <div class="ib-country-religion"></div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Christianity_as_the_Roman_state_religion" title="Christianity as the Roman state religion">Christianity</a> (<a href="/wiki/State_religion" title="State religion">state</a>)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Demonym" title="Demonym">Demonym(s)</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Roman_people" title="Roman people">Roman</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Government</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Autocracy" title="Autocracy">Autocracy</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Roman_Emperor" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Emperor">Notable Emperors</a></th><td class="infobox-data"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 395–423 </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Flavius_Augustus_Honorius" class="mw-redirect" title="Flavius Augustus Honorius">Honorius</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 425–455 </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Valentinian_III" title="Valentinian III">Valentinian III</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 457–461 </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Majorian" title="Majorian">Majorian</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 474–480 </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Julius_Nepos" title="Julius Nepos">Julius Nepos</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 475–476 </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Romulus_Augustulus" title="Romulus Augustulus">Romulus Augustulus</a></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Legislature</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Senate_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Senate of the Roman Empire">Roman Senate</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Historical era</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Late_antiquity" title="Late antiquity">Late antiquity</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• Death of Emperor <a href="/wiki/Theodosius_I" title="Theodosius I">Theodosius I</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">17 January 395</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Deposition_of_Romulus_Augustus" title="Deposition of Romulus Augustus">Deposition</a> of Emperor <a href="/wiki/Romulus_Augustulus" title="Romulus Augustulus">Romulus</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">4 September 476</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• Murder of <a href="/wiki/Julius_Nepos" title="Julius Nepos">Julius Nepos</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">9 May 480</td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedtoprow"><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header">Area</th></tr><tr class="mergedbottomrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">395<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaagepera125-3">[3]</a></th><td class="infobox-data">2,500,000 km2 (970,000 sq mi)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Currency</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Roman_currency" title="Roman currency">Roman currency</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"> <table style="width:95%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; display:inline-table;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="text-align:center; border:0; padding-bottom:0"><div id="before-after"></div> Preceded by</td> <td style="text-align:center;border:0; padding-bottom:0;">Succeeded by </td></tr> <tr> <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center; border:0;"> <table style="width:100%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; border:0;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> </td></tr> </tbody></table> </td> <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center;border:0;"> <table style="width:92%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; border:0;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Italy_(476%E2%80%93493)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Italy (476–493)">Kingdom of Italy</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Roman_Dalmatia" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Dalmatia">Roman Dalmatia</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Soissons" title="Kingdom of Soissons">Kingdom of Soissons</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_the_Moors_and_Romans" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of the Moors and Romans">Kingdom of the Moors and Romans</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_the_Visigoths" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of the Visigoths">Kingdom of the Visigoths</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_the_Burgundians" title="Kingdom of the Burgundians">Kingdom of the Burgundians</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_the_Suebi" title="Kingdom of the Suebi">Kingdom of the Suebi</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Armorica" title="Armorica">Armorica</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Alamannia" title="Alamannia">Alamannia</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Sub-Roman_Britain" title="Sub-Roman Britain">Sub-Roman Britain</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /> </td></tr> </tbody></table> </td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><div class="ib-country-fn"><ol class="ib-country-fn-alpha"> <li value="1"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1041539562">.mw-parser-output .citation{word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}</style><a href="#ref_lifespan">^</a> Whilst the deposition of Emperor <a href="/wiki/Romulus_Augustulus" title="Romulus Augustulus">Romulus Augustulus</a> in AD 476 is the most commonly cited end date for the Western Roman Empire, the last Western Roman emperor <a href="/wiki/Julius_Nepos" title="Julius Nepos">Julius Nepos</a>, was assassinated in 480, when the title and notion of a separate Western Empire were abolished. Another suggested end date is the reorganization of the Italian peninsula and abolition of separate Western Roman administrative institutions under Emperor <a href="/wiki/Justinian" class="mw-redirect" title="Justinian">Justinian</a> during the latter half of the 6th century.</li> </ol></div></td></tr></tbody></table> In modern <a href="/wiki/Historiography" title="Historiography">historiography</a>, the Western Roman Empire was the western provinces of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a>, collectively, during any period in which they were administered separately from the eastern provinces by a separate, independent imperial court. Particularly during the period from AD 395 to 476, there were separate, coequal courts dividing the governance of the empire into the Western provinces and the Eastern provinces with a distinct <a href="/wiki/Line_of_hereditary_succession" title="Line of hereditary succession">imperial succession</a> in the separate courts. The terms Western Roman Empire and <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Eastern Roman Empire</a> were coined in modern times to describe political entities that were <a href="/wiki/De_facto" title="De facto">de facto</a> independent; contemporary <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Romans</a> did not consider the Empire to have been split into two empires but viewed it as a single <a href="/wiki/Polity" title="Polity">polity</a> governed by two imperial courts for administrative expediency. The Western Empire collapsed in 476, and the Western imperial court in <a href="/wiki/Ravenna" title="Ravenna">Ravenna</a> disappeared by AD 554, at the end of <a href="/wiki/Justinian_I" title="Justinian I">Justinian</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Gothic_War_(535%E2%80%93554)" title="Gothic War (535–554)">Gothic War</a>. Though there were periods with more than one emperor ruling jointly before, the view that it was impossible for a single emperor to govern the entire Empire was <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Late_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Constitution of the Late Roman Empire">institutionalized</a> by emperor <a href="/wiki/Diocletian" title="Diocletian">Diocletian</a> following the disastrous civil wars and disintegrations of the <a href="/wiki/Crisis_of_the_Third_Century" title="Crisis of the Third Century">Crisis of the Third Century</a>. He introduced the system of the <a href="/wiki/Tetrarchy" title="Tetrarchy">Tetrarchy</a> in 286, with two senior emperors titled <a href="/wiki/Augustus_(title)" title="Augustus (title)">Augustus</a>, one in the East and one in the West, each with an appointed subordinate and heir titled <a href="/wiki/Caesar_(title)" title="Caesar (title)">Caesar</a>. Though the tetrarchic system would collapse in a matter of years, the East–West administrative division would endure in one form or another over the coming centuries. As such, the unofficial Western Roman Empire would exist intermittently in several periods between the 3rd and 5th centuries. Some emperors, such as <a href="/wiki/Constantine_the_Great" title="Constantine the Great">Constantine I</a> and <a href="/wiki/Theodosius_I" title="Theodosius I">Theodosius I</a>, governed, if briefly, as the sole Augustus across the Roman Empire. On the death of Theodosius in 395, the empire was divided between his two infant sons, with <a href="/wiki/Honorius_(emperor)" title="Honorius (emperor)">Honorius</a> as his successor in the West governing briefly from <a href="/wiki/Mediolanum" title="Mediolanum">Mediolanum</a> then from <a href="/wiki/Ravenna" title="Ravenna">Ravenna</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Arcadius" title="Arcadius">Arcadius</a> as his successor in the East governing from <a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinople</a>. In 476, after the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ravenna_(476)" title="Battle of Ravenna (476)">Battle of Ravenna</a>, the Roman army in the West suffered defeat at the hands of <a href="/wiki/Odoacer" title="Odoacer">Odoacer</a> and his Germanic <a href="/wiki/Foederati" title="Foederati">foederati</a>. Odoacer forced the <a href="/wiki/Deposition_of_Romulus_Augustulus" class="mw-redirect" title="Deposition of Romulus Augustulus">abdication</a> of the emperor <a href="/wiki/Romulus_Augustulus" title="Romulus Augustulus">Romulus Augustulus</a> and became the first <a href="/wiki/King_of_Italy" title="King of Italy">King of Italy</a>. In 480, following the assassination of the previous Western emperor <a href="/wiki/Julius_Nepos" title="Julius Nepos">Julius Nepos</a>, the Eastern emperor <a href="/wiki/Zeno_(emperor)" title="Zeno (emperor)">Zeno</a> dissolved the Western court and proclaimed himself the sole emperor of the Roman Empire. The date of 476 was popularized by the 18th-century British historian <a href="/wiki/Edward_Gibbon" title="Edward Gibbon">Edward Gibbon</a> as a demarcating event for the <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Fall of the Western Roman Empire">fall of the Western Roman Empire</a> and is sometimes used to mark the transition from <a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">Antiquity</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>. Odoacer's Italy and other <a href="/wiki/Barbarian_kingdoms" title="Barbarian kingdoms">barbarian kingdoms</a>, many of them representing former Western Roman allies that had been granted lands in return for military assistance, would maintain a pretense of Roman continuity through the continued use of the old Roman administrative systems and nominal subservience to the Eastern Roman court. In the 6th century, Emperor <a href="/wiki/Justinian_I" title="Justinian I">Justinian I</a> re-imposed direct Imperial rule on large parts of the former Western Roman Empire, including the prosperous regions of <a href="/wiki/Exarchate_of_Africa" title="Exarchate of Africa">North Africa</a>, the ancient Roman heartland of <a href="/wiki/Roman_Italy" title="Roman Italy">Italy</a> and parts of <a href="/wiki/Spania" title="Spania">Hispania</a>. Political instability in the Eastern heartlands, combined with foreign invasions, plague, and religious differences, made efforts to retain control of these territories difficult and they were gradually lost for good. Though the Eastern Empire retained territories in the south of Italy until the eleventh century, the influence that the Empire had over <a href="/wiki/Western_Europe" title="Western Europe">Western Europe</a> had diminished significantly. The <a href="/wiki/Pope" title="Pope">papal</a> coronation of the <a href="/wiki/List_of_Frankish_kings" title="List of Frankish kings">Frankish king</a> <a href="/wiki/Charlemagne" title="Charlemagne">Charlemagne</a> as <a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Holy Roman Emperor">Roman Emperor</a> in 800 marked a new imperial line that would evolve into the <a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a>, which presented a revival of the Imperial title in Western Europe but was in no meaningful sense an extension of Roman traditions or institutions. The <a href="/wiki/Great_Schism_of_1054" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Schism of 1054">Great Schism of 1054</a> between the churches of <a href="/wiki/Latin_Church" title="Latin Church">Rome</a> and <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_Church" title="Eastern Orthodox Church">Constantinople</a> further diminished any authority the emperor in Constantinople could hope to exert in the West. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Background">Background</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_Roman_Empire&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Background">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="History of the Roman Empire">History of the Roman Empire</a> and <a href="/wiki/First_division_of_the_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="First division of the Roman Empire">First division of the Roman Empire</a></div> As the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a> expanded, it reached a point where the central government in Rome could not effectively rule the distant provinces. Communications and transportation were especially problematic given the vast extent of the Empire. News of invasion, revolt, natural disasters, or epidemic outbreak was carried by ship or <a href="/wiki/Cursus_publicus" title="Cursus publicus">mounted postal service</a>, often requiring much time to reach Rome and for Rome's orders to be returned and acted upon. Therefore, provincial <a href="/wiki/Roman_Governor" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Governor">governors</a> had <a href="/wiki/De_facto" title="De facto">de facto</a> autonomy in the name of the Roman Republic. Governors had several duties, including the command of armies, handling the taxes of the province and serving as the province's chief judges.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoman_Governors-4">[4]</a> Prior to the establishment of the Empire, the territories of the Roman Republic had been divided in 43 BC among the members of the <a href="/wiki/Second_Triumvirate" title="Second Triumvirate">Second Triumvirate</a>: <a href="/wiki/Mark_Antony" title="Mark Antony">Mark Antony</a>, <a href="/wiki/Augustus" title="Augustus">Octavian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Marcus_Aemilius_Lepidus_(triumvir)" class="mw-redirect" title="Marcus Aemilius Lepidus (triumvir)">Marcus Aemilius Lepidus</a>. Antony received the provinces in the East: <a href="/wiki/Achaea_Province" class="mw-redirect" title="Achaea Province">Achaea</a>, <a href="/wiki/Roman_province_of_Macedonia" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman province of Macedonia">Macedonia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Epirus" title="Epirus">Epirus</a> (roughly modern Greece, <a href="/wiki/Albania" title="Albania">Albania</a> and the coast of <a href="/wiki/Croatia" title="Croatia">Croatia</a>), <a href="/wiki/Bithynia" title="Bithynia">Bithynia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pontus_(region)" title="Pontus (region)">Pontus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Asia_(Roman_province)" title="Asia (Roman province)">Asia</a> (roughly modern <a href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey">Turkey</a>), <a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cyprus" title="Cyprus">Cyprus</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Cyrenaica" title="Cyrenaica">Cyrenaica</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEck200215f-5">[5]</a> These lands had previously been conquered by <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a>; thus, much of the <a href="/wiki/Aristocracy" title="Aristocracy">aristocracy</a> was of Greek origin. The whole region, especially the major cities, had been largely assimilated into Greek culture, <a href="/wiki/Koine_Greek" title="Koine Greek">Greek</a> often serving as the <a href="/wiki/Lingua_franca" title="Lingua franca">lingua franca</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESamarin1968662–663-6">[6]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Roman_Republic_44_bC.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Roman_Republic_44_bC.svg/250px-Roman_Republic_44_bC.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="134" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Roman_Republic_44_bC.svg/375px-Roman_Republic_44_bC.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Roman_Republic_44_bC.svg/500px-Roman_Republic_44_bC.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1674" data-file-height="897" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a> before the conquests of <a href="/wiki/Augustus" title="Augustus">Octavian</a></figcaption></figure> Octavian obtained the Roman provinces of the West: <a href="/wiki/Italia_(Roman_province)" class="mw-redirect" title="Italia (Roman province)">Italia</a> (modern Italy), <a href="/wiki/Gaul" title="Gaul">Gaul</a> (modern France), <a href="/wiki/Gallia_Belgica" title="Gallia Belgica">Gallia Belgica</a> (parts of modern Belgium, the Netherlands and <a href="/wiki/Luxembourg" title="Luxembourg">Luxembourg</a>), and <a href="/wiki/Hispania" title="Hispania">Hispania</a> (modern Spain and Portugal).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEck200215f-5">[5]</a> These lands also included Greek and Carthaginian colonies in the coastal areas, though <a href="/wiki/Celt" class="mw-redirect" title="Celt">Celtic</a> tribes such as <a href="/wiki/Gauls" title="Gauls">Gauls</a> and <a href="/wiki/Celtiberians" title="Celtiberians">Celtiberians</a> were culturally dominant. Lepidus received the minor province of <a href="/wiki/Africa_Province" class="mw-redirect" title="Africa Province">Africa</a> (roughly modern <a href="/wiki/Tunisia" title="Tunisia">Tunisia</a>). Octavian soon took Africa from Lepidus, while adding <a href="/wiki/Sicilia_(province)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sicilia (province)">Sicilia</a> (modern <a href="/wiki/Sicily" title="Sicily">Sicily</a>) to his holdings.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeigel199288f-7">[7]</a> Upon the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Actium" title="Battle of Actium">defeat of Mark Antony</a>, a victorious Octavian controlled a united <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a>. The Empire featured many distinct cultures, all experienced a gradual <a href="/wiki/Romanization_(cultural)" title="Romanization (cultural)">Romanization</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECurchin2004130-8">[8]</a> While the predominantly Greek culture of the East and the predominantly Latin culture of the West functioned effectively as an integrated whole, political and military developments would ultimately realign the Empire along those cultural and linguistic lines. More often than not, Greek and Latin practices (and to some extent the languages themselves) would be combined in fields such as <a href="/wiki/History" title="History">history</a> (e.g., those by <a href="/wiki/Cato_the_Elder" title="Cato the Elder">Cato the Elder</a>), <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rhetoric" title="Rhetoric">rhetoric</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrant195491–94-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrant195430–45-10">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETenney193035-11">[11]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rebellions_and_political_developments">Rebellions and political developments</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_Roman_Empire&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Rebellions and political developments">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Roman_Empire_Trajan_117AD.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Roman_Empire_Trajan_117AD.png/240px-Roman_Empire_Trajan_117AD.png" decoding="async" width="240" height="153" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Roman_Empire_Trajan_117AD.png/360px-Roman_Empire_Trajan_117AD.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Roman_Empire_Trajan_117AD.png/480px-Roman_Empire_Trajan_117AD.png 2x" data-file-width="2534" data-file-height="1614" /></a><figcaption><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r981673959">.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}</style><div class="legend">  <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> in AD 117 at its greatest extent, at the time of <a href="/wiki/Trajan" title="Trajan">Trajan</a>'s death</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  <a href="/wiki/Vassal_state" title="Vassal state">vassal states</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett1997-12">[12]</a></div></figcaption></figure> Minor rebellions and uprisings were fairly common events throughout the Empire. Conquered tribes or oppressed cities would revolt, and the <a href="/wiki/Roman_legions" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman legions">legions</a> would be detached to crush the rebellion. While this process was simple in peacetime, it could be considerably more complicated in wartime. In a full-blown <a href="/wiki/Military_campaign" title="Military campaign">military campaign</a>, the legions were far more numerous – as, for example, those led by <a href="/wiki/Vespasian" title="Vespasian">Vespasian</a> in the <a href="/wiki/First_Jewish%E2%80%93Roman_War" title="First Jewish–Roman War">First Jewish–Roman War</a>. To ensure a commander's loyalty, a pragmatic emperor might hold some members of the general's family <a href="/wiki/Hostage" title="Hostage">hostage</a>. To this end, <a href="/wiki/Nero" title="Nero">Nero</a> effectively held <a href="/wiki/Domitian" title="Domitian">Domitian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Quintus_Petillius_Cerialis" title="Quintus Petillius Cerialis">Quintus Petillius Cerialis</a>, Governor of <a href="/wiki/Ostia_Antica" title="Ostia Antica">Ostia</a>, who were respectively the younger son and brother-in-law of Vespasian. Nero's rule was ended by a revolt of the <a href="/wiki/Praetorian_Guard" title="Praetorian Guard">Praetorian Guard</a>, who had been bribed in the name of <a href="/wiki/Galba" title="Galba">Galba</a>. The Praetorian Guard, a figurative "sword of <a href="/wiki/Damocles" title="Damocles">Damocles</a>", was often perceived as being of dubious loyalty, primarily due its role in court intrigues and in overthrowing several emperors, including <a href="/wiki/Pertinax" title="Pertinax">Pertinax</a> and <a href="/wiki/Aurelian" title="Aurelian">Aurelian</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowmanCameronGarnsey20051-13">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAurelian-14">[14]</a> Following their example, the legions at the borders increasingly participated in <a href="/wiki/Civil_war" title="Civil war">civil wars</a>. For instance, legions stationed in <a href="/wiki/Egypt_(Roman_province)" class="mw-redirect" title="Egypt (Roman province)">Egypt</a> and the eastern provinces would see significant participation in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Antioch_(218)" title="Battle of Antioch (218)">civil war of 218</a> between Emperor <a href="/wiki/Macrinus" title="Macrinus">Macrinus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Elagabalus" title="Elagabalus">Elagabalus</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDowney1961249–250-15">[15]</a> As the Empire expanded, two key frontiers revealed themselves. In the West, behind the rivers <a href="/wiki/Rhine" title="Rhine">Rhine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Danube" title="Danube">Danube</a>, Germanic tribes were an important enemy. Augustus, the first emperor, had tried to conquer them but had pulled back after the disastrous <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Teutoburg_Forest" title="Battle of the Teutoburg Forest">Battle of the Teutoburg Forest</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETucker201075-16">[16]</a> Whilst the Germanic tribes were formidable foes, the <a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthian Empire</a> in the East presented the greatest threat to the Empire. The Parthians were too remote and powerful to be conquered and there was a constant Parthian threat of invasion. The Parthians repelled several Roman invasions, and even after successful wars of conquest, such as those implemented by <a href="/wiki/Trajan" title="Trajan">Trajan</a> or <a href="/wiki/Septimius_Severus" title="Septimius Severus">Septimius Severus</a>, the conquered territories were forsaken in attempts to ensure a lasting peace with the Parthians. The Parthian Empire would be succeeded by the Sasanian Empire, which <a href="/wiki/Roman-Sasanian_wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman-Sasanian wars">continued hostilities</a> with the Roman Empire.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESasanian_Dynasty-17">[17]</a> Controlling the western border of Rome was reasonably easy because it was relatively close to Rome itself and also because of the disunity among the Germans. However, controlling both frontiers simultaneously during wartime was difficult. If the emperor was near the border in the East, the chances were high that an ambitious general would rebel in the West and vice versa. This wartime opportunism plagued many ruling emperors and indeed paved the road to power for several future emperors. By the time of the <a href="/wiki/Crisis_of_the_Third_Century" title="Crisis of the Third Century">Crisis of the Third Century</a>, usurpation became a common method of succession: <a href="/wiki/Philip_the_Arab" title="Philip the Arab">Philip the Arab</a>, <a href="/wiki/Trebonianus_Gallus" title="Trebonianus Gallus">Trebonianus Gallus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Aemilianus" title="Aemilianus">Aemilianus</a> were all usurping generals-turned-emperors whose rule would end with usurpation by another powerful general.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowmanCameronGarnsey200538-18">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBray199738-19">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPotter2004322-20">[20]</a> The idea of co-emperorship was first tested by <a href="/wiki/Marcus_Aurelius" title="Marcus Aurelius">Marcus Aurelius</a> (r. 161–180), who decided to rule alongside his adoptive brother <a href="/wiki/Lucius_Verus" title="Lucius Verus">Lucius Verus</a>. There was, however, much precedent. The <a href="/wiki/Roman_consul" title="Roman consul">consulate</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Republic</a> was a twin magistracy, and earlier emperors had often had a subordinate lieutenant with many imperial offices. Many emperors had planned a joint succession in the past—<a href="/wiki/Augustus" title="Augustus">Augustus</a> planned to leave <a href="/wiki/Gaius_Caesar" title="Gaius Caesar">Gaius</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lucius_Caesar" title="Lucius Caesar">Lucius Caesar</a> as joint emperors on his death; Tiberius wished to have <a href="/wiki/Caligula" title="Caligula">Caligula</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tiberius_Gemellus" title="Tiberius Gemellus">Tiberius Gemellus</a> do so as well; as <a href="/wiki/Claudius" title="Claudius">Claudius</a> with <a href="/wiki/Nero" title="Nero">Nero</a> and <a href="/wiki/Britannicus" title="Britannicus">Britannicus</a>. All of these arrangements had ended in failure, either through premature death (Gaius and Lucius) or murder (Gemellus and Britannicus).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBirley2000117,_153_note_157-21">[21]</a> Marcus Aurelius ruled mostly from the West, while Verus spent most of his reign campaigning in the East, <a href="/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Parthian_War_of_161%E2%80%93166" title="Roman–Parthian War of 161–166">against Parthia</a>. Verus accompanied Marcus at the start of the <a href="/wiki/Marcomannic_Wars" title="Marcomannic Wars">Marcomannic Wars</a>, but died shortly after. Decades later, <a href="/wiki/Septimius_Severus" title="Septimius Severus">Septimius Severus</a> (r. 193–211) appointed his sons <a href="/wiki/Geta_(emperor)" title="Geta (emperor)">Geta</a> and <a href="/wiki/Caracalla" title="Caracalla">Caracalla</a> as joint heirs. However, Caracalla murdered his brother shortly after succeeding to the throne. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Crisis_of_the_Third_Century">Crisis of the Third Century</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_Roman_Empire&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Crisis of the Third Century">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Crisis_of_the_Third_Century" title="Crisis of the Third Century">Crisis of the Third Century</a></div> With the assassination of the emperor <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Severus" class="mw-redirect" title="Alexander Severus">Alexander Severus</a> in March 235 by his own troops, the Roman Empire sank into a 50-year period of civil war now known as the Crisis of the Third Century. During this period, the Empire saw the combined pressures of barbarian invasions and migrations into Roman territory, civil wars, peasant rebellions and political instability, with multiple usurpers competing for power. The idea of dividing the empire was first developed in this time; <a href="/wiki/Valerian_(emperor)" title="Valerian (emperor)">Valerian</a> and his son <a href="/wiki/Gallienus" title="Gallienus">Gallienus</a> divided the empire between them, the former ruling from the East and the latter from the West. However, Valerian was captured by the <a href="/wiki/Sassanids" class="mw-redirect" title="Sassanids">Sassanids</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Edessa" title="Battle of Edessa">Battle of Edessa</a>, leaving Gallienus as sole emperor.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern201599–118-22">[22]</a> <a href="/wiki/Saloninus" title="Saloninus">Saloninus</a>, Gallienus' infant son, and the <a href="/wiki/Praetorian_prefect" title="Praetorian prefect">praetorian prefect</a> Silvanus resided in <a href="/wiki/Colonia_Agrippina" class="mw-redirect" title="Colonia Agrippina">Colonia Agrippina</a> (modern <a href="/wiki/Cologne" title="Cologne">Cologne</a>) to solidify the loyalty of the local legions. Nevertheless, <a href="/wiki/Postumus" title="Postumus">Postumus</a> – the local governor of the German provinces – rebelled, and his assault on Colonia Agrippina resulted in the deaths of Saloninus and the prefect. In the confusion that followed, an independent state known in modern historiography as the <a href="/wiki/Gallic_Empire" title="Gallic Empire">Gallic Empire</a> emerged.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBourne200014-23">[23]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_of_Ancient_Rome_271_AD.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Map_of_Ancient_Rome_271_AD.svg/250px-Map_of_Ancient_Rome_271_AD.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="148" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Map_of_Ancient_Rome_271_AD.svg/375px-Map_of_Ancient_Rome_271_AD.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Map_of_Ancient_Rome_271_AD.svg/500px-Map_of_Ancient_Rome_271_AD.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2050" data-file-height="1213" /></a><figcaption>The Roman, <a href="/wiki/Gallic_Empire" title="Gallic Empire">Gallic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Palmyrene_Empire" title="Palmyrene Empire">Palmyrene</a> Empires in AD 271</figcaption></figure> Its capital was Augusta Treverorum (modern <a href="/wiki/Trier" title="Trier">Trier</a>), and it quickly expanded its control over the German and Gaulish provinces, all of Hispania and <a href="/wiki/Roman_Britain" title="Roman Britain">Britannia</a>. It had its own <a href="/wiki/Senate" title="Senate">senate</a>, and a partial list of its <a href="/wiki/Roman_consul" title="Roman consul">consuls</a> still survives. It maintained Roman religion, language, and culture, and was far more concerned with fighting the <a href="/wiki/Germanic_tribes" class="mw-redirect" title="Germanic tribes">Germanic tribes</a>, fending off Germanic incursions and restoring the security the Gallic provinces had enjoyed in the past, than in challenging the Roman central government.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPostumus-24">[24]</a> In the reign of <a href="/wiki/Claudius_Gothicus" title="Claudius Gothicus">Claudius Gothicus</a> (268–270), large expanses of the Gallic Empire were restored to Roman rule. At roughly the same time, however, several eastern provinces seceded to form the <a href="/wiki/Palmyrene_Empire" title="Palmyrene Empire">Palmyrene Empire</a>, under the rule of Queen <a href="/wiki/Zenobia" title="Zenobia">Zenobia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2013179-25">[25]</a> In 272, Emperor Aurelian finally managed to reclaim Palmyra and its territory for the empire. With the East secure, his attention turned to the West, invading the Gallic Empire a year later. Aurelian decisively defeated <a href="/wiki/Tetricus_I" title="Tetricus I">Tetricus I</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ch%C3%A2lons_(274)" title="Battle of Châlons (274)">Battle of Châlons</a>, and soon captured Tetricus and his son <a href="/wiki/Tetricus_II" title="Tetricus II">Tetricus II</a>. Both Zenobia and the Tetrici were pardoned, although they were first paraded in a triumph.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2015176-26">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVagi2000386-27">[27]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tetrarchy">Tetrarchy</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_Roman_Empire&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Tetrarchy">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Tetrarchy" title="Tetrarchy">Tetrarchy</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Wars-of-the-Tetrarchy.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Wars-of-the-Tetrarchy.gif/230px-Wars-of-the-Tetrarchy.gif" decoding="async" width="230" height="157" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Wars-of-the-Tetrarchy.gif/345px-Wars-of-the-Tetrarchy.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Wars-of-the-Tetrarchy.gif/460px-Wars-of-the-Tetrarchy.gif 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="684" /></a><figcaption>The organization of the Empire under the <a href="/wiki/Tetrachy" class="mw-redirect" title="Tetrachy">Tetrarchy</a></figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Diocletian" title="Diocletian">Diocletian</a> divided the Roman Empire when, in 286, he elevated <a href="/wiki/Maximian" title="Maximian">Maximian</a> to the rank of <a href="/wiki/Augustus_(title)" title="Augustus (title)">Augustus</a> (emperor) and gave him control of the Western Empire, while he continued to rule the East.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarnes20066–7-28">[28]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPotter2014282-29">[29]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2007141–142-30">[30]</a> In 293, <a href="/wiki/Galerius" title="Galerius">Galerius</a> and <a href="/wiki/Constantius_Chlorus" title="Constantius Chlorus">Constantius Chlorus</a> were appointed as their subordinate (<a href="/wiki/Caesar_(title)" title="Caesar (title)">caesars</a>), as a way to avoid the civil unrest that had marked the 3rd century. This system effectively divided the Empire into four major regions, the <a href="/wiki/First_Tetrarchy" class="mw-redirect" title="First Tetrarchy">First Tetrarchy</a>: in the West, Maximian made <a href="/wiki/Mediolanum" title="Mediolanum">Mediolanum</a> (now <a href="/wiki/Milan" title="Milan">Milan</a>) his capital, and Constantius made Trier his. In the East, Galerius made his capital <a href="/wiki/Sirmium" title="Sirmium">Sirmium</a> and Diocletian made <a href="/wiki/Nicomedia" title="Nicomedia">Nicomedia</a> his. On 1 May 305, Diocletian and Maximian abdicated, replaced by Galerius and Constantius, who, in turn, appointed <a href="/wiki/Maximinus_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Maximinus II">Maximinus II</a> and <a href="/wiki/Valerius_Severus" class="mw-redirect" title="Valerius Severus">Valerius Severus</a>, respectively, as their caesars, thus creating the <a href="/wiki/Second_Tetrarchy" class="mw-redirect" title="Second Tetrarchy">Second Tetrarchy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECameronWard-PerkinsWhitby200042-31">[31]</a> The Tetrarchy collapsed after the unexpected death of Constantius in 306. His son, <a href="/wiki/Constantine_the_Great" title="Constantine the Great">Constantine</a>, was declared Western emperor by the British legions,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarnes200627–28-32">[32]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOdahl78–79-33">[33]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJones199259-34">[34]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELenski200761–62-35">[35]</a> but several other claimants arose and attempted to seize the Western Empire. In 308, Galerius revived the Tetrarchy by dividing the Western Empire between Constantine and <a href="/wiki/Licinius" title="Licinius">Licinius</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGibbonsBury197414-36">[36]</a> However, Constantine was more interested in conquering the whole empire so, by 314, began to compete against Licinius, finally defeating him in 324 at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Chrysopolis" title="Battle of Chrysopolis">Battle of Chrysopolis</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrant199747–48-37">[37]</a> After Constantine unified the empire, he refounded the city of <a href="/wiki/Byzantium" title="Byzantium">Byzantium</a> in modern-day Turkey as Nova Roma ("New Rome"), later called <a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinople</a>, and made it the capital of the Roman Empire.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELimberis20129-38">[38]</a> Although the Tetrarchy was ended, the concept of physically dividing the Roman Empire into East and a West continued, as happened after the deaths of Constantine and <a href="/wiki/Theodosius_I" title="Theodosius I">Theodosius I</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOdahl275-39">[39]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECarr201540–43-40">[40]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Further_divisions">Further divisions</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_Roman_Empire&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Further divisions">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_the_Roman_Empire_as_diffusion_of_innovation" title="Christianization of the Roman Empire as diffusion of innovation">Christianization of the Roman Empire as diffusion of innovation</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Impero_Romano_da_maggio_a_settembre_337.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Impero_Romano_da_maggio_a_settembre_337.png/250px-Impero_Romano_da_maggio_a_settembre_337.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="172" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Impero_Romano_da_maggio_a_settembre_337.png/375px-Impero_Romano_da_maggio_a_settembre_337.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Impero_Romano_da_maggio_a_settembre_337.png/500px-Impero_Romano_da_maggio_a_settembre_337.png 2x" data-file-width="688" data-file-height="474" /></a><figcaption>Division of the Empire among the <a href="/wiki/Caesar_(title)" title="Caesar (title)">Caesars</a> appointed by <a href="/wiki/Constantine_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Constantine I">Constantine I</a>: from west to east, the territories of <a href="/wiki/Constantine_II_(emperor)" title="Constantine II (emperor)">Constantine II</a>, <a href="/wiki/Constans_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Constans I">Constans I</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dalmatius" title="Dalmatius">Dalmatius</a> and <a href="/wiki/Constantius_II" title="Constantius II">Constantius II</a>. After the death of Constantine I (337), this was the formal division of the Empire, until <a href="/wiki/Dalmatius" title="Dalmatius">Dalmatius</a> was killed and his territory divided between Constans and Constantius.</figcaption></figure> The Roman Empire was under the rule of a single emperor, but, with the death of Constantine in 337, the empire was partitioned between his surviving male heirs.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOdahl275-39">[39]</a> <a href="/wiki/Constantius_II" title="Constantius II">Constantius</a>, his third son and the second by his wife <a href="/wiki/Fausta" title="Fausta">Fausta</a> (Maximian's daughter)<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConstantius-41">[41]</a> received the eastern provinces, including Constantinople, <a href="/wiki/Roman_Thrace" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Thrace">Thrace</a>, <a href="/wiki/Asia_Minor" class="mw-redirect" title="Asia Minor">Asia Minor</a>, <a href="/wiki/Roman_Syria" title="Roman Syria">Syria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Roman_Egypt" title="Roman Egypt">Egypt</a>, and Cyrenaica; <a href="/wiki/Constantine_II_(emperor)" title="Constantine II (emperor)">Constantine II</a> received Britannia, <a href="/wiki/Roman_Gaul" title="Roman Gaul">Gaul</a>, Hispania, and <a href="/wiki/Mauretania_Tingitana" title="Mauretania Tingitana">Mauretania</a>; and <a href="/wiki/Constans" title="Constans">Constans</a>, initially under the supervision of Constantine II, received <a href="/wiki/Italia_(Roman_Empire)" class="mw-redirect" title="Italia (Roman Empire)">Italy</a>, Africa, <a href="/wiki/Illyricum_(Roman_province)" title="Illyricum (Roman province)">Illyricum</a>, Pannonia, <a href="/wiki/Macedonia_(Roman_province)" title="Macedonia (Roman province)">Macedonia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Achaea_(Roman_province)" class="mw-redirect" title="Achaea (Roman province)">Achaea</a>. The provinces of Thrace, Achaea and Macedonia were shortly controlled by <a href="/wiki/Dalmatius" title="Dalmatius">Dalmatius</a>, nephew of Constantine I and a caesar, not an Augustus, until his murder by his own soldiers in 337.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPotter2008195-42">[42]</a> The West was unified in 340 under Constans, who was assassinated in 350 under the order of the <a href="/wiki/Usurper" title="Usurper">usurper</a> <a href="/wiki/Magnentius" title="Magnentius">Magnentius</a>. After Magnentius lost the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mursa_Major" title="Battle of Mursa Major">Battle of Mursa Major</a> and committed suicide, a complete reunification of the whole Empire occurred under Constantius in 353.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConstantius-41">[41]</a> Constantius II focused most of his power in the East. Under his rule, the city of Byzantium – only recently re-founded as Constantinople – was fully developed as a capital. At Constantinople, the political, economic and military control of the Eastern Empire's resources would remain safe for centuries to come. The city was well fortified and located at the crossroads of several major trade and military routes. The site had been acknowledged for its strategic importance already by emperors Septimius Severus and <a href="/wiki/Caracalla" title="Caracalla">Caracalla</a>, more than a century prior.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDagron198415,_19-43">[43]</a> In 361, Constantius II became ill and died, and Constantius Chlorus' grandson <a href="/wiki/Julian_(emperor)" title="Julian (emperor)">Julian</a>, who had served as Constantius II's Caesar, assumed power. Julian was killed in 363 in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Samarra" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Samarra">Battle of Samarra</a> against the <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanian Empire</a> and was succeeded by <a href="/wiki/Jovian_(Emperor)" class="mw-redirect" title="Jovian (Emperor)">Jovian</a>, who ruled for only nine months.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELascaratos_&_Voros615–619-44">[44]</a> Following the death of Jovian, <a href="/wiki/Valentinian_I" title="Valentinian I">Valentinian I</a> emerged as emperor in 364. He immediately divided the Empire once again, giving the eastern half to his brother <a href="/wiki/Valens" title="Valens">Valens</a>. Stability was not achieved for long in either half, as the conflicts with outside forces (barbarian tribes) intensified. In 376, the <a href="/wiki/Visigoths" title="Visigoths">Visigoths</a>, fleeing before the <a href="/wiki/Ostrogoths" title="Ostrogoths">Ostrogoths</a>, who in turn were fleeing before the <a href="/wiki/Huns" title="Huns">Huns</a>, were allowed to cross the river Danube and settle in the Balkans by the Eastern government. Mistreatment caused a full-scale rebellion, and in 378 they inflicted a crippling defeat on the Eastern Roman field army in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Adrianople" title="Battle of Adrianople">Battle of Adrianople</a>, in which Emperor Valens also died. The defeat at Adrianople was shocking to the Romans, and forced them to negotiate with and settle the Visigoths within the borders of the Empire, where they would become semi-independent <a href="/wiki/Foederati" title="Foederati">foederati</a> under their own leaders.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKatz195588–89-45">[45]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Theodosius_I%27s_empire.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Theodosius_I%27s_empire.png/250px-Theodosius_I%27s_empire.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Theodosius_I%27s_empire.png/375px-Theodosius_I%27s_empire.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Theodosius_I%27s_empire.png/500px-Theodosius_I%27s_empire.png 2x" data-file-width="563" data-file-height="406" /></a><figcaption>The division of the Empire after the death of <a href="/wiki/Theodosius_I" title="Theodosius I">Theodosius I</a>, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> AD 395, superimposed on modern borders<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  Western Court under <a href="/wiki/Honorius_(emperor)" title="Honorius (emperor)">Honorius</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Eastern Court</a> under <a href="/wiki/Arcadius" title="Arcadius">Arcadius</a></div></figcaption></figure>More than in the East, there was also opposition to the Christianizing policy of the emperors in the western part of the Empire. In 379, Valentinian I's son and successor <a href="/wiki/Gratian" title="Gratian">Gratian</a> declined to wear the mantle of <a href="/wiki/Pontifex_Maximus" class="mw-redirect" title="Pontifex Maximus">Pontifex Maximus</a>, and in 382 he rescinded the rights of pagan priests and removed the <a href="/wiki/Altar_of_Victory" title="Altar of Victory">Altar of Victory</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Curia" title="Curia">Roman Curia</a>, a decision which caused dissatisfaction among the traditionally pagan aristocracy of Rome.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPontifex_Maximus-46">[46]</a> The political situation was unstable. In 383, a powerful and popular general named <a href="/wiki/Magnus_Maximus" title="Magnus Maximus">Magnus Maximus</a> seized power in the West and forced Gratian's half-brother <a href="/wiki/Valentinian_II" title="Valentinian II">Valentinian II</a> to flee to the East for aid; in a destructive civil war the Eastern emperor Theodosius I restored him to power.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBauer201068-47">[47]</a> In 392, the <a href="/wiki/Franks" title="Franks">Frankish</a> and pagan <a href="/wiki/Magister_militum" title="Magister militum">magister militum</a> <a href="/wiki/Arbogast_(magister_militum)" title="Arbogast (magister militum)">Arbogast</a> assassinated Valentinian II and proclaimed an obscure senator named <a href="/wiki/Eugenius" title="Eugenius">Eugenius</a> as emperor. In 394 the forces of the two halves of the Empire again <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Frigidus" title="Battle of the Frigidus">clashed</a> with great loss of life. Again Theodosius I won, and he briefly ruled a united Empire until his death in 395. He was the last emperor to rule both parts of the Roman Empire before the West fragmented and collapsed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECarr201540–43-40">[40]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Roman_Empire,_AD_395.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/The_Roman_Empire%2C_AD_395.png/250px-The_Roman_Empire%2C_AD_395.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="181" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/The_Roman_Empire%2C_AD_395.png/375px-The_Roman_Empire%2C_AD_395.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/The_Roman_Empire%2C_AD_395.png/500px-The_Roman_Empire%2C_AD_395.png 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="2171" /></a><figcaption>The administrative divisions of the Roman Empire in 395 AD</figcaption></figure> Theodosius I's older son <a href="/wiki/Arcadius" title="Arcadius">Arcadius</a> inherited the eastern half while the younger <a href="/wiki/Honorius_(emperor)" title="Honorius (emperor)">Honorius</a> got the western half. Both were still minors and neither was capable of ruling effectively. Honorius was placed under the tutelage of the half-Roman/half-barbarian magister militum <a href="/wiki/Flavius_Stilicho" class="mw-redirect" title="Flavius Stilicho">Flavius Stilicho</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVogt1993179-48">[48]</a> while <a href="/wiki/Rufinus_(consul)" title="Rufinus (consul)">Rufinus</a> became the power behind the throne in the east. Rufinus and Stilicho were rivals, and their disagreements would be exploited by the Gothic leader <a href="/wiki/Alaric_I" title="Alaric I">Alaric I</a> who again rebelled in 408 following the massacre by Roman legions of thousands of barbarian families who were trying to assimilate into the Roman empire.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrassetto2003214–217-49">[49]</a> Neither half of the Empire could raise forces sufficient even to subdue Alaric's men, and both tried to use Alaric against the other half. Alaric himself tried to establish a long-term territorial and official base, but was never able to do so. Stilicho tried to defend Italy and bring the invading Goths under control, but to do so he stripped the Rhine frontier of troops and the <a href="/wiki/Vandals" title="Vandals">Vandals</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alans" title="Alans">Alans</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Suevi" class="mw-redirect" title="Suevi">Suevi</a> <a href="/wiki/Crossing_of_the_Rhine" title="Crossing of the Rhine">invaded Gaul</a> in large numbers in 406. Stilicho became a victim of court intrigues and was killed in 408. While the East began a slow recovery and consolidation, the West began to collapse entirely. Alaric's men <a href="/wiki/Sack_of_Rome_(410)" title="Sack of Rome (410)">sacked Rome</a> in 410.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurns1994244-50">[50]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_Roman_Empire&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: History">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reign_of_Honorius">Reign of Honorius</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_Roman_Empire&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Reign of Honorius">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Honorius_(emperor)" title="Honorius (emperor)">Honorius (emperor)</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gold_Solidus_of_Honorius.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Gold_Solidus_of_Honorius.jpg/220px-Gold_Solidus_of_Honorius.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="212" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Gold_Solidus_of_Honorius.jpg/330px-Gold_Solidus_of_Honorius.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Gold_Solidus_of_Honorius.jpg/440px-Gold_Solidus_of_Honorius.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2544" data-file-height="2454" /></a><figcaption>Gold solidus of <a href="/wiki/Honorius_(emperor)" title="Honorius (emperor)">Honorius</a></figcaption></figure> Honorius, the younger son of Theodosius I, was declared Augustus (and as such co-emperor with his father) on 23 January in 393, at the age of 9. Upon the death of Theodosius, Honorius inherited the throne of the West at the age of ten whilst his older brother Arcadius inherited the East. The western capital was initially Mediolanum, as it had been during previous divisions, but it was moved to <a href="/wiki/Ravenna" title="Ravenna">Ravenna</a> in 401 upon the entry of the Visigothic king Alaric I into Italy. Ravenna, protected by abundant marshes and strong fortifications, was far easier to defend and had easy access to the imperial fleet of the Eastern Empire but made it more difficult for the Roman military to defend the central parts of Italy from regular barbarian incursions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBury2005110-51">[51]</a> Ravenna would remain the western capital until 450 when <a href="/wiki/Valentinian_III" title="Valentinian III">Valentinian III</a> moved the court back to Rome. Most western emperors from 450 until 475 reigned from Rome. The last de facto western emperor <a href="/wiki/Romulus_Augustulus" title="Romulus Augustulus">Romulus Augustulus</a> resided in Ravenna from 475 until his deposition in 476 and Ravenna would later be the capital of both the <a href="/wiki/Ostrogothic_Kingdom" title="Ostrogothic Kingdom">Ostrogothic Kingdom</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Exarchate_of_Ravenna" title="Exarchate of Ravenna">Exarchate of Ravenna</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeliyannis2010153–156-52">[52]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHallenbeck19827-53">[53]</a> Despite the moved capital, economic power remained focused on Rome and its rich senatorial aristocracy which dominated much of Italy and Africa in particular. After Emperor <a href="/wiki/Gallienus" title="Gallienus">Gallienus</a> had banned senators from army commands in the mid-3rd century, the senatorial elite lost all experience of – and interest in – military life.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGallienus-54">[54]</a> In the early 5th century the wealthy landowning elite of the Roman Senate largely barred its tenants from military service, but it also refused to approve sufficient funding for maintaining a sufficiently powerful mercenary army to defend the entire Western Empire. The West's most important military area had been northern Gaul and the Rhine frontier in the 4th century, when Trier frequently served as a military capital of sorts for the Empire. Many leading Western generals were <a href="/wiki/Barbarians" class="mw-redirect" title="Barbarians">barbarians</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHugh1996148–149-55">[55]</a> The reign of Honorius was, even by Western Roman standards, chaotic and plagued by both internal and external struggles. The Visigothic foederati under Alaric, magister militum in <a href="/wiki/Diocese_of_Illyricum" class="mw-redirect" title="Diocese of Illyricum">Illyricum</a>, rebelled in 395. <a href="/wiki/Gildo" title="Gildo">Gildo</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Comes" title="Comes">Comes</a> Africae and Magister utriusque militiae per Africam, rebelled in 397 and initiated the <a href="/wiki/Gildonic_War" title="Gildonic War">Gildonic War</a>. Stilicho managed to subdue Gildo but was campaigning in <a href="/wiki/Raetia" title="Raetia">Raetia</a> when the Visigoths entered Italy in 402.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBury2005108-56">[56]</a> Stilicho, hurrying back to aid in defending Italy, summoned legions in Gaul and Britain with which he managed to defeat Alaric twice before agreeing to allow him to retreat back to <a href="/wiki/Illyria" title="Illyria">Illyria</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBury2005109-57">[57]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Western_Roman_Empire_409.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Western_Roman_Empire_409.png/220px-Western_Roman_Empire_409.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="209" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Western_Roman_Empire_409.png/330px-Western_Roman_Empire_409.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Western_Roman_Empire_409.png/440px-Western_Roman_Empire_409.png 2x" data-file-width="3500" data-file-height="3323" /></a><figcaption>Barbarian invasions and the invasion of usurper <a href="/wiki/Constantine_III_(Western_Roman_emperor)" title="Constantine III (Western Roman emperor)">Constantine III</a> in the Western Roman Empire during the reign of <a href="/wiki/Honorius_(emperor)" title="Honorius (emperor)">Honorius</a>, 407–409</figcaption></figure> The weakening of the frontiers in Britain and Gaul had dire consequences for the Empire. As the imperial government was not providing the military protection the northern provinces expected and needed, numerous usurpers arose in Britain, including <a href="/wiki/Marcus_(usurper)" title="Marcus (usurper)">Marcus</a> (406–407), <a href="/wiki/Gratian_(usurper)" title="Gratian (usurper)">Gratian</a> (407), and <a href="/wiki/Constantine_III_(usurper)" class="mw-redirect" title="Constantine III (usurper)">Constantine III</a> who invaded Gaul in 407.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBury2005138-58">[58]</a> Britain was effectively abandoned by the empire by 410 due to the lack of resources and the need to look after more important frontiers. The weakening of the Rhine frontier allowed multiple barbarian tribes, including the Vandals, Alans and <a href="/wiki/Suebi" title="Suebi">Suebi</a>, to cross the river and enter Roman territory in 406.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeather2005195-59">[59]</a> Honorius was convinced by the minister <a href="/wiki/Olympius" title="Olympius">Olympius</a> that Stilicho was conspiring to overthrow him, and so arrested and executed Stilicho in 408.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBury2005113-60">[60]</a> Olympius headed a conspiracy that orchestrated the deaths of key individuals related to the faction of Stilicho, including his son and the families of many of his federated troops. This led many of the soldiers to instead join with Alaric, who returned to Italy in 409 and met little opposition. Despite attempts by Honorius to reach a settlement and six legions of Eastern Roman soldiers sent to support him,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorwich1989136-61">[61]</a> the negotiations between Alaric and Honorius broke down in 410 and Alaric sacked the city of Rome. Though the sack was relatively mild and Rome was no longer the capital of even the Western Empire, the event shocked people across both halves of the Empire as this was the first time Rome (viewed at least as the symbolic heart of the Empire) had fallen to a foreign enemy since the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Allia" title="Battle of the Allia">Gallic invasions</a> of the 4th century BC. The Eastern Roman emperor <a href="/wiki/Theodosius_II" title="Theodosius II">Theodosius II</a>, the successor of Arcadius, declared three days of mourning in Constantinople.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClineGraham2011303-62">[62]</a> Without Stilicho and following the sack of Rome, Honorius' reign grew more chaotic. The usurper <a href="/wiki/Constantine_III_(Western_Roman_emperor)" title="Constantine III (Western Roman emperor)">Constantine III</a> had stripped Roman Britain of its defenses when he crossed over to Gaul in 407, leaving the Romanized population subject to invasions, first by the <a href="/wiki/Picts" title="Picts">Picts</a> and then by the <a href="/wiki/Saxons" title="Saxons">Saxons</a>, <a href="/wiki/Angli" class="mw-redirect" title="Angli">Angli</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Jutes" title="Jutes">Jutes</a> who began to settle permanently from about 440 onwards. After Honorius accepted Constantine as co-emperor, Constantine's general in Hispania, <a href="/wiki/Gerontius_(magister_militum)" title="Gerontius (magister militum)">Gerontius</a>, proclaimed <a href="/wiki/Maximus_of_Hispania" title="Maximus of Hispania">Maximus</a> as emperor. With the aid of general <a href="/wiki/Constantius_III" title="Constantius III">Constantius</a>, Honorius defeated Gerontius and Maximus in 411 and shortly thereafter captured and executed Constantine III. With Constantius back in Italy, the Gallo-Roman senator <a href="/wiki/Jovinus" title="Jovinus">Jovinus</a> revolted after proclaiming himself emperor, with the support of the Gallic nobility and the barbarian <a href="/wiki/Burgundians" title="Burgundians">Burgundians</a> and Alans. Honorius turned to the Visigoths under King <a href="/wiki/Athaulf" title="Athaulf">Athaulf</a> for support.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBury2005145-63">[63]</a> Athaulf defeated and executed Jovinus and his proclaimed co-emperor <a href="/wiki/Sebastianus" title="Sebastianus">Sebastianus</a> in 413, around the same time as another usurper arose in <a href="/wiki/Africa_(Roman_province)" title="Africa (Roman province)">Africa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Heraclianus" title="Heraclianus">Heraclianus</a>. Heraclianus attempted to invade Italy but failed and retreated to Carthage, where he was killed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBury2005146-64">[64]</a> With the Roman legions withdrawn, northern Gaul became increasingly subject to Frankish influence, the Franks naturally adopting a leading role in the region. In 418, Honorius granted southwestern Gaul (<a href="/wiki/Gallia_Aquitania" title="Gallia Aquitania">Gallia Aquitania</a>) to the Visigoths as a vassal federation. Honorius removed the local imperial governors, leaving the Visigoths and the provincial Roman inhabitants to conduct their own affairs. As such, the first of the "<a href="/wiki/Barbarian_kingdoms" title="Barbarian kingdoms">barbarian kingdoms</a>", the <a href="/wiki/Visigothic_Kingdom" title="Visigothic Kingdom">Visigothic Kingdom</a>, was formed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBury2005154-65">[65]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Escalating_barbarian_conflicts">Escalating barbarian conflicts</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_Roman_Empire&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Escalating barbarian conflicts">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Invasions_of_the_Roman_Empire_1.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Invasions_of_the_Roman_Empire_1.png/250px-Invasions_of_the_Roman_Empire_1.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="177" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Invasions_of_the_Roman_Empire_1.png/375px-Invasions_of_the_Roman_Empire_1.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Invasions_of_the_Roman_Empire_1.png/500px-Invasions_of_the_Roman_Empire_1.png 2x" data-file-width="1954" data-file-height="1382" /></a><figcaption>Germanic and Hunnic invasions of the Roman Empire, 100–500 AD</figcaption></figure> Honorius' death in 423 was followed by turmoil until the Eastern Roman government installed <a href="/wiki/Valentinian_III" title="Valentinian III">Valentinian III</a> as Western emperor in Ravenna by force of arms, with <a href="/wiki/Galla_Placidia" title="Galla Placidia">Galla Placidia</a> acting as regent during her son's minority. Theodosius II, the Eastern emperor, had hesitated to announce the death of Honorius and in the ensuing interregnum, <a href="/wiki/Joannes" title="Joannes">Joannes</a> was nominated as Western emperor. Joannes' rule was short and the forces of the East defeated and executed him in 425.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2010305-66">[66]</a><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:0418_Befreiung_einer_belagerten_Stadt_Bodemuseum_anagoria.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/0418_Befreiung_einer_belagerten_Stadt_Bodemuseum_anagoria.JPG/170px-0418_Befreiung_einer_belagerten_Stadt_Bodemuseum_anagoria.JPG" decoding="async" width="170" height="369" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/0418_Befreiung_einer_belagerten_Stadt_Bodemuseum_anagoria.JPG/255px-0418_Befreiung_einer_belagerten_Stadt_Bodemuseum_anagoria.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/0418_Befreiung_einer_belagerten_Stadt_Bodemuseum_anagoria.JPG/340px-0418_Befreiung_einer_belagerten_Stadt_Bodemuseum_anagoria.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2189" data-file-height="4752" /></a><figcaption>Boxwood <a href="/wiki/Relief" title="Relief">relief</a> depicting the liberation of a besieged city by a relief force, with those defending the walls making a <a href="/wiki/Sortie" title="Sortie">sortie</a>. Western Roman Empire, early 5th century AD</figcaption></figure>After a violent struggle with several rivals, and against Placidia's wish, <a href="/wiki/Flavius_Aetius" title="Flavius Aetius">Aetius</a> rose to the rank of magister militum. Aetius was able to stabilize the Western Empire's military situation somewhat, relying heavily on his <a href="/wiki/Huns#Unified_Empire_under_Attila" title="Huns">Hunnic</a> allies. With their help Aetius undertook extensive campaigns in Gaul, defeating the Visigoths in 437 and 438 but suffering a defeat himself in 439, ending the conflict in a <a href="/wiki/Status_quo_ante_bellum" title="Status quo ante bellum">status quo ante</a> with a treaty.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHughes2012102–103-67">[67]</a> Meanwhile, pressure from the Visigoths and a rebellion by <a href="/wiki/Bonifacius" class="mw-redirect" title="Bonifacius">Bonifacius</a>, the governor of Africa, induced the Vandals under King <a href="/wiki/Gaiseric" title="Gaiseric">Gaiseric</a> to cross from Spain to Tingitana in what is now Morocco in 429. They temporarily halted in <a href="/wiki/Numidia_(Roman_province)" title="Numidia (Roman province)">Numidia</a> in 435 before moving eastward. With Aetius occupied in Gaul, the Western Roman government could do nothing to prevent the Vandals conquering the wealthy African provinces, culminating in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Carthage_(439)" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Carthage (439)">fall</a> of <a href="/wiki/Carthage" title="Carthage">Carthage</a> on 19 October 439 and the establishment of the <a href="/wiki/Vandal_Kingdom" title="Vandal Kingdom">Vandal Kingdom</a>. By the 400s, Italy and Rome itself were dependent on the taxes and foodstuffs from these provinces, leading to an economic crisis. With Vandal fleets becoming an increasing danger to Roman sea trade and the coasts and islands of the western and central Mediterranean, Aetius coordinated a counterattack against the Vandals in 440, organizing a large army in Sicily.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeather200011-68">[68]</a> However, the plans for retaking Africa had to be abandoned due to the immediate need to combat the invading Huns, who in 444 were united under their ambitious king <a href="/wiki/Attila" title="Attila">Attila</a>. Turning against their former ally, the Huns became a formidable threat to the Empire. Aetius transferred his forces to the Danube,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeather200011-68">[68]</a> though Attila concentrated on raiding the Eastern Roman provinces in the Balkans, providing temporary relief to the Western Empire. In 449, Attila received a message from <a href="/wiki/Justa_Grata_Honoria" title="Justa Grata Honoria">Honoria</a>, Valentinian III's sister, offering him half the western empire if he would rescue her from an unwanted marriage that her brother was forcing her into. With a pretext to invade the West, Attila secured peace with the Eastern court and crossed the Rhine in early 451.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeather200015-69">[69]</a> With Attila wreaking havoc in Gaul, Aetius gathered a coalition of Roman and Germanic forces, including Visigoths and Burgundians, and prevented the Huns from taking the city of <a href="/wiki/Orl%C3%A9ans" title="Orléans">Aurelianum</a>, forcing them into retreat.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBury2005292-70">[70]</a> At the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Catalaunian_Plains" title="Battle of the Catalaunian Plains">Battle of the Catalaunian Plains</a>, the Roman-Germanic coalition met and defeated the Hunnic forces, though Attila escaped.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeather2007339-71">[71]</a> Attila regrouped and invaded Italy in 452. With Aetius not having enough forces to attack him, the road to Rome was open. Valentinian sent <a href="/wiki/Pope_Leo_I" title="Pope Leo I">Pope Leo I</a> and two leading senators to negotiate with Attila. This embassy, combined with a plague among Attila's troops, the threat of famine, and news that the Eastern emperor <a href="/wiki/Marcian" title="Marcian">Marcian</a> had launched an attack on the Hun homelands along the Danube, forced Attila to turn back and leave Italy. When Attila died unexpectedly in 453, the power struggle that erupted between his sons ended the threat posed by the Huns.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeather200017–18-72">[72]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Internal_unrest_and_Majorian">Internal unrest and Majorian</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_Roman_Empire&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Internal unrest and Majorian">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Roman_Empire_under_Majorian_(460_CE).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Roman_Empire_under_Majorian_%28460_CE%29.png/220px-Roman_Empire_under_Majorian_%28460_CE%29.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="250" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Roman_Empire_under_Majorian_%28460_CE%29.png/330px-Roman_Empire_under_Majorian_%28460_CE%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Roman_Empire_under_Majorian_%28460_CE%29.png/440px-Roman_Empire_under_Majorian_%28460_CE%29.png 2x" data-file-width="1220" data-file-height="1385" /></a><figcaption>The Western Roman Empire during the reign of <a href="/wiki/Majorian" title="Majorian">Majorian</a> in AD 460. During his four-year-long reign from 457 to 461, Majorian restored Western Roman authority in Hispania and most of Gaul. Despite his accomplishments, Roman rule in the west would last less than two more decades.</figcaption></figure> Valentinian III was intimidated by Aetius and was encouraged by the Roman senator <a href="/wiki/Petronius_Maximus" title="Petronius Maximus">Petronius Maximus</a> and the chamberlain Heraclius to assassinate him. When Aetius was at court in Ravenna delivering a financial account, Valentinian suddenly leaped from his seat and declared that he would no longer be the victim of Aetius' drunken depravities. Aetius attempted to defend himself from the charges, but Valentinian drew his sword and struck the weaponless Aetius on the head, killing him on the spot.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGiven2014126-73">[73]</a> On 16 March the following year, Valentinian himself was killed by supporters of the dead general, possibly acting for Petronius Maximus. With the end of the <a href="/wiki/Theodosian_dynasty" title="Theodosian dynasty">Theodosian dynasty</a>, Petronius Maximus proclaimed himself emperor during the ensuing period of unrest.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGiven2014128-74">[74]</a> Petronius was not able to take effective control of the significantly weakened and unstable Empire. He broke the betrothal between Huneric, son of the Vandal king <a href="/wiki/Gaiseric" title="Gaiseric">Gaiseric</a>, and Eudocia, daughter of Valentinian III. This was seen as a just cause of war by King Gaiseric, who set sail to attack Rome. Petronius and his supporters attempted to flee the city at the sight of the approaching Vandals, only to be stoned to death by a Roman mob. Petronius had reigned only 11 weeks.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBury2005324–325-75">[75]</a> With the Vandals at the gates, Pope Leo I requested that the King not destroy the ancient city or murder its inhabitants, to which Gaiseric agreed and the city gates were opened to him. Though keeping his promise, Gaiseric looted great amounts of treasure and damaged objects of cultural significance such as the <a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Jupiter_Optimus_Maximus" title="Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus">Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus</a>. The severity of the <a href="/wiki/Sack_of_Rome_(455)" title="Sack of Rome (455)">Vandal sack of 455</a> is disputed, though with the Vandals plundering the city for a full fourteen days as opposed to the Visigothic sack of 410, where the Visigoths only spent three days in the city, it was likely more thorough.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeather2000379-76">[76]</a> <a href="/wiki/Avitus" title="Avitus">Avitus</a>, a prominent general under Petronius, was proclaimed emperor by the Visigothic king <a href="/wiki/Theodoric_II" title="Theodoric II">Theodoric II</a> and accepted as such by the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Senate" title="Roman Senate">Roman Senate</a>. Though supported by the Gallic provinces and the Visigoths, Avitus was resented in Italy due to ongoing food shortages caused by Vandal control of trade routes, and for using a Visigothic imperial guard. He disbanded his guard due to popular pressure, and the Suebian general <a href="/wiki/Ricimer" title="Ricimer">Ricimer</a> used the opportunity to depose Avitus, counting on popular discontent. After the deposition of Avitus, the Eastern emperor <a href="/wiki/Leo_I_the_Thracian" class="mw-redirect" title="Leo I the Thracian">Leo I</a> did not select a new western Augustus. The prominent general <a href="/wiki/Majorian" title="Majorian">Majorian</a> defeated an invading force of <a href="/wiki/Alemanni" title="Alemanni">Alemanni</a> and was subsequently proclaimed Western emperor by the army and eventually accepted as such by Leo.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMajorian-77">[77]</a> Majorian was the last Western emperor to attempt to recover the Western Empire with his own military forces. To prepare, Majorian significantly strengthened the Western Roman army by recruiting large numbers of barbarian mercenaries, among them the <a href="/wiki/Gepids" title="Gepids">Gepids</a>, Ostrogoths, <a href="/wiki/Rugii" title="Rugii">Rugii</a>, Burgundians, Huns, <a href="/wiki/Bastarnae" title="Bastarnae">Bastarnae</a>, Suebi, <a href="/wiki/Scythians" title="Scythians">Scythians</a> and Alans, and built two fleets, one at Ravenna, to combat the strong Vandalic fleet. Majorian personally led the army to wage war in Gaul, leaving Ricimer in Italy. The Gallic provinces and the Visigothic Kingdom had rebelled following the deposition of Avitus, refusing to acknowledge Majorian as lawful emperor. At the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Arelate" title="Battle of Arelate">Battle of Arelate</a>, Majorian decisively defeated the Visigoths under Theoderic II and forced them to relinquish their great conquests in Hispania and return to foederati status. Majorian then entered the <a href="/wiki/Rhone_Valley" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhone Valley">Rhone Valley</a>, where he defeated the Burgundians and reconquered the rebel city of <a href="/wiki/Lugdunum" title="Lugdunum">Lugdunum</a>. With Gaul back under Roman control, Majorian turned his eyes to the Vandals and Africa. Not only did the Vandals pose a constant danger to coastal Italy and trade in the Mediterranean, but the province they ruled was economically vital to the survival of the West. Majorian began a campaign to fully reconquer Hispania to use it as a base for the reconquest of Africa. Throughout 459, Majorian campaigned against the Suebi in northwestern Hispania.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMajorian-77">[77]</a> The Vandals began to increasingly fear a Roman invasion. King Gaiseric tried to negotiate a peace with Majorian, who rejected the proposal. In the wake of this, Gaiseric devastated <a href="/wiki/Mauretania_Caesariensis" title="Mauretania Caesariensis">Mauretania</a>, part of his own kingdom, fearing that the Roman army would land there. Having regained control of Hispania, Majorian intended to use his fleet at <a href="/wiki/Hispania_Carthaginensis" title="Hispania Carthaginensis">Carthaginiensis</a> to attack the Vandals. Before he could, the fleet was destroyed, allegedly by traitors paid by the Vandals. Deprived of his fleet, Majorian had to cancel his attack on the Vandals and conclude a peace with Gaiseric. Disbanding his barbarian forces, Majorian intended to return to Rome and issue reforms, stopping at <a href="/wiki/Arelate" class="mw-redirect" title="Arelate">Arelate</a> on his way. Here, Ricimer deposed and arrested him in 461, having gathered significant aristocratic opposition against Majorian. After five days of beatings and torture, Majorian was beheaded near the river <a href="/wiki/Iria_(river)" class="mw-redirect" title="Iria (river)">Iria</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMajorian-77">[77]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Collapse">Collapse</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_Roman_Empire&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Collapse">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Fall of the Western Roman Empire">Fall of the Western Roman Empire</a></div><figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:628px-Western_and_Eastern_Roman_Empires_476AD(3).PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/628px-Western_and_Eastern_Roman_Empires_476AD%283%29.PNG/250px-628px-Western_and_Eastern_Roman_Empires_476AD%283%29.PNG" decoding="async" width="250" height="123" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/628px-Western_and_Eastern_Roman_Empires_476AD%283%29.PNG/375px-628px-Western_and_Eastern_Roman_Empires_476AD%283%29.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/628px-Western_and_Eastern_Roman_Empires_476AD%283%29.PNG/500px-628px-Western_and_Eastern_Roman_Empires_476AD%283%29.PNG 2x" data-file-width="528" data-file-height="259" /></a><figcaption>The Western and <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Eastern Roman Empire</a> by 476</figcaption></figure>The final collapse of the Empire in the West was marked by increasingly ineffectual puppet emperors dominated by their Germanic magistri militum. The most pointed example of this is <a href="/wiki/Ricimer" title="Ricimer">Ricimer</a>, who effectively became a "shadow emperor" following the depositions of Avitus and Majorian. Unable to take the throne for himself due to his barbarian heritage, Ricimer appointed a series of puppet emperors who could do little to halt the collapse of Roman authority and the loss of the territories re-conquered by Majorian.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthemius-78">[78]</a> The first of these puppet emperors, <a href="/wiki/Libius_Severus" title="Libius Severus">Libius Severus</a>, had no recognition outside of Italy, with the Eastern emperor Leo I and provincial governors in Gaul and <a href="/wiki/Illyria" title="Illyria">Illyria</a> all refusing to recognize him.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELibius_Severus-79">[79]</a> Severus died in 465 and Leo I, with the consent of Ricimer, appointed the capable Eastern general <a href="/wiki/Anthemius" title="Anthemius">Anthemius</a> as Western emperor following an eighteen-month <a href="/wiki/Interregnum" title="Interregnum">interregnum</a>. The relationship between Anthemius and the East was good, Anthemius is the last Western emperor recorded in an Eastern law, and the two courts conducted a joint operation to retake Africa from the Vandals, culminating in the disastrous <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cape_Bon_(468)" title="Battle of Cape Bon (468)">Battle of Cape Bon</a> in 468. In addition Anthemius conducted failed campaigns against the Visigoths, hoping to halt their expansion.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthemius-78">[78]</a> The trial and subsequent execution of <a href="/wiki/Romanus_(usurper)" title="Romanus (usurper)">Romanus</a>, an Italian senator and friend of Ricimer, on the grounds of treachery in 470 made Ricimer hostile to Anthemius. Following two years of ill feeling, Ricimer deposed and killed Anthemius in 472, elevating <a href="/wiki/Olybrius" title="Olybrius">Olybrius</a> to the Western throne.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGordon2013122f-80">[80]</a> During the brief reign of Olybrius, Ricimer died and his nephew <a href="/wiki/Gundobad" title="Gundobad">Gundobad</a> succeeded him as magister militum. After only seven months of rule, Olybrius died of <a href="/wiki/Dropsy" class="mw-redirect" title="Dropsy">dropsy</a>. Gundobad elevated <a href="/wiki/Glycerius" title="Glycerius">Glycerius</a> to Western emperor. The Eastern Empire had rejected Olybrius and also rejected Glycerius, instead supporting a candidate of their own, <a href="/wiki/Julius_Nepos" title="Julius Nepos">Julius Nepos</a>, magister militum in <a href="/wiki/Dalmatia" title="Dalmatia">Dalmatia</a>. With the support of Eastern emperors <a href="/wiki/Leo_II_(emperor)" title="Leo II (emperor)">Leo II</a> and <a href="/wiki/Zeno_(emperor)" title="Zeno (emperor)">Zeno</a>, Julius Nepos crossed the <a href="/wiki/Adriatic_Sea" title="Adriatic Sea">Adriatic Sea</a> in the spring of 474 to depose Glycerius. At the arrival of Nepos in Italy, Glycerius abdicated without a fight and was allowed to live out his life as the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Archdiocese_of_Split-Makarska" title="Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Split-Makarska">Bishop of Salona</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGlycerius-81">[81]</a> The brief rule of Nepos in Italy ended in 475 when <a href="/wiki/Orestes_(father_of_Romulus_Augustulus)" title="Orestes (father of Romulus Augustulus)">Orestes</a>, a former secretary of Attila and the magister militum of Julius Nepos, took control of Ravenna and forced Nepos to flee by ship to <a href="/wiki/Dalmatia" title="Dalmatia">Dalmatia</a>. Later in the same year, Orestes crowned his own young son as Western emperor under the name <a href="/wiki/Romulus_Augustulus" title="Romulus Augustulus">Romulus Augustus</a>. Romulus Augustus was not recognised as Western emperor by the Eastern Court, who maintained that Nepos was the only legal Western emperor, reigning in exile from <a href="/wiki/Dalmatia" title="Dalmatia">Dalmatia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBury2005408-82">[82]</a> On 4 September 476, <a href="/wiki/Odoacer" title="Odoacer">Odoacer</a>, leader of the Germanic foederati in Italy, captured Ravenna, killed Orestes and deposed Romulus. Though Romulus was deposed, Nepos did not return to Italy and continued to reign as Western emperor from <a href="/wiki/Dalmatia" title="Dalmatia">Dalmatia</a>, with support from Constantinople. Odoacer proclaimed himself ruler of Italy and began to negotiate with the Eastern emperor <a href="/wiki/Zeno_(emperor)" title="Zeno (emperor)">Zeno</a>. Zeno eventually granted Odoacer <a href="/wiki/Patrician_(ancient_Rome)" title="Patrician (ancient Rome)">patrician</a> status as recognition of his authority and accepted him as his viceroy of Italy. Zeno, however, insisted that Odoacer had to pay homage to Julius Nepos as the emperor of the Western Empire. Odoacer accepted this condition and issued coins in the name of Julius Nepos throughout Italy. This, however, was mainly an empty political gesture, as Odoacer never returned any real power or territories to Nepos. The murder of Nepos in 480 prompted Odoacer to invade <a href="/wiki/Dalmatia" title="Dalmatia">Dalmatia</a>, annexing it to his <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Italy_(476%E2%80%93493)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Italy (476–493)">Kingdom of Italy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacGeorge200262-83">[83]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fall_of_the_Empire">Fall of the Empire</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_Roman_Empire&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Fall of the Empire">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Historiography of the fall of the Western Roman Empire">Historiography of the fall of the Western Roman Empire</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ravenna(Peutinger_Map).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Ravenna%28Peutinger_Map%29.png/220px-Ravenna%28Peutinger_Map%29.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="87" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Ravenna%28Peutinger_Map%29.png/330px-Ravenna%28Peutinger_Map%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Ravenna%28Peutinger_Map%29.png/440px-Ravenna%28Peutinger_Map%29.png 2x" data-file-width="498" data-file-height="197" /></a><figcaption>The city of <a href="/wiki/Ravenna" title="Ravenna">Ravenna</a>, Western Roman capital, on the <a href="/wiki/Tabula_Peutingeriana" title="Tabula Peutingeriana">Tabula Peutingeriana</a>, a 13th-century medieval map possibly copied from a 4th- or 5th-century Roman original</figcaption></figure> By convention, the Western Roman Empire is deemed to have ended on 4 September 476, when Odoacer deposed Romulus Augustus, but the historical record calls this determination into question. Indeed, the deposition of Romulus Augustus received very little attention in contemporary times. Romulus was a usurper in the eyes of the Eastern Roman Empire and the remaining territories of Western Roman control outside of Italy, with the previous emperor Julius Nepos still being alive and claiming to rule the Western Empire in <a href="/wiki/Dalmatia" title="Dalmatia">Dalmatia</a>. Furthermore, the Western court had lacked true power and had been subject to Germanic aristocrats for decades, with most of its legal territory being under control of various barbarian kingdoms. With Odoacer recognising Julius Nepos, and later the Eastern emperor Zeno, as his sovereign, nominal Roman control continued in Italy.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBörm200847ff-84">[84]</a> <a href="/wiki/Syagrius" title="Syagrius">Syagrius</a>, who had managed to preserve Roman sovereignty in an <a href="/wiki/Enclave_and_exclave" title="Enclave and exclave">exclave</a> in northern Gaul (a realm today known as the <a href="/wiki/Domain_of_Soissons" class="mw-redirect" title="Domain of Soissons">Domain of Soissons</a>) also recognized Nepos as his sovereign and the legitimate Western emperor.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEElton1992288–297-85">[85]</a> The authority of Julius Nepos as emperor was accepted not only by Odoacer in Italy, but by the Eastern Empire and Syagrius in Gaul (who had not recognized Romulus Augustulus). Nepos was murdered by his own soldiers in 480, a plot some attribute to Odoacer or the previous, deposed emperor Glycerius,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMartindale1980514-86">[86]</a> and the Eastern emperor Zeno chose not to appoint a new Western emperor. Zeno, recognizing that no true Roman control remained over the territories legally governed by the Western court, instead chose to abolish the juridical division of the position of emperor and declared himself the sole emperor of the Roman Empire. Zeno became the first sole Roman emperor since the division after Theodosius I, 85 years prior, and the position would never again be divided. As such, the (eastern) <a href="/wiki/List_of_Byzantine_emperors" title="List of Byzantine emperors">Roman emperors</a> after 480 are the successors of the western ones, albeit only in a juridical sense.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliamsFriell1998187-87">[87]</a> These emperors would continue to rule the Roman Empire until the <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">Fall of Constantinople</a> in 1453, nearly a thousand years later.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENicol20029-88">[88]</a> As 480 marks the end of the juridical division of the empire into two imperial courts, some historians refer to the death of Nepos and abolition of the Western Empire by Zeno as the end of the Western Roman Empire.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEElton1992288–297-85">[85]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBury2015278-89">[89]</a> Despite the fall, or abolition, of the Western Empire, many of the new kings of western Europe continued to operate firmly within a Roman administrative framework. This is especially true in the case of the Ostrogoths, who came to rule Italy after Odoacer. They continued to use the administrative systems of Odoacer's kingdom, essentially those of the Western Roman Empire, and administrative positions continued to be staffed exclusively by Romans. The Senate continued to function as it always had, and the laws of the Empire were recognized as ruling the Roman population, though the Goths were ruled by their own traditional laws.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBury1923422–424-90">[90]</a> Western Roman administrative institutions, in particular those of Italy, thus continued to be used during "barbarian" rule and after the forces of the Eastern Roman empire re-conquered some of the formerly imperial territories. Some historians thus refer to the reorganizations of Italy and abolition of the old and separate Western Roman administrative units, such as the <a href="/wiki/Praetorian_prefecture_of_Italy" title="Praetorian prefecture of Italy">Praetorian prefecture of Italy</a>, during the sixth century as the "true" fall of the Western Roman Empire.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBörm200847ff-84">[84]</a> Roman cultural traditions continued throughout the territory of the Western Empire for long after its disappearance, and a recent school of interpretation argues that the great political changes can more accurately be described as a complex cultural transformation, rather than a fall.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHuntMartinRosenweinHsia2001256-91">[91]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Political_aftermath">Political aftermath</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_Roman_Empire&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Political aftermath">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Europa_in_526.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Europa_in_526.png/220px-Europa_in_526.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Europa_in_526.png/330px-Europa_in_526.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Europa_in_526.png/440px-Europa_in_526.png 2x" data-file-width="799" data-file-height="639" /></a><figcaption>Map of the <a href="/wiki/Barbarian_kingdoms" title="Barbarian kingdoms">Barbarian kingdoms</a> (major kingdoms and the Roman Empire labelled below) of the western Mediterranean in 526, seven years before the campaigns of reconquest under Eastern emperor <a href="/wiki/Justinian_I" title="Justinian I">Justinian I</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  The Roman Empire under Justinian</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  The <a href="/wiki/Vandal_Kingdom" title="Vandal Kingdom">Vandal Kingdom</a></div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  The <a href="/wiki/Ostrogothic_Kingdom" title="Ostrogothic Kingdom">Ostrogothic Kingdom</a> of Italy</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  The <a href="/wiki/Visigothic_Kingdom" title="Visigothic Kingdom">Visigothic Kingdom</a></div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  The <a href="/wiki/Frankish_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Frankish Kingdom">Frankish Kingdom</a></div></figcaption></figure> After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the Germanic kingdoms, often referred to as "barbarian kingdoms", founded during its collapse continued to grow and prosper. Their beginnings, together with the end of the Western Roman Empire, mark the transition from <a href="/wiki/Late_antiquity" title="Late antiquity">Late Antiquity</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>. The practices of the barbarian kingdoms gradually replaced the old Roman institutions, specifically in the <a href="/wiki/Praetorian_prefecture" title="Praetorian prefecture">praetorian prefectures</a> of <a href="/wiki/Praetorian_prefecture_of_Gaul" title="Praetorian prefecture of Gaul">Gaul</a> and Italy, during the sixth and seventh centuries.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKidnerBucurMathisenMcKee2008198–203-92">[92]</a> In many places, the Roman institutions collapsed along with the economic stability. In some regions, notably Gaul and Italy, the settlement of barbarians on former Roman lands seems to have caused relatively little disruption, with barbarian rulers using and modifying the Roman systems already in place.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeather2005191-93">[93]</a> The Germanic kingdoms in Italy, Hispania and Gaul continued to recognise the emperor in Constantinople as a somewhat nominal sovereign, the Visigoths minted coins in their names until the reign of Justinian I in the sixth century.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrassetto2013203-94">[94]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Visigoths_tremissis_6_century_823177.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Visigoths_tremissis_6_century_823177.jpg/220px-Visigoths_tremissis_6_century_823177.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="106" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Visigoths_tremissis_6_century_823177.jpg/330px-Visigoths_tremissis_6_century_823177.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Visigoths_tremissis_6_century_823177.jpg/440px-Visigoths_tremissis_6_century_823177.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="385" /></a><figcaption>6th-century Visigothic coin, struck in the name of Emperor Justinian I</figcaption></figure>Some territories under direct Roman control continued to exist in the West even after 480. The <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Soissons" title="Kingdom of Soissons">Domain of Soissons</a>, a rump state in Northern Gaul ruled by Syagrius, survived until 486 when it was conquered by the <a href="/wiki/Frankish_kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Frankish kingdom">Franks</a> under King <a href="/wiki/Clovis_I" title="Clovis I">Clovis I</a> after the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Soissons_(486)" title="Battle of Soissons (486)">Battle of Soissons</a>. Syagrius was known as the "King of the Romans" by the Germanic peoples of the region and repeatedly claimed that he was merely governing a Roman province, not an independent realm.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEElton1992288–297-85">[85]</a> Under Clovis I from the 480s to 511, the Franks would come to develop into a great regional power. After their conquest of Soissons, the Franks defeated the Alemanni in 504 and conquered all Visigothic territory north of the <a href="/wiki/Pyrenees" title="Pyrenees">Pyrenees</a> other than <a href="/wiki/Septimania" title="Septimania">Septimania</a> in 507. Relations between the Franks and the Eastern Empire appear to have been positive, with Emperor Anastasius granting Clovis the title of consul following his victory against the Visigoths. At the time of its dissolution in the 800s, the Frankish Kingdom had lasted far longer than the other migration period barbarian kingdoms. Its divided successors would develop into the medieval states of <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_France" title="Kingdom of France">France</a> (initially known as <a href="/wiki/West_Francia" title="West Francia">West Francia</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Germany" title="Kingdom of Germany">Germany</a> (initially known as <a href="/wiki/East_Francia" title="East Francia">East Francia</a>).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldberg20066-95">[95]</a> A Mauro-Roman realm survived in the province of Mauretania Caesariensis until the early 8th century. An inscription on a fortification at the ruined city of <a href="/wiki/Altava" title="Altava">Altava</a> from the year 508 identifies a man named <a href="/wiki/Masuna" title="Masuna">Masuna</a> as the king of "Regnum Maurorum et Romanarum", the <a href="/wiki/Mauro-Roman_kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Mauro-Roman kingdom">Kingdom of the Moors and Romans</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMerills2016199–224-96">[96]</a> It is possible that Masuna is the same man as the "Massonas" who allied himself with the forces of the Eastern Roman Empire against the Vandals in 535.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMartindale1980734-97">[97]</a> This Kingdom was defeated by the Eastern Roman magister militum <a href="/wiki/Gennadius_(magister_militum_Africae)" title="Gennadius (magister militum Africae)">Gennadius</a> in 578 and its coastal territories were incorporated into the Empire once more.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMartindale1980509–510-98">[98]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Germanic_Italy">Germanic Italy</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_Roman_Empire&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Germanic Italy">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Odoacer_480ad.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Odoacer_480ad.jpg/220px-Odoacer_480ad.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="133" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Odoacer_480ad.jpg/330px-Odoacer_480ad.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Odoacer_480ad.jpg/440px-Odoacer_480ad.jpg 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="545" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Odoacer" title="Odoacer">Odoacer</a>'s Italy in AD 480, following the annexation of <a href="/wiki/Dalmatia" title="Dalmatia">Dalmatia</a></figcaption></figure> The deposition of Romulus Augustus and the rise of Odoacer as ruler of Italy in 476 received very little attention at the time.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBörm200847ff-84">[84]</a> Overall, very little changed for the people; there was still a Roman emperor in Constantinople to whom Odoacer had subordinated himself. Interregna had been experienced at many points in the West before and the deposition of Romulus Augustus was nothing out of the ordinary. Odoacer saw his rule as entirely in the tradition of the Roman Empire, not unlike Ricimer, and he effectively ruled as an imperial "governor" of Italy and was even awarded the title of patricius. Odoacer ruled using the Roman administrative systems already in place and continued to mint coins with the name and portrait of Julius Nepos until 480 and later with the name and portrait of the Eastern Augustus, rather than in his own name.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBörm200847ff-84">[84]</a> When Nepos was murdered in <a href="/wiki/Dalmatia" title="Dalmatia">Dalmatia</a> in 480, Odoacer assumed the duty of pursuing and executing the assassins and established his own rule in <a href="/wiki/Dalmatia" title="Dalmatia">Dalmatia</a> at the same time.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBury2005410-99">[99]</a> Odoacer established his power with the loyal support of the Roman Senate, a legislative body that had continued even without an emperor residing in Italy. Indeed, the Senate seems to have increased in power under Odoacer. For the first time since the mid-3rd century, copper coins were issued with the legend S C (Senatus Consulto). These coins were copied by Vandals in Africa and also formed the basis of the currency reform carried out by Emperor <a href="/wiki/Anastasius_I_Dicorus" title="Anastasius I Dicorus">Anastasius</a> in the East.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJones1992254f-100">[100]</a> Under Odoacer, Western consuls continued to be appointed as they had been under the Western Roman Empire and were accepted by the Eastern Court, the first being <a href="/wiki/Caecina_Decius_Maximus_Basilius" title="Caecina Decius Maximus Basilius">Caecina Decius Maximus Basilus</a> in 480. Basilus was made the <a href="/wiki/Praetorian_prefect_of_Italy" class="mw-redirect" title="Praetorian prefect of Italy">praetorian prefect of Italy</a> in 483, another traditional position which continued to exist under Odoacer.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoorhead1994107–115-101">[101]</a> Eleven further consuls were appointed by the Senate under Odoacer from 480 to 493 and one further Praetorian Prefect of Italy was appointed, <a href="/wiki/Caecina_Mavortius_Basilius_Decius" title="Caecina Mavortius Basilius Decius">Caecina Mavortius Basilius Decius</a> (486–493).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarnish199235–37-102">[102]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Solidus-Odoacer-ZenoRIC_3657cf.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Solidus-Odoacer-ZenoRIC_3657cf.jpg/220px-Solidus-Odoacer-ZenoRIC_3657cf.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="97" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Solidus-Odoacer-ZenoRIC_3657cf.jpg/330px-Solidus-Odoacer-ZenoRIC_3657cf.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Solidus-Odoacer-ZenoRIC_3657cf.jpg/440px-Solidus-Odoacer-ZenoRIC_3657cf.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="221" /></a><figcaption>Solidus minted under <a href="/wiki/Odoacer" title="Odoacer">Odoacer</a> with the name and portrait of the Eastern emperor <a href="/wiki/Zeno_(emperor)" title="Zeno (emperor)">Zeno</a></figcaption></figure> Though Odoacer ruled as a Roman governor would have and maintained himself as a subordinate to the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">remaining Empire</a>, the Eastern emperor Zeno began to increasingly see him as a rival. Thus, Zeno promised <a href="/wiki/Theoderic_the_Great" class="mw-redirect" title="Theoderic the Great">Theoderic the Great</a> of the Ostrogoths, foederati of the Eastern Court, control over the <a href="/wiki/Italian_Peninsula" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian Peninsula">Italian peninsula</a> if he was able to defeat Odoacer.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBury1923422-103">[103]</a> Theoderic led the Ostrogoths across the <a href="/wiki/Julian_Alps" title="Julian Alps">Julian Alps</a> and into Italy and defeated Odoacer in battle twice in 489. Following four years of hostilities between them, John, the <a href="/wiki/Bishop_of_Ravenna" title="Bishop of Ravenna">Bishop of Ravenna</a>, was able to negotiate a treaty in 493 between Odoacer and Theoderic whereby they agreed to rule Ravenna and Italy jointly. Theoderic entered Ravenna on 5 March and Odoacer was dead ten days later, killed by Theoderic after sharing a meal with him.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWolfram1990283-104">[104]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Empire_of_Theodoric_the_Great_523.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Empire_of_Theodoric_the_Great_523.gif/220px-Empire_of_Theodoric_the_Great_523.gif" decoding="async" width="220" height="201" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Empire_of_Theodoric_the_Great_523.gif/330px-Empire_of_Theodoric_the_Great_523.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Empire_of_Theodoric_the_Great_523.gif/440px-Empire_of_Theodoric_the_Great_523.gif 2x" data-file-width="523" data-file-height="478" /></a><figcaption>Map of the realm of <a href="/wiki/Theodoric_the_Great" title="Theodoric the Great">Theodoric the Great</a> at its height in 523, following the annexation of the southern parts of the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_the_Burgundians" title="Kingdom of the Burgundians">Burgundian kingdom</a>. Theoderic ruled both the <a href="/wiki/Visigothic_Kingdom" title="Visigothic Kingdom">Visigothic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ostrogothic_Kingdom" title="Ostrogothic Kingdom">Ostrogothic kingdoms</a> and exerted hegemony over the Burgundians and <a href="/wiki/Vandal_Kingdom" title="Vandal Kingdom">Vandals</a>.</figcaption></figure> Theoderic inherited Odoacer's role as acting viceroy for Italy and ostensibly a patricius and subject of the emperor in Constantinople. This position was recognized by Emperor Anastasius in 497, four years after Theoderic had defeated Odoacer. Though Theodoric acted as an independent ruler, he meticulously preserved the outward appearance of his subordinate position. Theoderic continued to use the administrative systems of Odoacer's kingdom, essentially those of the Western Roman Empire, and administrative positions continued to be staffed exclusively by Romans. The senate continued to function as it always had and the laws of the Empire were recognized as ruling the Roman population, though the Goths were ruled by their own traditional laws. As a subordinate, Theoderic did not have the right to issue his own <a href="/wiki/Roman_law" title="Roman law">laws</a>, only edicts or clarifications.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBury2005422–424-105">[105]</a> The army and military offices were exclusively staffed by the Goths, however, who largely settled in northern Italy.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBury2005459-106">[106]</a> Though acting as a subordinate in domestic affairs, Theodoric acted increasingly independent in his foreign policies. Seeking to counterbalance the influence of the Empire in the East, Theoderic married his daughters to the Visigothic king <a href="/wiki/Alaric_II" title="Alaric II">Alaric II</a> and the Burgundian prince <a href="/wiki/Sigismund_of_Burgundy" title="Sigismund of Burgundy">Sigismund</a>. His sister Amalfrida was married to the Vandal king <a href="/wiki/Thrasamund" title="Thrasamund">Thrasamund</a> and he married Audofleda, sister of the Frankish king Clovis I, himself.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBury2005461–462-107">[107]</a> Through these alliances and occasional conflicts, the territory controlled by Theoderic in the early sixth century nearly constituted a restored Western Roman Empire. Ruler of Italy since 493, Theoderic became <a href="/wiki/King_of_the_Visigoths" class="mw-redirect" title="King of the Visigoths">king of the Visigoths</a> in 511 and exerted hegemony over the <a href="/wiki/Vandal_Kingdom" title="Vandal Kingdom">Vandals</a> in North Africa between 521 and 523. As such, his rule extended throughout the western <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea" title="Mediterranean Sea">Mediterranean</a>. The Western imperial regalia, housed in Constantinople since the deposition of Romulus Augustulus in 476, were returned to Ravenna by Emperor Anastasius in 497.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAmory19978-108">[108]</a> Theoderic, by now Western emperor in all but name, could not, however, assume an imperial title, not only because the notion of a separate Western court had been abolished but also due to his "barbarian" heritage, which, like that of <a href="/wiki/Ricimer" title="Ricimer">Ricimer</a> before him, would have barred him from assuming the throne.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthemius-78">[78]</a> With the death of Theodoric in 526, his network of alliances began to collapse. The Visigoths regained autonomy under King <a href="/wiki/Amalaric" title="Amalaric">Amalaric</a> and the Ostrogoths' relations with the Vandals turned increasingly hostile under the reign of their new king <a href="/wiki/Athalaric" title="Athalaric">Athalaric</a>, a child under the regency of his mother <a href="/wiki/Amalasuntha" class="mw-redirect" title="Amalasuntha">Amalasuntha</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorwich1989215-109">[109]</a> After the collapse of Theoderic's control of the western Mediterranean, the Frankish Kingdom rose to become the most powerful of the barbarian kingdoms, having taken control of most of Gaul in the absence of Roman governance.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldberg20066-95">[95]</a> Amalasuntha continued the policies of conciliation between the Goths and Romans, supporting the new Eastern emperor <a href="/wiki/Justinian_I" title="Justinian I">Justinian I</a> and allowing him to use Sicily as a staging point during the reconquest of Africa in the <a href="/wiki/Vandalic_War" title="Vandalic War">Vandalic War</a>. With the death of Athalaric in 534, Amalasuntha crowned her cousin and only relative <a href="/wiki/Theodahad" title="Theodahad">Theodahad</a> as king, hoping for his support. Instead, Amalasuntha was imprisoned and, even though Theodahad assured Emperor Justinian of her safety, she was executed shortly after. This served as an ideal casus belli for Justinian, who prepared to invade and reclaim the Italian peninsula for the Roman Empire.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorwich1989215-109">[109]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Imperial_reconquest">Imperial reconquest</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_Roman_Empire&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Imperial reconquest">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Vandalic_War" title="Vandalic War">Vandalic War</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gothic_War_(535%E2%80%93554)" title="Gothic War (535–554)">Gothic War (535–554)</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Justinien_527-565.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Justinien_527-565.svg/250px-Justinien_527-565.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Justinien_527-565.svg/375px-Justinien_527-565.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Justinien_527-565.svg/500px-Justinien_527-565.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1810" data-file-height="871" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Eastern Roman Empire</a>, by reoccupying some of the former Western Roman Empire's lands, enlarged its territory considerably during <a href="/wiki/Justinian_I" title="Justinian I">Justinian</a>'s reign from 527 (red) to 565 (orange).</figcaption></figure> With Emperor Zeno having juridically reunified the Empire into one imperial court, the remaining Eastern Roman Empire continued to lay claim to the areas previously controlled by the Western court throughout <a href="/wiki/Late_Antiquity" class="mw-redirect" title="Late Antiquity">Late Antiquity</a> and the Middle Ages. Though military campaigns had been conducted by the Western court prior to 476 with the aim of recapturing lost territory, most notably under Majorian, the reconquests, if successful at all, were only momentary. It was as a result of the campaigns of the generals <a href="/wiki/Belisarius" title="Belisarius">Belisarius</a> and <a href="/wiki/Narses" title="Narses">Narses</a> on behalf of the Eastern Roman emperor Justinian I from 533 to 554 that long-lasting reconquests of Roman lands were witnessed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaldon199717–19-110">[110]</a> Despite also suffering from barbarian incursions, the Eastern Empire had survived the fifth century mostly intact. The Western Roman Empire, less urbanized than the Eastern and more thinly populated, may have experienced an economic decline throughout the Late Empire in some provinces.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGunderson43–68-111">[111]</a> Southern Italy, northern Gaul (except for large towns and cities), and to some extent Spain and the Danubian areas may have suffered. The East fared better economically, especially as Emperors such as Constantine the Great and Constantius II had invested heavily in the eastern economy. As a result, the Eastern Empire could afford large numbers of professional soldiers and to augment them with mercenaries, while the Western Roman Empire could not afford this to the same extent. Even after major defeats, the East could, although not without difficulties, buy off its enemies with a ransom or "protection money".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELuttwak2009512-112">[112]</a> Numbering more than 300,000 soldiers, the Eastern Roman army of Justinian I was among the most powerful in the world.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaas2005118-113">[113]</a> Unlike the Visigoths and Ostrogoths, the Vandals in Africa minted their own coinage and were both de facto and de jure independent, often being enemies of both the Western and Eastern Roman Empires.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMerills201611–12-114">[114]</a> With the pro-Roman Vandal king <a href="/wiki/Hilderic" title="Hilderic">Hilderic</a> having been deposed by <a href="/wiki/Gelimer" title="Gelimer">Gelimer</a> in 530,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBury2005125–132-115">[115]</a> Justinian prepared an expedition led by Belisarius. It swiftly retook North Africa between June 533 and March 534, returning the wealthy province to Roman rule. Following the reconquest, Justinian swiftly reintroduced the Roman administrations of the province, establishing a new <a href="/wiki/Praetorian_prefecture_of_Africa" title="Praetorian prefecture of Africa">Praetorian Prefecture of Africa</a> and taking measures to decrease Vandal influence, eventually leading to the complete disappearance of the Vandalic people.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBury2005139–140-116">[116]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:383px;max-width:383px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Mosaic_of_Justinianus_I_-_Basilica_San_Vitale_(Ravenna).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Mosaic_of_Justinianus_I_-_Basilica_San_Vitale_%28Ravenna%29.jpg/200px-Mosaic_of_Justinianus_I_-_Basilica_San_Vitale_%28Ravenna%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="266" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Mosaic_of_Justinianus_I_-_Basilica_San_Vitale_%28Ravenna%29.jpg/300px-Mosaic_of_Justinianus_I_-_Basilica_San_Vitale_%28Ravenna%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Mosaic_of_Justinianus_I_-_Basilica_San_Vitale_%28Ravenna%29.jpg/400px-Mosaic_of_Justinianus_I_-_Basilica_San_Vitale_%28Ravenna%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1997" /></a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:177px;max-width:177px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Manuel_I_Comnenus.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Manuel_I_Comnenus.jpg/175px-Manuel_I_Comnenus.jpg" decoding="async" width="175" height="268" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Manuel_I_Comnenus.jpg/263px-Manuel_I_Comnenus.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Manuel_I_Comnenus.jpg/350px-Manuel_I_Comnenus.jpg 2x" data-file-width="498" data-file-height="764" /></a></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Justinian_I" title="Justinian I">Justinian I</a> (left) was the first Eastern emperor to attempt to reconquer the territories of the West, undertaking successful campaigns in Africa and Italy in the 500s. <a href="/wiki/Manuel_I_Komnenos" title="Manuel I Komnenos">Manuel I Komnenos</a> (right) was the last, campaigning in southern Italy in the 1150s.</div></div></div></div> Following the execution of the pro-Roman Ostrogoth queen Amalasuntha and the refusal of Ostrogoth King Theodahad to renounce his control of Italy, Justinian ordered the expedition to move on to reconquer Italy, ancient heartland of the Empire. From 534 to 540, the Roman forces campaigned in Italy and captured Ravenna, the Ostrogothic and formerly Western Roman capital, in 540. The Gothic resistance revived under King <a href="/wiki/Totila" title="Totila">Totila</a> in 541. They were finally defeated following campaigns by the Roman general Narses, who also repelled invasions into Italy by the Franks and Alemanni, though some cities in northern Italy continued to hold out until the 560s. Justinian promulgated the <a href="/wiki/Pragmatic_Sanction_of_Justinian_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Pragmatic Sanction of Justinian I">Pragmatic Sanction</a> to reorganize the governance of Italy and the province was returned to Roman rule. The end of the conflict saw Italy devastated and considerably depopulated, which, combined with the disastrous effects of the <a href="/wiki/Plague_of_Justinian" title="Plague of Justinian">Plague of Justinian</a>, made it difficult to retain over the following centuries.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETreadgold1997216-117">[117]</a> At the time of the collapse of the Western Empire in 476–480, the Visigoths controlled large areas of southern Gaul as well as a majority of Hispania. Their increased domain had been partly conquered and partly awarded to them by the Western emperor Avitus in the 450s–60s.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFouracre2005165-118">[118]</a> Justinian undertook some limited campaigns against them, recovering portions of the southern coast of the Iberian peninsula. Here, the province of <a href="/wiki/Spania" title="Spania">Spania</a> would last until the 620s, when the Visigoths under King <a href="/wiki/Suintila" title="Suintila">Suintila</a> reconquered the south coast.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThompson1969325-119">[119]</a> These regions remained under Roman control throughout the reign of Justinian. Three years after his death, the <a href="/wiki/Lombards" title="Lombards">Lombards</a> invaded Italy. The Lombards conquered large parts of the devastated peninsula in the late 500s, establishing the <a href="/wiki/Lombard_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Lombard Kingdom">Lombard Kingdom</a>. They were in constant conflict with the Exarchate of Ravenna, a polity established to replace the old Praetorian Prefecture of Italy and enforce Roman rule in Italy. The wealthiest parts of the province, including the cities of Rome and Ravenna, remained securely in Roman hands under the Exarchate throughout the seventh century.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENoble198431-120">[120]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ByzantineEmpire717AD2lightpurple.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/ByzantineEmpire717AD2lightpurple.PNG/220px-ByzantineEmpire717AD2lightpurple.PNG" decoding="async" width="220" height="102" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/ByzantineEmpire717AD2lightpurple.PNG/330px-ByzantineEmpire717AD2lightpurple.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/ByzantineEmpire717AD2lightpurple.PNG/440px-ByzantineEmpire717AD2lightpurple.PNG 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="370" /></a><figcaption>Map of the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine empire">Eastern Roman Empire</a> in AD 717. Over the course of the seventh and eighth centuries, Islamic expansion had ended Roman rule in Africa and though some bastions of Roman rule remained, most of Italy was controlled by the <a href="/wiki/Lombards" title="Lombards">Lombards</a>.</figcaption></figure> Although other Eastern emperors occasionally attempted to campaign in the West, none were as successful as Justinian. After 600, events conspired to drive the Western provinces out of Constantinople's control, with imperial attention focused on the pressing issues of <a href="/wiki/Byzantine-Sassanid_War_of_602%E2%80%93628" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine-Sassanid War of 602–628">war with Sasanian Persia</a> and then the rise of Islam. For a while, the West remained important, with <a href="/wiki/Constans_II" title="Constans II">Emperor Constans II</a> ruling from <a href="/wiki/Syracuse,_Sicily" title="Syracuse, Sicily">Syracuse</a> in Sicily a Roman Empire that still stretched from North Africa to the Caucasus in the 660s. Thereafter, imperial attention declined, with Constantinople itself <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Constantinople_(674%E2%80%93678)" title="Siege of Constantinople (674–678)">being besieged in the 670s</a>, renewed war with the Arabs in the 680s, and then <a href="/wiki/Twenty_Years%27_Anarchy" title="Twenty Years' Anarchy">a period of chaos between 695 and 717</a>, during which time Africa was finally lost once and for all, <a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_the_Maghreb" title="Muslim conquest of the Maghreb">being conquered</a> by the Umayyad Caliphate. Through reforms and military campaigns, Emperor <a href="/wiki/Leo_III_the_Isaurian" title="Leo III the Isaurian">Leo III</a> attempted to restore order in the Empire, but his doctrinal reforms, known as the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Iconoclasm" title="Byzantine Iconoclasm">Iconoclastic Controversy</a>, were extremely unpopular in the West and were condemned by <a href="/wiki/Pope_Gregory_III" title="Pope Gregory III">Pope Gregory III</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKnowlesObolensky1978108–109-121">[121]</a> The Roman Empire was not the only Christian nation affected by the Islamic conquests, the Visigothic Kingdom finally fell to the <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad Caliphate</a> in the 720s.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFouracre2005256–258-122">[122]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFouracre2005275–276-123">[123]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Asturias" title="Kingdom of Asturias">Kingdom of Asturias</a> was founded by <a href="/wiki/Pelagius_of_Asturias" title="Pelagius of Asturias">Pelagius of Asturias</a> around the same time and was the first Christian realm to be established in Iberia following the defeat of the Visigoths.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECollins198949-124">[124]</a> Asturias would be transformed into the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Le%C3%B3n" title="Kingdom of León">Kingdom of León</a> in 924,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECollins1983238-125">[125]</a> which would develop into the predecessors of modern-day Spain.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThomas201021-126">[126]</a> The religious disagreements between Rome and Constantinople eventually led to the breakdown in imperial rule over Rome itself, and the gradual transition of the Exarchate of Ravenna into the independent <a href="/wiki/Papal_States" title="Papal States">Papal States</a>, led by the Pope. In an attempt to gain support against the Lombards, the Pope called for aid from the Frankish Kingdom instead of the Eastern Empire, eventually crowning the Frankish king <a href="/wiki/Charlemagne" title="Charlemagne">Charlemagne</a> as "Roman Emperor" in AD 800. Though this coronation was strongly opposed by the Eastern Empire, there was little they could do as their influence in Western Europe decreased. After a series of small wars in the 810s, Emperor <a href="/wiki/Michael_I_Rangabe" title="Michael I Rangabe">Michael I</a> recognized Charlemagne as an "Emperor". He refused to recognize him as a "Roman Emperor" (a title which Michael reserved for himself and his successors), instead recognizing him as the slightly less prestigious "Emperor of the Franks".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlewitz33-127">[127]</a> Imperial rule continued in <a href="/wiki/Sicily_(theme)" title="Sicily (theme)">Sicily</a> throughout the eighth century, with <a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Sicily" title="Muslim conquest of Sicily">the island slowly being overrun</a> by the Arabs during the course of the ninth century. In Italy, a few strongholds in <a href="/wiki/Calabria" title="Calabria">Calabria</a> provided a base for a later, modest imperial expansion, which reached its peak in the early eleventh century, with most of southern Italy under Roman rule of a sort. This, however, was undone by further civil wars in the Empire, and the slow conquest of the region by the Empire's former mercenaries, the <a href="/wiki/Normans" title="Normans">Normans</a>, who finally put an end to imperial rule in Western Europe in 1071 with the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Bari" title="Siege of Bari">conquest of Bari</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERavegnani2004203-128">[128]</a> The last emperor to attempt reconquests in the West was <a href="/wiki/Manuel_I_Komnenos" title="Manuel I Komnenos">Manuel I Komnenos</a>, who invaded southern Italy during a war with the Norman <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Sicily" title="Kingdom of Sicily">Kingdom of Sicily</a> in the 1150s. The city of <a href="/wiki/Bari" title="Bari">Bari</a> willingly opened its gates to the emperor and after successes in taking other cities in the region,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorwich1989112–113-129">[129]</a> Manuel dreamed of a restored Roman Empire and a union between the churches of <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Rome</a> and <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_Church" title="Eastern Orthodox Church">Constantinople</a>, separated since the <a href="/wiki/East%E2%80%93West_Schism" title="East–West Schism">schism of 1054</a>. Despite initial successes and Papal support, the campaign was unsuccessful and Manuel was forced to return east.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorwich1989116-130">[130]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Legacy">Legacy</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_Roman_Empire&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Legacy">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Legacy_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Legacy of the Roman Empire">Legacy of the Roman Empire</a>, <a href="/wiki/Romance_languages" title="Romance languages">Romance languages</a>, <a href="/wiki/Corpus_Juris_Civilis" title="Corpus Juris Civilis">Corpus Juris Civilis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Civil_law_(legal_system)" title="Civil law (legal system)">Civil law (legal system)</a>, <a href="/wiki/Latin_alphabet" title="Latin alphabet">Latin alphabet</a>, <a href="/wiki/Literature" title="Literature">Literature</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bust_(sculpture)" title="Bust (sculpture)">Bust (sculpture)</a>, <a href="/wiki/Concrete" title="Concrete">Concrete</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Cities" class="mw-redirect" title="Cities">Cities</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:334px;max-width:334px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:152px;max-width:152px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Diptych_of_Honorius_(body).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Diptych_of_Honorius_%28body%29.jpg/150px-Diptych_of_Honorius_%28body%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="329" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Diptych_of_Honorius_%28body%29.jpg/225px-Diptych_of_Honorius_%28body%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Diptych_of_Honorius_%28body%29.jpg/300px-Diptych_of_Honorius_%28body%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1495" data-file-height="3275" /></a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:178px;max-width:178px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Constantius_III_diptych.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Constantius_III_diptych.jpg/176px-Constantius_III_diptych.jpg" decoding="async" width="176" height="329" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Constantius_III_diptych.jpg/264px-Constantius_III_diptych.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Constantius_III_diptych.jpg/352px-Constantius_III_diptych.jpg 2x" data-file-width="564" data-file-height="1054" /></a></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">On the left: <a href="/wiki/Honorius_(emperor)" title="Honorius (emperor)">Emperor Honorius</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Consular_diptych" title="Consular diptych">consular diptych</a> of <a href="/wiki/Anicius_Petronius_Probus" title="Anicius Petronius Probus">Anicius Petronius Probus</a> (406) On the right: <a href="/wiki/Consular_diptych" title="Consular diptych">Consular diptych</a> of <a href="/wiki/Constantius_III" title="Constantius III">Constantius III</a> (a co-emperor with Honorius in 421), produced for <a href="/wiki/Roman_consul" title="Roman consul">his consulate</a> in 413 or 417.</div></div></div></div> As the Western Roman Empire crumbled, the new Germanic rulers who conquered its constituent provinces maintained most Roman laws and traditions. Many of the invading Germanic tribes were already Christianized, although most were followers of <a href="/wiki/Arianism" title="Arianism">Arianism</a>. They quickly changed their adherence to the <a href="/wiki/State_church_of_the_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="State church of the Roman Empire">state church of the Roman Empire</a>. This helped cement the loyalty of the local Roman populations, as well as the support of the powerful <a href="/wiki/Bishop" title="Bishop">Bishop</a> of Rome. Although they initially continued to recognize indigenous tribal laws, they were more influenced by <a href="/wiki/Roman_law" title="Roman law">Roman law</a> and gradually incorporated it.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKidnerBucurMathisenMcKee2008198–203-92">[92]</a> Roman law, particularly the <a href="/wiki/Corpus_Juris_Civilis" title="Corpus Juris Civilis">Corpus Juris Civilis</a> collected on the orders of Justinian I, is the basis of modern <a href="/wiki/Civil_law_(legal_system)" title="Civil law (legal system)">civil law</a>. In contrast, <a href="/wiki/Common_law" title="Common law">common law</a> is based on Germanic <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_law" title="Anglo-Saxon law">Anglo-Saxon law</a>. Civil law is by far the most widespread system of law in the world, in force in some form in about 150 countries.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELegal_system-131">[131]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Romance_languages.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Romance_languages.png/220px-Romance_languages.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Romance_languages.png/330px-Romance_languages.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Romance_languages.png/440px-Romance_languages.png 2x" data-file-width="2100" data-file-height="1525" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Romance_languages" title="Romance languages">Romance languages</a>, languages that developed from <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> following the collapse of the Western Roman Empire, are spoken in Western Europe to this day, with the exception of Romanian, which developed from the Latin spoken in the eastern provinces and the early Eastern Empire. Their extent in Western Europe almost reflects the continental borders of the old Empire.</figcaption></figure> Latin as a language did not disappear. <a href="/wiki/Vulgar_Latin" title="Vulgar Latin">Vulgar Latin</a> combined with neighboring Germanic and <a href="/wiki/Celtic_languages" title="Celtic languages">Celtic languages</a>, giving rise to modern <a href="/wiki/Romance_languages" title="Romance languages">Romance languages</a> such as Italian, French, Spanish, Portuguese, Romanian, and a large number of minor languages and dialects. Today, more than 900 million people are native speakers of Romance languages worldwide. In addition, many Romance languages are used as lingua francas by non-native speakers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESamarin1968666-132">[132]</a> Latin also influenced <a href="/wiki/Germanic_languages" title="Germanic languages">Germanic languages</a> such as English and German.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGottlieb2006196-133">[133]</a> It survives in a "purer" form as the language of the Catholic Church; the Catholic <a href="/wiki/Mass_(liturgy)" title="Mass (liturgy)">Mass</a> was spoken exclusively in Latin until <a href="/wiki/Ecclesiastical_Latin" title="Ecclesiastical Latin">1969</a>. As such it was also used as a lingua franca by ecclesiasticals. It remained the language of medicine, law, and diplomacy, as well as of intellectuals and scholarship, well into the 18th century. Since then the use of Latin has declined with the growth of other lingua francas, especially English and French.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESatow201159-134">[134]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Latin_alphabet" title="Latin alphabet">Latin alphabet</a> was expanded due to the split of I into I and J, and of V into U, V, and, in places (especially Germanic languages and Polish), W. <a href="/wiki/Latin_script" title="Latin script">Latin script</a> is the basis for the largest number of alphabets of any <a href="/wiki/Writing_system" title="Writing system">writing system</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaarmann200496-135">[135]</a> and is the <a href="/wiki/List_of_writing_systems_by_adoption" class="mw-redirect" title="List of writing systems by adoption">most widely adopted</a> writing system in the world. <a href="/wiki/Roman_numerals" title="Roman numerals">Roman numerals</a> continue to be used in some fields and situations, though they have largely been replaced by <a href="/wiki/Arabic_numerals" title="Arabic numerals">Arabic numerals</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBullietCrossleyHeadrickHirsch2010192-136">[136]</a> A very visible legacy of the Western Roman Empire is the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholic Church</a>. Church institutions slowly began to replace Roman ones in the West, even helping to negotiate the safety of Rome during the late 5th century.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeather200017–18-72">[72]</a> As Rome was invaded by Germanic tribes, many assimilated, and by the middle of the medieval period (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 9th and 10th centuries) the central, western, and northern parts of Europe had been largely converted to Roman Catholicism and acknowledged the Pope as the <a href="/wiki/Vicar_of_Christ" title="Vicar of Christ">Vicar of Christ</a>. The first of the Barbarian kings to convert to the Church of Rome was Clovis I of the Franks; other kingdoms, such as the Visigoths, later followed suit to garner favor with the papacy.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELe_Goff199414,_21-137">[137]</a> When <a href="/wiki/Pope_Leo_III" title="Pope Leo III">Pope Leo III</a> crowned Charlemagne as "Roman Emperor" in 800, he both severed ties with the outraged Eastern Empire and established the precedent that no man in Western Europe would be emperor without a papal coronation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDurant1950517–551-138">[138]</a> Although the power the Pope wielded changed significantly throughout the subsequent periods, the office itself has remained as the head of the Catholic Church and the head of state of the <a href="/wiki/Vatican_City" title="Vatican City">Vatican City</a>. The Pope has consistently held the title of "Pontifex Maximus" since before the fall of the Western Roman Empire and retains it to this day; this title formerly used by the high priest of <a href="/wiki/Roman_Polytheism" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Polytheism">the Roman polytheistic religion</a>, one of whom was Julius Caesar.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPontifex_Maximus-46">[46]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnnuario_Pontificio23-139">[139]</a> The Roman Senate survived the initial collapse of the Western Roman Empire. Its authority increased under the rule of Odoacer and later the Ostrogoths, evident by the Senate in 498 managing to install <a href="/wiki/Pope_Symmachus" title="Pope Symmachus">Symmachus</a> as pope despite both <a href="/wiki/Theodoric_the_Great" title="Theodoric the Great">Theodoric</a> of Italy and Emperor Anastasius supporting another candidate, <a href="/wiki/Antipope_Laurentius" title="Antipope Laurentius">Laurentius</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELevillain2002907-140">[140]</a> Exactly when the senate disappeared is unclear, but the institution is known to have survived at least into the 6th century, inasmuch as gifts from the senate were received by Emperor <a href="/wiki/Tiberius_II_Constantine" title="Tiberius II Constantine">Tiberius II</a> in 578 and 580. The traditional senate building, <a href="/wiki/Curia_Julia" title="Curia Julia">Curia Julia</a>, was rebuilt into a church under <a href="/wiki/Pope_Honorius_I" title="Pope Honorius I">Pope Honorius I</a> in 630, probably with permission from the Eastern emperor, <a href="/wiki/Heraclius" title="Heraclius">Heraclius</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaegi2004196-141">[141]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nomenclature">Nomenclature</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_Roman_Empire&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Nomenclature">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Marcellinus_Comes" title="Marcellinus Comes">Marcellinus Comes</a>, a sixth-century Eastern Roman historian and a courtier of Justinian I, mentions the Western Roman Empire in his Chronicle, which primarily covers the Eastern Roman Empire from 379 to 534. In the Chronicle, it is clear that Marcellinus made a clear divide between East and West, with mentions of a geographical east ("Oriens") and west ("Occidens") and of an imperial east ("Orientale imperium" and "Orientale respublica") and an imperial west ("Occidentalie imperium", "Occidentale regnum", "Occidentalis respublica", "Hesperium regnum", "Hesperium imperium" and "principatum Occidentis"). Furthermore, Marcellinus specifically designates some emperors and consuls as being "Eastern", "Orientalibus principibus" and "Orientalium consulum" respectively.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECroke200178-142">[142]</a> The term Hesperium Imperium, translating to "Western Empire", has sometimes been applied to the Western Roman Empire by modern historians as well.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWienand2014260-143">[143]</a> Though Marcellinus does not refer to the Empire as a whole after 395, only to its separate parts, he clearly identifies the term "Roman" as applying to the Empire as a whole. When using terms such as "us", "our generals", and "our emperor", Marcellinus distinguished both divisions of the Empire from outside foes such as the Sasanian Persians and the Huns.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECroke200178-142">[142]</a> This view is consistent with the view that contemporary Romans of the 4th and 5th centuries continued to consider the Empire as a single unit, although more often than not with two rulers instead of one.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBury2015278-89">[89]</a> The first time the Empire was divided geographically was during the reign of Diocletian, but there was precedent for multiple emperors. Before Diocletian and the Tetrarchy, there had been a number of periods where there were co-emperors, such as with <a href="/wiki/Caracalla" title="Caracalla">Caracalla</a> and <a href="/wiki/Geta_(emperor)" title="Geta (emperor)">Geta</a> in 210–211, who inherited the imperial throne from their father <a href="/wiki/Septimius_Severus" title="Septimius Severus">Septimius Severus</a>, but Caracalla ruled alone after the murder of his brother.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy200968–69-144">[144]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Attempted_restorations_of_a_Western_court">Attempted restorations of a Western court</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_Roman_Empire&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Attempted restorations of a Western court">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:468px;max-width:468px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:232px;max-width:232px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Exarchate_of_Ravenna_600_AD.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Exarchate_of_Ravenna_600_AD.png/230px-Exarchate_of_Ravenna_600_AD.png" decoding="async" width="230" height="131" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Exarchate_of_Ravenna_600_AD.png/345px-Exarchate_of_Ravenna_600_AD.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Exarchate_of_Ravenna_600_AD.png/460px-Exarchate_of_Ravenna_600_AD.png 2x" data-file-width="694" data-file-height="396" /></a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:232px;max-width:232px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Exarchate_of_Africa_600_AD.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Exarchate_of_Africa_600_AD.png/230px-Exarchate_of_Africa_600_AD.png" decoding="async" width="230" height="131" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Exarchate_of_Africa_600_AD.png/345px-Exarchate_of_Africa_600_AD.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Exarchate_of_Africa_600_AD.png/460px-Exarchate_of_Africa_600_AD.png 2x" data-file-width="694" data-file-height="396" /></a></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">Maps of the <a href="/wiki/Exarchate" title="Exarchate">Exarchates</a> within the Roman Empire in AD 600. The Exarchates of <a href="/wiki/Exarchate_of_Ravenna" title="Exarchate of Ravenna">Ravenna</a> (left) and <a href="/wiki/Exarchate_of_Africa" title="Exarchate of Africa">Africa</a> (right) were established by the Eastern Empire to better administer the reconquered Western territories.</div></div></div></div> The positions of Eastern and Western Augustus, established under Emperor Diocletian in 286 as the Tetrarchy, had been abolished by Emperor Zeno in 480 following the loss of direct control over the western territories. Declaring himself the sole Augustus, Zeno only exercised true control over the largely intact Eastern Empire and over Italy as the nominal overlord of Odoacer.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliamsFriell1998187-87">[87]</a> The reconquests under Justinian I would bring back large formerly Western Roman territories into Imperial control, and with them the Empire would begin to face the same problems it had faced under previous periods prior to the Tetrarchy when there had been only one ruler. Shortly after the reconquest of North Africa a usurper, <a href="/wiki/Stotzas" title="Stotzas">Stotzas</a>, appeared in the province (though he was quickly defeated).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMartindale19801199–1200-145">[145]</a> As such, the idea of dividing the Empire into two courts out of administrative necessity would see a limited revival during the period that the Eastern Empire controlled large parts of the former West, both by courtiers in the East and enemies in the West.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoorhead199484–86-146">[146]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhitby19887-147">[147]</a> The earliest attempt at crowning a new Western emperor after the abolition of the title occurred already during the <a href="/wiki/Gothic_War_(535%E2%80%93554)" title="Gothic War (535–554)">Gothic Wars</a> under Justinian. Belisarius, an accomplished general who had already successfully campaigned to restore Roman control over North Africa and large parts of Italy, including Rome itself, was offered the position of Western Roman emperor by the Ostrogoths during his siege of Ravenna (the Ostrogothic, and previously Western Roman, capital) in 540. The Ostrogoths, desperate to avoid losing their control of Italy, offered the title and their <a href="/wiki/Fealty" title="Fealty">fealty</a> to Belisarius as Western Augustus. Justinian had expected to rule over a restored Roman Empire alone, with the <a href="/wiki/Codex_Justinianeus" class="mw-redirect" title="Codex Justinianeus">Codex Justinianeus</a> explicitly designating the new <a href="/wiki/Praetorian_prefect_of_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Praetorian prefect of Africa">Praetorian Prefect of Africa</a> as the subject of Justinian in Constantinople.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThe_Code_of_Justinian-148">[148]</a> Belisarius, loyal to Justinian, feigned acceptance of the title to enter the city, whereupon he immediately relinquished it. Despite Belisarius relinquishing the title, the offer had made Justinian suspicious and Belisarius was ordered to return east.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoorhead199484–86-146">[146]</a> At the end of Emperor Tiberius II's reign in 582, the Eastern Roman Empire retained control over relatively large parts of the regions reconquered under Justinian. Tiberius chose two Caesares, the general <a href="/wiki/Maurice_(emperor)" title="Maurice (emperor)">Maurice</a> and the governor <a href="/wiki/Germanus_(Caesar)" title="Germanus (Caesar)">Germanus</a>, and married his two daughters to them. Germanus had clear connections to the western provinces, and Maurice to the eastern provinces. It is possible that Tiberius was planning to divide the empire into western and eastern administrative units once more.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhitby19887-147">[147]</a> If so, the plan was never realized. At the death of Tiberius, Maurice inherited the entire empire as Germanus had refused the throne. Maurice established a new type of administrative unit, the <a href="/wiki/Exarchate" title="Exarchate">Exarchate</a>, and organized the remaining western territories under his control into the Exarchate of Ravenna and the <a href="/wiki/Exarchate_of_Africa" title="Exarchate of Africa">Exarchate of Africa</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerrin1987156-149">[149]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Later_claims_to_the_Imperial_title_in_the_West">Later claims to the Imperial title in the West</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_Roman_Empire&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Later claims to the Imperial title in the West">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Problem_of_two_emperors" title="Problem of two emperors">Problem of two emperors</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Charlemagne_denier_Mayence_812_814.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Charlemagne_denier_Mayence_812_814.jpg/200px-Charlemagne_denier_Mayence_812_814.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="210" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Charlemagne_denier_Mayence_812_814.jpg/300px-Charlemagne_denier_Mayence_812_814.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Charlemagne_denier_Mayence_812_814.jpg/400px-Charlemagne_denier_Mayence_812_814.jpg 2x" data-file-width="559" data-file-height="587" /></a><figcaption>Denarius of <a href="/wiki/Francia" title="Francia">Frankish king</a> <a href="/wiki/Charlemagne" title="Charlemagne">Charlemagne</a>, who was crowned as Imperator Romanorum in the year 800 by <a href="/wiki/Pope_Leo_III" title="Pope Leo III">Pope Leo III</a> due to, and in opposition to, the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Roman Empire in the East</a> being ruled by <a href="/wiki/Irene_of_Athens" title="Irene of Athens">Irene</a>, a woman.</figcaption></figure> In addition to remaining as a concept for an administrative unit in the remaining Empire, the ideal of the Roman Empire as a mighty Christian Empire with a single ruler further continued to appeal to many powerful rulers in western Europe. With the papal coronation of Charlemagne as "<a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Holy Roman Emperor">Emperor of the Romans</a>" in AD 800, his realm was explicitly proclaimed as a restoration of the Roman Empire in Western Europe under the concept of <a href="/wiki/Translatio_imperii" title="Translatio imperii">translatio imperii</a>. Though the <a href="/wiki/Carolingian_Empire" title="Carolingian Empire">Carolingian Empire</a> collapsed in 888 and <a href="/wiki/Berengar_I_of_Italy" title="Berengar I of Italy">Berengar</a>, the last "Emperor" claiming succession from Charlemagne, died in 924, the concept of a papacy- and Germanic-based Roman Empire in the West would resurface in the form of the <a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a> in 962. The <a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Holy Roman Emperor">Holy Roman Emperors</a> would uphold the notion that they had inherited the supreme power and prestige of the Roman emperors of old until the <a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire">dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire</a> in 1806.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhaley201217–20-150">[150]</a> Charlemagne, and the subsequent Holy Roman Emperors, were not, and did not claim to be, rulers of a restored Western Roman Empire. Pope Leo III and contemporary historians were fully aware that the notion of a separate Western court had been abolished over three centuries prior and considered the Roman Empire to be "one and indivisible". The ruler of the Roman Empire at the time of Charlemagne's coronation was <a href="/wiki/Irene_of_Athens" title="Irene of Athens">Irene of Athens</a>, the mother of emperor <a href="/wiki/Constantine_VI" title="Constantine VI">Constantine VI</a> who she had deposed. Leo III considered Irene to be a usurper and illegitimate to rule due to her gender and as such considered the imperial throne to be vacant. Thus, Charlemagne was not crowned as the ruler of the Western Roman Empire and successor to Romulus Augustulus, but rather as the successor of Constantine VI and as sole Roman Emperor. Irene was deposed and replaced by Emperor <a href="/wiki/Nikephoros_I" title="Nikephoros I">Nikephoros</a> soon after, and the Eastern Empire refused to recognize the Imperial title of Charlemagne. Following several wars in the 810s Emperor <a href="/wiki/Michael_I_Rangabe" title="Michael I Rangabe">Michael I Rangabe</a> eventually recognized Charlemagne as an "Emperor", but as the slightly humiliating "Emperor of the Franks" rather than "Roman Emperor", a title he reserved for himself.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlewitz33-127">[127]</a> For centuries to come, the "revived" Western court and the Eastern court, in direct succession to the Roman emperors of old, would make competing claims to be rulers of the whole Roman Empire. With the Eastern Empire terming the Holy Roman Empire as an "Empire of the Franks", the term "Empire of the Greeks" was popularized in the Frankish court as a way to refer to the Empire centered in Constantinople.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFouracreGerberding1996345-151">[151]</a> Following the end of the Eastern Roman Empire after the Fall of Constantinople in 1453 and the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806, the title of "Emperor" became widespread among European monarchs. The <a href="/wiki/Austrian_Empire" title="Austrian Empire">Austrian Empire</a> laid claim to be the heir of the Holy Roman Empire as Austria's <a href="/wiki/House_of_Habsburg" title="House of Habsburg">Habsburgs</a> attempted to unite Germany under their rule.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhite2007139-152">[152]</a> The <a href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">German Empire</a>, established in 1871, also claimed to be a successor of Rome through the lineage of the Holy Roman Empire.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBall2001449-153">[153]</a> Both of these empires used the imperial title <a href="/wiki/Kaiser" title="Kaiser">Kaiser</a> (derived from the Latin word "Caesar"), the German word for emperor. The German Empire and <a href="/wiki/Austria-Hungary" title="Austria-Hungary">Austria-Hungary</a>, successor of the Austrian Empire, would both fall in the aftermath of the <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">First World War</a> along with the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empires</a> which had also claimed succession from the Eastern Roman Empire.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatson2014536–540-154">[154]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETames197255-155">[155]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGlazer199654–56-156">[156]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="List_of_Western_Roman_emperors"> List of Western Roman emperors</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_Roman_Empire&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: List of Western Roman emperors">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_emperors#Dominate_(284–476)" title="List of Roman emperors">List of Roman emperors § Dominate (284–476)</a></div> With junior colleagues and heirs are listed below the reign of each emperor. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tetrarchy_(286–313)">Tetrarchy (286–313)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_Roman_Empire&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Tetrarchy (286–313)">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Tetrarchy" title="Tetrarchy">Tetrarchy</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:MSR_-_T%C3%AAte_de_l%27empreur_Maximien_Hercule_-_Inv_34_b_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/MSR_-_T%C3%AAte_de_l%27empreur_Maximien_Hercule_-_Inv_34_b_%28cropped%29.jpg/150px-MSR_-_T%C3%AAte_de_l%27empreur_Maximien_Hercule_-_Inv_34_b_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/MSR_-_T%C3%AAte_de_l%27empreur_Maximien_Hercule_-_Inv_34_b_%28cropped%29.jpg/225px-MSR_-_T%C3%AAte_de_l%27empreur_Maximien_Hercule_-_Inv_34_b_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/MSR_-_T%C3%AAte_de_l%27empreur_Maximien_Hercule_-_Inv_34_b_%28cropped%29.jpg/300px-MSR_-_T%C3%AAte_de_l%27empreur_Maximien_Hercule_-_Inv_34_b_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2972" data-file-height="3960" /></a><figcaption>Bust of Emperor <a href="/wiki/Maximian" title="Maximian">Maximian</a>, the first Western Roman emperor</figcaption></figure> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maximian" title="Maximian">Maximian</a>: 286–305<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPotter2008260–261-157">[157]</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constantius_Chlorus" title="Constantius Chlorus">Constantius I</a>: 293–305<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPotter2008344-158">[158]</a></li></ul></li></ul> Maximian was elevated to caesar by Diocletian in 285, after Diocletian defeated <a href="/wiki/Carinus" title="Carinus">Carinus</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrant1997209-159">[159]</a> He became Western emperor in 286, with the establishment of the Tetrarchy. On 1 May 305, both Maximian and Diocletian abdicated, leaving Constantius and Galerius as emperors.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrant1997210-160">[160]</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constantius_Chlorus" title="Constantius Chlorus">Constantius I</a>: 305–306<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPotter2008342-161">[161]</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Severus_II" title="Severus II">Severus II</a>: 305–306<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorwich1989384-162">[162]</a></li></ul></li></ul> Constantius was elevated to caesar in 293, under Maximian. Constantius became the Western emperor in 305, after the abdication of Maximian.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrant1997210-160">[160]</a> Constantius died on 25 July 306, leaving a highly contested succession in his wake.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrant1997217–218-163">[163]</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Severus_II" title="Severus II">Severus II</a>: 306–307<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorwich1989384-162">[162]</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constantine_the_Great" title="Constantine the Great">Constantine I</a>: 306–307<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorwich1989384-162">[162]</a></li></ul></li></ul> Valerius Severus was elevated to caesar by Constantius in 305, after the abdication of Maximian and Diocletian. After the death of Constantius in 306, Severus became Western emperor. Severus was forced to deal with the revolt of Maxentius, the son of Maximian. Maxentius invaded in early 307, and captured the Western Empire.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrant1997223-164">[164]</a> He had Severus put to death soon after his capture.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrant1997224-165">[165]</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maxentius" title="Maxentius">Maxentius</a>: 306–312<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorwich1989384-162">[162]</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maximian" title="Maximian">Maximian</a>: 306–308<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdkinsAdkins199830-166">[166]</a> (Second reign)</li></ul></li></ul> Maxentius was proclaimed emperor in 306, in opposition to Valerius Severus, and ruled alongside his father Maximian. They succeeded in capturing the Western Empire in 307, and had Severus killed soon after.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrant1997224–225-167">[167]</a> The Western Empire was invaded in 312 by Constantine, who on 28 October 312 decisively defeated Maxentius, who drowned when his forces were pushed back into the <a href="/wiki/Tiber" title="Tiber">Tiber</a> river.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrant1997226-168">[168]</a> Maximian had relinquished the title of augustus in 308, but rebelled in Gaul once again in 310. He was defeated by Constantine shortly after.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdkinsAdkins199830-166">[166]</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Licinius" title="Licinius">Licinius</a>: 308–313<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorwich1989384-162">[162]</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Valerius_Valens" title="Valerius Valens">Valens I</a>: 317 (Titular emperor of the West, ruled only in the East)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martinian_(emperor)" title="Martinian (emperor)">Martinian</a>: 324 (Titular emperor of the West, ruled only in the East)</li></ul></li></ul> Licinius was made emperor of the Eastern Empire, and parts of the Western Empire, all of which was actually held by Maxentius, at the <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Carnuntum" class="mw-redirect" title="Council of Carnuntum">Council of Carnuntum</a>, which was held in 308 in order to try to end the civil war in the Western Empire. Constantine invaded Licinius' section of the Western Empire in 313, and forced him to sign a treaty in which he forfeited his claim to the Western Empire, and only controlled the Eastern Empire.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrant1997235–236-169">[169]</a> Licinius attempted twice to replace Constantine, first with <a href="/wiki/Valerius_Valens" title="Valerius Valens">Valerius Valens</a> in 316 and then <a href="/wiki/Martinian_(emperor)" title="Martinian (emperor)">Martinian</a> in 324, but they were both killed shortly after their elevation. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Constantinian_dynasty_(309–363)">Constantinian dynasty (309–363)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_Roman_Empire&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Constantinian dynasty (309–363)">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Constantinian_dynasty" title="Constantinian dynasty">Constantinian dynasty</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Constantine_I_MET_DP138715_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Constantine_I_MET_DP138715_%28cropped%29.jpg/150px-Constantine_I_MET_DP138715_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="214" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Constantine_I_MET_DP138715_%28cropped%29.jpg/225px-Constantine_I_MET_DP138715_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Constantine_I_MET_DP138715_%28cropped%29.jpg/300px-Constantine_I_MET_DP138715_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1958" data-file-height="2796" /></a><figcaption>Bust of <a href="/wiki/Constantine_the_Great" title="Constantine the Great">Constantine I</a>, the founder of the <a href="/wiki/Constantinian_dynasty" title="Constantinian dynasty">Constantinian dynasty</a></figcaption></figure> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constantine_the_Great" title="Constantine the Great">Constantine I</a>: 306–337 (Sole emperor: 324–337).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorwich1989384-162">[162]</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crispus" title="Crispus">Crispus</a>: 317–326</li></ul></li></ul> Constantine I was proclaimed augustus of the Western Empire by his father's troops on 25 July 306 and was accepted as caesar by Galerius later that year. In 307 Maximian accepted him to augustus (although Maximian himself was considered an usurper) and in 309 he proclaimed himself as the Western emperor, in opposition to Maxentius and Licinius. He ruled alone in the West from 312 and became sole Roman emperor following the defeat of <a href="/wiki/Licinius" title="Licinius">Licinius</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Chrysopolis" title="Battle of Chrysopolis">Battle of Chrysopolis</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOdahl79–80-170">[170]</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constantine_II_(emperor)" title="Constantine II (emperor)">Constantine II</a> 337–340 (Emperor of Gaul, Britannia and Hispania: 337–340).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorwich1989384-162">[162]</a></li></ul> Constantine II was proclaimed caesar of the Eastern Empire in late 317. In 335, Constantine I allotted the inheritance his sons would receive after his death, which would take place two years later in 337, giving Constantine II the <a href="/wiki/Praetorian_prefecture_of_Gaul" title="Praetorian prefecture of Gaul">Praetorian prefecture of Gaul</a>, which also included <a href="/wiki/Roman_Britain" title="Roman Britain">Britannia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hispania" title="Hispania">Hispania</a>. Constantine II's relationship with Constans I was tense, and in 340, Constantine took advantage of Constans absence from Italy and invaded it. However, in the same year, he was ambushed by Constans' forces in Aquilea, and was killed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrant1997240–242-171">[171]</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constans" title="Constans">Constans I</a> 337–350 (Emperor of Italy and Africa: 337–340, Western emperor: 340–350).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorwich1989384-162">[162]</a></li></ul> Constans was given the <a href="/wiki/Praetorian_prefecture_of_Italy" title="Praetorian prefecture of Italy">Praetorian prefecture of Italy</a> and Africa on the death of Constantine I. After Constantine II was killed in 340, while attempting to invade Constans' territory in Italy, Constans took control of the entire Western Empire. Constans was contemptuous of his army, who as a result proclaimed Magnentius as emperor in 350. Constans fled toward Hispania, but was captured and executed by an agent of Magnentius on the border.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrant1997247–248-172">[172]</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Magnentius" title="Magnentius">Magnentius</a> 350–353<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdkinsAdkins199832-173">[173]</a> (Not recognized in the East) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vetranio" title="Vetranio">Vetranio</a>: 350<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdkinsAdkins199833-174">[174]</a> (Rival emperor; recognized by Constantius II)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nepotianus" title="Nepotianus">Nepotianus</a>: 350<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdkinsAdkins199833-174">[174]</a> (Rival emperor; recognized by the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Senate" title="Roman Senate">Roman Senate</a>)</li></ul></li></ul> Magnentius was defeated by Constantius II at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mursa_Major" title="Battle of Mursa Major">Battle of Mursa Major</a> in 351, but continued to rule Italy and Gaul until his final defeat at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mons_Seleucus" title="Battle of Mons Seleucus">Battle of Mons Seleucus</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdkinsAdkins199832-173">[173]</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constantius_II" title="Constantius II">Constantius II</a> 351–361 (Eastern emperor: 337–351, Sole emperor: 351–361).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorwich1989384-162">[162]</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constantius_Gallus" title="Constantius Gallus">Constantius Gallus</a>: 351–354</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julian_(emperor)" title="Julian (emperor)">Julian</a>: 355–361<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorwich1989384-162">[162]</a></li></ul></li></ul> Constantius II was proclaimed caesar in 334, and became Eastern emperor in 337, after the death of Constantine I. After Constans was killed by the usurper Magnentius, Constantius laid claim to the Western Empire, and after defeating Magnentius took possession of it, becoming sole emperor. Constantius II died in 361, of a violent fever.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrant1997242–246-175">[175]</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Julian_(emperor)" title="Julian (emperor)">Julian</a>: 361–363 (Sole emperor).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorwich1989384-162">[162]</a></li></ul> Julian was proclaimed caesar in 355. He was proclaimed emperor by his troops shortly before Constantius' death. Julian died in March 363, of wounds sustained during the Battle of Samarra.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrant1997251–254-176">[176]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Non-dynastic_(363–364)">Non-dynastic (363–364)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_Roman_Empire&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Non-dynastic (363–364)">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jovian_(emperor)" title="Jovian (emperor)">Jovian</a>: 363–364 (Sole emperor).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorwich1989384-162">[162]</a></li></ul> When Julian died in 363, he left no heir, causing a succession crisis. The Roman Army elected Jovian as sole emperor. Jovian reigned only seven months, in which he signed a humiliating peace treaty with the Sasanian Empire, under <a href="/wiki/Shapur_II" title="Shapur II">Shapur II</a>. In this agreement, Rome surrendered five provinces and 18 fortresses to the Sasanians, in exchange for a 30-year truce. Jovian died on 16 February 364, due to either indigestion or charcoal vapour inhalation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorwich198929-177">[177]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Valentinianic_dynasty_(364–392)">Valentinianic dynasty (364–392)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_Roman_Empire&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Valentinianic dynasty (364–392)">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Valentinianic_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Valentinianic dynasty">Valentinianic dynasty</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Statue_of_emperor_Valentinian_II_detail.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Statue_of_emperor_Valentinian_II_detail.JPG/150px-Statue_of_emperor_Valentinian_II_detail.JPG" decoding="async" width="150" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Statue_of_emperor_Valentinian_II_detail.JPG/225px-Statue_of_emperor_Valentinian_II_detail.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Statue_of_emperor_Valentinian_II_detail.JPG/300px-Statue_of_emperor_Valentinian_II_detail.JPG 2x" data-file-width="450" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>Bust of Emperor <a href="/wiki/Valentinian_II" title="Valentinian II">Valentinian II</a>, a member of the <a href="/wiki/Valentinianic_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Valentinianic dynasty">Valentinianic dynasty</a>'s second generation of emperors</figcaption></figure> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Valentinian_I" title="Valentinian I">Valentinian I</a>: 364–375<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorwich1989384-162">[162]</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gratian" title="Gratian">Gratian</a>: 367–375<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorwich1989384-162">[162]</a></li></ul></li></ul> After the death of Jovian, Valentinian I was elected. He divided the Empire between himself and his younger brother, Valens, giving himself the West and Valens the East. Valentinian spent much of his reign defending Gaul against repeated attacks by barbarian tribes, only leaving the region in 373. In 375, while meeting with the Quadi, he suffered a stroke brought on by rage.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorwich198930-178">[178]</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gratian" title="Gratian">Gratian</a>: 375–383<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorwich1989384-162">[162]</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Valentinian_II" title="Valentinian II">Valentinian II</a>: 375–383<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorwich1989384-162">[162]</a></li></ul></li></ul> Valentinian I elevated his son, Gratian, to augustus in 367, however after his death in 375 his leading generals elevated his much younger son, Valentinian II, to augustus alongside Gratian and Valens who was emperor in the East.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorwich198931-179">[179]</a> Gratian showed a strong preference for the barbarian mercenaries in his army, especially his Alanic guard, which inflamed the Roman population, to the point that in 383, Roman troops in Britain declared Magnus Maximus emperor, in opposition to Gratian. Maximus landed troops in Gaul, and attacked Gratian's troops near Paris. Gratian was defeated, and fled to <a href="/wiki/Lyons" class="mw-redirect" title="Lyons">Lyons</a>, where he was murdered on 25 August 383.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorwich198932-180">[180]</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Valentinian_II" title="Valentinian II">Valentinian II</a>: 383–392<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorwich1989384-162">[162]</a></li></ul> After the death of Gratian, Valentinian II succeeded him, although he only controlled Italy itself, with all other Western Roman provinces recognizing Maximus. In 387 Maximus invaded Italy, to depose Valentinian. Valentinian fled to the court of Theodosius, where he succeeded in convincing Theodosius to attack Maximus, and to reinstate himself as Western emperor, which was done after Maximus was defeated in battle near Aquileia.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorwich198932-180">[180]</a> Valentinian continued to rule the Western Empire until 392, when he was probably murdered by Arbogast.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorwich198934-181">[181]</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Magnus_Maximus" title="Magnus Maximus">Magnus Maximus</a>: 383–388<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdkinsAdkins199834-182">[182]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHebblewhite201620-183">[183]</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Victor_(emperor)" title="Victor (emperor)">Victor</a>: 383/384–388<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdkinsAdkins199834-182">[182]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEErrington200636–37-184">[184]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBirley2005450-185">[185]</a></li></ul></li></ul> Magnus Maximus was elected emperor by his men in 383, in opposition to Gratian, and defeated him in battle in 383. Maximus was recognized as the Western emperor by Eastern emperor Theodosius I in 384, however this recognition was revoked by him when Maximus invaded Italy and deposed Valentinian II in 387. Valentinian II fled to the Eastern Roman Empire, and convinced Theodosius I to invade the Western Roman Empire and restore him to the Western Roman throne, which he did in 388. Maximus was defeated in battle near Aquileia, and executed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorwich198932-180">[180]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdkinsAdkins199834-182">[182]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEErrington200636–37-184">[184]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBirley2005450-185">[185]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Theodosian_dynasty_(392–455)">Theodosian dynasty (392–455)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_Roman_Empire&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Theodosian dynasty (392–455)">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Theodosian_dynasty" title="Theodosian dynasty">Theodosian dynasty</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jean-Paul_Laurens_-_The_Byzantine_Emperor_Honorius_-_1880.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Jean-Paul_Laurens_-_The_Byzantine_Emperor_Honorius_-_1880.jpg/175px-Jean-Paul_Laurens_-_The_Byzantine_Emperor_Honorius_-_1880.jpg" decoding="async" width="175" height="251" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Jean-Paul_Laurens_-_The_Byzantine_Emperor_Honorius_-_1880.jpg/263px-Jean-Paul_Laurens_-_The_Byzantine_Emperor_Honorius_-_1880.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Jean-Paul_Laurens_-_The_Byzantine_Emperor_Honorius_-_1880.jpg/350px-Jean-Paul_Laurens_-_The_Byzantine_Emperor_Honorius_-_1880.jpg 2x" data-file-width="784" data-file-height="1125" /></a><figcaption>Emperor <a href="/wiki/Honorius_(emperor)" title="Honorius (emperor)">Honorius</a>, as depicted by <a href="/wiki/Jean-Paul_Laurens" title="Jean-Paul Laurens">Jean-Paul Laurens</a> in 1880</figcaption></figure> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theodosius_I" title="Theodosius I">Theodosius I</a>: 394–395 (Eastern emperor: 379–394, sole emperor: 394–395)<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorwich1989384-162">[162]</a></li></ul> Theodosius was proclaimed Eastern Emperor by Gratian on 19 January 379, after securing victory against invading barbarians along the Danube. He became sole emperor in August 394, after defeating the usurper Eugenius. Theodosius died of <a href="/wiki/Edema" title="Edema">edema</a> in January 395.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrant1997270–274-186">[186]</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Honorius_(emperor)" title="Honorius (emperor)">Honorius</a>: 395–423<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorwich1989384-162">[162]</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constantine_III_(Western_Roman_emperor)" title="Constantine III (Western Roman emperor)">Constantine III</a>: 409–411<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorwich1989384-162">[162]</a> (Not recognized by Eastern emperor but recognized by Honorius; accepted by the Senate) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constans_II_(usurper)" class="mw-redirect" title="Constans II (usurper)">Constans II</a>: 409–411<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorwich1989384-162">[162]</a> (Not recognized by Honorius and Eastern emperor; recognized only by Constantine III; not accepted by the Senate)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priscus_Attalus" title="Priscus Attalus">Priscus Attalus</a>: 409–410<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdkinsAdkins199835-187">[187]</a> (Not recognized by Honorius and Eastern emperor; accepted by the Senate)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constantius_III" title="Constantius III">Constantius III</a>: 421<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorwich1989384-162">[162]</a></li></ul></li></ul> Honorius became Western emperor in 395, after the death of his father Theodosius. His reign was beset by barbarian invasions, and for much of his early reign, until 408, he was controlled by <a href="/wiki/Stilicho" title="Stilicho">Stilicho</a>, whose influence over Honorius would create a standard for puppet Western Emperors. After 408 his reign was greatly influenced by the general <a href="/wiki/Constantius_III" title="Constantius III">Constantius</a>, who briefly reigned as his co-emperor for a few months before dying of natural causes. He also faced the usurpation of <a href="/wiki/Priscus_Attalus" title="Priscus Attalus">Priscus Attalus</a>, a senator who was proclaimed emperor at Rome in 409, and <a href="/wiki/Constantine_III_(Western_Roman_emperor)" title="Constantine III (Western Roman emperor)">Constantine</a>, who took over Britain and Gaul around the same time. Honorius died of edema in 423.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrant1997282–285-188">[188]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdkinsAdkins199835-187">[187]</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Joannes" title="Joannes">Joannes</a>: 423–425<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdkinsAdkins199835-187">[187]</a> (Not recognized by Eastern emperor; accepted by the Senate)</li></ul> Valentinian III was designated Honorius' heir in 421, although he was not proclaimed caesar, only given the title of nobilissimus puer. In 423, after the death of Honorius, a usurper named <a href="/wiki/Joannes" title="Joannes">Joannes</a> rose up, forcing Valentinian III to flee with his family to the court of the Eastern emperor Theodosius II. Joannes was defeated by Theodosius in Ravenna. <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Valentinian_III" title="Valentinian III">Valentinian III</a>: 425–455<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorwich1989384-162">[162]</a></li></ul> Valentinian III was killed on 16 March 455, by <a href="/wiki/Optila" title="Optila">Optila</a>, a friend of Aetius, whom Valentinian had killed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrant1997298–302-189">[189]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Non-dynastic_(455–480)">Non-dynastic (455–480)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_Roman_Empire&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Non-dynastic (455–480)">edit</a>]</div> The following last emperors of the West were all accepted by the Senate but only two of them (<a href="/wiki/Anthemius" title="Anthemius">Anthemius</a> and <a href="/wiki/Julius_Nepos" title="Julius Nepos">Julius Nepos</a>) were recognized in the East. In fact, these two emperors were installed by the Eastern emperor. <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Petronius_Maximus" title="Petronius Maximus">Petronius Maximus</a>: 455 (Not recognized by Eastern emperor)<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorwich1989384-162">[162]</a></li></ul> Petronius Maximus became the Western Roman emperor on 17 March 455, after assassinating Valentinian III.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrinkwaterElton2002116-190">[190]</a> During his short reign, he provoked Gaiseric, the <a href="/wiki/Vandalic" class="mw-redirect" title="Vandalic">Vandal</a> king, into invading the Western Empire and sacking Rome, by breaking a marriage agreement made between Gaiseric and Valentinian III. Maximus and his son Palladius attempted to flee on 31 May 455, however they were apprehended by a group of peasants, and either killed by them, or by palace servants wishing to curry favor with them.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurnsJensen201464-191">[191]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECollins201088-192">[192]</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Avitus" title="Avitus">Avitus</a>: 455–456 (Not recognized by Eastern emperor)<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBagnallCameronSchwartzWorp1987446-193">[193]</a></li></ul> Avitus was proclaimed Western emperor on 9 July 455, with the support of the Visigoth King Theodoric II. While he held support from the Visigoths, his rule alienated both the Roman Senate and people. In 456 Ricimer, a senior officer, had Avitus deposed, and ruled the Western Empire through a series of puppet emperors until his death in 472.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrant1997310–312-194">[194]</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Majorian" title="Majorian">Majorian</a>: 457–461 (Not recognized by Eastern emperor)<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarnes1983-195">[195]</a></li></ul> Majorian was proclaimed Western emperor on 28 December 457. On 7 August 461, Majorian was compelled to abdicate, and reportedly died five days later of dysentery, although modern historians have asserted he was likely murdered by <a href="/wiki/Ricimer" title="Ricimer">Ricimer</a>, who became the power behind the throne.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrant1997315–317-196">[196]</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Libius_Severus" title="Libius Severus">Libius Severus</a>: 461–465 (Not recognized by Eastern emperor)<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorwich1989384-162">[162]</a></li></ul> Libius Severus was proclaimed Western emperor on 19 November 461. His rule, even as a puppet emperor, extended little beyond Italy, with <a href="/wiki/Aegidius" title="Aegidius">Aegidius</a> splitting off from the Western Empire, and establishing the Kingdom of Soissons. Libius Severus incited the hostility of the Vandals, who invaded Italy and Sicily. During these events, Libius Severus died on 14 November 465, possibly due to being poisoned by Ricimer.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrant1997317–319-197">[197]</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthemius" title="Anthemius">Anthemius</a>: 467–472<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorwich1989384-162">[162]</a></li></ul> Anthemius was proclaimed Western emperor on 12 April 467 by Leo I. Under Anthemius, the Western Empire, which had become increasingly isolated from the Eastern Empire, grew closer, although this collaboration came too late to save the Western Empire. Anthemius' friendly attitude towards the Eastern Empire angered Ricimer, who deposed him in March or April of 472.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrant1997319–321-198">[198]</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Olybrius" title="Olybrius">Olybrius</a>: 472 (Not recognized by Eastern emperor)<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorwich1989384-162">[162]</a></li></ul> Olybrius was proclaimed emperor in April 472. His brief reign, lasting only five or six months, was dominated by Gundobad, who had replaced his uncle Ricimer as the true power behind the throne, after the former's death. Olybrius died in October or November 472, of edema.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrant1997322–323-199">[199]</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glycerius" title="Glycerius">Glycerius</a>: 473–474 (Not recognized by Eastern emperor)<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorwich1989384-162">[162]</a></li></ul> After the death of both Olybrius and Ricimer, Glycerius was proclaimed Western emperor by the Western Roman army, on 3 or 5 May 473.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorwich1989171-200">[200]</a> He was deposed by Julius Nepos in July 474, and sent to live in a monastery, where he remained until his death.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBury1923274-201">[201]</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Nepos" title="Julius Nepos">Julius Nepos</a>: 474–475 (In exile 475–480)<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorwich1989385-202">[202]</a></li></ul> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Romulus_Augustulus_coin.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Romulus_Augustulus_coin.png/220px-Romulus_Augustulus_coin.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="213" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Romulus_Augustulus_coin.png/330px-Romulus_Augustulus_coin.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Romulus_Augustulus_coin.png/440px-Romulus_Augustulus_coin.png 2x" data-file-width="910" data-file-height="881" /></a><figcaption>Solidus of <a href="/wiki/Romulus_Augustulus" title="Romulus Augustulus">Romulus Augustulus</a>.</figcaption></figure> The Eastern Roman Empire had rejected the coronation of both Olybrius and Glycerius, instead supporting Julius Nepos, magister militum in Dalmatia as Western Roman emperor. Nepos, with support from the East, deposed Glycerius in the spring of 474.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGlycerius-81">[81]</a> Orestes, magister militum of Nepos, deposed him a year later in 475, forcing Nepos to flee Ravenna to his estates in Dalmatia. Orestes crowned his son Romulus as Western emperor, though the Eastern Empire and the Western possessions outside of Italy maintained recognition of Nepos as the legitimate Emperor.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBury2005408-82">[82]</a> Nepos continued to rule as "Western emperor" in exile in Dalmatia until his murder in 480 and would be the last holder of the title.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMartindale1980514-86">[86]</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Romulus_Augustulus" title="Romulus Augustulus">Romulus Augustus</a>: 475–476 (Not recognized by Eastern emperor)<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorwich1989385-202">[202]</a></li></ul> Romulus Augustus was crowned as Western emperor after his father Orestes deposed Julius Nepos.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBury2005408-82">[82]</a> The rule of Romulus would be brief; in the autumn of 476 the foederati under the control of Odoacer rebelled when their demands for a third of the land of Italy were ignored.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGibbonsWomersley1994402-203">[203]</a> Orestes was captured and executed on 28 August of the same year and Romulus was deposed by Odoacer a week later. Romulus was spared and allowed to live in the <a href="/wiki/Castellum_Lucullanum" class="mw-redirect" title="Castellum Lucullanum">Castellum Lucullanum</a> in <a href="/wiki/Campania" title="Campania">Campania</a>, where he might have been alive as late as AD 507.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurns199174-204">[204]</a> With the deposition of Romulus Augustus by Odoacer, direct Roman control ceased to exist in Italy. Odoacer assumed control of the peninsula as a <a href="/wiki/De_jure" title="De jure">de jure</a> representative of Western Roman emperor Nepos. With the death of Nepos in 480, the Eastern Roman emperor Zeno abolished the title and position of Western Roman emperor and assumed the role of Odoacer's sovereign. The position of Roman emperor would never again be divided, though some new candidates for the position of Western emperor were proposed during and after the Eastern Roman re-conquests of the sixth century, such as <a href="/wiki/Belisarius" title="Belisarius">Belisarius</a> in 540 and <a href="/wiki/Germanus_(Caesar)" title="Germanus (Caesar)">Germanus</a> in 582.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoorhead199484–86-146">[146]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhitby19887-147">[147]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_Roman_Empire&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Low_Roman_Empire" title="Low Roman Empire">Low Roman Empire</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_Roman_Empire&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_Roman_Empire&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Citations">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 20em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChristie1991236-1"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChristie1991236_1-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFChristie1991">Christie 1991</a>, p. 236. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGillett2001-2"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGillett2001_2-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGillett2001">Gillett 2001</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETaagepera125-3"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETaagepera125_3-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTaagepera">Taagepera</a>, p. 125. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERoman_Governors-4"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoman_Governors_4-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRoman_Governors">Roman Governors</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEck200215f-5">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEck200215f_5-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEck200215f_5-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFEck2002">Eck 2002</a>, p. 15f. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESamarin1968662–663-6"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESamarin1968662–663_6-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSamarin1968">Samarin 1968</a>, pp. 662–663. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeigel199288f-7"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWeigel199288f_7-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWeigel1992">Weigel 1992</a>, p. 88f. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECurchin2004130-8"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECurchin2004130_8-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCurchin2004">Curchin 2004</a>, p. 130. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrant195491–94-9"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrant195491–94_9-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGrant1954">Grant 1954</a>, pp. 91–94. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrant195430–45-10"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrant195430–45_10-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGrant1954">Grant 1954</a>, pp. 30–45. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETenney193035-11"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETenney193035_11-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTenney1930">Tenney 1930</a>, p. 35. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett1997-12"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBennett1997_12-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBennett1997">Bennett 1997</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowmanCameronGarnsey20051-13"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBowmanCameronGarnsey20051_13-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBowmanCameronGarnsey2005">Bowman, Cameron & Garnsey 2005</a>, p. 1. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAurelian-14"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAurelian_14-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAurelian">Aurelian</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDowney1961249–250-15"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDowney1961249–250_15-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDowney1961">Downey 1961</a>, pp. 249–250. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETucker201075-16"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETucker201075_16-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTucker2010">Tucker 2010</a>, p. 75. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESasanian_Dynasty-17"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESasanian_Dynasty_17-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSasanian_Dynasty">Sasanian Dynasty</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowmanCameronGarnsey200538-18"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBowmanCameronGarnsey200538_18-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBowmanCameronGarnsey2005">Bowman, Cameron & Garnsey 2005</a>, p. 38. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBray199738-19"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBray199738_19-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBray1997">Bray 1997</a>, p. 38. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPotter2004322-20"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPotter2004322_20-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPotter2004">Potter 2004</a>, p. 322. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBirley2000117,_153_note_157-21"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBirley2000117,_153_note_157_21-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBirley2000">Birley 2000</a>, pp. 117, 153 note 157. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern201599–118-22"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern201599–118_22-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSouthern2015">Southern 2015</a>, p. 99–118. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBourne200014-23"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBourne200014_23-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBourne2000">Bourne 2000</a>, p. 14. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPostumus-24"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPostumus_24-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPostumus">Postumus</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2013179-25"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith2013179_25-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSmith2013">Smith 2013</a>, p. 179. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2015176-26"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2015176_26-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSouthern2015">Southern 2015</a>, p. 176. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVagi2000386-27"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVagi2000386_27-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFVagi2000">Vagi 2000</a>, p. 386. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarnes20066–7-28"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBarnes20066–7_28-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBarnes2006">Barnes 2006</a>, pp. 6–7. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPotter2014282-29"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPotter2014282_29-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPotter2014">Potter 2014</a>, p. 282. </li> <li 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a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFAdkinsAdkins1998" class="citation book cs1">Adkins, Lesley; Adkins, Roy A. (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9JJdqJ8YGH8C&pg=PA22">Handbook to Life in Ancient Rome</a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0195123326" title="Special:BookSources/978-0195123326"><bdi>978-0195123326</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Handbook+to+Life+in+Ancient+Rome&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0195123326&rft.aulast=Adkins&rft.aufirst=Lesley&rft.au=Adkins%2C+Roy+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D9JJdqJ8YGH8C%26pg%3DPA22&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+Roman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAmory1997" class="citation book cs1">Amory, Patrick (1997). People and Identity in Ostrogothic Italy, 489–554. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0511523069" title="Special:BookSources/978-0511523069"><bdi>978-0511523069</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=People+and+Identity+in+Ostrogothic+Italy%2C+489%E2%80%93554&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0511523069&rft.aulast=Amory&rft.aufirst=Patrick&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+Roman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnnuario_Pontificio" class="citation book cs1">Annuario Pontificio. 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Philological Monographs No. 36. <a href="/wiki/American_Philological_Association" class="mw-redirect" title="American Philological Association">American Philological Association</a>. p. 446. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-55540-099-X" title="Special:BookSources/1-55540-099-X"><bdi>1-55540-099-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Consuls+of+the+Later+Roman+Empire&rft.series=Philological+Monographs+No.+36&rft.pages=446&rft.pub=American+Philological+Association&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=1-55540-099-X&rft.aulast=Bagnall&rft.aufirst=Roger+S.&rft.au=Cameron%2C+Alan&rft.au=Schwartz%2C+Seth+R.&rft.au=Worp%2C+Klaas+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbagnall-clre&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+Roman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBall2001" class="citation book cs1">Ball, Warwick (2001). Rome in the East: The Transformation of an Empire. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0415243575" title="Special:BookSources/978-0415243575"><bdi>978-0415243575</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rome+in+the+East%3A+The+Transformation+of+an+Empire&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0415243575&rft.aulast=Ball&rft.aufirst=Warwick&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+Roman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarnes2006" class="citation book cs1">Barnes, Timothy D. (2006). Constantine and Eusebius. Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0674165311" title="Special:BookSources/978-0674165311"><bdi>978-0674165311</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Constantine+and+Eusebius&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0674165311&rft.aulast=Barnes&rft.aufirst=Timothy+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+Roman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarnish1992" class="citation book cs1">Barnish, S.J.B. (1992). Cassiodorus: Variae, Translated with commentary by S. J. B. Barnish. Liverpool University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0853234364" title="Special:BookSources/978-0853234364"><bdi>978-0853234364</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cassiodorus%3A+Variae%2C+Translated+with+commentary+by+S.+J.+B.+Barnish&rft.pub=Liverpool+University+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0853234364&rft.aulast=Barnish&rft.aufirst=S.J.B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+Roman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarnes1983" class="citation journal cs1">Barnes, T. D. (1983). Martindale, J. R. (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1088953">"Late Roman Prosopography: Between Theodosius and Justinian"</a>. Phoenix. 37 (3): 248–270. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1088953">10.2307/1088953</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0031-8299">0031-8299</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1088953">1088953</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Phoenix&rft.atitle=Late+Roman+Prosopography%3A+Between+Theodosius+and+Justinian&rft.volume=37&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=248-270&rft.date=1983&rft.issn=0031-8299&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1088953%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1088953&rft.aulast=Barnes&rft.aufirst=T.+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1088953&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+Roman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBauer2010" class="citation book cs1">Bauer, Susan Wise (2010). The History of the Medieval World: From the Conversion of Constantine to the First Crusade. W.W. Norton. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0393059755" title="Special:BookSources/978-0393059755"><bdi>978-0393059755</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+History+of+the+Medieval+World%3A+From+the+Conversion+of+Constantine+to+the+First+Crusade&rft.pub=W.W.+Norton&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0393059755&rft.aulast=Bauer&rft.aufirst=Susan+Wise&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+Roman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBirley2000" class="citation book cs1">Birley, Anthony (2000). Marcus Aurelius. 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Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0199252374" title="Special:BookSources/978-0199252374"><bdi>978-0199252374</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Roman+Government+of+Britain&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0199252374&rft.aulast=Birley&rft.aufirst=Anthony+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+Roman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBennett1997" class="citation book cs1">Bennett, Julian (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qk_tofvS8EsC">Trajan: Optimus Princeps : a Life and Times</a>. 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Franz Steiner. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3515092395" title="Special:BookSources/978-3515092395"><bdi>978-3515092395</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Monumentum+et+instrumentum+inscriptum&rft.pub=Franz+Steiner&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-3515092395&rft.aulast=B%C3%B6rm&rft.aufirst=Henning&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+Roman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBourne2000" class="citation book cs1">Bourne, Richard John (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/4343/">Aspects of the relationship between the central and Gallic empires in the mid to late third century ad with special reference to coinage studies</a>. Durham theses, Durham University. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1841712505" title="Special:BookSources/978-1841712505"><bdi>978-1841712505</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Aspects+of+the+relationship+between+the+central+and+Gallic+empires+in+the+mid+to+late+third+century+ad+with+special+reference+to+coinage+studies&rft.pub=Durham+theses%2C+Durham+University&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-1841712505&rft.aulast=Bourne&rft.aufirst=Richard+John&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fetheses.dur.ac.uk%2F4343%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+Roman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBowmanCameronGarnsey2005" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Alan_K._Bowman" class="mw-redirect" title="Alan K. 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Cengage Learning. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1439084748" title="Special:BookSources/978-1439084748"><bdi>978-1439084748</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Earth+and+Its+Peoples%3A+A+Global+History%2C+Volume+1&rft.pub=Cengage+Learning&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1439084748&rft.aulast=Bulliet&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft.au=Crossley%2C+Pamela&rft.au=Headrick%2C+Daniel&rft.au=Hirsch%2C+Steven&rft.au=Johnson%2C+Lyman&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+Roman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBurns1991" class="citation book cs1">Burns, Thomas S. (1991). A History of the Ostrogoths. Indiana University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0253206008" title="Special:BookSources/978-0253206008"><bdi>978-0253206008</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+the+Ostrogoths&rft.pub=Indiana+University+Press&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-0253206008&rft.aulast=Burns&rft.aufirst=Thomas+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+Roman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBurns1994" class="citation book cs1">Burns, Thomas S. (1994). Barbarians Within the Gates of Rome: A Study of Roman Military Policy and the Barbarians. Indiana University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0253312884" title="Special:BookSources/978-0253312884"><bdi>978-0253312884</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Barbarians+Within+the+Gates+of+Rome%3A+A+Study+of+Roman+Military+Policy+and+the+Barbarians&rft.pub=Indiana+University+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0253312884&rft.aulast=Burns&rft.aufirst=Thomas+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+Roman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBurnsJensen2014" class="citation book cs1">Burns, J. Patout; Jensen, Robin M. (2014). Christianity in Roman Africa: The Development of Its Practices and Beliefs. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1467440370" title="Special:BookSources/978-1467440370"><bdi>978-1467440370</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Christianity+in+Roman+Africa%3A+The+Development+of+Its+Practices+and+Beliefs&rft.pub=Wm.+B.+Eerdmans+Publishing&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1467440370&rft.aulast=Burns&rft.aufirst=J.+Patout&rft.au=Jensen%2C+Robin+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+Roman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBury1923" class="citation book cs1">Bury, John Bagnell (1923). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/secondary/BURLAT/home.html">History of the Later Roman Empire Vols. I & II</a>. Macmillan & Co., Ltd. <a href="/wiki/ASIN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ASIN (identifier)">ASIN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/B00L5PD1PA">B00L5PD1PA</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+the+Later+Roman+Empire+Vols.+I+%26+II&rft.pub=Macmillan+%26+Co.%2C+Ltd&rft.date=1923&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.amazon.com%2Fdp%2FB00L5PD1PA%23id-name%3DASIN&rft.aulast=Bury&rft.aufirst=John+Bagnell&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpenelope.uchicago.edu%2FThayer%2FE%2FRoman%2FTexts%2Fsecondary%2FBURLAT%2Fhome.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+Roman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBury2005" class="citation book cs1">Bury, John Bagnell (2005). A History of the Later Roman Empire from Arcadius to Irene (395 A.D. to 800 A.D.). Adamant Media Corp. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1402183683" title="Special:BookSources/978-1402183683"><bdi>978-1402183683</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+the+Later+Roman+Empire+from+Arcadius+to+Irene+%28395+A.D.+to+800+A.D.%29&rft.pub=Adamant+Media+Corp.&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-1402183683&rft.aulast=Bury&rft.aufirst=John+Bagnell&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+Roman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBury2015" class="citation book cs1">Bury, John Bagnell (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=U8GwBgAAQBAJ&q=hesperium+imperium">A History of the Later Roman Empire from Arcadius to Irene (395 A.D. to 800 A.D.)</a>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1316219133" title="Special:BookSources/978-1316219133"><bdi>978-1316219133</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+the+Later+Roman+Empire+from+Arcadius+to+Irene+%28395+A.D.+to+800+A.D.%29&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1316219133&rft.aulast=Bury&rft.aufirst=John+Bagnell&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DU8GwBgAAQBAJ%26q%3Dhesperium%2Bimperium&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+Roman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCameronWard-PerkinsWhitby2000" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Averil_Cameron" title="Averil Cameron">Cameron, Averil</a>; <a href="/wiki/Bryan_Ward-Perkins" title="Bryan Ward-Perkins">Ward-Perkins, Bryan</a>; <a href="/wiki/Michael_Whitby" title="Michael Whitby">Whitby, Michael</a>, eds. (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Qf8mrHjfZRoC">The Cambridge Ancient History, Volume XIV: Late Antiquity: Empire and Successors, A.D. 425–600</a>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-5213-2591-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-5213-2591-2"><bdi>978-0-5213-2591-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Ancient+History%2C+Volume+XIV%3A+Late+Antiquity%3A+Empire+and+Successors%2C+A.D.+425%E2%80%93600&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-5213-2591-2&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQf8mrHjfZRoC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+Roman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarr2015" class="citation book cs1">Carr, John (2015). Fighting Emperors of Byzantium. Pen and Sword. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1783831166" title="Special:BookSources/978-1783831166"><bdi>978-1783831166</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fighting+Emperors+of+Byzantium&rft.pub=Pen+and+Sword&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1783831166&rft.aulast=Carr&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+Roman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChristie1991" class="citation journal cs1">Christie, N. (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-roman-studies/article/milano-capitale-dellimpero-romano-286402-dc-mostra-milano-palazzo-reale-24-gennaio22-aprile-1990-milan-silvana-editoriale-1990-pp-568-numerous-bw-pls-figs-maps-40-colour-pls/CCE937A556543D57DA2ABE3D2F7FF7F3">"Milano – Capitale dell'impero romano, 286–402 d.c. (Mostra, Milano: Palazzo Reale, 24 Gennaio-22 Aprile 1990). Milan: Silvana Editoriale, 1990. p. 568, numerous b&w pls, figs maps, 40 colour pls"</a>. Journal of Roman Studies. 81: 236–237. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F300550">10.2307/300550</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/300550">300550</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:163458742">163458742</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Roman+Studies&rft.atitle=Milano+%E2%80%93+Capitale+dell%27impero+romano%2C+286%E2%80%93402+d.c.+%28Mostra%2C+Milano%3A+Palazzo+Reale%2C+24+Gennaio-22+Aprile+1990%29.+Milan%3A+Silvana+Editoriale%2C+1990.+p.+568%2C+numerous+b%26w+pls%2C+figs+maps%2C+40+colour+pls.&rft.volume=81&rft.pages=236-237&rft.date=1991&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A163458742%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F300550%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F300550&rft.aulast=Christie&rft.aufirst=N.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cambridge.org%2Fcore%2Fjournals%2Fjournal-of-roman-studies%2Farticle%2Fmilano-capitale-dellimpero-romano-286402-dc-mostra-milano-palazzo-reale-24-gennaio22-aprile-1990-milan-silvana-editoriale-1990-pp-568-numerous-bw-pls-figs-maps-40-colour-pls%2FCCE937A556543D57DA2ABE3D2F7FF7F3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+Roman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClineGraham2011" class="citation book cs1">Cline, Eric H.; Graham, Mark W. (2011). Ancient Empires: From Mesopotamia to the Rise of Islam. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521717809" title="Special:BookSources/978-0521717809"><bdi>978-0521717809</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Empires%3A+From+Mesopotamia+to+the+Rise+of+Islam&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0521717809&rft.aulast=Cline&rft.aufirst=Eric+H.&rft.au=Graham%2C+Mark+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+Roman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCollins1983" class="citation book cs1">Collins, Roger (1983). Early Medieval Spain. St. Martin's Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0312224646" title="Special:BookSources/978-0312224646"><bdi>978-0312224646</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Early+Medieval+Spain&rft.pub=St.+Martin%27s+Press&rft.date=1983&rft.isbn=978-0312224646&rft.aulast=Collins&rft.aufirst=Roger&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+Roman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCollins1989" class="citation book cs1">Collins, Roger (1989). The Arab Conquest of Spain 710–797. Blackwell. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0631194057" title="Special:BookSources/978-0631194057"><bdi>978-0631194057</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Arab+Conquest+of+Spain+710%E2%80%93797&rft.pub=Blackwell&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-0631194057&rft.aulast=Collins&rft.aufirst=Roger&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+Roman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCollins2010" class="citation book cs1">Collins, Roger (2010). Early Medieval Europe, 300–1000. Palgrave Macmillan. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1137014283" title="Special:BookSources/978-1137014283"><bdi>978-1137014283</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Early+Medieval+Europe%2C+300%E2%80%931000&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1137014283&rft.aulast=Collins&rft.aufirst=Roger&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+Roman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCroke2001" class="citation book cs1">Croke, Brian (2001). Count Marcellinus and his Chronicle. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0198150015" title="Special:BookSources/978-0198150015"><bdi>978-0198150015</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Count+Marcellinus+and+his+Chronicle&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0198150015&rft.aulast=Croke&rft.aufirst=Brian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+Roman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCurchin2004" class="citation book cs1">Curchin, Leonard A. (2004). The Romanization of Central Spain: complexity, diversity, and change in a Provincial Hinterland. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0415620079" title="Special:BookSources/978-0415620079"><bdi>978-0415620079</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Romanization+of+Central+Spain%3A+complexity%2C+diversity%2C+and+change+in+a+Provincial+Hinterland&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0415620079&rft.aulast=Curchin&rft.aufirst=Leonard+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+Roman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDagron1984" class="citation book cs1">Dagron, Gilbert (1984). Naissance d'une Capitale: Constantinople et ses institutions de 330 a 451. Presses Universitaires de France. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2130389026" title="Special:BookSources/978-2130389026"><bdi>978-2130389026</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Naissance+d%27une+Capitale%3A+Constantinople+et+ses+institutions+de+330+a+451&rft.pub=Presses+Universitaires+de+France&rft.date=1984&rft.isbn=978-2130389026&rft.aulast=Dagron&rft.aufirst=Gilbert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+Roman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDeliyannis2010" class="citation book cs1">Deliyannis, Deborah M. (2010). Ravenna in late antiquity. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521836722" title="Special:BookSources/978-0521836722"><bdi>978-0521836722</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ravenna+in+late+antiquity&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0521836722&rft.aulast=Deliyannis&rft.aufirst=Deborah+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+Roman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDowney1961" class="citation book cs1">Downey, Glanville (1961). History of Antioch in Syria: From Seleucus to the Arab Conquest. Literary Licensing LLC. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/859619733">859619733</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+Antioch+in+Syria%3A+From+Seleucus+to+the+Arab+Conquest&rft.pub=Literary+Licensing+LLC&rft.date=1961&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F859619733&rft.aulast=Downey&rft.aufirst=Glanville&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+Roman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDrinkwaterElton2002" class="citation book cs1">Drinkwater, John; Elton, Hugh (2002). Fifth-Century Gaul: A Crisis of Identity?. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521529334" title="Special:BookSources/978-0521529334"><bdi>978-0521529334</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fifth-Century+Gaul%3A+A+Crisis+of+Identity%3F&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0521529334&rft.aulast=Drinkwater&rft.aufirst=John&rft.au=Elton%2C+Hugh&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+Roman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDurant1950" class="citation book cs1">Durant, Will (1950). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ageoffaithhistor00dura">The Age of Faith: A History of Medieval Civilization – Christian, Islamic, and Judaic – from Constantine to Dante, A.D. 325–1300</a>. Simon & Schuster. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/769104576">769104576</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Age+of+Faith%3A+A+History+of+Medieval+Civilization+%E2%80%93+Christian%2C+Islamic%2C+and+Judaic+%E2%80%93+from+Constantine+to+Dante%2C+A.D.+325%E2%80%931300&rft.pub=Simon+%26+Schuster&rft.date=1950&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F769104576&rft.aulast=Durant&rft.aufirst=Will&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fageoffaithhistor00dura&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+Roman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEck2002" class="citation book cs1">Eck, Werner (2002). The Age of Augustus. Blackwell. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1405151498" title="Special:BookSources/978-1405151498"><bdi>978-1405151498</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Age+of+Augustus&rft.pub=Blackwell&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-1405151498&rft.aulast=Eck&rft.aufirst=Werner&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+Roman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFElton1992" class="citation book cs1">Elton, Hugh (1992). Fifth-century Gaul: A Crisis of Identity?. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521414852" title="Special:BookSources/978-0521414852"><bdi>978-0521414852</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fifth-century+Gaul%3A+A+Crisis+of+Identity%3F&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0521414852&rft.aulast=Elton&rft.aufirst=Hugh&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+Roman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHugh1996" class="citation book cs1">Elton, Hugh (1996). Warfare in Roman Europe, AD 350–425. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0198152415" title="Special:BookSources/978-0198152415"><bdi>978-0198152415</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Warfare+in+Roman+Europe%2C+AD+350%E2%80%93425&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0198152415&rft.aulast=Elton&rft.aufirst=Hugh&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+Roman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFErrington2006" class="citation book cs1">Errington, R. Malcolm (2006). Roman Imperial Policy from Julian to Theodosius. University of North Carolina Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0807877456" title="Special:BookSources/978-0807877456"><bdi>978-0807877456</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Roman+Imperial+Policy+from+Julian+to+Theodosius&rft.pub=University+of+North+Carolina+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0807877456&rft.aulast=Errington&rft.aufirst=R.+Malcolm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+Roman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFouracre2005" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Paul_Fouracre" title="Paul Fouracre">Fouracre, Paul</a>, ed. (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017/CHOL9780521362917">The New Cambridge Medieval History, Volume 1, c.500–c.700</a>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-13905393-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-13905393-8"><bdi>978-1-13905393-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+New+Cambridge+Medieval+History%2C+Volume+1%2C+c.500%E2%80%93c.700&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-1-13905393-8&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1017%2FCHOL9780521362917&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+Roman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFouracreGerberding1996" class="citation book cs1">Fouracre, Paul; Gerberding, Richard A. (1996). Late Merovingian France: History and Hagiography, 640–720. Manchester University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0719047916" title="Special:BookSources/978-0719047916"><bdi>978-0719047916</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Late+Merovingian+France%3A+History+and+Hagiography%2C+640%E2%80%93720&rft.pub=Manchester+University+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0719047916&rft.aulast=Fouracre&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft.au=Gerberding%2C+Richard+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+Roman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrassetto2003" class="citation book cs1">Frassetto, Michael (2003). Encyclopedia of Barbarian Europe: Society in Transformation. ABC-CLIO. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1576072639" title="Special:BookSources/978-1576072639"><bdi>978-1576072639</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Barbarian+Europe%3A+Society+in+Transformation&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-1576072639&rft.aulast=Frassetto&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+Roman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrassetto2013" class="citation book cs1">Frassetto, Michael (2013). The Early Medieval World: From the Fall of Rome to the Time of Charlemagne. ABC-CLIO. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1598849950" title="Special:BookSources/978-1598849950"><bdi>978-1598849950</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Early+Medieval+World%3A+From+the+Fall+of+Rome+to+the+Time+of+Charlemagne&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1598849950&rft.aulast=Frassetto&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+Roman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGibbonsBury1974" class="citation book cs1">Gibbons, Edward; Bury, J.B. (1974). The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. AMS Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0404028206" title="Special:BookSources/978-0404028206"><bdi>978-0404028206</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Decline+and+Fall+of+the+Roman+Empire&rft.pub=AMS+Press&rft.date=1974&rft.isbn=978-0404028206&rft.aulast=Gibbons&rft.aufirst=Edward&rft.au=Bury%2C+J.B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+Roman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGibbonsWomersley1994" class="citation book cs1">Gibbons, Edward; Womersley, David P. (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyofdeclin00gibb_0">The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Vol 3</a>. Penguin Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0140437645" title="Special:BookSources/978-0140437645"><bdi>978-0140437645</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+History+of+the+Decline+and+Fall+of+the+Roman+Empire%2C+Vol+3&rft.pub=Penguin+Books&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0140437645&rft.aulast=Gibbons&rft.aufirst=Edward&rft.au=Womersley%2C+David+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhistoryofdeclin00gibb_0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+Roman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGillett2001" class="citation journal cs1">Gillett, Andrew (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/18189525">"Rome, Ravenna and the Last Western Emperors"</a>. Papers of the British School at Rome. 69: 131–167. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0068246200001781">10.1017/S0068246200001781</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0068-2462">0068-2462</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/40311008">40311008</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:129373675">129373675</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Papers+of+the+British+School+at+Rome&rft.atitle=Rome%2C+Ravenna+and+the+Last+Western+Emperors&rft.volume=69&rft.pages=131-167&rft.date=2001&rft.issn=0068-2462&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A129373675%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F40311008%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0068246200001781&rft.aulast=Gillett&rft.aufirst=Andrew&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F18189525&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+Roman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGiven2014" class="citation book cs1">Given, John (2014). The Fragmentary History of Priscus: Attila, the Huns and the Roman Empire, AD 430–476 (Christian Roman Empire). Arx Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1935228141" title="Special:BookSources/978-1935228141"><bdi>978-1935228141</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Fragmentary+History+of+Priscus%3A+Attila%2C+the+Huns+and+the+Roman+Empire%2C+AD+430%E2%80%93476+%28Christian+Roman+Empire%29&rft.pub=Arx+Publishing&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1935228141&rft.aulast=Given&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+Roman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGlazer1996" class="citation book cs1">Glazer, Steven A. (1996) [Research completed January 1995]. <a href="/wiki/Helen_Chapin_Metz" title="Helen Chapin Metz">Metz, Helen Chapin</a> (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/turkeycountrystu00metz">A Country Study: Turkey</a>. <a href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress_Country_Studies" title="Library of Congress Country Studies">Country Studies</a> (5th ed.). Federal Research Division of the Library of Congress. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0844408644" title="Special:BookSources/978-0844408644"><bdi>978-0844408644</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/33898522">33898522</a>. Retrieved 22 April 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Country+Study%3A+Turkey&rft.series=Country+Studies&rft.edition=5th&rft.pub=Federal+Research+Division+of+the+Library+of+Congress&rft.date=1996&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F33898522&rft.isbn=978-0844408644&rft.aulast=Glazer&rft.aufirst=Steven+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fturkeycountrystu00metz&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+Roman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoldberg2006" class="citation book cs1">Goldberg, Eric J. (2006). Struggle for Empire: Kingship and Conflict Under Louis the German, 817–876. Cornell University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0801475290" title="Special:BookSources/978-0801475290"><bdi>978-0801475290</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Struggle+for+Empire%3A+Kingship+and+Conflict+Under+Louis+the+German%2C+817%E2%80%93876&rft.pub=Cornell+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0801475290&rft.aulast=Goldberg&rft.aufirst=Eric+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+Roman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoldsworthy2009" class="citation book cs1">Goldsworthy, Adrian (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/howromefelldeath0000gold">How Rome Fell: death of a superpower</a>. Yale University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0300164268" title="Special:BookSources/978-0300164268"><bdi>978-0300164268</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=How+Rome+Fell%3A+death+of+a+superpower&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0300164268&rft.aulast=Goldsworthy&rft.aufirst=Adrian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhowromefelldeath0000gold&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+Roman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoldsworthy2010" class="citation book cs1">Goldsworthy, Adrian (2010). The Fall of the West: The Slow Death of the Roman Superpower. Orion Books Ltd. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0753826928" title="Special:BookSources/978-0753826928"><bdi>978-0753826928</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Fall+of+the+West%3A+The+Slow+Death+of+the+Roman+Superpower&rft.pub=Orion+Books+Ltd&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0753826928&rft.aulast=Goldsworthy&rft.aufirst=Adrian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+Roman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGordon2013" class="citation book cs1">Gordon, C.D. (2013). The Age of Attila: Fifth-Century Byzantium and the Barbarians. University of Michigan Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0472035786" title="Special:BookSources/978-0472035786"><bdi>978-0472035786</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Age+of+Attila%3A+Fifth-Century+Byzantium+and+the+Barbarians&rft.pub=University+of+Michigan+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0472035786&rft.aulast=Gordon&rft.aufirst=C.D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+Roman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGottlieb2006" class="citation book cs1">Gottlieb, H. (2006). Linguistic Influence. Elsevier. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0080442990" title="Special:BookSources/978-0080442990"><bdi>978-0080442990</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Linguistic+Influence&rft.pub=Elsevier&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0080442990&rft.aulast=Gottlieb&rft.aufirst=H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+Roman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrant1954" class="citation book cs1">Grant, Michael (1954). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/romanliterature0000gran">Roman Literature</a>. Cambridge England: University Press. <a href="/wiki/ASIN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ASIN (identifier)">ASIN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/B0000CMLNV">B0000CMLNV</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Roman+Literature&rft.pub=Cambridge+England%3A+University+Press&rft.date=1954&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.amazon.com%2Fdp%2FB0000CMLNV%23id-name%3DASIN&rft.aulast=Grant&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fromanliterature0000gran&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+Roman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrant1997" class="citation book cs1">Grant, Michael (1997). The Fall of the Roman Empire. Simon & Schuster. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0684829562" title="Special:BookSources/978-0684829562"><bdi>978-0684829562</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Fall+of+the+Roman+Empire&rft.pub=Simon+%26+Schuster&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0684829562&rft.aulast=Grant&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+Roman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGunderson" class="citation journal cs1">Gunderson, Gerald (1976). "Economic change and the demise of the Roman Empire". Explorations in Economic History. 13 (1): 43–68. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0014-4983%2876%2990004-8">10.1016/0014-4983(76)90004-8</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Explorations+in+Economic+History&rft.atitle=Economic+change+and+the+demise+of+the+Roman+Empire&rft.volume=13&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=43-68&rft.date=1976&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2F0014-4983%2876%2990004-8&rft.aulast=Gunderson&rft.aufirst=Gerald&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+Roman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHaarmann2004" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Haarmann, Harald (2004). Geschichte der Schrift [History of Writing] (in German) (2nd ed.). München: C. H. Beck. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-406-47998-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-406-47998-4"><bdi>978-3-406-47998-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Geschichte+der+Schrift&rft.place=M%C3%BCnchen&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=C.+H.+Beck&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-3-406-47998-4&rft.aulast=Haarmann&rft.aufirst=Harald&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+Roman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHaldon1997" class="citation book cs1">Haldon, J.F. (1997). Byzantium in the Seventh Century: The Transformation of a Culture. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521319171" title="Special:BookSources/978-0521319171"><bdi>978-0521319171</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Byzantium+in+the+Seventh+Century%3A+The+Transformation+of+a+Culture&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0521319171&rft.aulast=Haldon&rft.aufirst=J.F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+Roman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHallenbeck1982" class="citation book cs1">Hallenbeck, Jan T. (1982). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/paviaromelombard0000hall">Pavia and Rome: The Lombard monarchy and the papacy in the eighth century</a>. American Philosophical Society. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0871697240" title="Special:BookSources/978-0871697240"><bdi>978-0871697240</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Pavia+and+Rome%3A+The+Lombard+monarchy+and+the+papacy+in+the+eighth+century&rft.pub=American+Philosophical+Society&rft.date=1982&rft.isbn=978-0871697240&rft.aulast=Hallenbeck&rft.aufirst=Jan+T.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fpaviaromelombard0000hall&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+Roman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHeather2000" class="citation book cs1">Heather, Peter (2000). The Western Empire, 425–76. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1139054416" title="Special:BookSources/978-1139054416"><bdi>978-1139054416</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Western+Empire%2C+425%E2%80%9376&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-1139054416&rft.aulast=Heather&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+Roman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHeather2005" class="citation book cs1">Heather, Peter (2005). The Fall of the Roman Empire: A New History. Macmillan. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0333989142" title="Special:BookSources/978-0333989142"><bdi>978-0333989142</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Fall+of+the+Roman+Empire%3A+A+New+History&rft.pub=Macmillan&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0333989142&rft.aulast=Heather&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+Roman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHeather2007" class="citation book cs1">Heather, Peter (2007). The Fall of the Roman Empire: A New History of Rome and the Barbarians. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0195325416" title="Special:BookSources/978-0195325416"><bdi>978-0195325416</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Fall+of+the+Roman+Empire%3A+A+New+History+of+Rome+and+the+Barbarians&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0195325416&rft.aulast=Heather&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+Roman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHebblewhite2016" class="citation book cs1">Hebblewhite, Mark (2016). The Emperor and the Army in the Later Roman Empire, AD 235–395. Taylor & Francis. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1317034308" title="Special:BookSources/978-1317034308"><bdi>978-1317034308</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Emperor+and+the+Army+in+the+Later+Roman+Empire%2C+AD+235%E2%80%93395&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1317034308&rft.aulast=Hebblewhite&rft.aufirst=Mark&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+Roman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHerrin1987" class="citation book cs1">Herrin, Judith (1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=EL_VMQ_JhAEC&pg=PA156">The Formation of Christendom</a>. Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0691008318" title="Special:BookSources/978-0691008318"><bdi>978-0691008318</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Formation+of+Christendom&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=978-0691008318&rft.aulast=Herrin&rft.aufirst=Judith&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DEL_VMQ_JhAEC%26pg%3DPA156&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+Roman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHughes2012" class="citation book cs1">Hughes, Ian (2012). Aetius: Attila's Nemesis. Pen and Sword. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1848842793" title="Special:BookSources/978-1848842793"><bdi>978-1848842793</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Aetius%3A+Attila%27s+Nemesis&rft.pub=Pen+and+Sword&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1848842793&rft.aulast=Hughes&rft.aufirst=Ian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+Roman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHuntMartinRosenweinHsia2001" class="citation book cs1">Hunt, Lynn; Martin, Thomas R.; Rosenwein, Barbara H.; Hsia, R. Po-chia; Smith, Bonnie G. (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/makingofwestpeop00lynn">The Making of the West: Peoples and Cultures</a>. Bedford. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0312183653" title="Special:BookSources/978-0312183653"><bdi>978-0312183653</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Making+of+the+West%3A+Peoples+and+Cultures&rft.pub=Bedford&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0312183653&rft.aulast=Hunt&rft.aufirst=Lynn&rft.au=Martin%2C+Thomas+R.&rft.au=Rosenwein%2C+Barbara+H.&rft.au=Hsia%2C+R.+Po-chia&rft.au=Smith%2C+Bonnie+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmakingofwestpeop00lynn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+Roman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJones1992" class="citation book cs1">Jones, A. H. M. (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/laterromanempire01jone">The Later Roman Empire</a>. University of Oklahoma Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0801832857" title="Special:BookSources/978-0801832857"><bdi>978-0801832857</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Later+Roman+Empire&rft.pub=University+of+Oklahoma+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0801832857&rft.aulast=Jones&rft.aufirst=A.+H.+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Flaterromanempire01jone&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+Roman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKaegi2004" class="citation book cs1">Kaegi, Walter E. (2004). Heraclius: Emperor of Byzantium. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521814591" title="Special:BookSources/978-0521814591"><bdi>978-0521814591</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Heraclius%3A+Emperor+of+Byzantium&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0521814591&rft.aulast=Kaegi&rft.aufirst=Walter+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+Roman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKatz1955" class="citation book cs1">Katz, Solomon (1955). The Decline of Rome and the Rise of Mediaeval Europe. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. <a href="/wiki/ASIN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ASIN (identifier)">ASIN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/B002S62FYI">B002S62FYI</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Decline+of+Rome+and+the+Rise+of+Mediaeval+Europe&rft.pub=Ithaca%2C+NY%3A+Cornell+University+Press&rft.date=1955&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.amazon.com%2Fdp%2FB002S62FYI%23id-name%3DASIN&rft.aulast=Katz&rft.aufirst=Solomon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+Roman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKaylorPhillips2012" class="citation book cs1">Kaylor, Noel Harold; Phillips, Philip Edward (2012). A Companion to Boethius in the Middle Ages. Brill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9004183544" title="Special:BookSources/978-9004183544"><bdi>978-9004183544</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Companion+to+Boethius+in+the+Middle+Ages&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-9004183544&rft.aulast=Kaylor&rft.aufirst=Noel+Harold&rft.au=Phillips%2C+Philip+Edward&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+Roman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKidnerBucurMathisenMcKee2008" class="citation book cs1">Kidner, Frank L.; Bucur, Maria; Mathisen, Ralph; McKee, Sally; Theodore, R. (2008). Making Europe: People, Politics, and Culture. Houghton Mifflin. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0618004799" title="Special:BookSources/978-0618004799"><bdi>978-0618004799</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Making+Europe%3A+People%2C+Politics%2C+and+Culture&rft.pub=Houghton+Mifflin&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0618004799&rft.aulast=Kidner&rft.aufirst=Frank+L.&rft.au=Bucur%2C+Maria&rft.au=Mathisen%2C+Ralph&rft.au=McKee%2C+Sally&rft.au=Theodore%2C+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+Roman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKlewitz" class="citation journal cs1">Klewitz, Hans-Walter (1 January 1943). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180222071154/https://www.degruyter.com/view/j/zrgka.1943.32.issue-1/zrgka.1943.32.1.509/zrgka.1943.32.1.509.xml">"Eduard Eichmann, Die Kaiserkrönung im Abendland. Ein Beitrag zur, Geistesgeschichte des Mittelalters, mit besonderer Berücksichtigung des kirchlichen Rechts, der Liturgie und der Kirchenpolitik"</a>. Zeitschrift der Savigny-Stiftung für Rechtsgeschichte: Kanonistische Abteilung. 32 (1): 509–525. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.7767%2Fzrgka.1943.32.1.509">10.7767/zrgka.1943.32.1.509</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:183386465">183386465</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.degruyter.com/view/j/zrgka.1943.32.issue-1/zrgka.1943.32.1.509/zrgka.1943.32.1.509.xml">the original</a> on 22 February 2018. Retrieved 21 February 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Zeitschrift+der+Savigny-Stiftung+f%C3%BCr+Rechtsgeschichte%3A+Kanonistische+Abteilung&rft.atitle=Eduard+Eichmann%2C+Die+Kaiserkr%C3%B6nung+im+Abendland.+Ein+Beitrag+zur%2C+Geistesgeschichte+des+Mittelalters%2C+mit+besonderer+Ber%C3%BCcksichtigung+des+kirchlichen+Rechts%2C+der+Liturgie+und+der+Kirchenpolitik&rft.volume=32&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=509-525&rft.date=1943-01-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.7767%2Fzrgka.1943.32.1.509&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A183386465%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Klewitz&rft.aufirst=Hans-Walter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.degruyter.com%2Fview%2Fj%2Fzrgka.1943.32.issue-1%2Fzrgka.1943.32.1.509%2Fzrgka.1943.32.1.509.xml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+Roman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKnowlesObolensky1978" class="citation book cs1">Knowles, David; Obolensky, Dimitri (1978). The Middle Ages: The Middle Ages. Paulist Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0809102761" title="Special:BookSources/978-0809102761"><bdi>978-0809102761</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Middle+Ages%3A+The+Middle+Ages&rft.pub=Paulist+Press&rft.date=1978&rft.isbn=978-0809102761&rft.aulast=Knowles&rft.aufirst=David&rft.au=Obolensky%2C+Dimitri&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+Roman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLascaratos_&_Voros" class="citation journal cs1">Lascaratos, J.; Voros, D. (May 2000). "Fatal Wounding of the Byzantine Emperor Julian the Apostate (361–363 A.D.): Approach To The Contribution of Ancient Surgery". World Journal of Surgery. 24 (5): 615–9. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs002689910100">10.1007/s002689910100</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10787086">10787086</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:6654496">6654496</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=World+Journal+of+Surgery&rft.atitle=Fatal+Wounding+of+the+Byzantine+Emperor+Julian+the+Apostate+%28361%E2%80%93363+A.D.%29%3A+Approach+To+The+Contribution+of+Ancient+Surgery&rft.volume=24&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=615-9&rft.date=2000-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A6654496%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F10787086&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs002689910100&rft.aulast=Lascaratos&rft.aufirst=J.&rft.au=Voros%2C+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+Roman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLe_Goff1994" class="citation book cs1">Le Goff, Jacques (1994). Medieval Civilization: 400–1500. B. Blackwell. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0631175667" title="Special:BookSources/978-0631175667"><bdi>978-0631175667</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Medieval+Civilization%3A+400%E2%80%931500&rft.pub=B.+Blackwell&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0631175667&rft.aulast=Le+Goff&rft.aufirst=Jacques&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+Roman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLenski2007" class="citation book cs1">Lenski, Noel (2007). The Cambridge Companion to the Age of Constantine. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1139000840" title="Special:BookSources/978-1139000840"><bdi>978-1139000840</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Companion+to+the+Age+of+Constantine&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1139000840&rft.aulast=Lenski&rft.aufirst=Noel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+Roman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLevillain2002" class="citation book cs1">Levillain, Philippe (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/papacy00phil">The Papacy: An Encyclopedia</a>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0415922302" title="Special:BookSources/978-0415922302"><bdi>978-0415922302</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Papacy%3A+An+Encyclopedia&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0415922302&rft.aulast=Levillain&rft.aufirst=Philippe&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fpapacy00phil&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+Roman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLimberis2012" class="citation book cs1">Limberis, Vasiliki (2012). Divine Heiress The Virgin Mary and the Making of Christian Constantinople. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0415642965" title="Special:BookSources/978-0415642965"><bdi>978-0415642965</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Divine+Heiress+The+Virgin+Mary+and+the+Making+of+Christian+Constantinople.&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0415642965&rft.aulast=Limberis&rft.aufirst=Vasiliki&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+Roman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLuttwak2009" class="citation book cs1">Luttwak, Edward N. (2009). The Grand Strategy of the Byzantine Empire. Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0674035195" title="Special:BookSources/978-0674035195"><bdi>978-0674035195</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Grand+Strategy+of+the+Byzantine+Empire&rft.pub=Belknap+Press+of+Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0674035195&rft.aulast=Luttwak&rft.aufirst=Edward+N.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+Roman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMaas2005" class="citation book cs1">Maas, Micael (2005). The Cambridge Companion Guide to the Age of Justinian. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521520713" title="Special:BookSources/978-0521520713"><bdi>978-0521520713</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Companion+Guide+to+the+Age+of+Justinian&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0521520713&rft.aulast=Maas&rft.aufirst=Micael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+Roman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMacGeorge2002" class="citation book cs1">MacGeorge, Penny (2002). Late Roman warlords. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0199252442" title="Special:BookSources/978-0199252442"><bdi>978-0199252442</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Late+Roman+warlords&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0199252442&rft.aulast=MacGeorge&rft.aufirst=Penny&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+Roman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMartindale1980" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_R._Martindale" class="mw-redirect" title="John R. Martindale">Martindale, John R.</a>, ed. 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Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-20159-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-20159-4"><bdi>0-521-20159-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Prosopography+of+the+Later+Roman+Empire%3A+Volume+II%2C+AD+395%E2%80%93527&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1980&rft.isbn=0-521-20159-4&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fprosopography-later-roman-empire%2FPLRE-II%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+Roman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMerills2016" class="citation book cs1">Merills, Andrew (2016). Vandals, Romans and Berbers: New Perspectives on Late Antique North Africa. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1138252684" title="Special:BookSources/978-1138252684"><bdi>978-1138252684</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Vandals%2C+Romans+and+Berbers%3A+New+Perspectives+on+Late+Antique+North+Africa&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1138252684&rft.aulast=Merills&rft.aufirst=Andrew&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+Roman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMoorhead1994" class="citation book cs1">Moorhead, John (1994). Justinian. Longman. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0582063037" title="Special:BookSources/978-0582063037"><bdi>978-0582063037</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Justinian&rft.pub=Longman&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0582063037&rft.aulast=Moorhead&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+Roman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNicol2002" class="citation book cs1">Nicol, Donald M. (2002). The Immortal Emperor: The Life and Legend of Constantine Palaiologos, Last Emperor of the Romans. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521894098" title="Special:BookSources/978-0521894098"><bdi>978-0521894098</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Immortal+Emperor%3A+The+Life+and+Legend+of+Constantine+Palaiologos%2C+Last+Emperor+of+the+Romans&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0521894098&rft.aulast=Nicol&rft.aufirst=Donald+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+Roman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNoble1984" class="citation book cs1">Noble, Thomas F. X. (1984). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/republicofstpete0000nobl">The Republic of St. Peter: The Birth of the Papal State, 680–825</a>. University of Pennsylvania Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0812212396" title="Special:BookSources/978-0812212396"><bdi>978-0812212396</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Republic+of+St.+Peter%3A+The+Birth+of+the+Papal+State%2C+680%E2%80%93825&rft.pub=University+of+Pennsylvania+Press&rft.date=1984&rft.isbn=978-0812212396&rft.aulast=Noble&rft.aufirst=Thomas+F.+X.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Frepublicofstpete0000nobl&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+Roman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNorwich1989" class="citation book cs1">Norwich, John Julius (1989). Byzantium: The Early Centuries. Knopf. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0394537788" title="Special:BookSources/978-0394537788"><bdi>978-0394537788</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Byzantium%3A+The+Early+Centuries&rft.pub=Knopf&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-0394537788&rft.aulast=Norwich&rft.aufirst=John+Julius&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+Roman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOdahl" class="citation journal cs1">Odahl, Charles M. (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180222072517/https://philpapers.org/rec/RISCMO">"Constantine and the Christian Empire: Roman Imperial Biographies"</a>. Byzantinische Zeitschrift. 99 (1). <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1515%2FBYZS.2006.260">10.1515/BYZS.2006.260</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:191436869">191436869</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://philpapers.org/rec/RISCMO">the original</a> on 22 February 2018. 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Mulino. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-8815096906" title="Special:BookSources/978-8815096906"><bdi>978-8815096906</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=I+bizantini+in+Italia&rft.pub=Mulino&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-8815096906&rft.aulast=Ravegnani&rft.aufirst=Giorgio&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+Roman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSamarin1968" class="citation book cs1">Samarin, William J. (1968). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://tspace.library.utoronto.ca/handle/1807/67629">"Lingua Francas of the World"</a>. Readings in the Sociology of Language. 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OUP USA. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0199861101" title="Special:BookSources/978-0199861101"><bdi>978-0199861101</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Roman+Palmyra%3A+Identity%2C+Community%2C+and+State+Formation&rft.pub=OUP+USA&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0199861101&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=Andrew+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dh5cMho6zFckC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+Roman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSouthern2007" class="citation book cs1">Southern, Pat (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/romanarmysociali00sout_0">The Roman Army: a Social and Institutional History</a>. 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Last of the Tsars. Pan Books Ltd. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0330029025" title="Special:BookSources/978-0330029025"><bdi>978-0330029025</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Last+of+the+Tsars&rft.pub=Pan+Books+Ltd.&rft.date=1972&rft.isbn=978-0330029025&rft.aulast=Tames&rft.aufirst=Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+Roman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTenney1930" class="citation journal cs1">Tenney, Frank (1930). "Life and Literature in the Roman Republic". 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Rivers of Gold: The Rise of the Spanish Empire. Penguin Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0141034485" title="Special:BookSources/978-0141034485"><bdi>978-0141034485</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rivers+of+Gold%3A+The+Rise+of+the+Spanish+Empire&rft.pub=Penguin+Books&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0141034485&rft.aulast=Thomas&rft.aufirst=Hugh&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+Roman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThompson1969" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/E._A._Thompson" title="E. A. Thompson">Thompson, E. A.</a> (1969). The Goths in Spain. 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Stanford, California: <a href="/wiki/Stanford_University_Press" title="Stanford University Press">Stanford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8047-2630-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-8047-2630-2"><bdi>0-8047-2630-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+the+Byzantine+State+and+Society&rft.place=Stanford%2C+California&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=0-8047-2630-2&rft.aulast=Treadgold&rft.aufirst=Warren&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DnYbnr5XVbzUC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+Roman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTucker2010" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Spencer_C._Tucker" title="Spencer C. 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Fitzroy Dearborn. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1579583163" title="Special:BookSources/978-1579583163"><bdi>978-1579583163</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Coinage+and+History+of+the+Roman+Empire%2C+c.+82+B.C.+%E2%80%93+A.D.+480&rft.pub=Fitzroy+Dearborn&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-1579583163&rft.aulast=Vagi&rft.aufirst=David+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+Roman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVogt1993" class="citation book cs1">Vogt, Joseph (1993). The Decline of Rome: The Metamorphosis of Ancient Civilization. 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Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0415076807" title="Special:BookSources/978-0415076807"><bdi>978-0415076807</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lepidus%3A+The+Tarnished+Triumvir&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0415076807&rft.aulast=Weigel&rft.aufirst=Richard+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Flepidustarnished0000weig&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+Roman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWhaley2012" class="citation book cs1">Whaley, Joachim (2012). Joachim Whaley, Germany and the Holy Roman Empire: Volume I: Maximilian I to the Peace of Westphalia, 1493–1648. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0199688821" title="Special:BookSources/978-0199688821"><bdi>978-0199688821</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Joachim+Whaley%2C+Germany+and+the+Holy+Roman+Empire%3A+Volume+I%3A+Maximilian+I+to+the+Peace+of+Westphalia%2C+1493%E2%80%931648&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0199688821&rft.aulast=Whaley&rft.aufirst=Joachim&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+Roman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWhitby1988" class="citation book cs1">Whitby, Michael (1988). The Emperor Maurice and his historian : Theophylact Simocatta on Persian and Balkan warfare. Clarendon Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0198229452" title="Special:BookSources/978-0198229452"><bdi>978-0198229452</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Emperor+Maurice+and+his+historian+%3A+Theophylact+Simocatta+on+Persian+and+Balkan+warfare&rft.pub=Clarendon+Press&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=978-0198229452&rft.aulast=Whitby&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+Roman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWhite2007" class="citation book cs1">White, Craig (2007). The Great German Nation: Origins and Destiny. AuthorHouse. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1434325495" title="Special:BookSources/978-1434325495"><bdi>978-1434325495</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Great+German+Nation%3A+Origins+and+Destiny&rft.pub=AuthorHouse&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1434325495&rft.aulast=White&rft.aufirst=Craig&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+Roman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWienand2014" class="citation book cs1">Wienand, Johannes (2014). Contested Monarchy: Integrating the Roman Empire in the Fourth Century AD. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0199768998" title="Special:BookSources/978-0199768998"><bdi>978-0199768998</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Contested+Monarchy%3A+Integrating+the+Roman+Empire+in+the+Fourth+Century+AD&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0199768998&rft.aulast=Wienand&rft.aufirst=Johannes&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+Roman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliamsFriell1998" class="citation book cs1">Williams, Stephen; Friell, Gerard (1998). The Rome That Did Not Fall the Phoenix in the East. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0203982310" title="Special:BookSources/978-0203982310"><bdi>978-0203982310</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Rome+That+Did+Not+Fall+the+Phoenix+in+the+East.&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0203982310&rft.aulast=Williams&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rft.au=Friell%2C+Gerard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+Roman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWolfram1990" class="citation book cs1">Wolfram, Herwig (1990). History of the Goths. University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0520069831" title="Special:BookSources/978-0520069831"><bdi>978-0520069831</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+the+Goths&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-0520069831&rft.aulast=Wolfram&rft.aufirst=Herwig&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+Roman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Web_sources">Web sources</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_Roman_Empire&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Web sources">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGallienus" class="citation web cs1">Donald L., Wasson. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210413175631/https://www.worldhistory.org/Gallienus/">"Gallienus – World History Encyclopedia"</a>. <a href="/wiki/World_History_Encyclopedia" title="World History Encyclopedia">World History Encyclopedia</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldhistory.org/Gallienus/">the original</a> on 13 April 2021. Retrieved 8 December 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=World+History+Encyclopedia&rft.atitle=Gallienus+%E2%80%93+World+History+Encyclopedia&rft.aulast=Donald+L.&rft.aufirst=Wasson&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldhistory.org%2FGallienus%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+Roman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnthemius" class="citation web cs1">Ralph W., Mathisen. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170730112252/https://www.roman-emperors.org/anthemiu.htm">"Anthemius – De Imperatoribus Romanis"</a>. www.roman-emperors.org. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.roman-emperors.org/anthemiu.htm">the original</a> on 30 July 2017. Retrieved 23 February 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.roman-emperors.org&rft.atitle=Anthemius+%E2%80%93+De+Imperatoribus+Romanis&rft.aulast=Ralph+W.&rft.aufirst=Mathisen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.roman-emperors.org%2Fanthemiu.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+Roman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGlycerius" class="citation web cs1">Ralph W., Mathisen. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170903205458/https://www.roman-emperors.org/glyceriu.htm">"Glycerius – De Imperatoribus Romanis"</a>. www.roman-emperors.org. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.roman-emperors.org/glyceriu.htm">the original</a> on 3 September 2017. Retrieved 23 February 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.roman-emperors.org&rft.atitle=Glycerius+%E2%80%93+De+Imperatoribus+Romanis&rft.aulast=Ralph+W.&rft.aufirst=Mathisen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.roman-emperors.org%2Fglyceriu.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+Roman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLibius_Severus" class="citation web cs1">Ralph W., Mathisen. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180427115540/http://www.roman-emperors.org/libius.htm">"Libius Severus – De Imperatoribus Romanis"</a>. www.roman-emperors.org. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.roman-emperors.org/libius.htm">the original</a> on 27 April 2018. Retrieved 8 December 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.roman-emperors.org&rft.atitle=Libius+Severus+%E2%80%93+De+Imperatoribus+Romanis&rft.aulast=Ralph+W.&rft.aufirst=Mathisen&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.roman-emperors.org%2Flibius.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+Roman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMajorian" class="citation web cs1">Ralph W., Mathisen. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170822174634/http://www.roman-emperors.org/major.htm">"Majorian – De Imperatoribus Romanis"</a>. www.roman-emperors.org. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.roman-emperors.org/major.htm">the original</a> on 22 August 2017. Retrieved 23 February 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.roman-emperors.org&rft.atitle=Majorian+%E2%80%93+De+Imperatoribus+Romanis&rft.aulast=Ralph+W.&rft.aufirst=Mathisen&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.roman-emperors.org%2Fmajor.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+Roman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFConstantius" class="citation web cs1">Michael, DiMaio. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170911021431/http://www.roman-emperors.org/constaii.htm">"Constantius II – De Imperatoribus Romanis"</a>. www.roman-emperors.org. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.roman-emperors.org/constaii.htm">the original</a> on 11 September 2017. Retrieved 23 February 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.roman-emperors.org&rft.atitle=Constantius+II+%E2%80%93+De+Imperatoribus+Romanis&rft.aulast=Michael&rft.aufirst=DiMaio&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.roman-emperors.org%2Fconstaii.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+Roman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAurelian" class="citation web cs1">Körner, Christian. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170709151800/http://www.roman-emperors.org/aurelian.htm">"Aurelian – De Imperatoribus Romanis"</a>. www.roman-emperors.org. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.roman-emperors.org/aurelian.htm#N_36_">the original</a> on 9 July 2017. Retrieved 23 February 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.roman-emperors.org&rft.atitle=Aurelian+%E2%80%93+De+Imperatoribus+Romanis&rft.aulast=K%C3%B6rner&rft.aufirst=Christian&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.roman-emperors.org%2Faurelian.htm%23N_36_&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+Roman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLegal_system" class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171201042301/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/docs/notesanddefs.html?countryName=Iran&countryCode=ir&regionCode=me">"Legal System – The World Factbook, Central Intelligence Agency"</a>. www.cia.gov. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/docs/notesanddefs.html?countryName=Iran&countryCode=ir&regionCode=me#2100">the original</a> on 1 December 2017. Retrieved 24 February 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.cia.gov&rft.atitle=Legal+System+%E2%80%93+The+World+Factbook%2C+Central+Intelligence+Agency&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cia.gov%2Flibrary%2Fpublications%2Fthe-world-factbook%2Fdocs%2Fnotesanddefs.html%3FcountryName%3DIran%26countryCode%3Dir%26regionCode%3Dme%232100&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+Roman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoman_Governors" class="citation web cs1">Lendering, Jona. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.livius.org/articles/concept/governor-roman/?">"Governor (Roman) – Livius"</a>. www.livius.org. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180222072400/https://www.livius.org/articles/concept/governor-roman/">Archived</a> from the original on 22 February 2018. Retrieved 15 February 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.livius.org&rft.atitle=Governor+%28Roman%29+%E2%80%93+Livius&rft.aulast=Lendering&rft.aufirst=Jona&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.livius.org%2Farticles%2Fconcept%2Fgovernor-roman%2F%3F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+Roman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPontifex_Maximus" class="citation web cs1">Lendering, Jona. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.livius.org/articles/concept/pontifex-maximus/?">"Pontifex Maximus – Livius"</a>. www.livius.org. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180222072504/https://www.livius.org/articles/concept/pontifex-maximus/">Archived</a> from the original on 22 February 2018. Retrieved 21 February 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.livius.org&rft.atitle=Pontifex+Maximus+%E2%80%93+Livius&rft.aulast=Lendering&rft.aufirst=Jona&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.livius.org%2Farticles%2Fconcept%2Fpontifex-maximus%2F%3F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+Roman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPostumus" class="citation web cs1">Polfer, Michael. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170805143542/http://www.roman-emperors.org/postumus.htm">"Postumus – De Imperatoribus Romanis"</a>. www.roman-emperors.org. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.roman-emperors.org/postumus.htm">the original</a> on 5 August 2017. Retrieved 23 February 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.roman-emperors.org&rft.atitle=Postumus+%E2%80%93+De+Imperatoribus+Romanis&rft.aulast=Polfer&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.roman-emperors.org%2Fpostumus.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+Roman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThe_Code_of_Justinian" class="citation web cs1">Scott, Samuel P. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180225110751/https://droitromain.univ-grenoble-alpes.fr/Anglica/CJ1_Scott.htm">"The Code of Justinian – Book 1"</a>. droitromain.univ-grenoble-alpes.fr. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://droitromain.univ-grenoble-alpes.fr/Anglica/CJ1_Scott.htm">the original</a> on 25 February 2018. Retrieved 25 February 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=droitromain.univ-grenoble-alpes.fr&rft.atitle=The+Code+of+Justinian+%E2%80%93+Book+1&rft.aulast=Scott&rft.aufirst=Samuel+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdroitromain.univ-grenoble-alpes.fr%2FAnglica%2FCJ1_Scott.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+Roman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSasanian_Dynasty" class="citation web cs1">Shapur Shahbazi, A. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171117000653/http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/sasanian-dynasty">"Sasanian Dynasty – Encyclopedia Iranica"</a>. www.iranicaonline.org. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/sasanian-dynasty">the original</a> on 17 November 2017. Retrieved 23 February 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.iranicaonline.org&rft.atitle=Sasanian+Dynasty+%E2%80%93+Encyclopedia+Iranica&rft.aulast=Shapur+Shahbazi&rft.aufirst=A.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iranicaonline.org%2Farticles%2Fsasanian-dynasty&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+Roman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_Roman_Empire&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBörm2018" class="citation book cs1">Börm, Henning (2018). Westrom: Von Honorius bis Justinian. Kohlhammer. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3170332164" title="Special:BookSources/978-3170332164"><bdi>978-3170332164</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Westrom%3A+Von+Honorius+bis+Justinian&rft.pub=Kohlhammer&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-3170332164&rft.aulast=B%C3%B6rm&rft.aufirst=Henning&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+Roman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHeather2003" class="citation book cs1">Heather, Peter (2003). The Visigoths from the Migration Period to the Seventh Century: An Ethnographic Perspective. Boydell & Brewer Ltd. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1843830337" title="Special:BookSources/978-1843830337"><bdi>978-1843830337</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Visigoths+from+the+Migration+Period+to+the+Seventh+Century%3A+An+Ethnographic+Perspective&rft.pub=Boydell+%26+Brewer+Ltd&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-1843830337&rft.aulast=Heather&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+Roman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKolb1987" class="citation book cs1">Kolb, Frank (1987). Diocletian und die Erste Tetrarchie : Improvisation oder Experiment in der Organisation monarchischer Herrschaft?. Walter de Gruyter. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3110109344" title="Special:BookSources/978-3110109344"><bdi>978-3110109344</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Diocletian+und+die+Erste+Tetrarchie+%3A+Improvisation+oder+Experiment+in+der+Organisation+monarchischer+Herrschaft%3F&rft.pub=Walter+de+Gruyter&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=978-3110109344&rft.aulast=Kolb&rft.aufirst=Frank&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+Roman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMerillsMiles2007" class="citation book cs1">Merills, Andy; Miles, Richard (2007). The Vandals. Wiley-Blackwell. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1405160681" title="Special:BookSources/978-1405160681"><bdi>978-1405160681</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Vandals&rft.pub=Wiley-Blackwell&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1405160681&rft.aulast=Merills&rft.aufirst=Andy&rft.au=Miles%2C+Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+Roman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_Roman_Empire&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:The_Wikipedia_Library" title="Wikipedia:The Wikipedia Library">Library resources</a> about Western Roman Empire <hr /></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Western+Roman+Empire&library=OLBP">Online books</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Western+Roman+Empire">Resources in your library</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Western+Roman+Empire&library=0CHOOSE0">Resources in other libraries</a></li> </ul></div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Western_Roman_Empire" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Western Roman Empire">Western Roman Empire</a>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.roman-emperors.org/">De Imperatoribus Romanis</a>. Scholarly biographies of many Roman emperors, including those of the Western Roman Empire.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180619112903/http://pelagios.org/maps/greco-roman/">Digital Map of the Roman Empire</a>. Navigable and interactive map of the Roman Empire.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://fallofromepodcast.wordpress.com/">The Fall of Rome Podcast</a>. Podcast concerning the Fall of the Western Roman Empire by PhD historian Patrick Wyman.</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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id="Ancient_Rome_topics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Ancient Rome</a> topics</div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_ancient_Rome" title="Outline of ancient Rome">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Roman_history" title="Timeline of Roman history">Timeline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Rome" title="History of Rome">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Founding_of_Rome" title="Founding of Rome">Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Kingdom" title="Roman Kingdom">Kingdom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Overthrow_of_the_Roman_monarchy" title="Overthrow of the Roman monarchy">overthrow</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Republic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Empire</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="History of the Roman Empire">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pax_Romana" title="Pax Romana">Pax Romana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principate" title="Principate">Principate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominate" title="Dominate">Dominate</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Western Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Fall of the Western Roman Empire">fall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Historiography of the fall of the Western Roman Empire">historiography of the fall</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Decline_of_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="Decline of the Byzantine Empire">decline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">fall</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Later_Roman_Empire" title="Later Roman Empire">Later Roman Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Later_Roman_Empire" title="History of the Later Roman Empire">History</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Roman_Constitution" title="Roman Constitution">Constitution</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Roman_Constitution" title="History of the Roman Constitution">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Roman_Kingdom" title="Constitution of the Roman Kingdom">Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Roman_Republic" title="Constitution of the Roman Republic">Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Constitution of the Roman Empire">Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Late_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Constitution of the Late Roman Empire">Late Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Senate" title="Roman Senate">Senate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_assemblies" title="Roman assemblies">Legislative assemblies</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Curiate_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="Curiate Assembly">Curiate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centuriate_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="Centuriate Assembly">Centuriate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribal_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="Tribal Assembly">Tribal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plebeian_Council" class="mw-redirect" title="Plebeian Council">Plebeian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_magistrate" title="Roman magistrate">Executive magistrates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SPQR" title="SPQR">SPQR</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Roman_law" title="Roman law">Law</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Twelve_Tables" title="Twelve Tables">Twelve Tables</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mos_maiorum" title="Mos maiorum">Mos maiorum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_citizenship" title="Roman citizenship">Citizenship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auctoritas" title="Auctoritas">Auctoritas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperium" title="Imperium">Imperium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Status_in_Roman_legal_system" title="Status in Roman legal system">Status</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_litigation" title="Roman litigation">Litigation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Political_institutions_of_ancient_Rome" title="Political institutions of ancient Rome">Government</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Curia" title="Curia">Curia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forum_(Roman)" title="Forum (Roman)">Forum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cursus_honorum" title="Cursus honorum">Cursus honorum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collegiality#In_the_Roman_Republic" title="Collegiality">Collegiality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_emperor" title="Roman emperor">Emperor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legatus" class="mw-redirect" title="Legatus">Legatus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dux" title="Dux">Dux</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Officium_(ancient_Rome)" title="Officium (ancient Rome)">Officium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Praefectus" title="Praefectus">Praefectus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vicarius" title="Vicarius">Vicarius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vigintisexviri" title="Vigintisexviri">Vigintisexviri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lictor" title="Lictor">Lictor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magister_militum" title="Magister militum">Magister militum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperator" title="Imperator">Imperator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Princeps_senatus" title="Princeps senatus">Princeps senatus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pontifex_maximus" title="Pontifex maximus">Pontifex maximus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustus_(title)" title="Augustus (title)">Augustus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caesar_(title)" title="Caesar (title)">Caesar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tetrarchy" title="Tetrarchy">Tetrarch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optimates_and_populares" title="Optimates and populares">Optimates and populares</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_province" title="Roman province">Province</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Roman_magistrate" title="Roman magistrate">Magistrates</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Ordinary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_consul" title="Roman consul">Consul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_censor" title="Roman censor">Censor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Praetor" title="Praetor">Praetor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribune" title="Tribune">Tribune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribune_of_the_plebs" title="Tribune of the plebs">Tribune of the plebs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_tribune" title="Military tribune">Military tribune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quaestor" title="Quaestor">Quaestor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aedile" title="Aedile">Aedile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Promagistrate" title="Promagistrate">Promagistrate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_governor" title="Roman governor">Governor</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Extraordinary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/King_of_Rome" title="King of Rome">Rex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interrex" title="Interrex">Interrex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_dictator" title="Roman dictator">Dictator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magister_equitum" title="Magister equitum">Magister equitum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decemviri" title="Decemviri">Decemviri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribuni_militum_consulari_potestate" class="mw-redirect" title="Tribuni militum consulari potestate">Consular tribune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triumvirate_(ancient_Rome)" title="Triumvirate (ancient Rome)">Triumvir</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Military_of_ancient_Rome" title="Military of ancient Rome">Military</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_ancient_Rome" title="Military history of ancient Rome">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Borders_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Borders of the Roman Empire">Borders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_establishment_of_the_Roman_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Military establishment of the Roman Republic">Establishment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_history_of_the_Roman_military" title="Structural history of the Roman military">Structure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Campaign_history_of_the_Roman_military" title="Campaign history of the Roman military">Campaigns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_history_of_the_Roman_military" title="Political history of the Roman military">Political control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strategy_of_the_Roman_military" title="Strategy of the Roman military">Strategy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_military_engineering" title="Roman military engineering">Engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_military_frontiers_and_fortifications" title="Roman military frontiers and fortifications">Frontiers and fortifications</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Castra" title="Castra">castra</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_history_of_the_Roman_military" title="Technological history of the Roman military">Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_army" title="Roman army">Army</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_legion" title="Roman legion">Legion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_infantry_tactics" title="Roman infantry tactics">Infantry tactics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_military_personal_equipment" title="Roman military personal equipment">Personal equipment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_siege_engines" title="Roman siege engines">Siege engines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_(Roman_history)" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege (Roman history)">Siege in Ancient Rome</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_navy" title="Roman navy">Navy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auxilia" title="Auxilia">Auxiliaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_military_decorations_and_punishments" title="Roman military decorations and punishments">Decorations and punishments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippika_gymnasia" title="Hippika gymnasia">Hippika gymnasia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Roman_economy" title="Roman economy">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_ancient_Rome" title="Agriculture in ancient Rome">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_during_the_Roman_period" title="Deforestation during the Roman period">Deforestation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_commerce" title="Roman commerce">Commerce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_finance" title="Roman finance">Finance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_currency" title="Roman currency">Currency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Republican_currency" title="Roman Republican currency">Republican currency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Imperial_currency" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Imperial currency">Imperial currency</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_ancient_Rome" title="Culture of ancient Rome">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_architecture" title="Ancient Roman architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_art" title="Roman art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_bathing" title="Ancient Roman bathing">Bathing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_calendar" title="Roman calendar">Calendar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clothing_in_ancient_Rome" title="Clothing in ancient Rome">Clothing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmetics_in_ancient_Rome" title="Cosmetics in ancient Rome">Cosmetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_cuisine" title="Ancient Roman cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_ancient_Rome" title="Education in ancient Rome">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_folklore" title="Roman folklore">Folklore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_hairstyles" title="Roman hairstyles">Hairstyles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_literature" title="Latin literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_ancient_Rome" title="Music of ancient Rome">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_mythology" title="Roman mythology">Mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_ancient_Rome" title="Religion in ancient Rome">Religion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_deities" title="List of Roman deities">Deities</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanization_(cultural)" title="Romanization (cultural)">Romanization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_people" title="Roman people">Romans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexuality_in_ancient_Rome" title="Sexuality in ancient Rome">Sexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spectacles_in_ancient_Rome" title="Spectacles in ancient Rome">Spectacles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theatre_of_ancient_Rome" title="Theatre of ancient Rome">Theatre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toys_and_games_in_ancient_Rome" title="Toys and games in ancient Rome">Toys and games</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome_and_wine" title="Ancient Rome and wine">Wine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_ancient_Rome" title="Social class in ancient Rome">Society</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Patrician_(ancient_Rome)" title="Patrician (ancient Rome)">Patricians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plebeians" title="Plebeians">Plebs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_of_the_Orders" title="Conflict of the Orders">Conflict of the Orders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secessio_plebis" title="Secessio plebis">Secessio plebis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equites" title="Equites">Equites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gens" title="Gens">Gens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_tribe" title="Roman tribe">Tribes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tribal_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="Tribal Assembly">Assembly</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patronage_in_ancient_Rome" title="Patronage in ancient Rome">Patronage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_naming_conventions" title="Roman naming conventions">Naming conventions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demography_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Demography of the Roman Empire">Demography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_ancient_Rome" title="Women in ancient Rome">Women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marriage_in_ancient_Rome" title="Marriage in ancient Rome">Marriage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adoption_in_ancient_Rome" title="Adoption in ancient Rome">Adoption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_ancient_Rome" title="Slavery in ancient Rome">Slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bagaudae" title="Bagaudae">Bagaudae</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_technology" title="Ancient Roman technology">Technology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_amphitheatre" title="Roman amphitheatre">Amphitheatres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_aqueduct" title="Roman aqueduct">Aqueducts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_bridge" title="Roman bridge">Bridges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_circus" title="Roman circus">Circuses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_engineering" title="Ancient Roman engineering">Civil engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_concrete" title="Roman concrete">Concrete</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Roman_and_Byzantine_domes" title="History of Roman and Byzantine domes">Domes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_metallurgy" title="Roman metallurgy">Metallurgy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_numerals" title="Roman numerals">Numerals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_roads" title="Roman roads">Roads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanitation_in_ancient_Rome" title="Sanitation in ancient Rome">Sanitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ships_of_ancient_Rome" title="Ships of ancient Rome">Ships</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_temple" title="Roman temple">Temples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_theatre_(structure)" title="Roman theatre (structure)">Theatres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermae" title="Thermae">Thermae</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Latin" title="History of Latin">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_alphabet" title="Latin alphabet">Alphabet</a></li> <li>Versions <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Latin" title="Old Latin">Old</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Latin" title="Classical Latin">Classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vulgar_Latin" title="Vulgar Latin">Vulgar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_Latin" title="Late Latin">Late</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_Latin" title="Medieval Latin">Medieval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_Latin" title="Renaissance Latin">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Latin" title="Neo-Latin">Neo-Latin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_Latin" title="Contemporary Latin">Contemporary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecclesiastical_Latin" title="Ecclesiastical Latin">Ecclesiastical</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romance_languages" title="Romance languages">Romance languages</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Writers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Latin_literature" title="Latin literature">Latin</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aelius_Donatus" title="Aelius Donatus">Aelius Donatus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ammianus_Marcellinus" title="Ammianus Marcellinus">Ammianus Marcellinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apuleius" title="Apuleius">Appuleius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Asconius_Pedianus" title="Quintus Asconius Pedianus">Asconius Pedianus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aurelius_Victor" title="Aurelius Victor">Aurelius Victor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ausonius" title="Ausonius">Ausonius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boethius" title="Boethius">Boëthius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Caesar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catullus" title="Catullus">Catullus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cassiodorus" title="Cassiodorus">Cassiodorus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Censorinus" title="Censorinus">Censorinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claudian" title="Claudian">Claudian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Columella" title="Columella">Columella</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornelius_Nepos" title="Cornelius Nepos">Cornelius Nepos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ennius" title="Ennius">Ennius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eutropius_(historian)" title="Eutropius (historian)">Eutropius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Fabius_Pictor" title="Quintus Fabius Pictor">Fabius Pictor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sextus_Pompeius_Festus" title="Sextus Pompeius Festus">Sextus Pompeius Festus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Festus_(historian)" title="Festus (historian)">Rufus Festus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Works_attributed_to_Florus" class="mw-redirect" title="Works attributed to Florus">Florus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frontinus" title="Frontinus">Frontinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Cornelius_Fronto" title="Marcus Cornelius Fronto">Fronto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fabius_Planciades_Fulgentius" title="Fabius Planciades Fulgentius">Fulgentius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aulus_Gellius" title="Aulus Gellius">Gellius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horace" title="Horace">Horace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydatius" title="Hydatius">Hydatius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaius_Julius_Hyginus" title="Gaius Julius Hyginus">Hyginus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jerome" title="Jerome">Jerome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jordanes" title="Jordanes">Jordanes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Paulus" title="Julius Paulus">Julius Paulus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justin_(historian)" title="Justin (historian)">Justin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juvenal" title="Juvenal">Juvenal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lactantius" title="Lactantius">Lactantius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Livy" title="Livy">Livy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucan" title="Lucan">Lucan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucretius" title="Lucretius">Lucretius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macrobius" title="Macrobius">Macrobius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcellus_Empiricus" title="Marcellus Empiricus">Marcellus Empiricus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Aurelius" title="Marcus Aurelius">Marcus Aurelius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Manilius" title="Marcus Manilius">Manilius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martial" title="Martial">Martial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicolaus_of_Damascus" title="Nicolaus of Damascus">Nicolaus Damascenus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonius_Marcellus" title="Nonius Marcellus">Nonius Marcellus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Obsequens" title="Julius Obsequens">Obsequens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orosius" title="Orosius">Orosius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ovid" title="Ovid">Ovid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petronius" title="Petronius">Petronius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phaedrus_(fabulist)" title="Phaedrus (fabulist)">Phaedrus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plautus" title="Plautus">Plautus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder" title="Pliny the Elder">Pliny the Elder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Younger" title="Pliny the Younger">Pliny the Younger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pomponius_Mela" title="Pomponius Mela">Pomponius Mela</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priscian" title="Priscian">Priscian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propertius" title="Propertius">Propertius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Claudius_Quadrigarius" title="Quintus Claudius Quadrigarius">Quadrigarius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintilian" title="Quintilian">Quintilian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Curtius_Rufus" title="Quintus Curtius Rufus">Quintus Curtius Rufus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sallust" title="Sallust">Sallust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seneca_the_Elder" title="Seneca the Elder">Seneca the Elder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seneca_the_Younger" title="Seneca the Younger">Seneca the Younger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurus_Servius_Honoratus" class="mw-redirect" title="Maurus Servius Honoratus">Servius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sidonius_Apollinaris" title="Sidonius Apollinaris">Sidonius Apollinaris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silius_Italicus" title="Silius Italicus">Silius Italicus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statius" title="Statius">Statius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suetonius" title="Suetonius">Suetonius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Aurelius_Symmachus" title="Quintus Aurelius Symmachus">Symmachus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tacitus" title="Tacitus">Tacitus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terence" title="Terence">Terence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tertullian" title="Tertullian">Tertullian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibullus" title="Tibullus">Tibullus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valerius_Antias" title="Valerius Antias">Valerius Antias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valerius_Maximus" title="Valerius Maximus">Valerius Maximus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Terentius_Varro" title="Marcus Terentius Varro">Varro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Velleius_Paterculus" title="Velleius Paterculus">Velleius Paterculus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verrius_Flaccus" title="Verrius Flaccus">Verrius Flaccus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virgil" title="Virgil">Vergil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitruvius" title="Vitruvius">Vitruvius</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_literature" title="Ancient Greek literature">Greek</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Claudius_Aelianus" title="Claudius Aelianus">Aelian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A%C3%ABtius_of_Amida" title="Aëtius of Amida">Aëtius of Amida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appian" title="Appian">Appian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arrian" title="Arrian">Arrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cassius_Dio" title="Cassius Dio">Cassius Dio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diodorus_Siculus" title="Diodorus Siculus">Diodorus Siculus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diogenes_La%C3%ABrtius" class="mw-redirect" title="Diogenes Laërtius">Diogenes Laërtius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dionysius_of_Halicarnassus" title="Dionysius of Halicarnassus">Dionysius of Halicarnassus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedanius_Dioscorides" title="Pedanius Dioscorides">Dioscorides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eusebius" title="Eusebius">Eusebius of Caesaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galen" title="Galen">Galen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herodian" title="Herodian">Herodian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Josephus" title="Josephus">Josephus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julian_(emperor)" title="Julian (emperor)">Julian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libanius" title="Libanius">Libanius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucian" title="Lucian">Lucian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pausanias_(geographer)" title="Pausanias (geographer)">Pausanias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philostratus" title="Philostratus">Philostratus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phlegon_of_Tralles" title="Phlegon of Tralles">Phlegon of Tralles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photios_I_of_Constantinople" title="Photios I of Constantinople">Photius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutarch" title="Plutarch">Plutarch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polyaenus" title="Polyaenus">Polyaenus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polybius" title="Polybius">Polybius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Porphyry_(philosopher)" title="Porphyry (philosopher)">Porphyrius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priscus" title="Priscus">Priscus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Procopius" title="Procopius">Procopius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simplicius_of_Cilicia" title="Simplicius of Cilicia">Simplicius of Cilicia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sozomen" title="Sozomen">Sozomen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephanus_of_Byzantium" title="Stephanus of Byzantium">Stephanus Byzantinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strabo" title="Strabo">Strabo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Themistius" title="Themistius">Themistius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodoret" title="Theodoret">Theodoret</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joannes_Zonaras" title="Joannes Zonaras">Zonaras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zosimus_(historian)" title="Zosimus (historian)">Zosimus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Major cities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alexandria" title="Alexandria">Alexandria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antioch" title="Antioch">Antioch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquileia" title="Aquileia">Aquileia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berytus" title="Berytus">Berytus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bologna" title="Bologna">Bononia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carthage" title="Carthage">Carthage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinopolis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eboracum" title="Eboracum">Eboracum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leptis_Magna" title="Leptis Magna">Leptis Magna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Londinium" title="Londinium">Londinium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lugdunum" title="Lugdunum">Lugdunum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lutetia" title="Lutetia">Lutetia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mediolanum" title="Mediolanum">Mediolanum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pompeii" title="Pompeii">Pompeii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ravenna" title="Ravenna">Ravenna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rome" title="Rome">Roma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smyrna" title="Smyrna">Smyrna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vindobona" title="Vindobona">Vindobona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volubilis" title="Volubilis">Volubilis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists and other topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_founded_by_the_Romans" title="List of cities founded by the Romans">Cities and towns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_of_ancient_Rome" title="Climate of ancient Rome">Climate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_consuls" title="List of Roman consuls">Consuls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_dictators" title="List of Roman dictators">Dictators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_women" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Roman women">Distinguished women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_dynasties" title="List of Roman dynasties">Dynasties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_emperors" title="List of Roman emperors">Emperors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_and_Byzantine_empresses" title="List of Roman and Byzantine empresses">Empresses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fiction_set_in_ancient_Rome" class="mw-redirect" title="Fiction set in ancient Rome">Fiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_films_set_in_ancient_Rome" title="List of films set in ancient Rome">Film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_generals" title="List of Roman generals">Generals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_gentes" title="List of Roman gentes">Gentes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Graeco-Roman_geographers" title="List of Graeco-Roman geographers">Geographers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_institutions_of_ancient_Rome" title="Political institutions of ancient Rome">Institutions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_laws" title="List of Roman laws">Laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legacy_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Legacy of the Roman Empire">Legacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_legions" title="List of Roman legions">Legions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_dictators" title="List of Roman dictators">Magistri equitum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_nomina" title="List of Roman nomina">Nomina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_pontifices_maximi" title="List of pontifices maximi">Pontifices maximi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_praetors" title="List of Roman praetors">Praetors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_quaestors" title="List of Roman quaestors">Quaestors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_tribunes" title="List of Roman tribunes">Tribunes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Iranian_relations" title="Roman–Iranian relations">Roman–Iranian relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_external_wars_and_battles" title="List of Roman external wars and battles">External wars and battles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_civil_wars_and_revolts" title="List of Roman civil wars and revolts">Civil wars and revolts</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="List_of_historic_states_of_Italy" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Former_monarchies_Italian_peninsula" title="Template:Former monarchies Italian peninsula"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Former_monarchies_Italian_peninsula" title="Template talk:Former monarchies Italian peninsula"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Former_monarchies_Italian_peninsula" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Former monarchies Italian peninsula"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="List_of_historic_states_of_Italy" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_historic_states_of_Italy" class="mw-redirect" title="List of historic states of Italy">List of historic states of Italy</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Pre-Roman period</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Etruscan_civilization" title="Etruscan civilization">Etruscan civilization</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Etruria" title="Etruria">Etruria</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samnites" title="Samnites">Samnites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latins_(Italic_tribe)" title="Latins (Italic tribe)">Latins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osci" title="Osci">Osci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celts" title="Celts">Celts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cisalpine_Gaul" title="Cisalpine Gaul">Cisalpine Gaul</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adriatic_Veneti" title="Adriatic Veneti">Veneti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ligures" title="Ligures">Ligures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuragic_civilization" title="Nuragic civilization">Nuragic civilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umbri" title="Umbri">Umbri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magna_Graecia" title="Magna Graecia">Magna Graecia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iapygians" title="Iapygians">Iapygians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Picentes" title="Picentes">Picentes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Ancient Rome</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Kingdom" title="Roman Kingdom">Roman Kingdom</a> (753 BC–509 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a> (509 BC–27 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> (27 BC–395 AD)</li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Western Roman Empire</a> (395–476 AD)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Medieval and Early Modern states</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Barbarian kingdoms (476–774)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Italy_(476%E2%80%93493)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Italy (476–493)">Odoacer's rule</a> (476–493)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ostrogothic_Kingdom" title="Ostrogothic Kingdom">Ostrogothic rule</a> (493–553)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vandal_Kingdom" title="Vandal Kingdom">Vandal rule</a> (435–534)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_the_Lombards" title="Kingdom of the Lombards">Lombard rule</a> (568–774) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Benevento" title="Duchy of Benevento">Duchy of Benevento</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Friuli" title="Duchy of Friuli">Duchy of Friuli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Ivrea" class="mw-redirect" title="Duchy of Ivrea">Duchy of Ivrea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Spoleto" title="Duchy of Spoleto">Duchy of Spoleto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Tridentum" title="Duchy of Tridentum">Duchy of Tridentum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Tuscia" title="Duchy of Tuscia">Duchy of Tuscia</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a> (584–751)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Exarchate_of_Ravenna" title="Exarchate of Ravenna">Exarchate of Ravenna</a> (584–751) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Rome" title="Duchy of Rome">Duchy of Rome</a> (533–751)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Perugia" title="Duchy of Perugia">Duchy of Perugia</a> (554–752)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_the_Pentapolis" title="Duchy of the Pentapolis">Duchy of the Pentapolis</a> (554–752)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exarchate_of_Africa" title="Exarchate of Africa">Exarchate of Africa</a> (585–698)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Papal_States" title="Papal States">Papal States</a> (754–1870)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Patrimony_of_Saint_Peter" title="Patrimony of Saint Peter">Patrimony of Saint Peter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Campagna_e_Marittima_Province" title="Campagna e Marittima Province">Campagna e Marittima Province</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_See" title="Holy See">Holy See</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Castro" title="Duchy of Castro">Duchy of Castro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Ferrara" title="Duchy of Ferrara">Duchy of Ferrara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Parma_and_Piacenza" title="Duchy of Parma and Piacenza">Duchy of Parma and Piacenza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Urbino" title="Duchy of Urbino">Duchy of Urbino</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a> and other independent states</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prince-Bishopric_of_Brixen" title="Prince-Bishopric of Brixen">Bishopric of Bressanone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corsican_Republic" title="Corsican Republic">Corsican Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corpus_separatum_(Fiume)" title="Corpus separatum (Fiume)">City of Fiume and its District</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/County_of_Gorizia" title="County of Gorizia">County of Gorizia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Princely_County_of_Gorizia_and_Gradisca" title="Princely County of Gorizia and Gradisca">Princely County of Gorizia and Gradisca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/County_of_Guastalla" title="County of Guastalla">County of Guastalla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/County_of_Santa_Fiora" title="County of Santa Fiora">County of Santa Fiora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Guastalla" title="Duchy of Guastalla">Duchy of Guastalla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Italy_(Holy_Roman_Empire)" title="Kingdom of Italy (Holy Roman Empire)">Kingdom of Italy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/March_of_Ancona" title="March of Ancona">Ancona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquisate_of_Ceva" title="Marquisate of Ceva">Ceva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquisate_of_Finale" title="Marquisate of Finale">Finale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/March_of_Friuli" title="March of Friuli">March of Friuli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patria_del_Friuli" title="Patria del Friuli">Patria del Friuli (Patriarchate of Aquileia)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/March_of_Ivrea" title="March of Ivrea">Ivrea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/March_of_Istria" title="March of Istria">Istria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Margraviate_of_Mantua" class="mw-redirect" title="Margraviate of Mantua">Mantua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lordship_of_Milan" title="Lordship of Milan">Milan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/March_of_Montferrat" title="March of Montferrat">March of Montferrat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Montferrat" title="Duchy of Montferrat">Duchy of Montferrat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Free_City_of_Trieste" title="Imperial Free City of Trieste">Trieste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/March_of_Turin" title="March of Turin">Turin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/March_of_Tuscany" title="March of Tuscany">Tuscany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/March_of_Verona" title="March of Verona">Verona</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Ivrea" class="mw-redirect" title="Duchy of Ivrea">Duchy of Ivrea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Milan" title="Duchy of Milan">Duchy of Milan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Mantua" title="Duchy of Mantua">Duchy of Mantua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Massa_and_Carrara" title="Duchy of Massa and Carrara">Duchy of Massa and Carrara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Merania" title="Duchy of Merania">Duchy of Merania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Mirandola" title="Duchy of Mirandola">Duchy of Mirandola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Modena_and_Reggio" title="Duchy of Modena and Reggio">Duchy of Modena and Reggio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Piombino" title="Principality of Piombino">Principality of Piombino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Reggio" title="Duchy of Reggio">Duchy of Reggio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquisate_of_Saluzzo" title="Marquisate of Saluzzo">Marquisate of Saluzzo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Spoleto" title="Duchy of Spoleto">Duchy of Spoleto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Diocese_of_Tarentaise" title="Ancient Diocese of Tarentaise">Bishopric of Tarantasia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prince-Bishopric_of_Trent" title="Prince-Bishopric of Trent">Prince-Bishopric of Trento</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Tuscany" title="Grand Duchy of Tuscany">Grand Duchy of Tuscany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Savoyard_state" title="Savoyard state">Savoyard state</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Savoy" title="Duchy of Savoy">Savoy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/County_of_Savoy" title="County of Savoy">County of Savoy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prince_of_Piedmont" title="Prince of Piedmont">Piedmont</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Aosta" title="Duchy of Aosta">Duchy of Aosta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/County_of_Nice" title="County of Nice">County of Nice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tende" title="Tende">County of Tenda</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Venice" title="Republic of Venice">Republic of Venice</a> (697–1797)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dogado" title="Dogado">Dogado</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domini_di_Terraferma" title="Domini di Terraferma">Domini di Terraferma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stato_da_M%C3%A0r" title="Stato da Màr">Stato da Màr</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Other Republics (c. 1000–1797)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Cospaia" title="Republic of Cospaia">Republic of Cospaia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Florence" title="Republic of Florence">Republic of Florence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Lucca" title="Republic of Lucca">Republic of Lucca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Massa" title="Republic of Massa">Republic of Massa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Siena" title="Republic of Siena">Republic of Siena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Genoa" title="Republic of Genoa">Republic of Genoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Noli" title="Republic of Noli">Republic of Noli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Pisa" title="Republic of Pisa">Republic of Pisa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Ancona" title="Republic of Ancona">Republic of Ancona</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_south_Italian_principalities" title="List of south Italian principalities">Southern Italy</a> (774–1139)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Byzantine</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Amalfi" title="Duchy of Amalfi">Duchy of Amalfi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Gaeta" title="Duchy of Gaeta">Duchy of Gaeta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catepanate_of_Italy" title="Catepanate of Italy">Catepanate of Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longobardia" title="Longobardia">Longobardia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucania_(theme)" title="Lucania (theme)">Theme of Lucania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Naples" title="Duchy of Naples">Duchy of Naples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sicily_(theme)" title="Sicily (theme)">Theme of Sicily</a> and <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Sicily" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine Sicily">Byzantine Sicily</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Sorrento" title="Duchy of Sorrento">Duchy of Sorrento</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Islam_in_southern_Italy" title="History of Islam in southern Italy">Arab</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emirate_of_Bari" title="Emirate of Bari">Emirate of Bari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muslim_Sicily" title="Muslim Sicily">Muslim Sicily</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Lombard</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Benevento" title="Duchy of Benevento">Principality of Benevento</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Salerno" title="Principality of Salerno">Principality of Salerno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Capua" title="Principality of Capua">Principality of Capua</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Norman_conquest_of_southern_Italy" title="Norman conquest of southern Italy">Norman</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/County_of_Apulia_and_Calabria" title="County of Apulia and Calabria">County of Apulia and Calabria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/County_of_Aversa" class="mw-redirect" title="County of Aversa">County of Aversa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/County_of_Sicily" title="County of Sicily">County of Sicily</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Taranto" title="Principality of Taranto">Principality of Taranto</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Sardinia" title="Sardinia">Sardinia</a> (from the 9th century)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sardinian_medieval_kingdoms" title="Sardinian medieval kingdoms">Judicates</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agugliastra" title="Agugliastra">Agugliastra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judicate_of_Arborea" title="Judicate of Arborea">Arborea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judicate_of_Cagliari" title="Judicate of Cagliari">Cagliari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judicate_of_Gallura" title="Judicate of Gallura">Gallura</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judicate_of_Logudoro" title="Judicate of Logudoro">Logudoro</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquisate_of_Oristano" title="Marquisate of Oristano">Oristano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Sassari" title="Republic of Sassari">Republic of Sassari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Sardinia_(1324%E2%80%931720)" title="Kingdom of Sardinia (1324–1720)">Kingdom of Sardinia</a> (1324–1861)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Sicily" title="Kingdom of Sicily">Kingdom of Sicily</a> (1130–1816) and <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Naples" title="Kingdom of Naples">Kingdom of Naples</a> (1282–1816)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/State_of_the_Presidi" title="State of the Presidi">State of the Presidi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duke_of_San_Donato" title="Duke of San Donato">Duke of San Donato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Sora" title="Duchy of Sora">Duchy of Sora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Bari" title="Duchy of Bari">Duchy of Bari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Taranto" title="Principality of Taranto">Principality of Taranto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terra_Sancti_Benedicti" title="Terra Sancti Benedicti">Terra Sancti Benedicti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neapolitan_Republic_(1647%E2%80%931648)" title="Neapolitan Republic (1647–1648)">Neapolitan Republic</a> (1647–1648)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hospitaller_Malta" title="Hospitaller Malta">Hospitaller Malta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gozo_(1798%E2%80%931800)" title="Gozo (1798–1800)">Gozo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malta_Protectorate" title="Malta Protectorate">Malta Protectorate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crown_Colony_of_Malta" title="Crown Colony of Malta">Crown Colony of Malta</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/French_First_Republic" title="French First Republic">French Revolutionary</a> and <a href="/wiki/First_French_Empire" title="First French Empire">Napoleonic</a> eras (1792–1815)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Republics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cisalpine_Republic" title="Cisalpine Republic">Cisalpinia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cispadane_Republic" title="Cispadane Republic">Cispadania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Republic_(Napoleonic)" title="Italian Republic (Napoleonic)">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ligurian_Republic" title="Ligurian Republic">Liguria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Lucca" title="Republic of Lucca">Lucca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parthenopean_Republic" title="Parthenopean Republic">Parthenopea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piedmontese_Republic" title="Piedmontese Republic">Piedmont</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic_(1798%E2%80%931799)" title="Roman Republic (1798–1799)">Rome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subalpine_Republic" title="Subalpine Republic">Subalpinia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transpadane_Republic" title="Transpadane Republic">Transpadania</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Monarchies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Benevento" title="Duchy of Benevento">Benevento</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Etruria" title="Kingdom of Etruria">Etruria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Guastalla" title="Duchy of Guastalla">Guastalla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Italy_(Napoleonic)" title="Kingdom of Italy (Napoleonic)">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Lucca_and_Piombino" title="Principality of Lucca and Piombino">Lucca and Piombino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Massa_and_Carrara" title="Duchy of Massa and Carrara">Massa and Carrara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Naples_(Napoleonic)" title="Kingdom of Naples (Napoleonic)">Naples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Pontecorvo" title="Principality of Pontecorvo">Pontecorvo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Benevento" title="Principality of Benevento">Benevento</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Tuscany" title="Grand Duchy of Tuscany">Tuscany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Elba" title="Principality of Elba">Elba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Corsican_Kingdom" title="Anglo-Corsican Kingdom">Corsica</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Post-Napoleonic states</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Genoa" title="Duchy of Genoa">Duchy of Genoa</a> (1815–1848)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Lucca" title="Duchy of Lucca">Duchy of Lucca</a> (1815–1847)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Massa_and_Carrara" title="Duchy of Massa and Carrara">Duchy of Massa and Carrara</a> (1814–1829)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Modena_and_Reggio" title="Duchy of Modena and Reggio">Duchy of Modena and Reggio</a> (1814–1859)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Parma_and_Piacenza" title="Duchy of Parma and Piacenza">Duchy of Parma and Piacenza</a> (1814–1859)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Tuscany" title="Grand Duchy of Tuscany">Grand Duchy of Tuscany</a> (1815–1859)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_United_Provinces" title="Italian United Provinces">Italian United Provinces</a> (1831)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five_Days_of_Milan" title="Five Days of Milan">Provisional Government of Milan</a> (1848)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_San_Marco" title="Republic of San Marco">Republic of San Marco</a> (1848–1849)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic_(1849%E2%80%931850)" title="Roman Republic (1849–1850)">Roman Republic</a> (1849–1850)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Provinces_of_Central_Italy" title="United Provinces of Central Italy">United Provinces of Central Italy</a> (1859–1860)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Sardinia_(1720%E2%80%931861)" title="Kingdom of Sardinia (1720–1861)">Kingdom of Sardinia</a> (1814–1860)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_the_Two_Sicilies" title="Kingdom of the Two Sicilies">Kingdom of the Two Sicilies</a> (1816–1861)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Lombardy%E2%80%93Venetia" title="Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia">Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia</a> (1815–1866)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papal_States#Italian_unification" title="Papal States">Papal States</a> (1814–1870)</li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Post-unification" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Post-<a href="/wiki/Unification_of_Italy" title="Unification of Italy">unification</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Italy" title="Kingdom of Italy">Kingdom of Italy</a> (1861–1946) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Empire" title="Italian Empire">Italian Empire</a> (1882–1960)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_State_of_Fiume" title="Free State of Fiume">Free State of Fiume</a> (1920–1924)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Social_Republic" title="Italian Social Republic">Italian Social Republic</a> (1943–1945)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_Territory_of_Trieste" title="Free Territory of Trieste">Free Territory of Trieste</a> (1947–1954)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Empires" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Empires" title="Template:Empires"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Empires" title="Template talk:Empires"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Empires" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Empires"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Empires" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Empire" title="Empire">Empires</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_history" title="Ancient history">Ancient</a> (<a href="/wiki/Colonies_in_antiquity" title="Colonies in antiquity">colonies</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist F" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Akkadian_Empire" title="Akkadian Empire">Akkadian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Armenia_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Kingdom of Armenia (disambiguation)">Armenian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Urartu" title="Urartu">Urartu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satrapy_of_Armenia" title="Satrapy of Armenia">Orontid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Armenia_(antiquity)" title="Kingdom of Armenia (antiquity)">Ancient</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyria" title="Assyria">Assyrian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Assyrian_Empire" title="Middle Assyrian Empire">Middle Assyrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Assyrian_Empire" title="Neo-Assyrian Empire">Neo-Assyrian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babylonia" title="Babylonia">Babylonian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Babylonian_Empire" title="Old Babylonian Empire">Old Babylonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kassites" title="Kassites">Kassite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Babylonian_Empire" title="Neo-Babylonian Empire">Neo-Babylonian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Empire" title="Chinese Empire">Chinese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Qin_dynasty" title="Qin dynasty">Qin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(266%E2%80%93420)" title="Jin dynasty (266–420)">Jin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D%CA%BFmt" title="Dʿmt">Dʿmt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">Egyptian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="Old Kingdom of Egypt">Old Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="Middle Kingdom of Egypt">Middle Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="New Kingdom of Egypt">New Kingdom</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goguryeo" title="Goguryeo">Goguryeo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harsha" title="Harsha">Harsha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Macedonia_(ancient_kingdom)#Empire" title="Macedonia (ancient kingdom)">Macedonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_Kingdom" title="Ptolemaic Kingdom">Ptolemaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greco-Bactrian_Kingdom" title="Greco-Bactrian Kingdom">Bactrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Greek_Kingdom" title="Indo-Greek Kingdom">Indo-Greek</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hittites" title="Hittites">Hittite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Huns" title="History of the Huns">Hunnic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hephthalites" title="Hephthalites">White</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xiongnu" title="Xiongnu">Xiongnu</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_Empire_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Persian Empire (disambiguation)">Iranian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Median_kingdom" title="Median kingdom">Median</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kush" title="Kingdom of Kush">Kush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kushan_Empire" title="Kushan Empire">Kushan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magadhan_Empire" title="Magadhan Empire">Magadha</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Haryanka_dynasty" title="Haryanka dynasty">Haryanka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaishunaga_dynasty" title="Shaishunaga dynasty">Shaishunaga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanda_Empire" title="Nanda Empire">Nanda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurya_Empire" title="Maurya Empire">Maurya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shunga_Empire" title="Shunga Empire">Shunga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gupta_Empire" title="Gupta Empire">Gupta</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phoenicia" title="Phoenicia">Phoenician</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Carthage" title="Ancient Carthage">Carthaginian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman</a> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Western</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Eastern</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satavahana_dynasty" title="Satavahana dynasty">Satavahana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Dynasty_of_Ur" title="Third Dynasty of Ur">Neo-Sumerian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xianbei" title="Xianbei">Xianbei</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rouran_Khaganate" title="Rouran Khaganate">Rouran</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Post-classical_history" title="Post-classical history">Post-classical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist F" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Angevin_Empire" title="Angevin Empire">Angevin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Aragon" title="Crown of Aragon">Aragonese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Armenia_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Kingdom of Armenia (disambiguation)">Armenian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bagratid_Armenia" title="Bagratid Armenia">Bagratid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Vaspurakan" title="Kingdom of Vaspurakan">Vaspurakan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Artsakh" title="Kingdom of Artsakh">Artsakh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_Kingdom_of_Cilicia" title="Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia">Cilician</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zakarid_Armenia" title="Zakarid Armenia">Zakarid</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayyubid_dynasty" title="Ayyubid dynasty">Ayyubid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aztec_Empire" title="Aztec Empire">Aztec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Benin" title="Kingdom of Benin">Benin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kanem%E2%80%93Bornu_Empire#Shift_of_the_Sayfuwa_court_from_Kanem_to_Bornu" title="Kanem–Bornu Empire">Bornu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bruneian_Sultanate_(1368%E2%80%931888)" title="Bruneian Sultanate (1368–1888)">Bruneian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulgarian_Empire_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Bulgarian Empire (disambiguation)">Bulgarian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Bulgarian_Empire" title="First Bulgarian Empire">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Bulgarian_Empire" title="Second Bulgarian Empire">Second</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burmese_Empire_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Burmese Empire (disambiguation)">Burmese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pagan_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Pagan Kingdom">First</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calakmul" title="Calakmul">Calakmul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caliphate" title="Caliphate">Caliphate</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Rashidun Caliphate">Rashidun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fatimid_Caliphate" title="Fatimid Caliphate">Fatimid</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chalukya_dynasty" title="Chalukya dynasty">Chalukya</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Chalukya_Empire" title="Western Chalukya Empire">Western</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Chalukyas" title="Eastern Chalukyas">Eastern</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Empire" title="Chinese Empire">Chinese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sui_dynasty" title="Sui dynasty">Sui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liao_dynasty" title="Liao dynasty">Liao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty" title="Song dynasty">Song</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(1115%E2%80%931234)" title="Jin dynasty (1115–1234)">Jīn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chola_Empire" title="Chola Empire">Chola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Empire" title="Ethiopian Empire">Ethiopian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Aksum" title="Kingdom of Aksum">Aksum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zagwe_dynasty" title="Zagwe dynasty">Zagwe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Empire" title="Ethiopian Empire">Solomonic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Genoa" title="Republic of Genoa">Genoese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Georgia" title="Kingdom of Georgia">Georgian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garabito_Empire" title="Garabito Empire">Huetar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inca_Empire" title="Inca Empire">Inca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tripartite_Struggle" title="Tripartite Struggle">Kannauj</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pala_Empire" title="Pala Empire">Pala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gurjara-Pratihara_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty">Gurjara-Pratihara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rashtrakuta_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Rashtrakuta Empire">Rashtrakuta</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_Empire_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Persian Empire (disambiguation)">Iranian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tahirid_dynasty" title="Tahirid dynasty">Tahirid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saffarid_dynasty" title="Saffarid dynasty">Saffarid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samanid_Empire" title="Samanid Empire">Samanid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buyid_dynasty" title="Buyid dynasty">Buyid</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Japan" title="History of Japan">Japanese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yamato_period" title="Yamato period">Yamato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kamakura_shogunate" title="Kamakura shogunate">Kamakura</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ashikaga_shogunate" title="Ashikaga shogunate">Muromachi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tokugawa_shogunate" title="Tokugawa shogunate">Edo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kanem%E2%80%93Bornu_Empire" title="Kanem–Bornu Empire">Kanem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khmer_Empire" title="Khmer Empire">Khmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_Empire" title="Latin Empire">Latin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Lithuania" title="History of Lithuania">Lithuanian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Lithuania" title="Grand Duchy of Lithuania">Grand Duchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Commonwealth</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Majapahit" title="Majapahit">Majapahit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mali_Empire" title="Mali Empire">Mali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_Empire" title="Mongol Empire">Mongol</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golden_Horde" title="Golden Horde">Golden Horde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chagatai_Khanate" title="Chagatai Khanate">Chagatai Khanate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ilkhanate" title="Ilkhanate">Ilkhanate</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Morocco" title="History of Morocco">Moroccan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Idrisid_dynasty" title="Idrisid dynasty">Idrisid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Almoravid_dynasty" title="Almoravid dynasty">Almoravid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Almohad_Caliphate" title="Almohad Caliphate">Almohad</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norgesveldet" class="mw-redirect" title="Norgesveldet">Norwegian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Sea_Empire" title="North Sea Empire">North Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oyo_Empire" title="Oyo Empire">Oyo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Poland" title="History of Poland">Polish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Poland" title="Kingdom of Poland">Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Commonwealth</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenization_in_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="Hellenization in the Byzantine Empire">Hellenic</a> <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Nicaea" title="Empire of Nicaea">Nicaea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Thessalonica" title="Empire of Thessalonica">Thessalonica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Trebizond" title="Empire of Trebizond">Trebizond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Despotate_of_Epirus" title="Despotate of Epirus">Epirus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Despotate_of_the_Morea" title="Despotate of the Morea">Morea</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romano-Germanic_culture" title="Romano-Germanic culture">Romano-Germanic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carolingian_Empire" title="Carolingian Empire">Carolingian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Russia" title="History of Russia">Russian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kievan_Rus%27" title="Kievan Rus'">Ruthenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Novgorod_Republic" title="Novgorod Republic">Novgorod</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir-Suzdal" title="Vladimir-Suzdal">Vladimir-Suzdal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Moscow" title="Principality of Moscow">Muscovy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Perm" title="Great Perm">Permian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serbian_Empire" title="Serbian Empire">Serbian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Singhasari" title="Singhasari">Singhasari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Songhai_Empire" title="Songhai Empire">Songhai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Srivijaya" title="Srivijaya">Srivijaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Empire" title="Tibetan Empire">Tibetan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tikal" title="Tikal">Tikal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiwanaku_Empire" title="Tiwanaku Empire">Tiwanaku</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toltec_Empire" title="Toltec Empire">Toltec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turco-Persian_tradition" title="Turco-Persian tradition">Turco-Persian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ghaznavids" title="Ghaznavids">Ghaznavid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seljuk_Empire" title="Seljuk Empire">Great Seljuk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khwarazmian_Empire" title="Khwarazmian Empire">Khwarezmian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timurid_Empire" title="Timurid Empire">Timurid</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G%C3%B6kt%C3%BCrks" title="Göktürks">Turkic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Turkic_Khaganate" title="First Turkic Khaganate">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Turkic_Khaganate" title="Western Turkic Khaganate">Western</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Turkic_Khaganate" title="Eastern Turkic Khaganate">Eastern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Turkic_Khaganate" title="Second Turkic Khaganate">Second</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T%C3%BCrgesh" title="Türgesh">Türgesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uyghur_Khaganate" title="Uyghur Khaganate">Uighur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyrgyz_Khaganate" title="Kyrgyz Khaganate">Kyrgyz</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Ukraine" title="History of Ukraine">Ukrainian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kievan_Rus%27" title="Kievan Rus'">Ruthenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Kiev" title="Principality of Kiev">Kyivan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Venice" title="Republic of Venice">Venetian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%90%E1%BA%A1i_Vi%E1%BB%87t" title="Đại Việt">Vietnamese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C4%90inh_dynasty" title="Đinh dynasty">Dinh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_L%C3%AA_dynasty" title="Early Lê dynasty">Early Le</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L%C3%BD_dynasty" title="Lý dynasty">Ly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tr%E1%BA%A7n_dynasty" title="Trần dynasty">Tran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H%E1%BB%93_dynasty" title="Hồ dynasty">Ho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Later_Tr%E1%BA%A7n_dynasty" title="Later Trần dynasty">Later Tran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L%C3%AA_dynasty" title="Lê dynasty">Later Le</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vijayanagara_Empire" title="Vijayanagara Empire">Vijayanagara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghana_Empire" title="Ghana Empire">Wagadou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wari_Empire" title="Wari Empire">Wari</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Modern_era" title="Modern era">Modern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist F" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Durrani_Empire" title="Durrani Empire">Afghan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ashanti_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Ashanti Empire">Ashanti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austrian_Empire" title="Austrian Empire">Austrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austria-Hungary" title="Austria-Hungary">Austro-Hungarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Brazil" title="Empire of Brazil">Brazilian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burmese_Empire_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Burmese Empire (disambiguation)">Burmese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Toungoo_Empire" title="First Toungoo Empire">Second</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konbaung_dynasty" title="Konbaung dynasty">Third</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_African_Empire" title="Central African Empire">Central African</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Empire" title="Chinese Empire">Chinese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_China_(1915%E2%80%931916)" title="Empire of China (1915–1916)">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchukuo" title="Manchukuo">Manchukuo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_imperialism" title="Chinese imperialism">Contemporary</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Empire" title="Ethiopian Empire">Ethiopian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Haiti" title="History of Haiti">Haitian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Empire_of_Haiti" title="First Empire of Haiti">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Empire_of_Haiti" title="Second Empire of Haiti">Second</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_France" title="History of France">French</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_French_Empire" title="First French Empire">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_French_Empire" title="Second French Empire">Second</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Germany" title="History of Germany">German</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">German Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Raj" title="British Raj">Indian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Persian_culture" title="Indo-Persian culture">Indo-Persian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mughal_Empire" title="Mughal Empire">Mughal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sikh_Empire" title="Sikh Empire">Sikh</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_peoples" title="Iranian peoples">Iranian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Safavid_Iran" title="Safavid Iran">Safavid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afsharid_Iran" title="Afsharid Iran">Afsharid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zand_dynasty" title="Zand dynasty">Zand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qajar_Iran" title="Qajar Iran">Qajar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pahlavi_dynasty" title="Pahlavi dynasty">Pahlavi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Japan" title="Empire of Japan">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Empire" title="Korean Empire">Korean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maratha_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Maratha Empire">Maratha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Mexico" title="History of Mexico">Mexican</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Mexican_Empire" title="First Mexican Empire">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Mexican_Empire" title="Second Mexican Empire">Second</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Yuan" title="Northern Yuan">Mongol</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oirat_Confederation" title="Oirat Confederation">Oirat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khoshut_Khanate" title="Khoshut Khanate">Khoshut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dzungar_Khanate" title="Dzungar Khanate">Dzungar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalmyk_Khanate" title="Kalmyk Khanate">Kalmyk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bogd_Khanate_of_Mongolia" title="Bogd Khanate of Mongolia">Bogd</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Morocco" title="History of Morocco">Moroccan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Saadi_Sultanate" title="Saadi Sultanate">Saadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alawi_Sultanate" title="Alawi Sultanate">'Alawi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Russia" title="History of Russia">Russian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tsardom_of_Russia" title="Tsardom of Russia">Tsarist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Imperial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_imperialism#Contemporary_Russian_imperialism" title="Russian imperialism">Contemporary</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sokoto_Caliphate" title="Sokoto Caliphate">Sokoto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Somalia" title="History of Somalia">Somali</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Isaaq_Sultanate" title="Isaaq Sultanate">Isaaq</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tu%CA%BBi_Tonga_Empire" title="Tuʻi Tonga Empire">Tongan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cossack_Hetmanate" title="Cossack Hetmanate">Ukrainian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%90%E1%BA%A1i_Vi%E1%BB%87t" title="Đại Việt">Vietnamese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/M%E1%BA%A1c_dynasty" title="Mạc dynasty">Mạc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revival_L%C3%AA_dynasty" title="Revival Lê dynasty">Revival Lê</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T%C3%A2y_S%C6%A1n_dynasty" title="Tây Sơn dynasty">Tay Sơn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nguy%E1%BB%85n_dynasty" title="Nguyễn dynasty">Dainam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Vietnam" title="Empire of Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Colonial" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Colonial_empire" title="Colonial empire">Colonial</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_imperialism" title="American imperialism">American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belgian_colonial_empire" title="Belgian colonial empire">Belgian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/English_overseas_possessions" title="English overseas possessions">English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="Scottish colonization of the Americas">Scottish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Empire" title="Chinese Empire">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danish_overseas_colonies" title="Danish overseas colonies">Danish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_colonial_empire" title="Dutch colonial empire">Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_colonial_empire" title="French colonial empire">French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_colonial_empire" title="German colonial empire">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Empire" title="Italian Empire">Italian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_colonial_empire" title="Japanese colonial empire">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_Empire" title="Mongol Empire">Mongol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omani_Empire" title="Omani Empire">Omani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Polish–Lithuanian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Curonian_colonisation" title="Curonian colonisation">Couronian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Empire" title="Portuguese Empire">Portuguese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Spanish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_overseas_colonies" title="Swedish overseas colonies">Swedish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist F" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_empires" title="List of empires">Empires</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_largest_empires" title="List of largest empires">largest</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_great_powers" title="List of ancient great powers">Ancient great powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_medieval_great_powers" title="List of medieval great powers">Medieval great powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_modern_great_powers" title="List of modern great powers">Modern great powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_colonialism" title="History of colonialism">European colonialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_empires" class="mw-redirect" title="African empires">African empires</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Miscellaneous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist F" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>"Empire" as a description of foreign policy <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_imperialism" title="American imperialism">American Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_empire" title="Soviet empire">Soviet empire</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Western_world_and_culture" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Western_world" title="Template:Western world"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Western_world" title="Template talk:Western world"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Western_world" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Western world"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Western_world_and_culture" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Western_world" title="Western world">Western world</a> and <a href="/wiki/Western_culture" title="Western culture">culture</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Foundations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cradle_of_civilization" title="Cradle of civilization">Cradle of civilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_World" title="Old World">Old World</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greco-Roman_world" title="Greco-Roman world">Greco-Roman world</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic Kingdoms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Rome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Western</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Eastern</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legacy_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Legacy of the Roman Empire">Roman legacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanization_(cultural)" title="Romanization (cultural)">Romanization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romano-Germanic_culture" title="Romano-Germanic culture">Romano-Germanic culture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gallo-Roman_culture" title="Gallo-Roman culture">Gallo-Roman</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christendom" title="Christendom">Christendom</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Western_civilization" title="History of Western civilization">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age_Europe" title="Bronze Age Europe">European Bronze Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">Classical antiquity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Late_antiquity" title="Late antiquity">Late antiquity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_Middle_Ages" title="Early Middle Ages">early</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_Middle_Ages" title="High Middle Ages">high</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_Middle_Ages" title="Late Middle Ages">late</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern period">Modern period</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_period" title="Early modern period">Early modern period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Discovery" title="Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformation" title="Reformation">Reformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_Revolution" title="Scientific Revolution">Scientific Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Revolution" title="Age of Revolution">Age of Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanticism" title="Romanticism">Romanticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism" title="Abolitionism">Abolitionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emancipation" title="Emancipation">Emancipation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">Capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Divergence" title="Great Divergence">Great Divergence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernism" title="Modernism">Modernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interwar_period" title="Interwar period">Interwar period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_suffrage" title="Universal suffrage">Universal suffrage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post%E2%80%93Cold_War_era" title="Post–Cold War era">Post–Cold War era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Information_Age" title="Information Age">Information age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_on_terror" title="War on terror">War on terror</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Western_culture" title="Western culture">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alphabet" title="Alphabet">Alphabet</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greek_alphabet" title="Greek alphabet">Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_script" title="Latin script">Latin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyrillic_script" title="Cyrillic script">Cyrillic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Architecture" title="Architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Europe" title="Art of Europe">Art</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Periods_in_Western_art_history" title="Periods in Western art history">Periods</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gregorian_calendar" title="Gregorian calendar">Calendar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_cuisine" title="European cuisine">Cuisine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_pattern_diet" title="Western pattern diet">Diet</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_tradition" title="Classical tradition">Classical tradition</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classics" title="Classics">Studies</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_dress_codes" title="Western dress codes">Clothing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Western_fashion" title="History of Western fashion">History</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_dance_(Europe_and_North_America)" class="mw-redirect" title="Western dance (Europe and North America)">Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_education" title="Western education">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_esotericism" title="Western esotericism">Esotericism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_astrology" title="Western astrology">Astrology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_folklore" title="European folklore">Folklore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immigration_to_the_Western_world" title="Immigration to the Western world">Immigration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_law" title="Western law">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Europe" title="Languages of Europe">Languages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eurolinguistics" title="Eurolinguistics">Eurolinguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_Average_European" title="Standard Average European">Standard Average European</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_literature" title="Western literature">Literature</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_canon" title="Western canon">Canon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_media" title="Western media">Media</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Internet" title="Internet">Internet</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music" title="Music">Music</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chant" title="Chant">Chant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_music" title="Classical music">Classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_European_folk_music_traditions" title="List of European folk music traditions">Folk</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="European mythology">Mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_painting" title="Western painting">Painting</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/20th-century_Western_painting" title="20th-century Western painting">contemporary</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Philosophy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Values_(Western_philosophy)" title="Values (Western philosophy)">Values</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_physical_culture" title="Western physical culture">Physical culture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_sports" title="Western sports">Sport</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_religions" title="Western religions">Religion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/East%E2%80%93West_Schism" title="East–West Schism">East–West Schism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Christianity" title="Western Christianity">Western Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decline_of_Christianity_in_the_Western_world" title="Decline of Christianity in the Western world">Decline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secularism" title="Secularism">Secularism</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Philosophy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Ancient Greek philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_philosophy" title="Hellenistic philosophy">Hellenistic philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_philosophy" title="Ancient Roman philosophy">Ancient Roman philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_ethics" title="Christian ethics">Christian ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Christian_ethics" title="Judeo-Christian ethics">Judeo-Christian ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_philosophy" title="Christian philosophy">Christian philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_existentialism" title="Christian existentialism">Christian existentialism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">Humanism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_humanism" title="Christian humanism">Christian humanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secular_humanism" title="Secular humanism">Secular humanism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_philosophy" title="Continental philosophy">Continental philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">Analytic philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-structuralism" title="Post-structuralism">Post-structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toleration" title="Toleration">Tolerance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paradox_of_tolerance" title="Paradox of tolerance">Paradox</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relativism" title="Relativism">Relativism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Peritrope" title="Peritrope">Peritrope</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlanticism" title="Atlanticism">Atlanticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sovereigntism" title="Sovereigntism">Sovereigntism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_values" title="Western values">Values</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/European_values" title="European values">European</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Western_religions" title="Western religions">Religion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abrahamic_religions" title="Abrahamic religions">Abrahamic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_culture" title="Christian culture">Culture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Christianity" title="Western Christianity">Western</a>/<a href="/wiki/Eastern_Christianity" title="Eastern Christianity">Eastern</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholicism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Latin_Church" title="Latin Church">Latin Church</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodoxy" title="Eastern Orthodoxy">Eastern Orthodoxy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greek_Orthodox_Church" title="Greek Orthodox Church">Greek Orthodox Church</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protestantism" title="Protestantism">Protestantism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Judaism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_culture" title="Jewish culture">Culture</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paganism" title="Paganism">Paganism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baltic_mythology" title="Baltic mythology">Baltic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Celtic_religion" title="Ancient Celtic religion">Celtic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finnish_paganism" class="mw-redirect" title="Finnish paganism">Finnish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_paganism" title="Germanic paganism">Germanic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_paganism" title="Anglo-Saxon paganism">Anglo-Saxon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frankish_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Frankish mythology">Frankish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gothic_paganism" title="Gothic paganism">Gothic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Norse_religion" title="Old Norse religion">Old Norse</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_religion" title="Hellenistic religion">Hellenistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_ancient_Rome" title="Religion in ancient Rome">Roman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavic_paganism" title="Slavic paganism">Slavic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_paganism" title="Modern paganism">Neo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agnosticism" title="Agnosticism">Agnosticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atheism" title="Atheism">Atheism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Western_law" title="Western law">Law</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rule_of_law" title="Rule of law">Rule of law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Equality_before_the_law" title="Equality before the law">Equality before the law</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutionalism" title="Constitutionalism">Constitutionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human rights">Human rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_life" title="Right to life">Life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_thought" title="Freedom of thought">Thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_speech" title="Freedom of speech">Speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_the_press" title="Freedom of the press">Press</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_religion" title="Freedom of religion">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_property" title="Right to property">Property</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_law" title="International law">International law</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Contemporary integration</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/ABCANZ_Armies" title="ABCANZ Armies">ABCANZ Armies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assembly_of_European_Regions" title="Assembly of European Regions">AER</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Portuguese_Alliance" title="Anglo-Portuguese Alliance">Anglo-Portuguese Alliance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ANZUK" title="ANZUK">ANZUK</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ANZUS" title="ANZUS">ANZUS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arctic_Council" title="Arctic Council">Arctic Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/AUKUS" title="AUKUS">AUKUS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/AUSCANNZUKUS" title="AUSCANNZUKUS">AUSCANNZUKUS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baltic_Assembly" title="Baltic Assembly">Baltic Assembly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benelux" title="Benelux">Benelux</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British%E2%80%93Irish_Council" title="British–Irish Council">British–Irish Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organization_of_the_Black_Sea_Economic_Cooperation" title="Organization of the Black Sea Economic Cooperation">BSEC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bucharest_Nine" title="Bucharest Nine">Bucharest Nine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CANZUK" title="CANZUK">CANZUK</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_the_Baltic_Sea_States" title="Council of the Baltic Sea States">CBSS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_European_Free_Trade_Agreement" title="Central European Free Trade Agreement">CEFTA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Europe" title="Council of Europe">Council of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Craiova_Group" title="Craiova Group">Craiova Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_European_Group" title="Eastern European Group">Eastern European Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Partnership" title="Eastern Partnership">Eastern Partnership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Economic_Area" title="European Economic Area">EEA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Free_Trade_Association" title="European Free Trade Association">EFTA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Political_Community" title="European Political Community">EPC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Space_Agency" title="European Space Agency">ESA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">EU</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Union_Customs_Union" title="European Union Customs Union">EU Customs Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eurozone" title="Eurozone">Eurozone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/EU%E2%80%93UK_Trade_and_Cooperation_Agreement" title="EU–UK Trade and Cooperation Agreement">EU–UK TCA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five_Eyes" title="Five Eyes">Five Eyes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G7" title="G7">G7</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lancaster_House_Treaties" title="Lancaster House Treaties">Lancaster House Treaties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lublin_Triangle" title="Lublin Triangle">Lublin Triangle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NATO" title="NATO">NATO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nordic_Council" title="Nordic Council">Nordic Council</a></li> 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authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q42834#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q42834#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q42834#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" 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